Unit-5

Sampling

Definitions
Population: The group of individuals, under study is called is called
population.
Sample: A finite subset of statistical individuals in a population is called
Sample.
Sample size: The number of individuals in a sample is called the Sample size.
Parameters and Statistics: The statistical constants of the population are
referred as Parameters and the statistical constants of the Sample are referred
as Statistics.
Standard Error : The standard deviation of sampling distribution of a statistic
is known as its standard error and is denoted by (S.E)
Test of Significance : It enable us to decide on the basis of the sample results
if the deviation between the observed sample statistic and the hypothetical
parameter value is significant or the deviation between two sample statistics is
significant.
Null Hypothesis: A definite statement about the population parameter which is
usually a hypothesis of no-difference and is denoted by Ho.
Alternative Hypothesis: Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null
hypothesis is called an Alternative Hypothesis and is denoted by H1.
Errors in Sampling:
Type I and Ttype II errors.
Type I error : Rejection of H0 when it is true.
Type II error : Acceptance of H0 when it is false.
Two types of errors occurs in practice when we decide to accept or reject a lot
after examining a sample from it. They are Type 1 error occurs while rejecting
Ho when it is true. Type 2 error occurs while accepting Ho when it is wrong.
Critical region: A region corresponding to a statistic t in the sample space S
which lead to the rejection of Ho is called Critical region or Rejection region.
Those regions which lead to the acceptance of Ho are called Acceptance Region.

nCr = n! / (n-r)! (r)!

Level of Significance : The probability that a random value of the statistic
t belongs to the critical region is known as the level of significance. In
otherwords the level of significance is the size of the type I error. The levels of
significance usually employed in testing of hypothesis are 5% and 1%.
One tail and two tailed test:
A test of any statistical hyposthesis where the alternate hypothesis is one
tailed(right tailed/ left tailed) is called one tailed test.
For the null hypothesis H0 if = 0 then.
H1 = > 0 (Right tail)
H1 = < 0 (Left tail)
H1 = # 0 (Two tail test)
Types of samples : Small sample and Large sample
Small sample (n<30 ) : Students t test, F test , Chi Square test
Large sample (n>30) : Z test.
Student t test for single mean

t = ( x - ) / (s/n-1)
1. Write down 95 % confidence limit for the population mean in a small test.
Let x be the sample mean and n be the sample size. Let s be the sample S.D.
Then x t (s/n-1)
2. Define student t test for difference of means of two samples.
To test the significant difference between two mea n
n1 and n2 use the statistic.

and

of sample sizes

t = ( x 1 x 2 ) / s ((1/n1) + (1/n2))
where s2 = n1s12 + n2s22/n1 + n2 2.
s1 and s2 being the sample standard deviations degree of freedom being

n1 + n2- 2.
3. State the application of t distribution?
When the size of the sample is less than 30, t test is used in (a) single mean
and (b) difference of two means.

4. What is null hypothesis?

For applying the test of significance, we first set up a hypothesis a definite
statement about the population parameter. Such a hypothesis is called null
hypothesis H0.
5. Distinguish between parameters and statistics.
Statistical constant of the population are usually referred to as parameters.
Statistical measures computed from sample observations alone are usually
referred to as statistic.
In practice, parameters value are not known and their estimates based
6. Give the statistic for testing the significance of mean in small samples.

T = X - / s n 1
7. How is the number of degrees of freedom of chi-square distribution fixed for
testing the goodness of fit of a poisson distribution for the given data.Degree of
freedom = n 1 where n is the no. of observations.
8. Write short notes on critical value.
The critical or rejection region is the region which corresponds to a
predetermined level of significance . Whenever the sample statistic falls in the
critical region we reject the null hypothesis as it will be considered to be
probably false. The value that separates the rejection region from the
acceptance region is called the critical value.
9. Define level of significance explain.
The probability that a random value of the statistic t belongs to the critical
region is known as the level of significance. In other words level of significance

is the size of type I error. The levels of significance usually employed in testing
of hypothesis are 5% and 1%.
10. Outline the assumptions made when the t test us applied for difference of
means.
(i) Degrees of freedom is n1 + n2 2.
(ii) The two population variances are believed to be equal.
(iii)
S = (n1s12 + n2 s22) / (n1 + n2 2) is the standard error.

Problems :
1. A machinist is making engine parts with axle of diameters of 0.700 inch.
A random sample of 10 parts shows a mean diameter of 0.742 inch with
a Sd of 0.040 inches. Computer the statistic you would use to test
whether the work is meeting the specification
Solution: Calculated t value = 3.15 and Tabulated Value
5% level of signicance with 9 degrees of freedom)

= 2.26( at

Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho(Null hypothesis)

2. The mean weakly sales of soap bars in departmental stores was 146.3
bars per store. After an advertising campaign the mean weekly sales in
22 stores for a typical week increased to 153.7 and showed a SD of 17.2 .
Was the advertising campaign successful?
Solution: Calculated t value = 1.97 and Tabulated Value
= 1.72( at 5%
level of signicance with 21 degrees of freedom) Calculated value > Tabulated
value, Reject Ho(Null hypothesis)
3.

A sample of 26 bulbs gives a

mean life of 990 hours with SD of
20 hours. The manufacturer

claims that the mean life of bulbs

is 1000 hours. Is the sample not
upto the standard.
Solution: Calculated t value

= 2.5 , Tabulated Value

= 1.708( at 5%

level of signicance with 25 degrees of freedom)Calculated value > Tabulated

value, Reject Ho(Null hypothesis)
4. A machine is designed to produce insulating washers for electrical
devices f average thickness f 0.025cm. A random sample of 10 washers
was found to have a thickness of 0.024 cm with a sd of 0.002 cm. Test
the significance of deviation(CV=1.5,TV=2.262 at 5% 9 df/accept H0)
5. The mean life time of sample of 25 bulbs produced bya company is
computed bo be 1570 hours with a SD of 120 hours. The company
claims that the average life of the bulbs produced by the company is
1600 hours. Using the level of significance of 5% is the claim acceptable.
(1.22,2.06/ accepted)
6. The average breaking strength of steel rod is specified to be 18.5
thousand pounds. To test this a sample of 14 rods was tested. The mean
and SD obtained were 17.85 and 1.955 respectively. