1

CHAPTER I
Introduction
The complexity of tropical mountain ecosystems has long provided haven for various
Philippine wildlife species. The elevational gradients provide various forest types while vertical
stratification of trees offer habitat to species of different niches. It is no wonder then that forest
destruction has been identified as the primary threat to Philippine wildlife (Rickart et al. 2007).

This has also been the leading threat listed for many Philippine wildlife species.
However, one of the most overlooked threats is the negative ecological impacts of introduced
small non-volant mammals on native and endemic wildlife species. A mammal is a vertebrate
animal of the class Mammalia. Mammals are characterized by the presence of milk-producing
mammary glands for feeding their young, a neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three
middle ear bones. These characteristics distinguish them from reptiles and birds, which they
diverged from in the Carboniferous Period over 300 million years ago. Around 6,4000 extant
species of mammals have been described and divided into 29 orders. Nonnative rats have been
reported to cause extinctions on islands and cause severe biodiversity loss (Amori and Clout
2003; Howard et al. 2007; Jones et al. 2008; Ruffno et al. 2009).

The terrestrial mammalian fauna of the Philippines has traditionally been divided into

four major regions, based on richness, composition and degree of endemism (Steere, 1890;

Heaney & Rabor, 1982): the Palawan, Mindanao, Luzon and Negros regions. Additionally,

several large oceanic islands (Mindoro) often are mentioned as distinct. These parallel the faunal

regions exhibited by birds (Dickerson, 1928), and reptiles and amphibians (Brown & Alcala,

1970), and correspond to the limits of late Pleistocene islands (Heaney, 1985b). The following

brief descriptions of the faunal regions are intended to provide a general perspective. It should be

noted that thorough faunal surveys and reports for all of the regions are badly needed, especially

in the light of the extremely high current rates of deforestation.

 2

The mammalian fauna of the region is also remarkably diverse. The Philippine islands

support at least 17 endemic genera of rodents, two of insectivores and four of bats, as well as

many endemic species of more widespread genera. Many of these endemics are restricted to one

or a few islands and short distances separate faunas that are quite distinct (Heaney, 1985b). This

is unlike the pattern of the mammalian fauna on the islands of the adjacent Sunda Shelf. On this

vast continental shelf, the proportion of endemics is much lower, and widely separated islands

support very similar faunas (Medway, 1972, 1977; Heaney, 1984).

The largest order of mammals, by number of species, are the rodents, bats, and
Eulipotyphla (including hedgehogs, moles and shrews). The next three are the Primates
(including humans, monkeys and lemurs), the even-toed ungulates (including pigs, camels, and
whales), and the Carnivora (including cats, dogs, and seals). Lewis, Charlton t.; Short, Charles
(1879).

Biodiversity affects many ecosystem functions and services where mammalian

communities play a significant role in maintaining ecological integrity. Mammals provide

various ecosystem services that are crucial for human well-being ranging from maintaining

energy flow and productivity through herbivory, predation and granivory to shaping other

biodiversity and their habitats from pollination, seed dispersal, insect-pest control and ecosystem

engineering (Lacher et al., 2019). Despite the crucial role of mammals in ecosystem,

approximately 25% of all mammals are threatened with extinction and the major threats to their

survival are habitat loss and degradation, and biological resource extraction (Schipper et al.,

2008; Ceballos et al., 2020). Many species of mammals, went extinct in the last century and

many more are on the verge of extinction (Ceballos et al., 2020).

The insufficient studies on mammals in the area may have led to the poor understanding

and underestimation of the diversity of this group of fauna. Similarly, few studies have
 3

quantitatively explored how species assemblage of mammals varied with habitat types as well

their roles and usage (Williams, Rondiunini and Tilman)

Therefore, this mammalian fauna survey/study will be conducted to generate the needed

information on available species found in the area, describe their types of diet, appearances and

habitat, conservation status and activation. The locale of the study will be conducted in Barangay

Nabalawag, Municipality of Barira, in the province of Maguindanao del Norte. Its population as

determined by the 2020 Census was 3,252 (PSA Website). This represented 9.00% of the total

population of Barira. Nabalawag is situated at approximately 7.5509, 124.3378, in the island

of Mindanao. Elevation at these coordinates is estimated at 545.6 meters or 1,790.0 feet above

mean sea level.

