ELECTRICAL

What is ohm law

◦ Ohm's Law is a formula used to calculate the relationship between voltage, current
and resistance in an electrical circuit.

◦ To students of electronics, Ohm's Law (E = IR) is as fundamentally important as

Einstein's Relativity equation (E = mc²) is to physicists.

◦E = I x R

◦ When spelled out, it means voltage = current x resistance, or volts = amps x ohms,
or V = A x Ω.
Quantity Ohm's Law Unit of Role in In case you're
symbol measure circuits wondering:
(abbreviation)
Voltage E Volt (V) Pressure that E=
triggers electromotive
electron flow force (old-
school term)
Current I Ampere, amp Rate of I = intensity
(A) electron flow

Resistance R Ohm (Ω) Flow inhibitor Ω = Greek

letter omega
If two of these values are known, technicians can reconfigure Ohm's
Law to calculate the third. Just modify the pyramid as follows:
If you know voltage (E) and current (I) and want to know resistance (R), X-
out the R in the pyramid and calculate the remaining equation (see the first,
or far left, pyramid above).

◦ Resistance cannot be measured in an operating circuit, so Ohm's Law is especially

useful when it needs to be calculated. Rather than shutting off the circuit to
measure resistance, a technician can determine R using the above variation of
Ohm's Law.
◦ Now, if you know voltage (E) and resistance (R) and want to know current (I), X-out
the I and calculate the remaining two symbols (see the middle pyramid above).
◦ And if you know current (I) and resistance (R) and want to know voltage (E),
multiply the bottom halves of the pyramid (see the third, or far right, pyramid
above).
◦ Try a few sample calculations based on a simple series circuit, which includes just
one source of voltage (battery) and resistance (light). Two values are known in each
example. Use Ohm's Law to calculate the third.
WHAT IS OHM LAW
IMPORTANT
◦ Ohm’s law is vitally important to describing electric circuits because it relates the voltage to
the current, with the resistance value moderating the relationship between the two. Because of
this, you can use Ohm’s law to control the amount of current in a circuit, adding resistors to
reduce the current flow and taking them away to increase the amount of current.
◦ It can also be extended to describe electrical power (the rate of energy flow per second),
because power P = IV, and so you can use it to ensure your circuit provides enough energy to,
say, a 60-watt appliance.
◦ For physics students, the most important thing about Ohm’s law is that it allows you to analyze
circuit diagrams, especially when you combine it with Kirchhoff’s laws, which follow on from it.
◦ Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the voltage drop around any closed loop in a circuit is
always equal to zero, and the current law states that the amount of current flowing into a
junction or node in a circuit is equal to the amount flowing out of it. You can use Ohm’s law
with the voltage law in particular to calculate the voltage drop across any component of a
circuit, which is a common problem posed in electronics classes.
VOLTAGE
◦ Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a quantitative expression of the potential difference in charge
between two points in an electrical field.
◦ The greater the voltage, the greater the flow of electrical current (that is, the quantity of charge carriers that
pass a fixed point per unit of time) through a conducting or semiconducting medium for a given resistance to
the flow. Voltage is symbolized by an uppercase italic letter V or E. The standard unit is the volt, symbolized by
a non-italic uppercase letter V. One volt will drive one coulomb (6.24 x 1018) charge carriers, such as electrons,
through a resistance of one ohm in one second.
◦ Voltage can be direct or alternating. A direct voltage maintains the same polarity at all times. In an alternating
voltage, the polarity reverses direction periodically. The number of complete cycles per second is the frequency
, which is measured in hertz (one cycle per second), kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, or terahertz. An example
of direct voltage is the potential difference between the terminals of an electrochemical cell. Alternating voltage
exists between the terminals of a common utility outlet.
◦ A voltage produces an electrostatic field, even if no charge carriers move (that is, no current flows). As the
voltage increases between two points separated by a specific distance, the electrostatic field becomes more
intense. As the separation increases between two points having a given voltage with respect to each other, the
electrostatic flux density diminishes in the region between them.
RELAY
◦ A Relay is a simple electromechanical switch.
While we use normal switches to close or
open a circuit manually, a Relay is also a
switch that connects or disconnects two
circuits. But instead of a manual operation, a
relay uses an electrical signal to control an
electromagnet, which in turn connects or
disconnects another circuit.
◦ Relays can be of different types like
electromechanical, solid state.
Electromechanical relays are frequently
used. Let us see the internal parts of this
relay before knowing about it working.
Although many different types of relay were
present, their working is same.
Every electromechanical relay
consists of an consists of an.
1.Electromagnet ◦ Generally two more contacts will be present, called
as switching points to connect high ampere load.
2.Mechanically movable contact Another contact called common contact is present in
order to connect the switching points.
3.Switching points and ◦ These contacts are named as normally open
(NO),normally closed(NC) and common(COM)
4.Spring contacts.
◦ Electromagnet is constructed by ◦ We can use a Relay either in a AC circuit or a DC
Circuit. In case of AC relays, for every current zero
wounding a copper coil on a metal position, the relay coil gets demagnetized and hence
core. The two ends of the coil are there would be a chance of continues breaking of
connected to two pins of the relay as the circuit.

shown. These two are used as DC ◦ So, AC relays are constructed with special
mechanism such that continuous magnetism is
supply pins. provided in order to avoid above problem. Such
mechanisms include electronic circuit arrangement
or shaded coil mechanism.
HOW A RELAY WORKS?

