Environmental Health Perspectives

Vol. 83, pp. 39-68, 1989

Principles and Problems of Environmental

Pollution of Groundwater Resources with
Case Examples from Developing Countries
B. C. E. Egboka,* G. 1. Nwankwor,t 1. P. Orajaka,* and
A. 0. Ejiofor*
The principles and problems of environmental pollution and contamination are outlined. Emphasis is
given to case examples from developing countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America with a comparative
analysis to developed countries. The problems of pollution/contamination are widespread in developed
countries but are gradually spreading from the urban to rural areas in the developing countries. Great
efforts in research and control programs to check pollution-loading into the environment have been made
in the industrialized countries, but only negligible actions have been taken in developing countries. Pollutants emanate from both point and distributed sources and have adversely affected both surface water
and groundwaters. The influences of the geologic and hydrologic cycles that exacerbate the incidences of
pollution/contamination have not been well understood by environmental planners and managers. Professionals in the different areas of pollution control projects, particularly in developing countries, lack the
integrated multiobjective approaches and techniques in problem solving. Such countries as Nigeria, Kenya,
Brazil, and India are now menaced by pollution hazards. Appropriate methods of control are hereby
suggested.

Introduction
Environmental pollution and contamination are becoming a common occurrence in parts of the developing
world. It is difficult to distinguish precisely between
pollution and contamination. In modern hydrogeologic
literature, pollution is regarded as occurring in such
high dosages or concentrations that it renders the polluted medium very hazardous or highly deleterious to
biota. Contamination may occur to a lesser magnitude
when compared to pollution, but it also may render the
contaminated medium unusable or make it slightly hazardous to life. Many urban and rural areas of the developed or industrialized world have been adversely affected by large-scale pollution and contamination,
resulting in losses of human, material and financial resources. In many American, European, and Asiatic
countries, huge amounts of money are spent annually
*Water Resources and Environmental Pollution Unit, Department
of Geological Sciences, Anambra State University of Technology,
P.M.B. 5025, Awka Campus, Awka, Nigeria.
tSchool of Applied and Natural Sciences, Federal University of
Technology, P.M.B. 1526, Owerri, Nigeria.

tDepartment of Applied Microbiology, Anambra State University

of Technology, P.M.B. 5025, Awka Campus, Awka, Nigeria.

Address reprint requests to B. C. E. Egboka, Water Resources
and Environmental Pollution Unit, Department of Geological Sciences, Anambra State University of Technology, P.M.B. 5025, Awka

Campus, Awka, Nigeria.

for research to combat and control widespread pollutants and contaminants. Volumes of these pollutants/
contaminants are produced yearly through natural and
anthropogenic activities such as industrial activities, agricultural practices, waste disposal systems, etc. Highlevel, medium-level, and low-level wastes in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms are released into the environment
at discrete intervals or on a continuous basis. These
pollutants may be physical, chemical, biochemical, biological, or microbiological in nature. They may have
short or long half-lives in the environment. They have
continued to damage many environments of the industrialized countries, having defied many painstaking control programs (1,2). Many urban centers of developing
countries are now also similarly threatened. Unfortunately, these poor countries lack the necessary expertise and funds to wage any meaningful war against pollution, which continues to spread unabated.
Parts of the environment currently being polluted
include the atmosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. This paper shall focus on pollution/contamination of the hydrosphere, with particular emphasis on the groundwater regime, and pollution
incidences in developing countries. The scope shall embrace sources and types of pollution/contamination,
processes generating them, implications of geology/hydrogeology, and pollution dynamics and mechanisms.
Potentials of groundwater pollution in developing coun-

40

EGBOKA ET AL.

tries vis-a-vis the developed ones shall be outlined, highlighting their health hazards. Relevant suggestions for
combating pollution more effectively shall be made. The
primary objective is to review the general incidences of
environmental pollution/contamination in relation to the
effects of pedology and geology in close association with
the dynamics of the hydrologic cycle. Proper understanding of sources and types of pollutants/contaminants and their genesis and hydrodynamics would help
determine the appropriate control measures to be considered for the situation. The goal is to contribute to
better control methods. It is believed that present control methods in parts of the world lack the depth of
understanding required. In addition, many of these control efforts seem to be uncoordinated. Developing nations still at the threshold of widespread pollution/contamination could learn from the costly mistakes of the
industrialized nations and hence take the necessary actions to protect their environments.
The natural processes and anthropogenic activities
that generate pollutants/contaminants are many and
varied, and so are their sources. The natural processes
include products of soil and gully erosion, physicochemical weathering and mass wasting, sediment transport,
floods, volcanic eruptions, seawater intrusions, etc. The
manmade ones include industrial, agricultural, sewage
wastes and lagoons, garbage dumps and barnyards,
mining wastes, etc.
These pollutants/contaminants in one way or the
other via the hydrologic cycle reach the groundwater
systems to pollute/contaminate them. Through the circulation of water within the hydrologic cycle, pollutants
on the ground surface are transferred through the soil
zone into the aquifer horizons where they damage potable water supplies. To reduce degradation of these
water supplies, a comprehensive management strategy
is required, as discussed later. The present control techniques with regard to pollution and contamination hazards, particularly in developing countries, need to be
greatly improved. Priority and concern are not shown
adequately by government authorities, and hence, appropriate planning and management strategies to check
pollution are generally absent. The expertise or requisite manpower may be lacking. Funds for basic research may not be provided. Environmental protection
laws or edicts may be nonexistent and where available
are rarely enforced. These have exacerbated the
spreading phenomenon of many pollutants/contaminants in many developing countries. In this review, necessary suggestions for improvement of this situation
shall be given.

Sources and Types of Pollutants/

Contaminants
The two main sources of pollutants/contaminants are
point sources (Table 1) and distributed sources (2) (Table 2). Pollutants/contaminants from the two sources
may be released continuously (3) or at discrete intervals

Table 1. Point sources of pollution and contamination.

Type of pollution
Sewage disposal systems

Examples
Sewage lagoons
Septic systems
Cesspools
Barnyards/feed lots
Landfills/garbage dumps
Surface waste disposal sites
Surface waste dumps
Underground waste disposal sites Storage tanks (low-, medium-,
high-level wastes)
Pit latrines, tunnels, trenches,
caves

Spills, washings, and intrusions

Mining sources

Natural mineral/ore deposits

Waste subsurface injections

Oil/gas/waste spills
Auto workshop washings
Research/laboratory washings
Seawater/saltwater intrusions
Acid mine drainages
Gas explosions/seepages
Mine dumps and gangue deposits
Tunnels/excavations outflows
Saline ponds/lakes
Hot springs/mineralized waters
Anhydrite/pyrite deposits/
evaporites

Table 2. Distributed sources of pollution and contamination (1).

Examples
Cropland
Pasture and rangeland
Irrigated land
Wood land
Feed lots
Silviculture
Growing stock
Logging
Road building
Construction
Urban development
Highway construction
Surface
Mining
Underground
Terrestrial (many and scattered) Landfills
Dumps
Highways and streets
Utility maintenance
Deicing
Urban run-off
Floods and snowmelt
Rainfall, snowfall, etc.
Precipitation
Native forests
Background sources
Prairie land, etc.
Source
Agriculture

(4). Point sources of pollution can be geometrically defined and the dimensions amenable to mathematical
analysis in assessing pollution loads and rates of discharge determined. Point sources of pollution may assume any geometrical shape such as circular, triangular,
spherical, etc. The areal sources of pollutants/contaminants or leachates are comparatively smaller, easily
mappable, and readily distinguishable. However, where
the input/output load functions from point sources into
the hydrogeologic environment are continuous, the polluted/contaminated area may eventually become widespread. Distributed sources of pollutants/contaminants
are much more widespread and can rarely be geometrically defined as precisely as a point source. Hence, it
is more difficult to subject the input/output source to

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

precise mathematical analysis. Rather, a measured and

intelligent assumption of the affected area is made for
use in modeling and analysis. In heavily polluted/contaminated areas, both point sources and distributed
sources may be occurring together or may be independent of one another. Successful control methods or
mathematical modeling of the affected/polluted area
must recognize this situation in order for the control
program to be effective.

Point Sources of Pollution/Contamination

In the list of point sources given in Table 1, the pollutants or contaminants come from zones or areas of
known and definable boundaries that are easily amenable to mathematical analysis and modeling. The pollution loads can be controlled at the point of input before
they can spread into the surrounding environment in a
time-discrete or continuous manner. Point sources include sewage lagoons (solid, gaseous, and liquid), industrial wastes, landfills/garbage dumps/barnyards, liquid/gaseous spills (oil, chemicals, etc.), mining (pits,
holes, excavations, wastes, and gangue minerals), saline
lakes and deposits, evaporite sequences, etc. Through
the complex interplay of various soil and geologic factors
and rain/water events of the hydrologic cycle, pollutant/
contaminant substances reach the groundwater systems
to pollute them. For example, buried refuse or garbage
undergoes biodegradational decay in the pedologic/soil
zone. The resulting leachates are released into the
groundwater flow system where dissolved geochemical
constituents are transported in various distances and
directions. Piled up animal wastes in barnyards or liquid
wastes in lagoons are similarly leached out and transported causing pollution of surface waters and groundwater areas. In many developing countries today, industrial and domestic wastes are indiscriminately
dumped into rivers, lakes, streams, dry valleys, etc.
This was the case in many developed countries, and such
practices still persist in some of them today. These
wastes damage surface waters and eventually destroy
parts of the groundwater regime. Mining wastes and
gangue products and other point sources of pollutants/
contaminants produce similar havoc for the environment (4-9).

Distributed Sources of Pollution/

Contamination
Distributed sources of pollutants/contaminants given
in Table 2 are those in which the pollutants or contaminants are spread through a large area of hydrogeologic
environment and in which they extend over the entire
source area. A distributed source is very widespread,
and the pollutants/contaminants may be introduced
from various sources and directions. Spreading is enhanced by wind, rain, and snowfall activities through
atmospheric circulation and precipitation. The areal extent or boundary conditions for the pollutants are difficult to define because of the regional nature of sources,

41

thereby posing problems for mathematical analysis. The

sources include acid-alkaline rain, floods, erosion, agricultural fertilizer applications, and generated agricultural wastes, seasprays and intrusions, volcanoes, etc.
Acid rain is a major distributed source of pollution in
developed countries such as the United States, Canada,
Germany, etc. Localized pollution of groundwater by
acid rain in some developing countries such as Nigeria
has been reported (10). Surface waters and shallow
groundwater are polluted by atmospheric fallouts (3,1113). In urban, suburban, and rural areas of many developing countries, particularly in the tropics, soil and
gully erosion produce heavy sediment loads carried by
floods that pollute surface water and groundwater systems (14-19). Waste products in urban areas are transported away by runoff. In mining areas, gangue materials dumped about recklessly on ground surface,
decay and liquid wastes are leached from them becoming
components of the hydrogeologic environment (20-22).
In regions of intense geomorphic degradation and masswasting, physicochemical and biological weathering disintegrate pedologic and geologic materials to produce
sediments that provide great quantities and varieties
of pollutants. Fallouts from volcanic activities or atmospheric tests in one area may be spread into other
regions of the world; wind, wave action, seaspray, or
saltwater intrusion may drive contaminants inland and
road salt application for de-icing during winter and
widespread fertilizer usage, particularly in developed
countries, are also major distributed sources of pollution. Similar events are now becoming prevalent in developing countries, particulary the industrializing ones.

Biological Pollutant/Contaminants in
Groundwaters
Biological pollutants of groundwaters include dissolved organic constituents and microorganisms that
seep or leach into groundwaters from polluted surface
waters. Microorganisms may contribute to pollution in
many ways, namely they may themselves be pathogenic; aesthetically they may produce undesirable biomass, or they may generate toxic metabolites in the
groundwater. The microorganisms may be either pathogenic or nonpathogenic. In both cases, they produce
undesirable effects in the groundwater itself and in the
distribution network (where water may be distributed
for domestic uses) and the populations using it.
Pathogenic Microorganisms. Pathogenic microorganisms are present in groundwaters, especially in the
vicinity of facilities that are discharging sewage effluents or contaminated surface waters, and new septic
tanks, agricultural wastes, and refuse tips. Microorganisms, however, must survive the tortuous task of
passing through the soil cover, which constitutes an
excellent natural process for water filtration and treatment. Even with this barrier, it follows that the nearer
these sources of pollution are to groundwater sources,
the greater the chance of successful seepage of these

EGBOKA ET AL.