 4

Statement of the Problem

Mammals play an important role in ecosystems but at the same time they are one of the

most endangered groups. Their value seems still to be underestimated by society and is based on

many misconceptions and a simple lack of knowledge, which in turn might influence society’s

willingness to protect these animals. The researchers investigated about mammals, then designed

a teaching sequence in order to trace some possible conceptual changes and to shape pro-

environmental attitudes towards mammals.

Moreover, finding solutions to counter mammals declines and extinctions is one of the

greatest conservation challenges, which comes with alarming and serious implications for the

health of ecosystems globally.

Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to determine which species of Mammalia are

presents in the forest areas of Barangay Nabalawag, Barira, Maguindanao Del Norte.

This study aims to achieve the following;

1. Identify the local name, common name, scientific name, and family name of the mammals

found in Barangay Nabalawag, Barira, Maguindanao del Norte.

2. Determine the description (Diet, Physical Appearance and Habitat) of the mammals found in

Barangay Nabalawag, Barira, Maguindanao Del Norte.

3. Determine the conservation status (Critical Endangered, Threatened, Vulnerable and Least

Concern) of each mammal found in Barangay Nabalawag, Barira, Maguindanao Del Norte.
 5

4. Determine the activation status (Nocturnal, Diurnal, Crepuscular) of Mammals found in

Barangay Nabalawag, Barira, Maguindanao Del Norte.

Objectives Schematic Diagrams.

- Local Name
Identification
- Common Name
- Scientific Name
- Family Name

- Diet
*Carnivore
Description *Herbivore

M *Omnivore
- Physical Appearance
A
- Habitat
M
M -Critical Endangered

A -Threatened
IUCN Conservation
-Vulnerable and
L Status
-Least Concern
SG

-Nocturnal

Activation Status -Diurnal

-Crepuscular
 6

Significance of the Study

The result of this study will become as baseline data and information on the mammalian

fauna in the municipality of Barira. It will also serve as a guide and reference for the future

researchers, academe, DENR, and LGU. It will also enlighten the policy maker to formulate

resolutions and policies for the preservation, conservation and protection of the mammals toward

sustainable ecosystem.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study will be delimited only to mammalian survey. Specifically, in the

identification, description, provision of the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s

(IUCN) conservation status and activation status of each species of mammal in Barangay

Nabalawag, Barira, Maguindanao Del Norte.

Operational Definition of Terms

Mammals. Is a vertebrate wild animal found in Barangay Nabalawag, of the class

Mammalia, it is characterized by the presence of milk producing mammary glands for feeding

their young, a neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones.

Classification. The act of classifying characteristics of mammals through their local

name, official common name, scientific name and family name.

 7

Conservation. A careful preservation and protection of mammals especially planned

management of a natural resource.

Identification. The process of identifying the mammals by its local name, official

common name, scientific name and family name.

Description. An act of describing specific species of mammals in term of its physical

attribute, its habitat or place where it seen by the researchers.

Terminologies

Mammals. a warm-blooded vertebrate animal of a class that is distinguished by the

possession of hair or fur, the secretion of milk by females for the nourishment of the young, and
(typically) the birth of live young.

Classification. Refers to the categorization, the process in which ideas and object are

recognized, differentiated and understood.

Critically Endangered. A species considered to be facing an extremely high risk of

extinction in the wild.

Endangered. as classified by the International Union for Conservation of

Nature (IUCN), are species which have been categorized as very likely to become extinct in their

known native ranges in the near future. 

Least Concern. A taxon is when it has been evaluated against the Red List criteria and

does not qualify for Endangered Near Threatened.

 8

Status. Indication of the existence of mammals in Balawag, Barira, Maguindanao del

Norte.

Transect Walk. An exercise that entails walking between two points to intentionally

cross or transect a community, explores environmental and social resources, conditions and

systems by observing, asking, listening, looking and producing a transect diagram.

Conservation. The protection of mammals as well as the natural management of its

habitat.

Description. Classification of living and extinct organisms—i.e., biological

classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis (“arrangement”)

and nomos (“law”). Taxonomy is, therefore, the methodology and principles of

systematic botany and zoology and sets up arrangements of the kinds

of plants and animals in hierarchies of superior and subordinate groups. 

Near Threatened. A taxon is Near Threatened (NT) when it has been evaluated against

the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered.

Vulnerable. When the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to

E for Vulnerable, and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

Diurnal. Active at daylight

Nocturnal. Active at night

Crepuscular. Active at dawn

 9

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Invasive species play a key role in the decline of native species (e.g., Miller et al. 1989;

Atkinson 1996), the disruption of ecological communities (e.g., Sanders et al. 2003), and the

degradation of ecosystems (e.g., Fritts and Rodda 1998). Thus, the establishment of

ecologically competitive species outside their natural range is of considerable conservation

concern (Usher et al. 1986; Wilcove et al. 1998; Harris and Yalden 2004). Early detection of

an invasive species is considered to be essential in minimizing later management costs and

effort, for example, in control of numbers or eradication (Myers et al. 2000; Mehta et al. 2007).

Indeed, if an invader becomes established and expands its range rapidly, eradication becomes

increasingly more impractical and economically challenging. Thus, immediate action is often the

only opportunity for cost-effective eradication (Stokes et al. 2006). Population conservation and

management are dependent upon knowledge of the target species distribution and abundance

(Mackenzie 2005). Monitoring the status and population processes of introduced, nonnative

species, therefore, is crucial if potentially negative impacts are to be mitigated against.

Population enumeration of medium-sized mammals such as lagomorphs (pikas, rabbits,

hares and jackrabbits) conventionally uses direct observation such as line-transect surveys

(e.g., Smith and Nudegger 1985) and Distance Sampling (e.g., Reid et al. 2007), or indirect

methods such as faecal sampling (e.g., Forys and Humphrey 1997). Distance Sampling

(Buckland et al. 1993) is a popular method of surveying mammals, commonly used to estimate

 10

population densities in a wide variety of taxa, e.g., the red fox Vulpes vulpes (Ruette

et al. 2003), rodents (Parmenter et al. 2003), primates (Marshall et al. 2008), and birds

(Norvell et al. 2003).

Distance Sampling relies on four assumptions: (1) all targets are detected with certainty

at zero distance from transects; (2) targets are detected at their initial location; (3) distance

measurements are exact (or at least not consistently biased); (4) transects are positioned

randomly with respect to animal density; and (5) the area surveyed is representative of the entire

area (Buckland et al. 1993). The estimation of densities and abundances rely on detection

functions which model the probability of detection, given the distance of targets from transects.

By fitting detection functions to the recorded distance of targets from transects, researchers are

able to estimate the number of targets which were not detected during the survey.

Distance Sampling is suitable for landscape- or population-scale abundance estimation

as a minimum of 60–80 detections are required to obtain a smooth detection function (Buckland

et al. 1993), thereby limiting its site-specific application for species that are detected

infrequently, such as those that are cryptic, rare or occur at low-density (including recently

introduced invaders). In contrast, remote sensing using modern camera traps provides a reliable

means of detecting the presence of elusive, rare, cryptic, and nocturnal species with minimal

disturbance (Cutler and Swann 1999; Silveira et al. 2003) as they can be left recording

continuously in situ. Estimating density and abundance from camera trap data was restricted

previously to adapted capture-recapture models for species with individually identifiable

markings, for example, tigers Panthera tigris in India (Karanth 1995; Karanth and

Nichols 1998), and ocelots Leopardus pardalis in Brazil (Trolle and Kery 2003).

 11

However, species which do not exhibit individual markings often account for a large

proportion of a recorded assemblage (Carbone et al. 2001). Several species which lack unique

markings have been subject to capture-recapture population estimation (e.g., Trolle et al. 2006;

Kelly et al. 2008), but these studies fail to account for identification error (Oliveira-Santos

et al. 2010). Thus, this approach is unsuitable for species without unique markings (for e.g.,

lagomorphs). Recently developed spatial capture-recapture (SCR) models provide a means of

estimating population densities for unmarked populations from a variety of survey data

(Chandler and Royle 2013). However, this method lacks precision at smaller sample sizes.

The random encounter model (REM) provides a means of estimating population densities

for species where individuals cannot be recognized reliably, by modeling animal movement

processes and contact with cameras (Rowcliffe et al. 2008). The REM relies on three

assumptions: (1) the movement of the targets is random; (2) detections represent independent

contacts between cameras and animals; and, (3) the population is closed. Studies utilizing the

REM will inherently violate one or more of these assumptions (e.g., the movement of animals in

the landscape is never truly random). However, the model is considered to reasonably robust

against certain violations of the assumptions (e.g., nonrandom movement due to interactions with

the environment or other species; Rowcliffe et al. 2008; Manzo et al. 2011; Rowcliffe

et al., 2012). The method does of course have inherent constraints, the most significant being

estimations of group size and speed of movement, which may differ within species depending on

habitat or prevailing environmental conditions. Furthermore, due to the requirement for random

camera placement, rare species may be detected too infrequently for density estimates to be

calculated (Rowcliffe et al. 2008). The REM has been used for a variety of medium-small

mammals, including: captive mara Dolichotis patagonium, red-necked wallaby Macropus

 12

rufogriseus, Chinese water deer Hydropotes inermis, and Reeve's muntjac Muntiacus

reevesi (Rowcliffe et al. 2008); wild lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris (Oliveira-Santos

et al. 2010), pine marten Martes martes (Manzo et al. 2011), and Harvey's duiker Cephalophus

harveyi (Rovero and Marshall 2009). Where cross-validation has been attempted, the REM

produced similar density estimates of European wildcats Felis silvestris silvestris to those

produced by capture-recapture models (Anile et al. 2014), and of Grévy's zebra Equus grevyi,

using both camera trap capture-recapture and line transect Distance Sampling models (Zero

et al. 2013).

Used of remote-sensing camera trap REMs to estimate the density of two sympatric

leporid species (one native, of conservation concern, and one invasive nonnative), and describe

the invasive-native species replacement process. We discuss the spatial dynamics of replacement

between native allopathy and shallow or deep sympatry (i.e., the outer 100%, or inner 50%,

minimum convex polygons representing the range of the invasive species) in the invader's

peripheral and core ranges. We used conventional line transect Distance Sampling to corroborate

the spatial pattern of invasive-native replacement. We also describe a means by which future

surveys could minimize survey effort in terms of the numbers of cameras used per unit area and

the number of days during which they are deployed. Consequently, we provide explicit

guidelines for the future monitoring of this particular species replacement process. Such data will

provide a greater understanding of the invasive-native species dynamic and inform population

management measures.

The mammalian fauna of the SE Asian islands has been affected in complex ways by the

size, isolation and geographical history of the islands. The Philippine islands (excluding

Palawan) are the most isolated of the islands considered here, having arisen de nouo from the sea
 13

floor. The Palawan chain has been less isolated, having been joined to Borneo by a broad land

bridge during the mid-Pleistocene. Non-volant mammals have entered the archipelago

predominantly from Borneo, which is the nearest continental shelf land mass, by dispersal over

narrow salt-water barriers.

These barriers continue to be the major factors defining the distributions of species.

Extinction on the Palawan chain was probably very high following its initial isolation from

Borneo, but after about 160 000 years it retains a large and diverse fauna in which extinction is

low and speciation does occur. Speciation elsewhere in the region has contributed substantially

to the total faunal richness, with 55-70% of the fauna of Luzon having arisen in such a manner.

The results of this study indicate that the rate of colonization by non-volant mammals across

landbridges is typically quite high. On the Sunda Shelf islands, levels of endemism are low and

most endemics are limited to montane vegetation; nearly all lowland species are widespread. In

the Philippines, small islands that were part of the late Pleistocene Island of Greater Mindanao

share the same species and populations of some species (e.g. pygmy squirrels; Heaney, 1985)

on different islands are nearly indistinguishable.

On the other hand, narrow sea-water channels between islands have served as major,

nearly insurmountable barriers to many non-volant mammals. Large but geologically young

islands separated from rich faunal sources by 5-20 km of sea water have extremely depauperate

faunas. For a large island such as Negros, with about five indigenous species, a rough estimate of

one colonization event per 250000 years is likely to be a maximum rate. Data from Mindoro and

Camiguin support this estimate. Because the fossil record from the Philippines is very poor it is

not possible to measure directly the rate of extinction. However, a comparison of two sets of

islands provides an estimate.

 14

The Palawan chain was isolated from Borneo about 160000 years ago, whereas islands on

the central Sunda Shelf were isolated only about 10000 years ago. The fauna of the Palawan

chain is about 50°j0 smaller than the faunas on comparably sized islands that are on the shallow

portion of the shelf, so that an estimate of 1-2% extinction/l0000 years is indicated. Given the

low colonization rate and non-trivial extinction rate, how is it that an isolated island such as

Luzon has any non-volant mammals at all? The data cited above clearly demonstrate that

speciation is the crucial variable. At least 55% of the non-volant mammals on Luzon have

resulted from speciation within the archipelago, and an estimate of 70% may be more accurate.

