i

Reproductive Condition of Some Bat Species in Mt. Makiling1

Aldaba, Kyra Mari Dominique E.

Garcia, Allaine M.
Malsi, Camille Andrea B.
Molina, John Kenneth Q.

Section G-2L

27 May 2015

____________________
1

A special problem submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements in ZOO 148 - Mammalogy laboratory
under Prof. Phillip A. Alviola, 2nd semester, 2014-2015.

ABSTRACT

The reproductive condition of some bat species in Mt. Makiling was

determined by setting up 16 mistnets in four selected forested areas near Camp
Malaboo, Mt. Makiling, Laguna last May 2015. The bats captured were identified
as Hipposideros diadema, Ptenochirus jagori, Rhinolophus arcuatus,
Rhinolophus inops and Rhinolophus macrotis. Of the 44 bats examined, 21 were
males and 23 were females. The average range of the testes size of the male bats
is from 8.38mm to 2mm. It was observed that the testes size of male bats are
directly proportional to their gross body size regardless of the species, which also
correlates to their fitness for mating. Twenty out of twenty-three females were
pregnant (10 multiparous and 10 primiparous) while the remaining 3 bats were
nulliparous. The average CRL of the embryo of the pregnant females ranges from
15.07mm to 37mm. It was concluded that bats in Mt. Makiling are reproductively
active in May while bats from other locations in the Philippines such as Mt.
Isarog, Camiguin, Palawan, Catanduanes, Leyte, and Mt. Kitanglad were
generally reproductively active from March to September. It was found out that
similar species of bats exhibit differences in gestation periods depending on the
geographic location. Moreover, during these months, female bats were expected
to be most vulnerable to environmental stressors especially anthropological
activities.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Description of the Study

Objectives of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Time and Place of Study
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

METHODOLOGY

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

10

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

20

RECOMMENDATIONS

21

LITERATURE CITED

22

APPENDICES

24

INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Mammals are considered as a successful group of animals flourishing in and adapting to a
wide range of habitat (Gonzales, Afuang, Alviola, Dans, & de Guia, 1995). In fact, an
exceptional group of mammal modified their forelimbs into fully functional wings that enabled
them to thrive in the air.
The Philippines houses a highly diverse fauna. Currently, there are about 90 recognized
bat species in the Philippines placed under 7 families (Wilson & Reeder, 2005). These include 31
frugivorous and 59 insectivorous bat species and greater parts of these are endemic to the
country. These volant mammals dwell mostly in forests and caves and are mainly nocturnal
animals.
Bats have adapted to a variety of food source and most bat species present in the country
prefer fruit, flowers, and insects among others. It is because of these diets that most of them are
considered pests, especially in a country that rely mostly on crops for income, since they feed
and/or roost in fruit plantations. In some areas, bats are hunted by locals as a meat source, thus
greatly affecting their population negatively. In others, people have learned to live with them
peacefully since bats pollinate fruit trees and regenerate forests. Moreover, they serve as a means
for controlling insect pest population or as a tourist attraction. Some locals even use their dung as
fertilizer (Wund & Myers, Chiroptera, 2005).
Objectives of the Study
This study aimed to determine the reproductive status of the insect and fruit bat species
found in Mt. Makiling.

Specifically, it aimed to:

1. Identify bat species in the study area and record the reproductive state of each individual;
2. Compare the reproductive biology of each species from the study area;
3. Compare the reproductive biology of each species from the study area with similar
existing studies;
4. Determine the reproductive cycle of each species found in the study area; and
5. Determine the implications of the reproductive biology of bats on their conservation.
Significance of the Study
Chiropterans exhibit an extensive variety on their reproductive biology - one that is
highly variable in addition to differences observed among other mammalian orders. Such
reproductive biology involves reproductive strategies, morphology, and physiology (Heideman
& Powell, 1998). This complexity goes to show that further understanding on bats is needed and
it is therefore important to determine the reproductive status of Philippine bat species and
understand their reproductive biology to help in their conservation.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
The study was limited to the identification of male and female insect bats and fruit bats
found in the study area. Documentation and collection of information on their reproductive state
was done only among species present in the study area that were caught during the netting
nights. The study also included secondary data of the reproductive state of bats found in different
study sites such as Palawan, Camiguin, Mt. Kitanglad, Mt. Isarog, Catanduanes and Leyte based
on similar studies. Moreover, although two netting nights were possible, only the animals
captured on the first netting night were taken into account.

Time and Place of Study

The study was done in four selected forested areas near Malaboo Campsite situated in
Mt. Makiling National Park, Los Baos, Laguna. Netting nights were done last May 1-2, 2015.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Hipposideros diadema
Hipposideros diadema is commonly known as diadem roundleaf bat. The species is
distributed widely in the country except for Babuyan and Batanes groups of islands (Heaney, et
al. 2006). Males are typically larger than females. According to a study conducted by Rickart, et
al. in 1993 (as cited in Heaney, et al., 2006), the species are commonly found in primary to very
disturbed lowland forest and agricultural areas while the common roosting sites are inside the
caves, tree hollows, and man-made tunnels. Rickart, et al. also asserted that the gestation period
is usually in months of March and May in Luzon, and the females carry a solitary embryo (as
cited in Heaney, et al., 2006). This is supported by a previous study of Heaney in 1999 when two
pregnant females, each with a solitary embryo, were also caught in March 1999 in Mt. Isarog,
Luzon (Heaney, et al., 1999). Furthermore, a study conducted by Esselstyn in 2004 also
supported the idea when 26 pregnant females and 1 carrying a suckling infant out of 43 female
individuals were caught in May 15-20, 2000 (Esselstyn, Widmann & Heaney, 2004). Females
also gather in large numbers during the month of March to May wherein each one gives birth to a
single offspring (Nowak, 1999).

Rhinolophus arcuatus
Rhinolophus arcuatus (Arcuate horseshoe bat) is a member of Family Rhinolophidae. It
occurs in agricultural, montane, mossy, primary, and secondary forests throughout the
Philippines (Rossell-Amball, Tabaranza, & Wright, 2008). It is also found in Sumatra to New
Guinea. This species has two morphotypes: R. arcuatus-s and R. arcuatus-l. The first one is
relatively smaller with a narrower noseleaf, and it usually occurs in lowland caves (Heaney &
Ingle, 1992).
In terms of reproduction, it gives birth only once a year. This is true to all temperate
rhinolophids (Wund & Myers, Rhinolophidae, 2009). This species was found to have gestation
periods in March on Mt. Isarog (Heaney, et al., 1999), in April on Biliran, Leyte, and Maripipi
(Rickart, et al., 1993), and in May on Camiguin (Heaney, et al., 2006) and Palawan (Esselstyn, et
al., 2004).
For the study in Mt. Isarog (Heaney, et al., 1999), 3 males and 2 females were collected
from secondary lowland, disturbed lowland and montane forests on March 1988. One of the
females was primiparous (CRL=6mm) and the other was nulliparous. One male had inguinal
testes and two males had abdominal testes. In Biliran, Leyte, and Maripipi (Rickart, et al., 1993),
all the females collected in April were pregnant (CRL=10-17mm).
In Camiguin, Heaney, et al. (2006) examined 10 individuals of this species, in which 8
males and 2 are females. One female was pregnant (CRL=28mm) and the other female was
lactating. No testicular measurements were given for the males.
In Palawan, Esselstyn, et al. (2004) found out that most of the captured bats in the month
of May are either pregnant or lactating. On the other hand, for those that are captured in the July,
14 bats were lactating and 155 showed absence of reproductive activity.

Rhinolophus inops
Rhinolophus inops (Philippine forest horseshoe bat) is a member of Family
Rhinolophidae. It is endemic to the Philippines and is most commonly observed in Biliran and
Leyte (Heaney, et al., 1999). There is a variation in this species per geographic area (Heaney, et
al., 2006).
The females of this species have a pair teat-like appendages in their abdomen that are
not involved in milk production. Juvenile bats use these to hold on to their mother during flight
(Nowak 1994, as cited in Keller 2013). In addition, females usually give birth to only one young
per year. The gestation period lasts up to 7 weeks and the lactation period lasts up to 8 weeks
(Heaney, et al. 2010, as cited in Keller 2013).
In Mt. Isarog, Heaney, et al. (1999) captured three males only, and they did not provide
testicular measurement for these specimens. In another study in Biliran, Leyte and Maripipi by
Rickart, et al. (1993), the females captured from Biliran and Leyte on March to April 1987 were
pregnant (CRL=8-18mm) with a single embryo. According to Heaney, et al. in 1991 (as cited by
Rickart, et al., 1993), the individuals from Leyte, Biliran and Catanduanes are similar, and those
that are from Negros are relatively smaller. In Kitanglad (Heaney, et al., 2006), pregnancies were
observed in March and September (CRL=20mm) while in Catanduanes (Heaney, et al., 1991), it
was observed on February.
Rhinolopus macrotis
Rhinolopus macrotis (big-eared horseshoe bat) is a member of Family Rhinolophidae. It
occurs from India to Sumatra, including the Philippines. Only a limited number of this species
were captured here in the Philippines. They are most commonly found in caves and man-made
tunnels, where they roost (Heaney, et al., 2006). Very little is known about the reproductive

condition of this species. The first records of this species from Palawan were captured on May
and July 2000 (Esselstyn, et al., 2004). They were found in disturbed lowland forests. Two
females, both of which are pregnant, were captured in May while eight females were captured in
July, none of which is pregnant or lactating.
Ptenochirus jagori
The species commonly known as greater musky fruit bat is endemic to the
Philippines, and occurs throughout the country with the exception of Batanes and Babuyan
Islands, and Palawan Faunal regions (Heaney, et al., 2005, 2006). Males are typically larger than
females. According to Heaney, et al. (2006), the species are commonly found in lowland forest
and secondary forest but unusual at higher elevations and disturbed lower elevation mossy
forests. A study conducted by Heideman and Powell (as cited in Heaney, et al., 2006) revealed
that there are two birthing seasons for the species in late March or early April and in August
and females give birth to a solitary offspring. Heideman and Powell also stated that primiparous
females of Ptenochirus jagori can undergo delayed implantation lasting up to 5 months, thus, the
parturition by young females is only once during first year and is concurrent with the second
parturition of adult females. Moreover, a study of Heaney, et al. in Mt. Isarog, Luzon recorded
some pregnant females in the month of May (as cited in Heaney, et al., 2006). Another study of
Heaney, et al. (1999) showed that the testes of adult males are significantly larger than the young
males, 3 x 5 mm to 9 x 12 and 3 x 3 to 6 x 7 mm, respectively.

METHODOLOGY
Selection of Study Area
The study site, Camp Malaboo, is situated in Mt. Makiling at Luzon Island, Philippines
(Fig. 1). Specifically, Camp Malaboo (140803.09 N, 1211227.71 E) is located at Station 15
of Mt. Makiling National Park, Los Baos in the province of Laguna (Fig. 2). The elevation of
the site is estimated to be 650m above sea level. The site in bounded by Los Baos and Calamba
City in the north. Collection sites for volant mammals were chosen near the campsite.

Figure 1. Map of Luzon showing the location of Mt. Makiling.

Figure 2. Map showing the location of Camp Malaboo in Mt. Makiling.

Collection of Specimens
A total of mist nets 4 mist nets per collection site were positioned along the possible
flyways of bats and near feeding trees in the late afternoon. The mist nets were tended
continuously during the peak activity period from 6 oclock in the evening until 7 oclock in the
evening, and checked again from 9 oclock to 10 oclock in the evening for two nights. The nets
were left open thereafter. The nets were checked again at dawn on the following day. The caught
bats were removed and placed in cloth bags.

Figure 3. A bat captured in the mist net.

Identification and Processing of the Specimens

On the second day at the campsite, the collected specimens of mammals from the first
netting night were identified based on the Key to the Bats of the Philippine Islands by Ingle and
Heaney (1992). The conditions of male and female reproductive parts were examined by
dissecting specimens in the abdominal area and the data were recorded.
Determination of Reproductive Condition
The reproductive condition of male bats was determined by the measuring the size and
noting the position of the testes. On the other hand, the presence or absence of placental scars,

10

reproductive stage, and the condition of mammae were observed for the female bats. Moreover,
for pregnant females, the crown to rump length (CRL) of the embryo was measured.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There were five species of bats from two families (Pteropodidae and Rhinolophidae)
captured through the mistnet laid overnight on May 1, 2015 and identified as the following:
Ptenochirus jagori, Hipposideros diadema, Rhinolophus arcuatus, Rhinolophus inops, and
Rhinolophus macrotis. A total of 48 bats were captured but only 44 were taken into account
because the others were released (Table 1). Among the female bats captured, 20 adult females
were pregnant and 3 were nulliparous. No female bat observed was lactating. Among the males,
12 individuals were adult and 8 were sub-adult. The crown-rump length was measured to
determine the size of the embryo inside a pregnant female. Testes size was measured in the male
individuals caught to distinguish an adult from a sub-adult and to determine the capability of
fertilizing receptive female.

Table 1. Summary of the number of male and female individual bats captured per species.
SPECIES NAME
Hipposideros diadema
Ptenochirus jagori
Rhinolophus arcuatus
Rhinolophus inops
Rhinolophus macrotis
TOTAL

SEX

NO. OF INDIVIDUALS

2
7
2
8
14
3
2
2
3
1
44

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SUBORDER MEGACHIROPTERA
Family Pteropodidae Fruit Bat
Ptenochirus jagori (Peters, 1861), also known as the musky fruit bat, is commonly
found anywhere in the Philippines except in the islands of Batanes, Babuyan and Palawan. It was
recently reported to be capable of delayed implantation like other endemic species such as
Haplonycteris fischeri and Otopteropus cartilagonodus. Male is usually bigger than female.
(Heaney, Tabaranza, Balete, & Rigertas, 2006). Of the ten individuals caught, 8 individuals were
male and 2 were female.
The average CRL of P. jagori observed in Makiling was 37mm (Table 3). The two
pregnant females were both multiparous characterized by their swollen vagina and nipples. The
smallest average CRL was found in Catanduanes (3.5mm). In May, the pregnant bats were more
prominent though in some places like Catanduanes and Mt. Kitanglad, P. jagori could be
observed to gestate also in the months of February, March, July, and August based on previous
studies of mammalian diversity surveys (Table 3). In the study of Heideman and Powell (1998),
facultative post-implantational delay in embryonic development was observed in young females
that would be reproducing for the first time. The delay occurred during gastrulation that could
last up to 5 months in young females and no evidence was found if adult females could delay
embryonic development. The delay would synchronize young pregnant female to the parturition
of the adults. The adult females gave birth twice a year - on late March and early April, and in
August - and each gestation period lasted for four months. (Heideman & Powell, Age-specific
Reproductive Strategies and Delayed Embryonic Development in an Old World Fruit Bat,
Ptenochirus jagori, 1998). It could imply that the pregnant female accounts in other places in the

12

Philippines were at the middle of either the first gestation period or the second gestation period
of P. jagori.

Figure 4. A dissected multiparous female P. jagori showing an embryo (CRL=38mm).

The average testes size, of P. jagori observed from the captured male bats in Mt.
Makiling was 8.38mm (Table 4). Among the eight male individuals, five were adults and three
were sub-adults. Most of the adult males have testes size more than 9mm while the sub-adult
males have testes size around 7mm. In another Pteropodidae species like Haplonycteris fischeri,
if a male is born in May or June, its testes volume will still be low but will gradually increase up
to 12 months gaining equivalent testes volume of an adult just in time when the females begin to
be receptive in May and June (Heideman P. D., Delayed development in Fischer's pygmy fruit
bat, Haplonycteris fischeri, in the Philippines, 1989). This may hold true also for P. jagori since
the female has two gestation period every year.

13

Figure 5. A dissected male P. jagori with a testes size of 8mm.

Table 2. The parity of the female bats captured per species.