◦ The following animation shows a simplified working of a

relay.
• Relay works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
• When the electromagnet is applied with some current, it
induces a magnetic field around it.
• Above image shows working of the relay. A switch is
used to apply DC current to the load.
• In the relay, Copper coil and the iron core acts as
electromagnet.
• When the coil is applied with DC current, it starts
attracting the contact as shown. This is called energizing
of relay.
• When the supply is removed it retrieves back to the
original position. This is called De energizing of relay.
◦ There are also such relays, whose contacts are initially
closed and opened when there is supply i.e. exactly to
opposite to the above shown relay.
◦ Solid state relays will have sensing element to sense the
input voltage and switches the output using opto-
coupling.
RESISTANCE
◦ Resistance is a measure of the • Conductors: Materials that offer
opposition to current flow in an very little resistance where electrons
electrical circuit. can move easily. Examples: silver,
◦ Resistance is measured in ohms, copper, gold and aluminum.
symbolized by the Greek letter • Insulators: Materials that present
omega (Ω). high resistance and restrict the flow
◦ All materials resist current flow to of electrons. Examples: Rubber,
some degree. They fall into one of paper, glass, wood and plastic.
two broad categories:
◦ Resistance measurements are normally taken to indicate the condition of a
component or a circuit.
• The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow. If abnormally high, one
possible cause (among many) could be damaged conductors due to burning or
corrosion. All conductors give off some degree of heat, so overheating is an issue
often associated with resistance.
• The lower the resistance, the higher the current flow. Possible causes: insulators
damaged by moisture or overheating.
◦ Many components, such as heating elements and resistors, have a fixed-resistance
value. These values are often printed on the components' nameplates or in manuals
for reference.
◦ When a tolerance is indicated, the measured resistance value should be within the
specified resistance range. Any significant change in a fixed-resistance value
usually indicates a problem.
◦ "Resistance" may sound negative, but in electricity it can be used beneficially.
◦ Examples: Current must struggle to flow through the small coils of a toaster,
enough to generate heat that browns bread. Old-style incandescent light bulbs
force current to flow through filaments so thin that light is generated.
◦ Resistance cannot be measured in an operating circuit. Accordingly, troubleshooting
technicians often determine resistance by taking voltage and current
measurements and applying Ohm's Law:
◦E = I x R
◦ That is, volts = amps x ohms. R stands for resistance in this formula. If resistance is
unknown, the formula can be converted to R = E/I (ohms = volts divided by amps).
◦ Examples: In an electric heater circuit, as portrayed in the two illustrations below,
resistance is determined by measuring circuit voltage and current, then applying
Ohm's Law.
Example of normal circuit resistance Example of increased circuit resistance
◦ In the first example, total normal circuit resistance, a known reference value, is 60
Ω (240 ÷ 4 = 60 Ω). The 60 Ω resistance can help determine the condition of a
circuit.
◦ In the second example, if circuit current is 3 amps instead of 4, circuit resistance
has increased from 60 Ω to 80 Ω (240 ÷ 3 = 80 Ω). The 20 Ω gain in total resistance
could be caused by a loose or dirty connection or an open-coil section. Open-coil
sections increase the total circuit resistance, which decreased current.
◦ Reference: Digital Multimeter Principles by Glen A. Mazur, American Technical
Publishers.
Electric current refers to the flow of electricity in an electronic circuit, and to the
amount of electricity flowing through a circuit. It is measured in amperes (A). The
larger the value in amperes, the more electricity is flowing in the circuit.
Electricity is easy to visualize if you think of it as the flow of water in a river. Particles
called electrons come together, and the number of electrons flowing each second is
the current.
◦ Voltage is another term that’s used in regards to electronic circuits about as often
as current. Voltage is measured in volts (V). Like current, voltage is also related to
the flow of electrons in a circuit. Current refers to the flow of electrons, while
voltage refers to the amount of force pushing the flowing electrons.
◦ The higher the voltage, the more current will flow; a lower voltage means a weaker
current.
◦ Resistance also has a significant impact on current flow. Think of resistance as the
width through which electrons flow. The greater the resistance, the narrower the
width through which the electrons must flow, and therefore the lower the current.
By contrast, a lower resistance increases the width through which electrons can
flow, allowing more current to flow at once.
◦ If you want more current to flow at a given resistance value, you can accomplish
that by raising the voltage. Power is generally calculated by multiplying current (A)
by voltage (V), yielding a result that is expressed in watts (W). In this way, current
and voltage are completely different, but both are important elements in the world
of electricity.
Direct current and
alternating current
◦ The terms current and voltage encompass different types of phenomena, and one
major distinction that can be made is that of direct current and alternating current.
Direct current (DC) refers to current and voltage whose direction does not change.
◦ A typical example is the electricity provided by dry cells and the lithium-ion
batteries used in cars. With a direct current, the voltage is always positive (or
always negative), and the current always flows in the same direction. As a result, a
device may not operate if its battery is installed with the poles reversed.
By contrast, alternating current (AC) refers to current and voltage AC electricity is used by the power grid, for example in
whose direction and magnitude vary regularly over time. AC
household outlets. However, most standard electronic
current waveforms are distinguished by a variety of shapes,
including sine waves, square waves, sawtooth waves, and devices convert it into DC current with their internal
triangular waves. circuitry. Why, then, does the power grid use AC current?
The reason has to do with transmission. Resistance in power lines causes losses when
current is transmitted, but that loss can be reduced by increasing the voltage.
However, it’s difficult to create high-voltage DC current, so electricity is transmitted
as AC current and then stepped down to a lower voltage by transformers before
being supplied to electric devices via the power grid. Then those devices, in most
cases, convert the AC current into DC current with their internal circuitry so that it
can be used.