42

microorganisms. Shallow wells and some deep boreholes

are prone to contamination by these pathogens.
The isolation of pathogenic microorganisms from
groundwaters is difficult but, when achieved, it serves
as obvious proof of potential danger to the users, regardless of the number of pathogens present. Generally,
however, the majority of waterborne pathogenic microorganisms enter water supplies as a result of fecal
contamination. Therefore, the ability to detect fecal contamination at low levels is the main safeguard in preserving the potability of water supplies (23). Pathogenic
microorganisms normally associated with water supplies are shown in Table 3 (24). All of these have been
isolated from contaminated shallow wells and deep boreholes in Kaduna, Kano, Niger, and Plateau States of
Nigeria (25). In addition, Dracunculus medinesis (Guineaworm) was reported from wells in parts of Nigeria
such as in Kwara State (25). These parasites are widespread in many parts of Nigeria, sometimes occurring
in epidemic proportions.
Fecal contamination in water is usually demonstrated
by the detection of specific bacteria that are present in
very large numbers in the intestines. The test normally
employed is the presumptive Coliform test, which involves the most probable number (MPN) counts using
liquid media. Coliform organisms include Escherichia
coli, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, and Enterobacter spp.,
which are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae.
They are gram-negative, oxidase-negative, nonsporeforming rods that can grow aerobically in a medium
containing bile salts. They are able to ferment lactose
within 48 hr, producing acid and gas at 37C. A presumptive coliform test with a very high count is usually

followed by a confirmatory test which is specific for E.

coli (26).
Nonpathogenic Microorganisms. Many nonpathogenic bacteria are as important as the pathogenic ones
in the pollution of surface water and groundwater supplies. These include the sulfur and iron bacteria. Among
the sulfur bacteria are the sulfate reducers such as Desulfovibrio, Desulfomonas, and Desulfotomaculatum,
which produce elemental sulfur from sulfates. On the
other hand, some of the sulfur bacteria oxidize elemental
sulfur to sulfates, all ofwhich involve complex oxidationreduction reactions. These include the ubiquitous chemolithotrophic Thiobacillus and the filamentous gliding
bacteria Beggiatoa and Achromatium. The sulfur-oxidizing bacteria normally associated with groundwaters
have been described by Trudinger (27), LeGall and Postgate (28), and Ehrlich (29) (Table 4).
Iron bacteria are frequently present in groundwaters
and in particular those subject to a degree of organic
pollution. They obtain energy for their metabolism by
the oxidation of ferrous and/or manganous ions. These
include the gliding bacteria Toxothrix; the sheathed bacteria, Spaethilus, Leptothrix, Crenothrix, and Clonothrix; the budding and/or appendage bacteria, Pedomicrobium, Gallionella, Metallogenium, and Kusnezovia
and the gram-negative chemolithotrophic bacteria,
Thiobacillus (T. ferrooxidans), Siderocapsa, Naumaniella, Ochrobium, and Siderococcus (30). Pathogenic and
nonpathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses) are thus hazardous environmental pollutants to
the hydrogeologic environment. They enter this environment from waste disposal and treatment areas, sewage lagoons, barnyards, landfills, and mine areas (31).

Table 3. Pathogens associated with water supplies.

Pathogens
Bacterial
Salmonella typhis
Salmonella paratyphi A and B
Salmonella typhimurium
Shigella sonnei
Shigella dysenteriae
Shigella flexneri
Hycobacterium tuberculosis
Vibrio cholerae
Francisella tularensis
Enteropathogenic Esherichia coli
Leptospira icterohaemorrhagia
Viral
Hepatitis A virus
Enteroviruses (polio, Coxsackie A and B and echo)
Adenoviruses
Parvoviruses
Reoviruses
Protozoan and metazoan
Enteamoeba histolytica
Acanthamoeba spp.
Naegleria spp.
Giardia lamblia
Ascaris lumbricoides
Thichuris trichura
Taenia spp.

Diseases caused

Typhoid fever
Paratyphoid fever
Salmonellosis

Bacillary dysentery
Tuberculosis
Cholera
Tularaemia
Enteritis
Leptospirosis

Viral hepatitis Type A

Respiratory tract infection, nonbacterial
enteritis

Amoebic dysentery
Amoebic meningoencephalitis
Amoebic meningoencephalitis
Giardiasis
Helminthiasis

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Table 4. Sulfur oxidizing bacteria in groundwaters.

Genus or group
Chemotrophs
Sulfobacillus
Thiobacillus
Sulfolobus
Thiobacferium
Macromonas
Thiovulum
Thiospira
Beggiatoa
Thioploca
Thiothrix
Achromatium
Thiodendron
Phototrophs
Chromatiaceae (purple S bacteria)
Chlorobiaceae (green S bacteria)
Chloroflexaceae
Oscillatoria (Blue-green algae)

Habitat
Mine tips
Water, soil, marine
Geothermal springs
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water, soil, marine
Water, soil
Water, soil, marine
Water
Water, soil

Water, marine
Water, marine
Geothermal springs
Water

43

the life in the lake but also that of the groundwater

system associated with the lake. Other problems that
can arise are the changing of physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of the hydrogeologic system,
thereby rendering the surface water and groundwater
unusable.
In many parts of the world, the locations of geothermal pollution hazards are known. Geothermal pollution is much more common in tectonically unstable
environments where high temperature effluents and
gases emanate from deep horizons or the core within
the earth. They move up to the shallow hydrogeologic
zones through fractures (joints, faults, shear zones) and
heat up surrounding groundwaters to generate hot and
warm springs. In addition to the hotness of such waters,
they are also highly mineralized because the high temperatures enhance the dissolution of soil and geologic
materials.

Geologic and Hydrologic- Cycles

They occur in varying degrees in both oxidizing and

reducing environments. In the process of complex redox
activities that break down organic and inorganic materials to release energy for metabolic activities, poisonous substances are generated that may be fatal to
the hosts that ingest them. These redox microbial activities may also degrade their habitats, rendering them
unusable. Such degraded states may remain so for a
long time.

Pedologic, geologic, and hydrologic cycles have several components and characteristics that enhance or aggravate the incidences of pollutant/contaminant origin,
transport, and spread through hydrodynamic dispersion
(diffusion, advection and dispersion) into the hydrogeologic environments that embrace the atmosphere, pedosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

Organic Pollutants in Groundwater

Geologic Cycle

Organic pollutants that may be found in groundwater

through shallow wells and deep boreholes include dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and particulate organic
carbon (POC). They, in association with microorganisms, cause destructive pollution or contamination in
hydrogeologic environments. They may serve as nutrient/energy sources for microorganisms. Where they
are heavily loaded into groundwaters, DOC and POC
enhance microbial multiplication and growth, thereby
rendering the habitat anoxic. In such environments,
denitrification, desulfurization, etc., are rampant, engendering an abundant growth of bacteria, fungi, and
viruses that may be highly pathogenic. Hence, serious
organic pollution signals a potential heavy microbial pollution of a groundwater system.

Geologic rock units may be fractured, faulted, and

jointed during tectonic movements or may be layered
during the deposition and consolidation of sediments.
Weathering disaggregates rocks into soils and sediments that are transported away by wind, water, and/
or man. During these processes of the geologic cycle,
pollutants and contaminants may be formed or released.
Figure 1 shows significant parts of the complex geologic
cycle that are relevant to groundwater pollution. Soil
and geologic characteristics vary in horizontal, lateral,
and vertical directions. Soil characteristics include grain
size, porosity, permeability, stress-strength properties,
cohesiveness, and other physical and chemical properties. The soil components of unconsolidated geologic
units that form aquifers have similar physicochemical
characteristics. Additionally, layering or stratification
properties of both consolidated and unconsolidated geologic units are factors that affect pollutant/contaminant
inputs, transport and dispersion. Stratigraphic properties of directional lithologic changes, facies changes,
stratification and stratal thicknesses, degrees of sedimentation, cementation, and diagenetic changes affect
the life of pollutants/contaminants in groundwater
(Fig. 2) (14). The structural characteristics of fractures,
faults, joints, and folds (Fig. 3) of igneous and metamorphic rocks and consolidated sedimentary rocks are
also significant in groundwater pollution and contamination.

Thermal Pollution/Contamination
Thermal pollution/contamination may result from two
main sources, namely, industrial and geothermal pollution. In industrialized countries and some developing
ones, heat generated by industries is discharged
through wastewater into the environment. High temperature waters eventually reach shallow aquifers and
adversely affect groundwater. Hot waters discharged
into lakes that are influent may form high temperature
haloes that extend into the aquifers underlying the lake.
Unchecked thermal pollution not only negatively affects

44

EGBOKA ET AL.

Anticline

Anticline
(a) FOLD

Syncline

Sand ----40

Shale -

Gravelly

________________

Sand

(b) JOINTS
Sandstone

Limestone. o*.
Gravelly
Sandstone -O.

Joints
10

PS

1'a.'

4.4,6"
'A:--c4-7'

a
-

Fault Line/Face/Zone

(C) FAULT
FIGURE 1. Geologic cycle.

Downthrown

,:\

_,_...

Sandstone -

Shale -.

(a) Horizontal Stratification and Facies Changes

-i

Gravelly Sandstone

* DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT

A.
>Upthrown Side

Fault Lines

Sandstone
Aquifer

Igneous Roc

Aquiclude

(b) Layering and Vertlcal Statification

Ground Surface

Water Table

DIRECTION OF INPUT

.W

'I V

Zone
noIkMMSoil
r
Sand

Permeable

Impermeable

Aquifer

FIGURE 3. (a) Folds, (b) joints, (c) fault, (d) graben.

Aqutard

--.

* ,'
Permeable

.a ble

'*

,
*

Sand

*.*
-.

Rock

Impermeable

& s

* *

Confined

Aquifer

Aquiclude

FIGURE 2. Lithologic changes.

Subsequent discussions of the geologic and hydrogeologic settings shall explain further the obvious implications of these properties in the genesis, transport,
and dispersion of pollutants/contaminants in groundwater flow systems. It will then be clear that any successful stoppage or control of groundwater pollutants
and contaminants must take into serious consideration
the implications of geologic and hydrogeologic characteristics of the particular polluted or threatened environment. Currently, pollution/contamination planners
and managers do not seriously consider geologic prop-

erties and characteristics in design and control prothereby creating situations that frequently produce failures in engineered structures.

grams,

Hydrologic Cycle
The several processes as briefly outlined below that
occur within the hydrologic cycle (Fig. 4) are the driving
forces and agents of groundwater pollution. The atmosphere serves as the gaseous envelope surrounding
the earth. Precipitation through condensation of rain
clouds falls down to earth as rain, snow, hail, etc. Atmospheric pollutants and contaminants may be washed
out of the atmosphere as fallout. Runoff carries pollutants into surface waters for possible evaporation back
into the atmosphere or storage in rivers, streams, lakes,
and oceans, seas, etc. Some of the fallout or rainout may
infiltrate into the soil zone to be evapotranspired to the
atmosphere or percolate into the groundwater zone.
Here moisture joins a complex hydrodynamic flow sys-

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

45

Surface Water
Divide
Groundwater /
Divide

Groundwate

Recharge

\* *

\
U.

* ..

Watertable

DISCHARGE

*-Groundwater Flow
~~.
~~~
~~~

Bedrock '.~~

i5E-~~(Aquiclude) ',

FIGURE 4. The hydrologic cycle.

tem possibly to be transported to the oceans or other

surface waters where evaporation may return the water
back to the atmosphere. In all these processes, pollutants and contaminants may be produced and cyclically
dispersed from one point of the hydrologic cycle to another. This is graphically shown in the cyclic pollution/
contamination of the hydrogeologic system otherwise
called the hydrogeopollution cycle (Fig. 5). Pollutants
and contaminants may be generated through natural or
anthropogenic processes and circulated in the environment (atmosphere, pedosphere, lithosphere, biosphere,

FIGURE 5. The hydrogeopollution cycle.

and hydrosphere) through the activities of air, water,

chemical, physical, and microbiological processes. These
complex and cyclic processes may be continuous with
respect to distance and time and may be localized or
regional in areal spread. Thus, pollution at one source
or an area may threaten nearby or distant places unless
its spread is checked or controlled.
The implications of the geologic and hydrologic cycles
are much more pronounced when one relates them to
the long half-lives and transport of high-level radioactive wastes from industries. These materials are being
stockpiled in different parts of the industrialized nations
and some developing countries waiting to be safely disposed of in secure geologic rock units. It is now known
that even deep-seated geologic hard rock formations
have cracks, joints, and even faults through which moving groundwaters can transport pollutants/contaminants in many directions. It is also possible that the
grain size and lattice structure of such rock units may
permit widescale diffusion/dispersion of gaseous/liquid
pollutants that may eventually threaten the biospheric
environment with time. Hence, structural and stratigraphic characteristics of geologic units and the hydrodynamics of percolating or flowing groundwaters must
prominently occupy the minds of planners, designers,
and managers of waste disposal and management systems. Unfortunately, at present, this has not been the
case, particularly in developing countries where pollution/contamination is becoming more commonplace.
Even though those in developed countries now consider
geologic and hydrogeologic effects, it has been late in
coming, and pollution has ravaged many areas, precipitating devastating losses in financial, water, land, and
human resources. Even with graphic examples that illustrate the consequences of poor planning, many plan-

46

EGBOKA ET AL.

ners and managers are still skeptical about the role of

geology in environmental pollution. At the same time,
the lack of consideration of geologic, pedologic, and hydrologic/hydrogeopollution cycles has not been fully appreciated in developing countries. There does not seem
to be enough consciousness given to understanding the
implications of these cycles. Because of this, no priority
is given to examining the impact of pollution incidences
and the consequences of spread in the hydrogeologic
environments.

Processes and Activities Generating

Pollutants/Contaminants
Various processes, some of which may be manmade
or anthropogenic, generate pollutants and contaminants
that enter groundwater flow systems. These processes
include physicochemical weathering, mass wasting, erosion, sediment transport, and deposition; agricultural
activities; mining, mine-waste disposal, and acid mine
drainage problems; oil exploration, exploitation, and gas
flaring; other industrial activities such as manufacturing, distribution of manufactured products, arms, and
armaments, etc.; sewage treatment, disposal, and management; runoff, floods, and snowmelt; biological pollution of wetlands and impounded reservoirs; saline
lakes, ponds, and evaporite deposits; geothermal
springs and mineralized waters; atmospheric fallout and
rainout; burial grounds, garbage dumps, landfills, etc.
Some pollution sources in rural environments that are
usually ignored, even though they may be hazardous,
include pit latrines, open-space communal toilets,
widescale and indiscriminate uses of the bush for defecation, personal hygienic uses of water for washings,
etc., microbiological activities (bacteria, virus, fungi,
worms, etc.), radioactive material, and thermal products, heavy metals, trace elements, ions, etc.

Chemical Pollutants/Contaminants of
Groundwater
Many developing countries are witnessing a stage of
development where groundwaters from shallow wells
and boreholes are gradually supplementing the original
source of drinking water (surface water). The preference for groundwater to surface water is borne out of
the belief that when surface water has been distributed
as tap water it must always be subjected to some purification prior to distribution. Although surface waters
are easily accessible where they exist in lakes, rivers,
streams, and springs, many people believe that water
wells produce water of excellent quality. Thus, groundwater is not treated before use and is believed to be
free from pollution.
One place where one can find groundwater about as
pure as rainwater is under a bare dune made of pure
quartz sand (32). The water under quartz sandstone is
clean and pure because quartz is so insoluble in water
that for practical purposes, it is inert and neither soil

nor vegetation contributes dissolved substances to the

groundwater it contains. Areas of pure quartz sand dune
are few. Most surface soils and water-bearing formations are not pure quartz sandstone. A sandstone is
made up of soil particles of different mineralogy. These
particles are bound together by cementing materials,
which are generally calcite, hematite, or silica. In contrast to quartz sand, surface materials of soils, limestone, shale, and other lithologic types react with percolating and infiltrating water to produce dissolved
materials that pollute groundwater (Figs. 4 and 5).
Any groundwater system may be naturally polluted
or contaminated to a certain degree at all times. The
concern of many water resource planners and managers
is whether the amount of measured pollutants are within
the acceptable limits of water quality. The number of
chemical pollutants and the degree of chemical pollution/
contamination of groundwater depend on the geology,
pedology, and the mineral composition of the soil and
rock through which the water flows before reaching the
aquifers. Groundwaters may have pollutants that not
only depend on the pedology, geology, and mineralogy
of the formations it flows through but also on the constituent pollutants/contaminants in the water that recharges the groundwater.
Recharge water, on the other hand, may be contaminated by atmospheric fallout, industrial and domestic
wastes, etc. The type of physical, economic, agricultural, and social activities of the people living in a
groundwater recharge area (Fig. 6) may affect its water
quality. Thus, urban planners and managers must be
wary of human activities that occur in recharge areas
of aquifers in urban and rural areas. This is one of the
main avenues by which pollutants or contaminants enter
the groundwater. Hydrogeologic maps of the areas are
lacking or have not been produced, so the recharge
areas are not identified. This problem affects both developed and developing countries. Massive pollution of
groundwater systems is a common occurrence because
wastes are recklessly deposited on top of recharge
areas.
Groundwater pollution is an ever present risk in developing countries, particularly in areas of mining and
extensive industrial activities. This must constantly be
in the minds of those responsible for water supplies in
these areas. Borehole waters must, as a rule, be analyzed for chemical contaminants before the water is distributed and supplied to households. Unsatisfactory
color and taste are easily detected and are good indicators for groundwaters of poor quality. Some groundwaters taste of iron, others may have a disagreeable
odor. Such groundwaters should be avoided and not
used for domestic purposes. Water containing only several parts per million of sodium and chloride ions tastes
slightly salty. Lead and sulfur are distasteful when present in appreciable quantities in water. Conversely, however, some toxic elements have no taste, but when present in very small quantities may be dangerous to health.
Very small concentrations of poisonous trace elements
such as lead, arsenic, mercury, cyanide, and boron must

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Pflollutant Source

(a) Recharge Zone

Zone of Groundwater

Contamination

Surface

* .

e.

Water

Aquifer

(b) Discharge Zone

*\
. \

~~Pollutant Source
Zone of Contamination

Sce

Water

Aquifer

FIGURE 6. Schematic illustration of the extent of groundwater contamination for pollutants entering (a) recharge and (b) discharge
zones.

be carefully documented. Water sampling and monitoring may reveal their presence.
The three components of water quality are bacteriological quality, physical quality, and chemical quality.
Filtration and sedimentation processes take care of the
physical quality. In practice, groundwaters are filtered
by natural processes as they pass through columns of
soils, sands, strata, or sedimentary layers of rocks.
Groundwaters are usually clear of solid materials as
they come from the aquifer, particulary if they are deepseated ones. The intricate pore spaces or water passageways of the aquifer materials act as a fine filter and
remove small particles of clay or any other fines. Organic materials decay or are destroyed in transit. Thus,
the dirtiest and most polluted sewage water may become clear of suspended/particulate solid materials once
it has gone through a thick bed of sand or geologic and
pedologic units. As a result of this natural self-cleansing
of polluted water by deep-seated aquifers, physical and
some biological aspects of pollution may not pose serious
problems in groundwaters.
Bacteriological quality of groundwater is taken care
of by treatment with various chemicals that kill bacteria. Dissolved geochemical constituents, on the other
hand, are difficult to remove entirely. They may be

47

removed through filtration in charcoal, through cation

exchange, precipitation, dissolution, degassing, etc.
The treatments may be expensive and may result in the
creation of new pollutants and contaminants and their
introduction into the treated waters. In developed countries, waters supplied for public use are routinely analyzed to certify that the content of toxic elements or
contaminants are below mandatory limits. In many developing countries, groundwaters and even surface
waters are often distributed to various communities untreated. In general, it is wrongly believed that exploited
groundwaters are free of pollution. Emphasis is usually
placed on water supply and quantity, and minimal priority is given to water quality and treatment. This is the
main cause of outbreaks of epidemics of waterborne
diseases in many developing countries because untreated surface water and groundwater are consumed
by the people, particularly in rural areas, without water
treatment. Since there are no monitoring programs, it
is not possible to detect incidences of pollution.
The most undesirable trace elements-pollutants in
groundwater are mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium
(Cd), arsenic (As), barium (Ba), boron (B), cyanide (CN)
selenium (Se), chromium (Cr), uranium (U), sulfur (S),
and nitrogen (N). The United States Food and Drug
Administration has specified the lower mandatory limits
of these elements in domestic water. In addition, there
are internationally accepted water quality guidelines for
concentrations of these elements in water for various
uses. Most groundwaters may also contain many major
inorganic elements, compounds, and ions in excess of
acceptable standards, such as iron oxide (Fe2O3), manganese (Mn), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), chloride
(Cl), aluminum (Al) and silica (SiO2). Anions and cations
can be found in their dissolved states. Temperature,
where high, affects the properties of groundwater, especially the solubility of minerals. Deep groundwaters
contain more chemical elements dissolved in them than
do shallow ones. Very deep, hot groundwaters may be
objectionable because they contain very high concentrations of these mineralized elements dissolved out of
rocks by the high temperatures. This is characteristic
of hydrogeothermal regions.
Groundwaters in limestone or Karstic terrains may
contain dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. These
salts make water hard. Hardness in excess affects taste
and soap consumption in laundry. Temporary hardness
is caused by carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium; permanent hardness is caused by sulfates,
chlorides, nitrates, and silicates of calcium and magnesium. The combination of both of these groups of substances gives total hardness. Hard water may also have
a slight taste that is caused by other ions in solution.
A few groundwaters naturally become softened as
they pass through and react with geologic formations
containing zeolite minerals, which remove calcium and
other ions. Zeolites and hydrous silicates chemically exchange certain ions from water for other ions bound in
the solids. If, for example, water carrying calcium ions
travels through a zeolite formation that exchanges Na+

48

EGBOKA ET AL.

for Ca2", the water comes out with sodium instead of

calcium and the zeolite becomes richer in Ca and poorer
in Na.
Iron in water gives a bitter taste and makes water
reddish or brownish in color. It is found in the form of
bicarbonates and sulfates. Iron in groundwater is due
to the presence of hematite below the ground surface.
Iron is soluble in water containing carbonic acid. Water
containing high iron is unsuitable for laundries, paper
mills, film industries, etc.
Manganese acts in a manner similar to iron. It produces an undesirable taste, and white clothes washed
in water containing manganese or iron turn yellow or
brown. In small concentrations, Mn affects odor. Iron
and Mn in water precipitate and produce undesirable
turbid yellow-brown water that stains laundry. These
elements support growth of microorganisms in distribution systems. These growths can accumulate and reduce the carrying capacity of pipes and clog valves.
Small concentrations of Fe and Mn impart a metallic
taste to water. Groundwater supplies contain more Mn
and Fe than surface waters.
Excess carbon dioxide in water makes water corrosive to metals. It can be present in the form of carbonic
acid, bicarbonate, carbonate or as free carbon dioxide
(CO2). Groundwaters drawn from great depths are deficient in dissolved oxygen (DO). Shallow groundwaters
are usually saturated with dissolved oxygen. Hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) makes water unpalatable because of bad
odor and taste. It is found in groundwaters where sulfide minerals such as galena, pyrite, sphalerite, etc.,
are present. Other dissolved gases in addition to CO2,
DO, and H2S that may cause pollution problems in
groundwater include nitrogen dioxide (4,33), methane
(31), and sulfur dioxide. They cause degrees of hazard
in hydrogeologic systems that are functions of concentration but are hazards that can be removed during
water treatment processes.

Geologic and Hydrogeologic

Settings
Geologic Settings
Natural geological processes are primary contributors to groundwater pollution. In this regard, the rocks
of the earth's crust are the major contributors of
groundwater pollutants (Figs. 1 and 5). These contaminants are mostly minerals, gases, and the toxic elements they contain. A good understanding of the origin,
occurrence, and distribution of these undesirable elements is essential for people concerned with the development of surface water and groundwater resources.
Contaminants enter groundwaters from the recharge
areas of aquifers. It is therefore very necessary to know
the geology and mineral distribution in recharge areas
of aquifers. Groundwater that is recharged from mining
areas, fertilized agricultural farmlands, and industrial
areas may not be safe for human consumption unless
the recharge area is protected. Rain and surface water

can leach pollutants from mine dumps, ore deposits, city

dumps, and fertilizer applied to farm lands into the recharge areas for groundwater supplies (Fig. 6).
Groundwaters recharged from polluted areas must
either be avoided or pollution sources checked and monitored very carefully. The geology of recharge areas of
aquifers influences the quality of groundwater. The
number of pollutants and the degree of pollution in
groundwaters depend on the geology and the mineralogical compositions of the rocks through which the
water flows. Groundwaters may also acquire pollutants
and contaminants as they flow across difference geological and mineralogic zones or units of formations. Chemical reactions between the water and rock fragments in
the soil and numerous chemical and physicochemical reactions between water and rock in the groundwater
environment alter the composition of the groundwater.
Surface waters recharged by surface water draining
through limestone areas may be hard and need considerable softening treatment before being supplied for
domestic and industrial use. Rainwater absorbs carbon
dioxide in the air, forming carbonic acids, which react
with limestone, liberating bicarbonates and carbonates
which, when added to percolating groundwaters, make
them hard. Surface materials of soils and shale react
with rain to produce dissolved materials that contribute
to the taste and color of groundwaters. The taste and
color of such waters depend on the composition of the
rocks through which the water passes. Surface waters
draining metamorphic areas containing talc dissolve
magnesium salts that contribute to the hardness of
groundwater.
Surface water draining areas of sulfide mineralization
introduce sulfur and many other metallic ions into
groundwaters. The chemical characteristics of groundwater vary greatly as a result of the diversity of rock
materials through which the water passes. Sedimentary
rocks provide the largest aquifers and water passing
through such rocks acquire considerable concentrations
of chemical components ofthese rocks. Carbonate rocks,
such as limestone and dolomite dissolve easily in acid
water with the result that water in contact with these
rocks are high in calcium and magnesium bicarbonates.
In igneous and metamorphic terrains, groundwater occurs in weathered parts of the basement rocks or faults,
joints, and fissures. Rainwater percolating through
these fissures dissolve many soluble elements. The
groundwater in basement areas may be contaminated
by ions dissolved from the basement rocks (Fig. 3).
Weathering and oxidation of basement rocks create
a favorable acid environment for mobilization of many
metals. Weathering and fracturing of basement rocks
also create porosity necessary for storing water. Consider a granite containing about 5 ppm of uranium in
solution. During weathering uranium will be oxidized
to the soluble uranyl oxide in the near surface weathering environment. The oxidized uranium is then mobilized and dissolved in shallow groundwater in the
basement area. Data from Trenthan and Orajaka (34)
and Orajaka (35) show that significant amounts of ura-

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

nium are leached and mobilized from felsic igneous rock

by carbonic acid water. A significant quantity of uranium is leached from the albite-riebeckite-granite in
Kaffo Valley, Northern Nigeria, during weathering of
the roof of the granite mass (36). This example illustrates how abnormally high uranium and other major,
minor, and trace elements are leached and introduced
into shallow groundwaters in the veins, fissures, and
porous parts of basement rocks.
It is thus important to test all shallow groundwaters
in basement or hard rock areas for metal contamination
before supplying such water to homes and industries.
In many developing countries, rural dwellers obtain
their water from shallow, hand-dug wells (37). In most
cases where the water is tested, they are usually contaminated, particularly for shallow wells in urban centers situated in basement rock areas. Toxic metals, notably Pb from weathering products of ores in
mineralized veins of faults and fissures, can enter natural water systems. The metal concentrations are abnormally high for water descending through fissures
exposed during mining operations. These contaminated
waters find their way into groundwaters, thereby polluting them. Surface water and floods in the Pb-Zn mineral belt of southeastern Nigeria contain high concentrations of Pb-Zn. These metal ions are also present in
shallow groundwaters in the area. The high Pb content
of the shallow groundwater have posed some serious
health problems. Their implications and extent of hazards are yet to be fully investigated.

Structural Features and Sedimentary

Characteristics
The structural and sedimentary properties of rocks
that affect groundwater quality include layering, fractures, joints, faults, and shear zones (Figs. 2 and 3).
These structural features act as hosts for mineralizations and also serve as channel ways that conduct surface waters to aquifers. Faults, shear zones, and joints
are often mineralized. The most common veins and fissure-filling minerals are sulfides. Oxygen-laden surface
waters and carbonic acid waters entering these fissures
oxidize and dissolve cations and anions from the sulfide
minerals and introduce them into shallow groundwaters. The toxic metallic elements introduced into the
groundwater by this method include As, Cs, Hg, Pb,
Ni, etc. Thus, in the surface or subsurface disposal of
wastes, the structural, stratigraphic, and sedimentological natures of the area must be mapped, described,
and known in order to produce a waste management
design that would contain the wastes safely and keep
these toxic elements from migrating into surrounding
surface waters and groundwaters.

Hydrogeologic Settings
Because contaminants are transported in large part
by the bulk motion of groundwater, the parameters of
groundwater flow are of major importance in the un-

49

derstanding of contaminant processes. The various aspects of the groundwater environments, as well as stratigraphic factors that control or could influence
groundwater motion, are also of major consideration.
The hydrogeological environment is shown schematically in Figures 2 and 4. It consists mainly of the saturated and unsaturated zones. The unsaturated zone
occurs above the capillary fringe where the soil pores
are partially saturated with water. This zone is important in waste management because in most cases, it is
the burial zones for wastes. Consequently, a thick unsaturated zone may sometimes be preferred for waste
disposal since it would take a much longer time for contaminants to reach the water table. In the saturated
zone, the pores are saturated with water. When this
zone is capable of transmitting significant quantities of
water for economic use it is referred to as an aquifer.
In most field situations, two or more aquifers occur,
separated by impermeable strata or aquitards. In the
situation illustrated in Figure 2, the upper or unconfined
aquifer is much more prone to pollution than the lower
confined aquifer.
Fluid motion in saturated geological materials is dependent on the hydraulic gradient, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity. Average groundwater velocity -v
is obtained from the relation (38),
Ki

- K

n '

dh
dl

(1)

where i(dh/dl) is the hydraulic gradient, n is the porosity, K is the hydraulic conductivity, and dh/dl is the
change in hydraulic head (h) with respect to the change
in distance (1). Porosity and hydraulic conductivity, in
particular, are properties that are dependent on the
geologic conditions of the waste disposal site. Differences in hydraulic conductivity values across a stratigraphic section could appreciably determine whether
flow is upward, downward, or horizontal, as demonstrated by Freeze and Witherspoon (39). Thus, the ultimate fate of contaminants emanating from waste disposal sites can be strongly dependent on whether
groundwater flow is upward or downward. Therefore,
the direction of flow of groundwater is an important
factor in the evaluation of sites for waste disposal. The
actual magnitude of groundwater velocity is also an important factor. In low permeability geological materials,
groundwater velocity can be as low as a few centimeters
per year. For such conditions, contaminants would be
transported over very short distances over a very long
time span and hence may not pose hazards to the environment.
In contrast to the low velocity of groundwater that
occurs in low permeability materials such as shales, the
velocity in permeable deposits or fractured media can
be quite large. High groundwater velocity zones provide
a pathway through which water supply sources become
quickly polluted. The search for and the evaluation of
such high-velocity pathways is therefore an important
task in the groundwater pollution studies. The ease and

50

EGBOKA ET AL.

extent to which contaminants can pollute an aquifer are

also dependent on whether the contaminants are introduced into the groundwater system at the recharge or
discharge areas. Figure 6 shows that a major portion
of an aquifer may become contaminated if the contaminant is introduced into the subsurface from an upland
recharge site. Hence in designing or planning a waste
disposal site, the entire hydrogeological properties of
the area must be well established to ensure a safe and
long-lasting disposal network.

Contaminant Pathways and

Processes in Groundwater Systems
Pathways of entry of contaminants into groundwater
systems depend largely on patterns of waste disposal
and human interferences with the environment. An understanding of the general methodologies of waste disposal is thus a prerequisite to any discussion of contaminant pathways into the subsurface environment. The
various waste disposal options currently in use include
sanitary landfills, open dumps, septic tanks and cesspools, and deep well injection systems.

Sanitary Landfills and Garbage Dumps

Much of the solid waste that is now disposed of on
land is placed in sanitary landfills. In humid areas, in
particular, buried waste in sanitary landfills and dumps
is subject to leaching by percolating rainwater. The
leaching process is accompanied by chemical reactions
that tend to consume all available oxygen, while releasing carbon dioxide, methane, ammonium, bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, and heavy metals. The liquid mix
of these constituents is referred to as leachate. The total
number and chemical concentrations of these constituents can be variable depending on the initial composition
of the waste climatic conditions. Table 5 shows that
leachates contain large numbers of inorganic contaminants and also have high total dissolved solids. Leachates also contain many organic contaminants. Robertson
et al. (40), for example, identified over 40 organic compounds in leachate samples (contaminated groundwater
in a sandy aquifer in Oklahoma). Leachates emanating
from landfills contain contaminants and toxic constituents derived from solid wastes, as well as from liquid,
industrial wastes placed in the landfill (41).
Rain water percolation through refuse in the landfill
causes water table mounding, i.e., a rise in water table
elevation within or below the landfill. The mounding
process, according to Freeze and Cherry (38) causes
leachate to flow downward and outward from the landfill, as illustrated in Figure 7. Thus, for shallow aquifers,
in particular, water table mounding provides a pathway
for the entry of contaminants into the groundwater system as a result of the buildup in hydraulic gradient and
pressure head.

Septic Tanks and Cesspools

Septic tanks are designed to remove settleable solids,
reduce biochemical oxygen demand, eliminate micro-

Table 5. Representative ranges for various inorganic

constituents in leachate from sanitary landfills (36).

Representative
concentration range, mg/L
200-1000
200-1200
100-3000
100-1500
300-3000

Parameter
K+
Na+

Ca2+

Mg2+
ClsO-2
Alkalinity
Fe (total)
Mn
Cu
Ni
Zn
Pb
Hg

10-1000

500-10,000

NO3
NH4+
po4

Organic N
Total dissolved organic carbon
Chemical oxygen demand
Total dissolved solids
pH

1-1000
0.01-100
< 10
0.01-1
0.1-100
<5
< 0.2
0.1-10
10-1000
1-100
10-1000

200-30,000
1000-20,000
5000-40,000
4-8

PRECIPITATION

Leachate Spring

Groundwater Zone Contaminated by Leachate

FIGURE 7. Water table mound beneath a landfill, causing migration

of contaminants deeper into the groundwater zone (38).

organisms before (the treated) sewage is released

through a drainfield into the ground. A generalized diagram illustrating the layout of a septic tank waste-disposal system is shown in Figure 8. The figure demonstrates that septic tank system effluents can quite easily
reach and contaminate the groundwater system. According to the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (42), septic tanks and cesspools are the largest
contributors of wastewater to the ground and are the
most frequently reported sources of groundwater contamination in the United States.
Apart from the effluent that is directly released into
the ground, there are large volumes of solid residual
materials known as sewage sludge. In many parts of
the world, this sludge, which contains a large number
of potential contaminants, is applied on agricultural
lands to enhance crop nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and heavy metals that are needed for plant
growth. Although this practice actually improves soil
fertility, it has been observed that one of the potential

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

_

PRODUCTION

PRETREATMENT

structural stability, isolation from fractured bedrock,

absence of subsurface flowlines that lead directly to the
biosphere or to subsurface zones of potable water, low
measured or predicted radionuclide velocities, and
water table conditions that are deep enough to permit
waste burial to remain entirely in the unsaturated zone.

DISPOSAL

DitibtonB x

i ~~~Vdose Zone

51

ie/il

BD gcI

EVAPOANSITRATION

FIGURE 8. Contamination from a septic field (57).

negative impacts of this type of sewage disposal is degradation of groundwater quality (38). Contaminants in
the sewage sludge/effluent reach and contaminate
groundwater through infiltrating water from rain or
snow.

Radioactive Waste Disposal

Radioactive wastes are generated at various stages
in the nuclear industry. Mining and milling of radioactive ores result in the production of large volumes of
waste rock and tailings. Nuclear plant operation generates radioactive fission products, reactor cooling
waters, irradiated fuel rods, and other by-products.
Figure 9 illustrates several types of waste burial alternatives. In all cases, the wastes are stored in strong,
engineered concrete containers. In the option illustrated by Figure 9a, the containers are placed on the
surface of the ground and then covered with earth materials. Figures 9b and 9c illustrate the options in which
the containers are placed a few meters below the surface
of the ground either below or above the water table.
The difference between these two options is that in the
latter (Fig. 9c) the fill in the excavation is designed to
provide enhanced containment capability for the system. A large number of burial options for radioactive
wastes in Canada and the United States are in the category represented by Figure 9b (38). In Figures 9d and
9e, the containers are buried in large holes about 10 to
20 m deeper than in the previous examples.
Because of the highly lethal nature of radioactive
wastes, particularly for those with long half-lives, it is
necessary that these wastes are disposed of in systems
that have high containment capability. Failure of the
burial sites could result in the leakage of radioactive
materials into the groundwater environment or into the
biosphere. To avoid problems of subsurface radionuclide
migration, numerous reported investigations including
Cherry et al. (43) have suggested that burial sites should
have the following characteristics: geomorphic and

Deep-Well Disposal
Disposal of liquid wastes of industrial origin by injection into the deep underground is a widely accepted
practice. The growing acceptance of this waste disposal
option is mainly due to the numerous problems of pollution in near surface hydrologic environments (44). The
growing acceptance of this option is suggested by the
results of a survey conducted by Warner and Orcutt
(45), which showed that waste injection wells increased
from 30 in 1964 to at least 280 in 1973 in the United
States. There are now more than 100,000 of these wells
in North America. Although deep-well injection of liquid
wastes is meant to minimize the problem of pollution in
the near surface hydrologic environment as suggested
by Piper (44), the potential for pollution of deep-seated
aquifers is still obvious. If the pollution of deep-lying
aquifers is to be avoided, the disposal option requires
the isolation of formations receiving waste injections
from permeable contact with other elements of the hydrologic environment.

Human Activities and Pollution/

Contamination
Contaminants can be introduced into the groundwater system as a result of myriads of human activities.
This category of contamination of groundwater systems
differs from the ones described earlier in that such human activities do not ab initio introduce wastes into the
subsurface. The major human activities that eventually
end up polluting groundwater systems include agricultural activities, storage of gasoline tanks in the subsurface, pipe lines, road deicing, mining and pumpage
of aquifers, etc.
Nitrate loading of shallow groundwater systems arising from fertilizer application occurs mainly through
leaching. Where there is significant downward flow,
deep-seated aquifers can become affected. According to
Freeze and Cherry (38), widespread nitrate contamination of aquifers through fertilizer application is rare.
Numerous investigators including Grisak (46) and Custer (47) have shown from case studies in various parts
of the United States and Canada that nitrate derived
by oxidation and leaching of natural organic nitrogen in
the soil is more often responsible for extensive nitrate
contamination of shallow groundwaters. The pathway
down to the water table of those contaminants generated through mining activities and road salt application
is similar to that for nitrates, i.e., they reach the water
table through leaching and flushing through the unsaturated zone by infiltration of percolating water from
rain and snowmelt.

52

EGBOKA ET AL.

(a)

Specially Designed Earth Material

AL

... ....

.. .

*_
(c)

Zone

of

Water TableI
Fluctuation

M._
Backfill
Protecttive

Geolog)ic Materials

(e)
FIGURE 9. Schematic diagrams illustrating methods of disposal of radioactive wastes (38).

Petroleum leakage from underground storage tanks

and oil pipe lines, as well as spills from oil-producing
wells, constitute an increasing threat to groundwater
quality (Fig. 10). Petroleum contaminant pathways into

the groundwater system are illustrated in Figure 10. A

simple hydrogeologic condition is assumed. According
to Freeze and Cherry (38), in the initial migration stage
(seepage stage), the oil moves primarily in a downward

Leaky Storage Tank

or Oil

Spill

Phase
@Oil
* X **D > @

Vadose

2Zone

*Vapor Zone

GROUND WATER FLOW DIRECTION

.;

:.
I

*.i

- Th4 ousands of
Hundreds of
- Meters

FIGURE 10. Contamination from a leaky storage tank

or

oil spill (57).

Capillary Fringe

Watertable

Dissolved Contaminants
I

Ik

14

53

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

direction under the influence of gravitational forces. On

reaching the water table, the oil zone spreads laterally,
first under the influence of gravity-related gradients and
subsequently in response to capillary forces. Capillary
spreading becomes very slow, and eventually a relatively stable condition is attained. Figure 11 summarizes the movement of mining wastes and pollutants
within the total environment. At each state and position, metal-rich mine materials may get into the air,
surface water, soils, and groundwater to possibly pollute them.
Figures 12a and 12b illustrate pathways by which
contaminants in polluted surface waters and saline
water can enter groundwater zones. In Figure 12a, contaminated surface water reaches the groundwater zone
as induced by water recharge under the influence of the
gradients set up by the well. Instances of polluted surface waters are common, particularly in industrial areas
where effluents are discharged untreated or partially
treated into streams and lagoons. Figure 12b shows a
possible effect of overpumping that is often observed in
coastal areas. Overpumping can cause contaminants
from sea water to enter a freshwater aquifer.

Contaminant Transport:
Hydrogeochemical Processes
The migration of contaminants in groundwater flow
systems is due mainly to groundwater motion. Transport rates, however, are moderated by a variety of geochemical and biochemical processes that include complexation, acid-base reactions, oxidation-reduction
processes, precipitation-desorption reactions, and mi-

Pumping Well

Original

.,
Water Table-t

Contaminated
Surface Water
*:

.<..Pumping..
water Level

S.:.IQnduced Rec ag
(a)
Pumping Well

Fresh-Water Aquifer

''Saline-Water

'..

Aquier*

(b)
FIGURE 12. Contaminant pathways into an aquifer (a) through induced infiltration from contaminated surface water and (b) through
over pumping near saline water aquifers (89).

crobial reactions. According to Jackson and Inch (48),

precipitation-dissolution, adsorption-desorption, and
microbial reactions can lead to the removal of contaminants from solution, whereas the other processes affect
the availability of the contaminant for adsorption or
precipitation. Appropriate instrumentation, sampling,
and monitoring would make these hydrogeochemical
species veritable environmental tracers.