NUMBER OF TIMES PREGNANT
SPECIES NAME
Multiparous

Primiparous

Nulliparous

Ptenochirus jagori

Hipposideros diadema

Rhinolopus arcuatus

Rhinolophus inops

Rhinolophus macrotis

14

Table 3. Gestation months and average crown-rump length (CRL) of pregnant some female bats
in selected study areas in the Philippines.
PLACE
of
STUDY

SPECIES NAME
Hipposideros
diadema

Ptenochirus
jagori

Rhinolophus
arcuatus

Rhinolophus
inops

Rhinolophus
macrotis

Mt. Makiling

May
(20.50mm)

May
(15.08mm)

May
(24mm)
March,
September
(5.71mm)

May
(18.50mm)

Mt. Kitanglad

May
(37mm)
March, May,
July, August
May
(33mm)

March
(3mm)

April
(13.50mm)

March, April
(13mm)
February
(3mm)

Mt. Isarog
Palawan
Leyte

(12mm)
May
March
(15mm)

Catanduanes

Camiguin

February
(3.5mm)
May
(15mm)

May
(14mm)

May
-

*References: (Heaney, et al., 1999) (Heaney & Rabor, 1982) (Heaney, et al., 1991) (Heaney, et al., 2006) (Heaney, et al., 2006) (Heideman &
Heaney, 1989) (Rickart, et al., 1993)

Table 4. Average testes size of the captured male bats.

SPECIES NAME

AVERAGE TESTES SIZE (mm)

Hipposideros diadema

6.86

Ptenochirus jagori

8.38

Rhinolophus arcuatus

3.50

Rhinolophus inops

4.00

Rhinolophus macrotis

2.00

15

SUBORDER MICROCHIROPTERA
Family Rhinolophidae Horse-shoe nosed Bats
Hipposideros diadema (E. Geoffroy, 1813) is an insectivorous bat that can be found
from Burma to the Solomon Islands and the Philippines with the exception of Batanes and
Babuyan Islands. It is commonly known as the diadem roundleaf bat. Males are a little bigger
than females. The average CRL observed from the two specimens collected in Mt. Makiling was
20.50mm. Both were considered multiparous because of the presence of placental scars and the
swelling of nipples. Pregnancies occur on May in Mt. Makiling and Palawan, and March in
Leyte (Table 3) (Heaney, Tabaranza, Rickart, Balete, & Ingle, 2006). According to Medway,
species of Hipposideros are gregarious, thus H. diadema tends to congregate during March and
April to give birth (Nowak, 1994). In Rickarts account, species of H. diadema in Luzon will
start the gestation period on March and May (Heaney, Tabaranza, Rickart, Balete, & Ingle,
2006).
Seven male H. diadema - 5 adults and 2 sub-adults - were captured during the first
netting night. Their average testes size was 6.86mm (Table 4). The adult males had more than
6mm testes size while sub-adult males had a testes size of around 5-6mm.

16

Figure 6. A dissected male H. diadema with a testes size of 7mm.

Rhinolophus arcuatus (Peters, 1871) is a widespread bat in the Philippines with two
physical differences - a wide ovate-shaped sella and a narrow, rectangular sella (Figure 7)
(Sedlock & Gomez), that have once been suggested by J.E. Hill to be R.arcuatus and R.
anderseni (Heaney, Gonzales, Utzurrum, & Rickart, 1991). Sedlock and Gomez used narrow
and wide to attach difference while Heaney, et al. (1991) designated -s and -l to
differentiate the two similar looking bats. It is believed that R. arcuatus was consisted of two or
more species by many researchers (Esselstyn, Widmann, & Heaney, 2004). Based on Table 3, R.
arcuatus captured in Mt. Makiling has an average CRL of 15.08mm, which is the same as in
Camiguin and close in Leyte, but a lot smaller in Mt. Isarog since a small number of individuals
were captured by Heaney, et al. in 1999.

17

a) wide sella

b) narrow sella

Figure 7. The two morphs of Rhinolophus arcuatus observed from captured specimens.