The frequency of adaptive radiation in isolated archipelagos is axiomatic in Darwinian

evolution (Carlquist, 1974; Patton, 1984), but it is rarely directly included in studies that utilize

the equilibrium model (but see MacArthur & Wilson, 1967: 173). We need more phylogenetic

analyses to allow measurement of indigenous speciation rates in order to determine the effects of

body size, trophic level and other variables on speciation rate. Data in this paper lead me to

predict that speciation rate will be related to colonization rate in a complex fashion, with

speciation rate initially increasing as colonization rate increases to some low level (providing the

raw material for speciation), and decreasing thereafter as colonization rate increases. I know of

no data that could be used to test this prediction, but its testing is fundamental to development of

the triradiate equilibrium model discussed earlier. Trends in endemism related to age, isolation

and area of islands have been discussed here, but sample size was small and only rudimentary

statistical analysis was attempted. A correlation between area and percentage endemism has been

noted among birds (see MacArthur & Wilson, 1967: 174; Case & Cody, 1983: 334) but not

previously noted among mammals. A quantitative analysis of a larger data set is needed. Finally,

I must add an explicit plea for research of the most fundamental sort. All of these studies are
 15

predicated on the availability of accurate taxonomic data, and yet the distributions and systematic

relationships of many, if not most, insular mammals are poorly known, especially in the tropics.

Theoretical advances in island biogeography are currently impeded by insufficient empirical

data.

Modern conservation biology has two fundamental goals: (1) preservation of natural

communities that are representative of the biotic regions of the world; and (2) prevention of

extinction of species. Several conclusions drawn in this paper have direct implications for the

conservation of non-volant mammals in SE Asia. First, each area that is defined by historical

events (e.g. Pleistocene islands) is likely to support endemic species. Even small islands often

support endemics. Preserves should be situated to maximize protection of these centers of

endemism. Secondly, within a given biotic region (such as those defined by Pleistocene islands)

most species of mammals will occur on the largest islands. Reserves might profitably be located

on these high-diversity islands. Thirdly, extinction is area dependent; thus, large parks will

support more species than small parks (the SLOSS debate; see Newmark, 1986).

Carnivores and large-bodied species are especially susceptible to area-dependent

extinction, and they may often require special protection and management efforts. Fourthly, most

extinction in reserve areas will probably take place within several hundred years after isolation of

the reserve from other suitable habitat. Given the evidence presented here for high colonization

rates across suitable habitats and very low colonization rates across hostile habitats, the

preservation of corridors between reserves appears to be an important management tool. Fifthly,

colonization and speciation by non-volant mammals usually occur on a time-scale that prevents

them from being useful to conservation biologists.

 16

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the location of the study, research design, research instruments,

sampling procedure, data gathering procedure and data analysis of the study.

Locale of the Study

The study will be conducted in Barangay Nabalawag, Municipality of Barira, Maguindanao

Del Norte which lies in the coordinate of latitude 7° 28' 40" north and longitude 124° 18' 01"

east. It has a total land area of 5843.3594 hectares with 3,917.2 hectares of forestland.
 17

Map of the Brgy. Nabalawag Map of the Municipality of Barira

Map of the Philippines

Map of the Mindanao

Figure1. The location of the study and reference Map of Philippines, Map of Mindanao, Map of

Municipality, Map of Barangay.

 18

Research Design

The research design that will be used in the study is descriptive survey which includes

identification, description, provision of the IUCN conservation status and activation status of

mammals found in Brgy. Nabalawag, Barira, Maguindanao Del Norte.

Sampling Procedure

The sampling procedure that will be used in the study will be by establishing transect walk

observation to the purposive strategic sampling area within Barangay Nabalawag, Barira,

Maguindanao Del Norte. And every walk will be recorded via GPS tracking app.

Research Instrument/Equipment and Material

The researchers will use instrument such as: camera for taking photographs in every

identification of mammals, record note, pencil and ball pen.

Data Gathering Procedure

The data gathered will be identify by its family name, scientific name, common name,

local name. To describe characteristic such as diet, physical appearance and habitat. To

determine IUCN conservation status critical endangered, threatened, vulnerable, least concern

and to determine the activation status nocturnal, diurnal, crepuscular of mammal found in

Barangay Nabalawag, Barira, Maguindanao Del Norte.

Data Analysis
All data gathered will be analyzed using descriptive statistic. The data will be ranked
tabulated according to its Identification, Description, Conservation Status and Activation Status
and number of individuals seen during observation.
 19

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