Complex-Ion Formation

FIGURE 11. Movements of mining pollutants within the total environment. Modified from Press and Siever (32).

Complex-ion formation is important in the study of

groundwater pollution because the concentration and
mobility of most contaminants are governed by the concentration and nature of the complexes they form. For
example, hydroxide and carbonate complexes appreciably affect the mobility of uranium and the heavy metals
in groundwater flow systems. It has also been observed
by Jackson and Inch (48) that when heavy metals (e.g.,
Pb2+, Cd2+) are complexed by inorganic or organic ligands (e.g., Cl-, EDTA), the contaminants may not be
immediately available for adsorption or precipitation,
and consequently the mobility of heavy metal contaminants may be increased in the groundwater flow system. On the other hand, contaminants may become associated with adsorbed complexing ligands such as

EGBOKA ET AL.

54

humic acids. In that case, their mobility will be reduced.

It is thus concluded that adsorbing and nonadsorbing
ligands may compete for contaminant ions and thus determine, on the basis of the relevant formation constants, the distribution of complexed contaminants between adsorbed and solution states.

Acid-Base Reactions
Acid-base reactions are those chemical reactions involving the transfer of protons. Proton activity, H+,
expressed as -log H+, is referred to as pH. The numerical value of pH gives an indication of the acidity of
natural waters. The pH of natural waters is controlled
by calcite (CaCO3) dissolution and the CO2 in the soil
zone according to the following equations:
CO2 + H20

H2C03

(2)

high dissolved oxygen content. Along the flow system,

the tendency is toward oxygen depletion. The first stage
in the oxygen depletion process is the oxidation of organic matter (CH20):
02+ CH20 = C02 + H20

(7)
Reaction 7 is catalyzed by bacteria or isolated enzymes.
They derive energy by facilitating the process of electron transfer. Organic matter oxidation of the type illustrated in Eq. (7) is a major redox reaction occurring
in landfills and other similar waste disposal sites. Thus,
leachates emanating from landfills have much lower redox potential. The leachates also have elevated concentrations of NH, H2S, Fe2+, Mn2+, and FeS.
As the leachate enters the groundwater system, the
following sequence of redox processes would occur (38):
(i)

H2C03 + CaCO3 = Ca+2 + 2HC03

(3)
According to Stumm and Morgan (49), CaCO3 is an
efficient pH buffer only in the neutral and acid pH range.
In the pH range of 9 and above, the incongruent dissolution of aluminosilicate minerals provides a greater
buffer capacity. In pollution studies, it is important to
know the pH of the groundwater and its buffering
agents since the solubility of many minerals as potential
contaminant sources and sinks are dependent on pH.
Acid-base reactions become prominent in environmental
pollution and degradation where situations create extremes of acidity or alkalinity. Thus, in acid mine drainage areas, acid rain, alkalinity, or alkaline rain situations, the hydrogeological processes such as oxidationreduction, cation exchange, adsorption-desorption, etc.,
may result in the ultimate release of pollutant and contaminants into these systems to damage them.

Oxidation-Reduction Processes
Oxidation-reduction (or redox) processes are of a major importance in governing the geochemical behavior
of those elements that may gain or lose electrons in
groundwaters. By definition, oxidation is the loss of
electrons and reduction is the gain in electrons, as
shown in the following illustrated examples for the oxidation of iron:
(4)
02 + 4H+ + 4e- = 2H20 (reduction)
4Fe+2

4Fe+3 + 4e- (oxidation)

02 + 4Fe+2 + 4H+ = 4Fe+3 + 2H20

(ii)

Oxidation of Ferrous Iron,

(9)

02 + 4Fe+2 + 4H+ = 4Fe+3 + 2H20

and the precipitation of Fe+3 as Fe(OH)3

(iii)

Nitrification

(10)
202 + NH4 = N03 + 2H+ + H20

(iv)

Manganese Oxidation
02 + 2Mn+2 + 2H20 = 2MnO2 + 4H+

(11)

When all the dissolved oxygen in the groundwater is

consumed, oxidation of organic matter can still occur as
indicated in the following reaction equations (38):
(i)

Denitrification

(12)

5CH20 + 4N03 = 2N2 + 5HC03 + H+ + 2H20

(ii)

Manganese (iv) Reduction

-I
(13)
-

CH20 + 2MnO2 + 4H+ = 2Mn+2 + 3H20 + CO2

(iii)

Iron (iii) Reduction

(14)
CH20 + 4Fe(OH)3 + 8H+ = 4Fe+2 + 11H20 + C02
(iv)

Sulfate Reduction
-2

(15)

2CH20 + S04 = HS- + 2CH03 + H+

(6)

The redox state of groundwater is described by the

redox potential pE (or Eh). Water infiltrating into shallow groundwaters has high redox potential due to its

(8)

-2
202+HS-=S04 +H+

(5)

In reality, a reduction reaction is coupled to the corresponding oxidation reaction, so that the overall redox
reaction for the oxidation of iron, for example, is of the
form:

Oxidation of Sulfide to Sulfate,

(v)

Methane Fermentation

(16)

2CH20 + H20 = 'I4 + H+ + HCO3

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

It is clear from these reaction sequences that adequate knowledge of the redox environment is needed
for the purpose of predicting the mobility of those elements that have variable valences and which form low
water-solubility oxides. For example, oxidized forms of
iron [Fe(OH)3] and manganese (MnO2) are highly insoluble; the reduced forms (Fe2+; Mn2"), however, are
soluble in water and thus move with the groundwater.
Uranium, selenium, arsenic, and molybdenum are insoluble under reducing conditions and soluble under oxidizing conditions. Thus, depending on the physical,
chemical, and biological conditions within the hydrogeochemical environment, contaminants may exist in
polluted groundwater systems in various concentrations
and forms. Detailed instrumentation and closely spaced
monitoring programs easily delineate the geochemical
zones (4,7,33,41).

Precipitation-Dissolution Reactions
Precipitation-dissolution reactions are a set of reactions by which contaminants may be removed from solution either by direct precipitation or by isomorphous
substitution with an ion of similar atomic radius in a
crystal that is forming or that has formed (48). The
formation of metal carbonates, e.g., Sr(C03)2,
Cd(CO3)2, provide good examples of removal of contaminants from solution in groundwater by precipitation
reactions. Saturation index calculations may be employed to determine whether a mineral species is likely
to dissolve or precipitate in a groundwater flow system
(38).

Adsorption-Desorption Reactions
Adsorption occurs when a dissolved ion becomes attached to the surface of a preexisting solid substrate
(50). In porous media, contaminants can become adsorbed onto colloidal-size particles. The adsorption capacity of colloids is thought to be due to their ability to
generate a charged solid-solution interface. The presence of a solid surface charge arises from imperfections
or ionic substitutions within the crystal lattice of the
colloids. The charge imbalance arising from the accumulation of charge on the colloid surface, however, is
compensated for by a surface accumulation of ions of
opposite charge known as counterions. Ion exchange
occurs when the ions in the counterion layer become
exchanged for other ions. Cation exchange capacity has
been defined by Jackson and Inch (48) as the excess of
counterions which can be exchanged for other cations
in the bulk of the solution. It is usually expressed as
the number of milliequivalents of cations that can be
exchanged in a sample with a dry mass of 100 g. Cation
exchange reactions are important in the predictive
analysis of the mobility of contaminants in geological
media. A measure of the mobility of contaminants that
is used in predictive analysis is the distribution coefficient (Kd). It is defined as "the number of milliequivalents of an ion adsorbed per gram of exchanger divided

55

by the number of milliequivalents of that ion per milliliter remaining in solution at equilibrium" (48). The
magnitude of the distribution coefficient is a measure
of the extent of partitioning of a contaminant species
between the solid and liquid phases along a groundwater
flow system.

Microbial Reactions
Most of the geochemical reactions leading to the
breakdown and transformation of complex molecules in
groundwater systems are microbially mediated. These
microorganisms derive energy and constituents needed
for survival from these reactions. For bacteria to function and proliferate, it is also important for suitable
temperatures and pH conditions to prevail in the medium (48). In the investigations carried out by Jackson
and Inch (48), it was also observed that bacterially mediated chemical processes may have either beneficial or
detrimental effects on particular pollutants. The beneficial effects include purification of contaminated water
as organic pollutants are broken down into substances
such as CO2, H20, NO , and SO2P-. Elements such as
N, S, C, and P are used in the synthesis of microbial
protoplasm and are thereby removed from the groundwater system. Among the detrimental effects is the
depletion of dissolved oxygen.
Two phases are involved in the infiltration of unpolluted groundwaters by polluted surface waters. These
are associated with the oxygen-rich unsaturated zone
and the oxygen-deficient zone which is usually saturated. Organic pollutants are usually removed by fltration in the unsaturated zone where an effective biological filter can be formed. By these processes some
soils constitute an efficient filter for water treatment.
Most microorganisms are not adapted to this tortuous
and highly competitive environment, which limits their
movement to no more than 3 m in depth (51). For this
reason, any well or borehole not properly lined for its
entire length stands a chance of being polluted by microorganisms from surface waters.
Adsorption is the main mechanism by which microorganisms are removed from the oxygen-depleted saturated zone. Under this condition, microorganisms may
be carried passively in groundwaters up to a distance
of 30 m horizontally (51). In view of this, a minimum
protection zone of 30 m is essential in siting boreholes
and wells if contamination from polluted surface water
from septic tanks, agricultural wastes, and refuse tips
is to be avoided. Fissured rock strata constitute an additional problem. Where they exist, the extent of passive travel by microorganisms is unlimited, as natural
purification through soil is almost nonexistent (52).
During hydrogeomicrobiological processes, the activities of nonpathogenic bacteria in groundwaters could
be beneficial because they are involved in the degradation of detergents, herbicides, pesticides, and general
mineralization, including cycling of essential elements,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. When pollution is in
excess, these beneficial processes could lead to problems

EGBOKA ET AL.

56

for groundwaters, such as depletion of dissolved oxygen, reduction of nitrate to nitrite or ammonia, reduction of sulfate to sulfide with attendant offensive odors
and growth of filamentous bacteria, reaction of sulfide
with iron to form an insoluble precipitate that can restrict groundwater flow, and mobilization of iron from
soil under conditions of reduced oxygen tension only to
be oxidized and precipitated in other regions of the aquifer either by chemical or microbiological means (24).
Under anoxic conditions, gram-negative chemolithotrophic bacteria utilize nitrates, sulfates, and iron/manganese oxides as terminal hydrogen acceptors in respiration and other physiological processes.

C(x,O) = 0;

x >O

(19)

C(O,t) = co;

t > 0

(20)

C(oo,t) = 0;

t > 0

(21)
the solution to Eq. (18) for a saturated homogeneous
porous medium is given by Ogata (53) as

Co

0.5

An accurate description of the spatial and temporal

distribution of contaminants in groundwater systems is
of major importance in groundwater pollution studies.
The model widely applied in the evaluation of contaminant migration is based on the advection-dispersion
equation. It is derived from considerations of mass flux
into and out of a fixed elemental volume within the flow
domain. The physical processes that control these fluxes
are advection (i.e., contaminant transport due to bulk
movement of groundwater) and hydrodynamic dispersion that accounts for the mechanical mixing and molecular diffusion within the flow system. Loss or gain
of contaminant mass in the elemental volume results
from chemical or biochemical reactions, radioactive decay, or combinations of these. The exact form of the
advection-dispersion equation depends on whether the
contaminants under consideration are nonreactive or
reactive.
For nonreactive constituents, the one-dimensional
form of the advection-dispersion equation in saturated,
homogeneous, isotropic materials under steady-state
uniform flow is (38):
aC
(17)
ac
a2C
at

ax

ax

where x is a curvilinear coordinate direction taken along

the flowline, v is the average linear groundwater velocity, D, is the coefficient of hydrodynamic dispersion
along the x direction, C is the contaminant concentration, and t is time. The coefficient of hydrodynamic dispersion is of the form:
(18)
Dx= axl vl+DD
where txx is the dispersivity, a characteristic property
of the porous medium, and D* is the coefficient of molecular diffusion. The term axj I VI expresses the mechanical mixing component of the dispersion process,
which is the result of velocity variations within the porous medium.
The advection-dispersion equation is solved under
prescribed boundary conditions. For the following
boundary conditions:

42

(22)
+ exp

Contaminant Transport: Physical

Processes

)f

CIO

(Dx)

tJ]

erfc

where erfc represents the complementary error function and all other terms are as previously defined.
Figure 13 illustrates the concentration profiles obtained with Eq. (22) and what is normally referred to
as a breakthrough curve for contaminants migrating
through a porous medium. The figure demonstrates the
effect of mechanical dispersion and molecular diffusion,
namely that of causing some of the contaminants to
move faster and others to move slower than the average
linear groundwater velocity. This causes a spreading
out of the concentration proffle along the direction of
flow and to some extent in directions transverse to it.
In the absence of dispersion and diffusion, the contaminant front will move as plug flow, and its position along
a flow system will be entirely determined by the average
linear groundwater velocity.
In the case of reactive contaminants, a sorption term
is added to Eq. (22) to account for the transfer to or
from the solids in the elemental volume. The advectiondispersion equation then takes the form (38):
ac Pbas
at n+a-t

a2c

=D2

ac
ax

(23)

where Pb is the bulk density of the porous medium, n

is the porosity, and s is the mass of the chemical constituent adsorbed on the solid part of the porous medium
per unit mass of solids; as/at represents the rate at which
Contaminant Front
if Diffusion Only
a

Position of
Groundwater

o
0 05.

0A

Distance X
FIGURE 13. Schematic diagram showing the contribution of molecular diffusion and mechanical dispersion in causing spreading during contaminant migration (38).