Among the 14 adult female caught, only one was nulliparous and the rest are pregnant.
The pregnant females were either primiparous (8 individuals) or multiparous (5 individuals)
(Table 2). The pregnancy occurs in May in Makiling and Camiguin while in Palawan, pregnancy
occurs in the months of May, July, August, September; March in Mt. Isarog, and April in Leyte
(Table 3). Lekagul and McNeely in 1977 described that the gestation of period of the species
Rhinolophus takes about 7 weeks producing a young that attains sexual maturity in 2 years
(Nowak, 1994). In temperate regions, rhinolophids reproduce once a year (Wund & Myers,
2009).
Of the three captured male individuals in Mt. Makiling, two were sub-adult and one was
adult with testes size of 1mm and 2mm, and 6mm, respectively. Their average testes size was 3.5
mm (Table 4).
Rhinolophus inops K. Andersen, 1905 (Philippine Forest Horseshoe bat) is an endemic
species of insectivorous bat found in Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, and Negros-Panay. It is a
common bat and the males are bigger than females. There were only two specimen caught from
the study - one primiparous female (CRL=24mm) and one nulliparous (Table 2). The occurrence

18

of pregnancy increases in the months of May in Makiling, March to Late April in Biliran and
Leyte, March and September in Mt. Kitanglad and February in Catanduanes (Table 3). An
account of a lactating female was recorded in July on Mt. Makiling by Ingle in 1992. (Heaney,
Tabaranza, Rickart, Balete, & Ingle, 2006). Gestation period of R. inops could last for 7 weeks
followed by lactation period of up to 8 weeks (Keller, 2013)
Two males captured on the mistnet but only one was measured because the other male
has testes too small to be measured by a ruler. The measured adult male has a testes size of 4mm.

Figure 8. A female R. inops being dissected to determine if it is pregnant or not.

19

Rhinolophus macrotis (Blyth, 1844) - little is known about big-eared horseshoe bat that
is distributed from India to Sumatra and the Philippine. This uncommon bat could be found in
lowland forest and caves. In Palawan, two pregnant female were captured in May and 8 nonpregnant adult females were captured in July (Esselstyn, Widmann, & Heaney, 2004) while in
Mt. Kitanglad, there were only two preserved specimen available and Heaney, et. al (2006) were
unable to capture a specimen. Last May, two out of three captured female bats in Makiling were
pregnant (one multiparous and one primiparous) with an average CRL of 18.50mm, while the
other one was nulliparous.
Only one male was caught during the netting night. Its testes size was 2mm. Based on the
biometrics obtained, the male bat was a sub-adult not reaching maturity yet. In Himalayas, male
R. macrotis were observed to be sexually active during September (Jnawali, et al., 2011).
Implications of Pregnancy in Female Bats
Since bats are volant mammals, reproduction is energy expensive and is a highly risky
activity (Chaverri & Kunz, 2006). Female bats during pregnancy are more vulnerable to different
stressors most especially to anthropogenic activities like logging, hunting and cave tours
(Sedlock & Gomez). They are also in need to forage double and could go distance to find food.
Fortunately, gestation periods are mostly synchronized to the flowering and fruiting patterns of
plants in the forest as observed by Bronson in 1985 (Chaverri & Kunz, 2006). Since Mt.
Makiling can provide food all-year round being in a tropical country, the species of bats
observed may have synchronized their reproductive activity to the time when the fruit trees of
the mountain is also reproducing.

20

Implications of Testes Size in Male Bats

Male bats, like other male mammals, have a pair of testes, epididymis, and vas deferens
with a penis. It was observed by Danmaigoro, et al. (2014) that the male bats gonadal
development was a direct relationship between its reproductive status and body condition index.
They had also reported that the maximum testicular size was associated to the maximal spermatic
activity of adult male bats, which means that the increase of testicular mass and dimension would
play an important role to the spermatogenesis. (Danmaigoro, Onu, Sonfada, Umaru, Hena, &
Mahmuda, 2014).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The bats captured on May 2015 in Mt. Makiling were identified as Hipposideros
diadema, Ptenochirus jagori, Rhinolophus arcuatus, Rhinolophus inops and Rhinolophus
macrotis.
Among the 44 bats examined, 21 were males and 23 were females. For the males, 10
were subadults and 11 were adults. Their testes size range from 8.38mm to 2mm. For the
females, 20 were pregnant (10 multiparous and 10 primiparous) and 3 were nulliparous. The
CRL of the embryo from pregnant females ranges from 15.07mm to 37mm.
It was concluded that during May, bats in Mt. Makiling are reproductively active. Bats
from other locations in the Philippines such as Mt. Isarog, Camiguin, Palawan, Catanduanes,
Leyte, and Mt. Kitanglad, were observed to be generally reproductively active from March to
September. Consequently, it was found out that similar species of bats exhibit differences in
gestation periods depending on the geographic location. Moreover, during these months, female