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

the contaminant is adsorbed, and the term (pbjn) (as/at)

represents the changes in concentration in the fluid
phase caused by adsorption or desorption. If biochemical processes are ignored, the sorption term then depends only on ion exchange, precipitation and coprecipitation.
When a contaminant is adsorbed by a solid, it migrates at a rate slower than if there was no adsorption.
Assuming a fast and reversible adsorption-desorption
(cation-exchange) process, and if the concentration of
the adsorbed contaminant is small compared with the
total concentration of cations in solution, the rate of
advance of the contaminant front is given by (50):
v

(24)

PbKd
n

where Vc is the velocity of the adsorbed contaminant

and Kd is the distribution coefficient. The terms in the
denominator are referred to as the retardation factor,
which can be used to estimate how rapidly a contaminant would migrate through the flow system. The effect
of retardation on contaminant migration is schematically shown in Figure 14. The contaminant front in the
case of the adsorbed species, A', moves at a much
slower rate than that of the nonadsorbed species, B+.
An important implication of this condition is that compared with a nonadsorbed species, it will take a much
longer time for the adsorbed contaminant species to
reach and pollute a groundwater supply source, and
hence is less of a threat or hazard to the environment.

Field Application of Advection-Dispersion

Equation
An example of the application of the advection-dispersion equation in the solution of problems in contaminant migration is provided by a field study carried out
by Egboka et al. (41). In the study, an analytical solution
to the one-dimensional form of the advection-dispersion
equation was used to simulate the distribution of tritium
(a nonreactive species) produced during atmospheric
testing and use of nuclear weapons along a contaminant
plume under a landfill site in Borden, Ontario, Canada.
Field values of radioactive bomb tritium were correctly
simulated by using longitudinal dispersivity values of
between 30 and 60 m and groundwater velocity values
of about 10 m/year (Fig. 15). These aquifer parameters
were used to predict the movement, spread, and dispersion of contaminants in the polluted groundwater
such as sulfate (Fig. 16), chloride, etc. While Egboka
et al. (41) investigated dispersion of contaminants introduced into the hydrogeologic system under natural
conditions, Sudicky et al. (54) introduced artificial
tracers into the same area and arrived at similar results
usable for the planning and management of landfills and
garbage dumps.
28011
_ 24

00

<><\

Velocity=12.5m yr-'
| ~~~~~19533H Plug Flow Front

20

gj
(.

Time t1

57

16
30

12

Detection Limit

440

0
040

Cs
U

80120160200240280320

36400440480520560004

1-

Distance X

E.
E

(a)

Time t2 >tl
S
t
0

Distance X
(b)
FIGURE 14. Schematic diagram showing the effect of retardation.
The migration of an adsorbed species (A+); the position of nonadsorbed species (B + ) (50).

Distance Along Pollutant Plume Path (Meters)

FIGURE 15. Simulated bomb 3H versus distance in a landfill aquifer

using varied velocities and longitudinal dispersivities (41).

EGBOKA ET AL.

58

Pollution Situation in Developed

and Developing Countries

The ever-increasing use of organic pesticides and herbicides has constituted another source of groundwater
contamination. Various investigators in the southwestern United States have observed that pollution by pesticides must be listed as an important potential hazard.
Croll (56) arrived at a similar conclusion on the basis of
a literature review and field studies in Kent, England.
In Canada, numerous cases of groundwater pollution
have been reported. A comprehensive coverage of these
cases has been presented by Cherry (57). Shallow
groundwaters that have been contaminated by leachates from landfills include those that occur below three
large landfills in the outskirts of the city of North Bay
and near Alliston and Kitchenor-Waterloo in Ontario.
Severe groundwater contamination from chlorophenols
has been reported from Pentritton, British Columbia
(57). Mine tailings are another major source of groundwater contamination in the mining districts of Canada.
Extensive nitrate contamination of shallow aquifers
have been observed in the Canadian prairies. This has
been attributed to the use of agricultural fertilizers.
Similar widespread occurrence of nitrate has been reported in a large regional carbonate-rock aquifer in England and the United States.
Leakages in nuclear power plants constitute another
source of groundwater contamination. This is because
the radiation would eventually be returned to the
groundwater environment. Recent nuclear leakages include the Chernobyl incident in the Soviet Union. The
impact of these leakages on the groundwater environment has, however, not been fully investigated. No
doubt, a large number of cases of groundwater contamination have been reported. However, disposal sites
that are known contamination sources probably account
for only a small fraction of the total number of sites
where groundwater contamination now occurs (57). It
should, in addition, be expected that more severe cases

As a result of the ever-increasing industrial establishments and man's general activities, physical, chemical, and biological substances are being fed into the
groundwater environment on a daily basis. This section
summarizes the pollution situation in both developed
and developing countries. Emphasis is focused on the
developing countries.

Developed Countries
Groundwater literature is filled with incidences of
groundwater pollution in many parts of the developed
countries including the United States, Canada, USSR,
and various parts of Europe. Table 6 presents a summary of groundwater contamination incidents in parts
of the United States as reported by Lindorff (55). The
number and percentage of incidents affecting or threatening groundwater supplies is shown in the second column. The third column shows the number and percentage of the cases that threatened or produced fires
or explosions.
Table 6. Summary of groundwater contamination incidents (46).

Contaminant
Industrial wastes
Landfill leachate
Petroleum products
Organic wastes
Chlorides
Radioactive wastes
Pesticides
Fertilizer
Mine drainage

No. of
incidents
50
46
27
21
16
7
4
3
3
173

Water
supplies, %
31 (62)
7 (15)
18 (57)
15 (71)
13 (81)
2 (29)
2 (50)
3 (100)
1 (33)
92 (53)

Fire or
explosion, %
2 (4)
0
10 (37)
0
0
0
0
0
0
12 (7)

-I

Ica
C..

I
Unpolluted Groundwater
(Low Sulfate)
Tritiated and Non-Tritiated
Groundwater Boundary
100 50 0
Vert. Exag

-250- Conc.

lOOm
=

10

FIGURE 16. Sulfate pollution of ground with tritiated tritium boundary (41).

SO4-2 (mgl-')

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

of pollution could arise in the future as technology brings

new and more hazardous chemical compounds into production and use. At the moment, great amounts of financial and material resources have been spent on the
control of pollution. Health and environmental hazards
posed by pollutants and contaminants are immense as
many pollution-related diseases continue to emerge.
Great losses in human and animal life and property have
continued. As the developed countries are engrossed in
these problems, it is unfortunate that the developing
countries are becoming equally affected because no articulated control programs exist to any extent.

Developing Countries
Information on environmental pollution situations of
developed countries such as the United States, Canada,
and parts of Europe abound in the hydrogeologic literature (20,58-65). Acid rain has obliterated many ancient forests, acidified both surface water and shallow
groundwaters, and defaced many buildings and monuments. Industrial wastes dumped as solids or discharged as liquids into surface waters have destroyed
the fauna and flora of these waters. Many landfills and
sewage lagoons dotted all over these industrialized nations have damaged the hydrogeologic environments.
Many medium-level and high-level wastes from nuclear
industries are stockpiled, waiting for safe disposal sites
yet to be located in any part of the world. These pollutant/contaminant materials and their attendant problems have devoured huge funds for research and control
activities. -Despite the available manpower and expertise and the adequate financial resources in these countries, minimal successes in combating pollution have
been achieved, so pollution threats so far seem to have
defied man's efforts.
The fate of developed countries magnifies the helplessness of some developing countries that have now
exposed parts of their hydrogeologic environments to
pollution. Many of these countries in their race to become industrialized have accumulated waste products
that now pollute the environment. Many of these countries have copied the developed countries in their science and technology, packaged and acquired the resulting technological outputs, and transplanted them
into their countries without the necessary checks and
balances such as an appropriate adaptation to the needs
of their environments. These countries produce huge
volumes of pollutants and contaminants from industries
and urban centers and dispose of them into surface
waters or dump them at the outskirts of their cities.
They do not have enough pollution management experts
and the necessary finances to control the spread of pollutants. Outbreaks of diseases that are pollution based
occur from time to time. It is strongly believed that
unless these developing countries do something to stop
the present pollution trends that are fast growing, many
of their environments shall be worse off than those now
prevalent in parts of the developed world. Already some
countries are closely approaching this stage.

59

The specter of widescale pollution of environments of

developing countries is becoming more threatening for
many other reasons. More and more urban, suburban,
and rural communities are being polluted or exposed to
pollution. Few of these countries have plans or management programs to combat pollution. Pollution problems are thus tolerated and given no priority. There is
little or no public or government awareness because the
dangers seem to be ignored or overlooked. There are
no Environmental Protection Laws and where available, they are rarely enforced. When these poor countries soon reach the level of pollutant/contaminant generation as the rich industrialized countries, they shall
be much worse off. Already various health hazards and
polluted waters with waterborne diseases and epidemics ravage these countries from time to time. Even
though it is known that many of these pollutants are
produced through industrialization and urbanization activities, governments, groups, and individuals have not
been doing anything to control their emission or production. Even in rural environments where agricultural, mining, and urbanizing programs continue to generate pollutants and contaminants, no one seems to
show much concern.
Some developed countries, as a result of their stiff
Environmental Protection Laws, indirectly encourage
the export of waste products. This practice is either
carried out directly because these materials cannot be
disposed of economically or safely in their home countries or indirectly through establishment of industries
in developing countries. These industries produce hazardous wastes that are carelessly dumped or discharged. Such exported industries lack adequate safety
devices and efficient monitoring systems. Finally, in the
drinking water supply program, emphasis is placed only
on water quantity and little or none on quality. Because
of this emphasis water potability is questionable most
of the time. Typical pollution case examples from some
developing countries shall be given below to provide
more credence to these unfortunate observations.

Environmental/Health Hazards and

Implications
Various environmental problems can arise as a result
of groundwater pollution. A major consequence of
groundwater pollution includes the potential contamination of surface waters. This can happen if the rivers,
streams, or lakes in the area are recharged by a polluted
aquifer. The converse becomes the case if contaminated
surface waters recharge an aquifer. These cases are
illustrated in Figures 17a and 17b, respectively. Water
pollution can result in a reduction in economic and agricultural activities. For example, when surface waters
are contaminated, they can result in higher fish mortality. In third world countries, in particular, where
fishing on a subsistence level provides a means of livelihood, a significant drop in fish productivity due to pollution can have unpleasant consequences on the eco-

60

EGBOKA ET AL.

Water Table
Aquifer
Confining Layer

FIGURE 17. A schematic diagram showing the potential for contamination of (a) surface waters when an aquifer is polluted and (b)
contamination of groundwaters when surface waters are polluted.

nomic life of the community. Polluted irrigation water

health risks. It can also result in reduced crop
productivity. Thus, water pollution can have serious
negative effects on the agricultural sector too.
Other environmental hazards arising from water pollution include the presence of odor and color in the affected water. Pollution of surface waters (lakes, dams,
rivers) may affect groundwater adversely. Water supplies are contaminated resulting in health risks and increased load on water treatment plants; increased costs
on water treatment plants; fish kills or decline in productivity, quality and quantity; polluted irrigation
water, posing health risks or inhibiting crop productivity; degradation of recreational and aesthetic characteristics of waters; etc. (1). Sometimes poisonous ions,
dissolved gases, trace elements, heavy metals, and radioactive materials in water endanger the biospheric
parts of the environments. Hence waterborne diseases
are of epidemic occurrence in many developing countries
where they form debilitating scourges to humans. Also
major physiological ailments such as cancer, that may
sometimes be caused by water or food have become
rampant in both developed and developing countries.
Many surface water and groundwater bodies are dead
and remain anoxic as a result of heavy inputs of pollutants and contaminants. Many pollutants from one
source can move for long distances through groundwater flow systems to polluted faraway areas, precipitating large-scale environmental destruction. Some
high-level wastes have pollutants and contaminants
poses

with long half-lives. Because of this property, they remain hazardous for long times within the hydrogeologic
environment and are very difficult to remove.
In the hydrogeomicrobiologic literature, cases of microbial pollution and hazards abound that are a threat
to both surface water and groundwater systems. Under
certain circumstances, the pathogenic microorganisms
listed in Table 3 escape the purification processes accompanying percolation of polluted surface waters into
groundwaters where they constitute a dangerous health
hazard. Salmonellosis, bacillary dysentery, schistosomiasis, helminthiasis, and viral infections are known to
have been transmitted through drinking groundwaters
polluted by surface waters and sewage in this way (66).
Public interest in nitrogen oxides arises from the toxic
effects of nitrite when nitrite ions enter the blood
stream and react with hemoglobin, leading to an impairment of oxygen transport, particularly in infants.
The disease is almost always attributable to high levels
of nitrates in drinking water supplies including polluted
groundwaters (23,31,35). Under certain conditions nitrate may be reduced to ammonia by some of the nitrate
reducers. The ammonia can react with chlorine to produce chloramines, which can lead to undesirable tastes
and odors. The presence of sulfides produced by sulfates
reducers in groundwaters also impart unacceptable
tastes and odors. Iron bacteria have caused problems
in water supplies since the dawn of civilization, and
there are many references in history to "red" water,
undrinkable water covered with slime, and plugged
wells (67).
In wells and boreholes, the major problems are a)
growths that plug the screens; b) coatings on piping
systems, impellers and motors, that reduce flow rates;
c) reduced potability of water; and d) total plugging of
the well. The iron and manganese bacteria that cause
these problems are thought to be introduced into the
wells and boreholes from their soil habitat during initial
boring operations or by seepage into the aquifer feeding
the well (68).
Groundwaters drawn from wells and boreholes constitute a major source of water supply in many African
countries including Nigeria. In these circumstances, the
water is usually untreated. The inadequate practices of
waste disposal in these countries lend themselves as
being a large source of pollution for groundwaters.
In Nigeria, feces are disposed of by one or more of
the following ways, depending on the locality: disposal
on ordinary dry ground, bucket latrines, the pit-latrine
or pit-privy, and septic tank latrine (aqua privy). Domestic and industrial wastes are disposed of either by
composting, sewage, or open drainage systems (66). The
content of these waste products are usually organic and
inorganic matter as well as microorganisms, some of
which are pathogenic. Some of the wastes in refuse tips
are washed into surface waters leading to eutrophication. In most circumstances in Nigeria, parts of Lagos,
Ibadan, Benin, Enugu, Onitsha, Kaduna, Kano, Jos,
Abakaliki, etc., adequate hydrological data are not
sought on soil strata and the direction and rate of flow

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

of groundwaters before wells are sunk (37). The result

is that sometimes wells are sunk less than 5 m away
from obvious sources of pollution like pit latrines (69,70).
Worse still, the wells are usually not lined at all, with
the result that the groundwaters easily get contaminated by seepage from pollute surface waters.
Cases of guinea worm infestation in parts of Ilorin
and Abakaliki have continually been linked to the drinking of groundwaters contaminated by heavily polluted
surface waters. The outbreak of cholera in Ohaozara
area of Nigeria in 1981-1984 was also linked to poorly
sited wells in the area (25). It is obvious that, if systematically investigated, most outbreaks of waterborne
diseases could be linked to pollution of groundwaters
from surface waters, septic tanks, pit latrines, and compost heaps. It is in recognition of this danger that the
Federal and State governments of Nigeria as well as
many international organizations like the WHO and
UNICEF are currently tackling health problems in Nigeria by the provision of properly sited boreholes in all
the rural communities.
In 1977 the Food and Drug Administration Unit of
the Federal Ministry of Health in Kaduna Nigeria (25)
reported a widespread occurrence of iron bacteria in up
to 60% of the boreholes in the Funtua, Bida, Malumfashi, Dutsi-ma, Daura, Katsina, and Kano areas (23).
Except in the Kano areas, the genera of iron bacteria
encountered were Siderocapse and Siderococcus. These
microbial pollutants have caused many groundwater
supplies problems, resulting in loss of well yields, water
contamination, and increased costs of water supplies.
These problems are worsened by the absence of continuous monitoring programs.
In the Kano area, the filamentous iron bacteria Leptothrix and Crenothrix were found abundantly in nearly
all the boreholes in the Bompai area, on the outskirts
of Kano municipality. The pollution was traced to the
myriad of refuse tips made up of the waste products
from the sugar, sweets, and biscuit factories in Kano.
The global distribution of iron bacterial problems in
groundwater was reported by Cullimore and McCann
(67). Among the developing countries included in the
draft are El Salvador, Guyana, India, Malaya, Nigeria,
Singapore, and Sri Lanka. Crenothrix was found to be
plugging water supply systems in Sri Lanka; Clonothrix
reduced flow rates and potability of water in the Calcutta area of India. In all others, the offensive iron
bacteria were not specified, but the damage they caused
was observed.
The industrialized world has accumulated great
amounts of pollutants and contaminants within their
environments. Many of these pollutants have spread
widely and in such a complex manner that their control
will be a most difficult and costly venture. Many wastes
are now piled up in storage tanks above and below the
ground surface, while painstaking research efforts are
being made to scout out possible safe geologic environments for their disposal. Unfortunately, so far, as a
result of the structural, stratigraphic, sedimentological,
and geotechnical properties of the pedologic and geo-

61

logic units, no safe disposal environments have yet been

found for waste products that have long half-lives. It
seems that until a safe and more reliable disposal
method is found, both the developed and developing
countries, have no option but to reduce the volume of
wastes both societies are now generating and abandoning or storing within hydrogeologic environments.

Pollution Case Examples from

Some Developing Countries
Parts of urban and rural environments of many developing countries such as India, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, Egypt, Iraq, and Brazil are being polluted with a
wide variety of hazardous substances. Such countries
are struggling to become industrialized without adequate plans to contain the spread and hazards of pollution. There are many sources of pollution in developing countries. Some of those related to mining,
mineralization, agricultural, domestic, municipal, human, and animal wastes shall be discussed. Typical case
examples shall also be briefly described, and these shall
be generally related and at some instances specific to
some developing countries that are now industrializing
at a rapid rate.

Mining Pollution
Contamination of groundwater due to mining activity
is a major problem in many developing countries. Previous or present mining activities result in contamination from waste dumps, mine workings, fragments, and
dust from ore and rock piles and smelter operations.
Sulfides (usually pyrite, galena, and sphalerite) in mine
dumps are especially susceptible to oxidation and produce acid mine waters that can be leached out in varying
volumes and amounts. The ore minerals are not completely recovered during the beneficiation processes.
The acid mine waters that also contain trace metals
make their way into groundwater flow systems.
Acid mine waters from an abandoned mine in the
Charcas District, San Luis Potosi, resulted in high metal
values in drainage systems and groundwaters (71). The
acid mine drainage problems in Enugu coal mines of
Nigeria and their effects on groundwater pollution were
highlighted by Egboka and Uma (21). Many coal beds
may contain up to 10% sulfur, chiefly in the form of
pyrite and marcasite. As the coal deposit is worked, air
and water gain access to the seams that contain sulfur
minerals, oxidizing the sulfide minerals. This results in
the formation of enormous amounts of sulfuric acid.
Groundwater recharged by water from the mine needs
considerable treatment with lime before it can be used
to supply domestic homes and industries. In the acid
mine drainage problems in the Enugu coal mines of
Nigeria, about 18.1 million liters of acid water with high
iron content is pumped out daily into nearby rivers.
Some of this acid water eventually enters groundwater
flow systems. The acid waters also attack and corrode
mining equipment causing great financial losses. Some

62

EGBOKA ET AL.

mine waters are colored brown by tannins from bark of

trees. They have an objectionable taste and they render
the water unfit for drinking. Sometimes the waters actually are sterile enough for use even though they are
colored and may have a bad taste. Phenols are abundant
in waters in coal swamps. Phenols are poisonous to
many bacteria and are capable of making mine waters
sterile if they are present in large quantities.
In most developing countries there is no legislation
guiding the safe disposal of mine wastes and mine dumps
or their proper management. Most of the mining companies involved are mostly foreign firms. The companies
do not show much interest in tackling environmental
pollution problems associated with the mining wastes
they produce annually. Little or no money is spent on
wastes research and management in many parts of Nigeria and other countries. The uneducated rural people
often use polluted waters discharged from mines. Many
people from Abakaliki Mining district of Anambra
State, Nigeria, suffer from lead poisoning resulting
from the contamination of their water sources by lead.
The area is also ravaged by guinea worm and other
waterborne diseases.

Domestic, Municipal, Human, and Animal

Waste Contamination
Domestic wastes contribute a large number of elements to groundwater systems, all with unpleasant
ramifications. The most common contaminants from
household products include phosphates and boron in
laundry detergents, copper and other elements as organometallic compounds in garbage; metals in urine and
excreta; copper, lead, zinc, and asbestos from pipes;
nickel from stainless-steel pipes and well casings. Municipalities that treat sewage and garbage reduce metal
concentration in drinking waters, but the recent tendency to dispose of the treated material on land eventually yields metals to the drainage basin. Such metals
may eventually reach the surface water and groundwater flow systems and pollute them. Similarly, metals
are introduced into the hydrogeologic environment from
the resultant ashes when garbage or solid wastes are
composted as is commonly done in developing countries.
The tremendous increase in the use of septic tanks
for home sewage disposal has contributed a great deal
of dissolved polluting materials to groundwater (Fig. 8).
The septic tank waters seep into the soil and where
water supply aquifers are shallow, will contaminate
groundwater with phosphate and boron from detergents
and a variety of other substances such as nitrates that
are undesirable or harmful to health. In many rural
communities in developing countries shallow pit latrines
are used for disposal of human exereta. Other undesirable materials like expired drugs and unwanted chemicals are also dumped into pit latrines or shallow waterways. Human exereta collected in bucket toilets are also
emptied into the pit latrines. Water infiltration into the
ground through the pit latrines introduces a number of

undesirable compounds into groundwaters (18,69,

70,72).
In many cities all kinds of waste materials are strewn
about on the outskirts of towns or are thrown into
streams, lakes, and rivers as most of those cities originated and developed close to major rivers. Aerosol
cans, drug containers, hospitals, and research laboratories, washings or wastewaters that may contain heavy
metals such as mercury, lead, zinc, etc., may eventually
decay or spread and become transported into groundwater flow domains. Underground and surface storage
tanks, septic systems/fields, etc., washings from motor
mechanic sheds and garages produce contaminating
leachates (Fig. 7). These types of pollutants have threatened hydrogeologic systems in parts of Nigeria
(69,70,72). In some urban areas of developing countries
such as India in temperate climates, large quantities of
road salt (NaCl and CaCI) are used for deicing the road
in winter. Leachates from these activities will eventually contaminate aquifers. Egboka (15) briefly described
the traditional habit of using the bush for toilet purposes
in many rural areas and suburban centers. It is believed
that defecation of this type contributes to widespread
and prevalent waterborne diseases in such areas. It also
accelerates large-scale incidences of eutrophication in
lakes. Unfortunately, it is yet to be estimated the degree and extent of environmental pollution through defecation in the rural areas.

Agricultural Contamination
The use of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and
other materials to increase agricultural yields has some
great negative effects on groundwater quality. Pesticides and herbicides applied to fields or orchards may
find their way into groundwater when rain or irrigation
water leaches the dissolved constituents downward into
the soil. Nitrate from its fertilizer, one of the most
widely used agricultural fertilizers, is harmful in drinking waters even in relatively small quantities. The nitrate is very soluble and although some may be used by
plants, much of the dissolved nitrate escapes unused
into deeper parts of the soil and into groundwater. Sewage and fertilizer can increase nitrate levels in some
aquifers (4). Nitrate is toxic to humans even in amounts
as small as 10 to 15 ppm.
Uranium and fluorine in phosphate fertilizers and
probably rubidium in potash fertilizer are soluble under
most conditions and will eventually find their way into
the groundwater regimes. The use of lime for the production of fertilizer may result in lead and zinc contamination, if the lime is produced from metal-containing
limestones. Mississippi-type lead-zinc deposits are common in limestones. Some limestone deposit used for production of lime may contain appreciable quantities of
lead-zinc minerals.
In developing countries, the people and governments
place their priorities on food production in enough quantities to stem the tide of hunger and mass deprivation
and little or no consideration is given to the pollution

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

implications. The poor farmers, most of whom practice

subsistence agriculture, are highly encouraged to apply
fertilizer and use insecticides/herbicides for maximum
crop yields. The prices for these chemicals are very low
and affordable as the governments have subsidized the
costs. Thus, the chemicals may be used indiscriminately. A large amount is released to the environment
to pollute surface water and shallow groundwaters. This
practice is common in many developing countries.

Radioactive Contamination of
Groundwater
Another source of groundwater contamination is radioactive wastes from power plants and mine dumps.
One of the serious long-range problems associated with
the use of nuclear power plants is the disposal of highly
radioactive nuclear wastes. These highly toxic wastes
are by-products of nuclear power plants and the manufacture of nuclear weapons. These radioactive wastes
are temporarily stored as liquids in tanks. Despite the
fact that the waste must be isolated from humans and
other organisms for many centuries before it is safe, it
has not been possible to store the wastes for even a few
decades without mishap. Several thousand gallons of
waste do seep into groundwater from storage tanks before anyone realizes there is a leak. Radioactive materials in water even in very small amounts are harmful
to all forms of life. Some developing countries are believed to have nuclear power.
The problem of disposal of radioactive wastes is especially common in industrialized countries, but the disposal of radioactive wastes in uranium mines is a problem that occurs more in developing countries. Some
developing countries are producers of uranium and
other raw materials needed for nuclear power plants.
In most of these countries, there are no regulations
governing the disposal of mine wastes. They are
dumped around and abandoned by the operators in the
mine environment.
Uranium is usually present in the tetravalent state
(U4+). In this valence state, uranium is not soluble, and
is immobile. When exposed during mining and dumped
in mine waste, uranium is oxidized to the hexavalent
(U6+) state occurring as uranyl ion (UO"+). Uranium
then moves from an oxygen-rich surface environment,
in which uranium is in the hexavalent state or complexed with carbonate into the subsurface groundwater
environment. The problem of contamination of groundwater in uranium mining areas by uranium and its
daughter products in active and abandoned mines is as
serious as those associated with nuclear wastes. In nuclear power plants, adequate precautionary measures
are always taken in handling the radioactive wastes. In
uranium mining areas no such precautions are taken
and the danger of contamination of groundwater by radioactive materials leached from mine dumps is great.
The problem is most serious in those developing countries where the inhabitants of mining areas are not
aware of the problems. When it is realized that some

63

developing countries have nuclear capabilities and

hence are generating high-level radioactive wastes, it
becomes a matter of great concern to conjecture how
these wastes are being isolated from the biospheric environment. So far, it is a top secret matter and those
few developing countries that have nuclear capability
hardly provide any information to the public.