21

bats were expected to be most vulnerable to environmental stressors especially anthropological

activities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that more netting nights should be done in order to have a normalized
sample set for each species. It is also recommended that further studies regarding the
reproductive condition of the different bat species in the Philippines should be made not only
during the months of gestation but also during the months when bats are expected to be nonpregnant in order to establish a more informative data to help in the conservation of bats in the
country.

22

LITERATURE CITED

Chaverri, G., & Kunz, T. H. (2006). Reproductive biology and postnatal development in the tentmaking bat Artibeus watsoni (Chiroptera:Phyllostomidae). Journal of Zoology, 270, 650656.
Danmaigoro, A., Onu, J. E., Sonfada, M. L., Umaru, M. A., Hena, S. A., & Mahmuda, A. (2014).
Gross and Morphometric Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System of Bats (Eidolon
helvum). Veterinary Medicine International, 1-5.
Esselstyn, J. A., Widmann, P., & Heaney, L. R. (2004). The mammals of Palawan Island,
Philippines. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 3(117), 271-302.
Gonzales, J. C., Afuang, L. E., Alviola, P. I., Dans, A. T., & de Guia, A. P. (1995). A Laboratory
Manual in Wildlife 101: Introduction to Philippine Wildlife. Los Baos, Laguna.
Heaney, L. R., Gonzales, P. C., Utzurrum, R. C., & Rickart, E. A. (1991). The Mammals of
Catanduanes Island: Implications for the Biogeography of small land-bridge islands in
the Philippines. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 2(104), 399-415.
Heaney, L. R., Tabaranza, B. R., Balete, D. S., & Rigertas, N. (2006). Synopsis and
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APPENDICES

Appendix I. Reproductive condition of female bats captured in Mt. Makiling (May 2015).

SPECIES NAME

TAG
NUMBER

CRL
(mm)

PARITY

UTERINE
HORN WITH
EMBRYO

PLACENTAL
SCAR

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0846

21

multiparous

left

present

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0851

20

multiparous

left

present

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0810

38

multiparous*

left

present

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0817

36

multiparous

right

present

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0835

19

multiparous

left

present

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0839

19

multiparous

left

present

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0824

17

multiparous

left

present

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0826

12

multiparous

left

present

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0844

12

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0845

17

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0809

12

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0815

18

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0821

15

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0823

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0827

18

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0822

n/a

nulliparous

n/a

absent

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0838

15

multiparous

right

present

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0819

13

primiparous

right

absent

Rhinolophus inops

JDVA 0848

24

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus inops

JDVA 0808

n/a

nulliparous

n/a

absent

Rhinolophus macrotis

JDVA 0849

20

primiparous

left

absent

Rhinolophus macrotis

JDVA 0855

n/a

nulliparous

n/a

absent

Rhinolophus macrotis

JDVA 0847

17

multiparous

right

present

*with swollen vagina and nipples

25

Appendix II. Reproductive condition of male bats captured in Mt. Makiling (May 2015).
SPECIES NAME

TAG NUMBER

TESTES LENGTH (mm)

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0825

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0834

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0840

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0841

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0843

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0852

Hipposideros diadema

JDVA 0854

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0812

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0816

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0818

10

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0829

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0831

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0832

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0833

Ptenochirus jagori

JDVA 0837

10

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0828

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0830

Rhinolophus arcuatus

JDVA 0836

Rhinolophus inops

JDVA 0814

n/a*

Rhinolophus inops

JDVA 0820

Rhinolophus macrotis

JDVA 0850

*too small to measure