Pollution/Contamination from Natural

Sources
Pollution and contamination may come from natural
sources such as during physicochemical weathering and
mass wasting, soil and gully erosion, flooding, snowfall,
wind activities, and seawater intrusion through wave
action, volcanic or gas eruptions, geochemical evolution
through groundwater infiltration, and percolation. A
large quantity of pollutants and contaminants are released from these sources but it is very difficult to quantify and control release by natural processes. During
weathering, geologic units are corroded, weathered,
disintegrated, and disaggregated, thereby releasing
dissolved geochemical constituents into the hydrogeologic systems. During sediment transport and deposition, geochemical reactions (38,49) may result in the
release of more ions and dissolved gases that may become concentrated enough to be hazardous. In addition,
soil and gully erosion (16,17) may remove volumes of
sediments with potential pollutants and contaminants
that may threaten the environment. In some situations
deep gullying that intersects the watertable and shaley
terrains may result in hydrogeomicrobiological reactions that may release deleterious pollutants into
groundwater (17).
Snowmelt and rainfall and anthropogenic activities
such as farming, excavation, and mining accelerate the
transport of sediments and enhance their pollution potentials. Thus, in parts of the humid tropics, floodwaters
are densely brownish in color, reflecting high sediment
loads. Wind activities in areas at the fringes of deserts
also transport sediments that pollute the environment.
Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, Niger, and other countries that
are close to the Sahara Desert suffer from these problems. These types of pollutants are very serious, particularly in developing countries because there does not
exist any plan to combat them. Some of these countries
may not even recognize their existence or just ignore
them. Meanwhile the pollutants continue to ravage their
environments.

Case Examples: Review of Pollution/

Contamination in Some Developing
Countries
India has emerged as an industrial nation and a major
producer of manufactured and agricultural products
within the last 20 years. Because the population is large
and industrial activities are intense, large volumes of
gaseous, liquid, and solid wastes are continuously re-

EGBOKA ET AL.

64

leased into the environment. Surface waters and shallow and deep groundwaters have been polluted in urban
and rural areas (73-75). Neighboring countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh are equally polluted or threatened. The excessive withdrawal of groundwater in the
Saurashtra area of India has resulted in sea-water intrusion. Parts of the groundwater in Gujarat State are
mineralized and polluted by high temperature waters.
The groundwaters from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan, Mahakali coal field area of Maharashtra, and
the Panandhro lignite field pose geotechnical and pollution problems. Currently, as a result of tourist activities, many ancient forest lands, hills, valleys, and even
mountains are being strewn with garbage thrown away
by tourists thereby polluting the environments.
Kenya is a typical industrializing East African country producing varying degrees of pollution. Other neighboring countries of Uganda, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Malawi, and Botswana are not spared. In a water resources
quality survey by Nair et al. (76) from 1286 boreholes
from parts of Kenya, the majority of the samples
(61.4%) have fluoride values above 1.0 ppm while 19.5%
had above 5.0 ppm and sometimes in even greater
amounts (76). Table 7 lists the summary of maximum
fluoride levels taken from each province and in different
locations in Kenya. The high fluoride areas coincided
with volcanic rock areas. The high fluoride water caused
extensive public health hazards such as deformity in
children. In Malawi, localized pollution of groundwater
affects the quality adversely. Waters of up to 4000 to
7000 ,umhos/cm of electrical conductivity occur. High
sulfate iron and magnesium concentrations are common
(77). Foster et al. (78) reported serious nitrate and fecal
pollution of shallow groundwaters in parts of Botswana
through pit latrines.
Many hydrogeologic environments in Nigeria are polluted (10,15,18,19,22,69,70). Saline lakes and hot
springs occur (79,80). Coastal towns such as Lagos and
Port Harcourt suffer from saltwater intrusions from the
Atlantic ocean. Inland waters such as rivers (Kaduna,
Niger, Anambra) and lakes (Chad, Agulu) have received
pollutants in varying degrees. Industrial wastes are indiscriminately disposed of on land or into surface
waters. Sewage is similarly disposed of. Mineralized
waters attack and destroy borehole networks in the
Maiduguri areas of northern Nigeria. The rural comTable 7. Maximum fluoride concentrations in Kenyan water
samples taken from each province (76).
Province
Nairobi
Central
Coast
Eastern
Northeastern
Nyanza
Rift Valley
Western
Nationally

District

Nurang'a
Taita Taveta
Machakos

Wajir
Kisumu
Nakuru
Bungoma

Flouride concentration,
ppm
30.2
22.0
15.0
19.3
38.2
10.4
57.0
7.1
57.0

munities are equally not spared as present attempts to

develop rural areas have introduced many pollutants
and contaminants into the environment. Soil and gully
erosion and flooding have become rampant and pollute
surface waters and groundwater. Outbreaks of waterborne disease such as cholera, yellow fever, dysentery,
diarrhea, and Guineaworm occur periodically, resulting
in fatalities. Mining companies in Jos, Abakaliki, Enugu, Nkalagu, and the Port Harcourt areas pollute the
environments without restraint. Flaring of gases and
oil spills have contaminated surface waters and groundwaters (10). There is yet no effective legislation to check
these problems.
In a geochemical study of the Otamiri and Aba river
watershed in southeastern Nigeria by Nwankwor and
Okpala (81), nitrate concentrations in the order of 100
mg/L were found in the groundwater and surface water
systems of the Otamiri watershed. Nitrate loading of
the waters in the Otamiri watershed were attributed to
intensive use of fertilizer by various government-sponsored agricultural establishments in the basin. Results
from the Aba River, which drains the largely industrial
city of Aba, showed abnormally high concentrations of
Co + and gave values for pH that varied between 4.0
and 6.5 (81).
Egypt and the neighboring countries of Sudan and
Libya have polluted surface waters and groundwaters.
Primary sources of pollution are industrial/sewage
wastes, agricultural/irrigation activities, and salinization processes. Volumes of waste products are drained
into the River Nile and eventually into the sea through
a complex network of canals. Some of the irrigation
waters react with soil water/groundwater and with soil
materials dissolving the soluble salts, salinizing the soil,
and increasing the salt concentration in irrigation canals
and groundwaters (82).
Alexandria, with a population of about 3 million people, is the main industrial center and is burdened with
pollutants and contaminants from many sources. Parts
of Meryut Lake have been destroyed by sewage,
thereby contaminating fish. According to Preul (82),
groundwater levels in lower Egypt rose considerably
with the building of the Aswan dam in 1965. The regional rise in water levels of shallow aquifers compounded the problems of pollution spread through subsurface disposal of wastewaters and irrigation water.
Villages "are experiencing considerable difficulties with
wastewater disposal due to subsurface saturation, high
groundwater, emerging surface pools of septic waters,
gross groundwater pollution, deterioration of buildings
and structures due to moisture absorption, and other
related problems. A further complication in certain
areas is the existence of a large irrigation canal which
usually carries a level of flow above the general elevation of the village and therefore creates a hydraulic
gradient of seepage through the dykes towards the village" (82).
Even though the government of Egypt has environmental protection laws, their enforcement, particularly
in the rural areas, needs to be encouraged. These rural

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

communities continue to be exposed to increasing soil,

surface water and groundwater pollution.
Al-Jabari and Al-Ansari (83) described the dissolution
of geological outcrops and soils in Iraq. These are rich
with calcium carbonate and gypsiferous deposits. Water
inputs from flood plains and valleys with organic matter
contents reaching up to 20%, high suspended sediments,
inputs from springs (Table 8), and human activities pollute the environment. Their pollution potentials are enhanced by erosion. Tremendous amounts of dust generate fallouts from sediments in central Iraq at the rate
of 2.1 cm/yr (83-85). The sediments contain pollutants
and contaminants in the form of carbonates (calcite,
dolomite grains) quartz, feldspars, gypsum, chert, muscovite, heavy minerals (pyroxenes, zircon, biotite, hornblende, epidote, rutile, garnet, chlorite, staurolite and
Kyanite), and pyrites (83-85). The heavy minerals assemblage in the outfalls have been correlated with the
heavy mineral content of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flood plains and older dune deposits (Table 8). Salman et al. (84), in their investigation of bacterial density
in Tigris River within Bagdad, measured a high density
of coliform bacteria and Escherchia coli, suggestive of
fecal pollution from sewage disposal. The bacterial density correlated well with high suspended sediment
loads, which are believed to transport the bacteria in
water. The high sediment concentration is accelerated
by anthropogenic activities such as dredging, swimming, and solid/liquid disposal on land and water.
Pollution of surface water and groundwater in the
developing countries of South America have also been
reported. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Nicaragua,
etc., have been equally exposed. Brinkman (86) discussed the hydrogeochemistry of groundwater resources in the central Amazonian area of Brazil. Ducloux
(87) also treated the central zone of La Pampa Province
of Argentina. Other countries in Africa such as Ghana,
Zaire, Sudan, Mauritania, Ivory Coast, etc., have been
unduly exposed to the destructive hazards of environmental pollution (88,89).

Summary and Suggestions

According to Fano et al. (1), "it may be expected that
over the next decade the management of water quality
Table 8. Water discharge and solute concentration of springs on
River Euphrates (83).

Spring no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Average discharge,
L/sec
24
3700
4
100
26
360

100
4
29

Average TDS,
ppm
3110
3272
3378
3927
3002
3880
27910
3662
3445
3662
2690
3080

65

problems will be one of the outstanding issues relating

to the protection and conservation of the national stock
of water in each country ... The rapid aggregation of
population in major urban centers, the polarization of
industries, and the heavy dependence of chemical products, particularly in the agricultural sector, are leading
to a serious deterioration of water quality in developing
countries." Already parts of the environments of many
industrialized nations are highly polluted. The problems
are being tackled with available manpower, expertise,
and financial resources in these countries. Encouraging
successes are yet to be achieved, as the pollutants continue to diffuse and disperse into the hydrogeologic environment, and several tons of high-level wastes are
piling up in storage tanks while desperate efforts are
being made to locate geologic formations for safe waste
disposal.
Unfortunately, in an obvious attempt by many developing countries to industrialize and compete with the
developed nations, waste products are being generated
in large quantities. These countries have neither the
manpower, expertise, nor the financial resources to control or safely dispose of these deleterious wastes. As a
result, their environments are becoming heavily polluted at an alarming rate. The leadership of these countries seem to lack the will or the serious understanding
to recognize and mount a control program. Because of
this, pollution continues to spread unabated with its
attendant hazards and problems. In the next 10 years,
unless something is done quickly, pollution levels in
many developing countries' hydrogeologic environments would have reached such destructive levels that
they may become uncontrollable. Destruction of plants,
animals, and humans through pollution-caused epidemics/diseases would have become commonplace as requisite funds and materials for their control may not be
available.
Developing countries must now learn from the mistakes of the developed nations vis-a-vis pollutants and
contaminants, to save their environments from pollution
damages for future generations. Some of the following
pollution-control programs being pursued or implemented in many industrialized countries should be of
worldwide application. The present consciousness about
the hazards of pollutants and contaminants in developed
nations must be highly encouraged. Every effort must
be made to reduce pollutant/contaminant loads into the
environment through improvements in manufacturing
techniques that could recycle waste products. More efficient techniques for the destruction of high-level pollutants and contaminants before they can reach the hydrospheric zones should be found through more
research. Through more intense investigations, safe pedologic, and geologic formations for disposal of wastes
can be located. The present careless dumping of wastes
into surface waters or the poorly engineered subsurface
burial of wastes must be stopped. These practices have
damaged many hydrogeologic environments as these
materials spread locally and regionally. The effects of
geologic and pedologic structures and characteristics on

66

EGBOKA ET AL.

the dispersion of pollution must be recognized in order

to be able to apply the correct engineered control methods.
At the moment, there is a loose/poorly coordinated,
nonintegrated approach in the control of pollutants and
contaminants by various professionals involved in pollution research and control. Hydrogeologists, chemical
engineers, civil engineers, soil scientists, etc., do not
seem to work together. The multidisciplinary and multiobjective techniques are not appreciated by pollution
control planners and managers, particularly in developing countries. This unfortunate behavioral tendency
may result from poor training or professional pride and
hence must be discarded. Professionals working in pollution control must appreciate the contributions of others to maximize their successes. This could be achieved
by proper training through improved curricula in higher
education that exposes all trainees to the origin, life,
spread, and hazards of pollution in the environment and
the need to develop appropriate coordinated integrated
control methods. Seminars, workshops, symposia, and
short courses should be organized to educate all professionals, planners, and managers of pollution problems.
Countries and international aid agencies should give
these the desired priority.
The developed countries should assist developing
ones in controlling pollution. Manpower, expertise, and
some financial resources should be made available to
these poor countries to aid them in planning and management of waste disposal programs. Industrial concerns in developing countries must now discard their
polluting tendencies in many developing countries and
cooperate in pollution control. Most of their industrial
activities exacerbate incidences of pollution. Environmental Pollution Control laws must be enacted by developing countries to protect their environments. Such
laws, when made, must also be effectively enforced.
Egypt has established such laws and has been fairly
successful in enforcing them and achieving beneficial
results (1). Strong emphasis should be placed on public
health and education programs and enlightenment.
Even though pollution is becoming widespread in developing countries, there is still a paucity of data and
records, poor documentation and information exchanges. Research centers and institutes devoted primarily to teaching and research on pollutants and contaminants are still not given any priority. Such
institutions should be established urgently to work on
the various aspects of pollution with particular emphasis
on its genesis, spread, hazards, and control in relation
to the geologic, hydrologic and hydrogeopollution cycles
(Figs. 1, 4, and 5) (91).
Coordinated sampling and monitoring programs are
required by zones, nations, and regions to check widespread/regional pollution. Hence, local, international,
and regional pollution events should be traced and monitored on a continuous basis and warning signals against
hazards issued to areas affected. Information exchanges
should be encouraged between nations, among experts/
professionals, governments, and aid-giving agencies.

Research programs in both developed and developing

countries must give attention to sources and types of
pollution, modes of occurrence and spread, dynamics of
transport and dispersion, pollutants-life-expectancy,
and means of disposal of wastes. Development of effective control technology should be continuously and adequately funded.
The authors are grateful to The Anambra State University of Technology, Nigeria and Federal University of Technology, Owerri, for
their moral and financial support; Dr. K. 0. Uma, Dr. I. C. I. Okafor,
and G. Onwuemesi for their various contributions; C. Nwokolo, Emeritus Professor of Internal Medicine, University of Nigeria Teaching
Hospital, Enugu, Nigeria, for his fatherly and academic encouragements; and Bessie Nri for typing the manuscript.

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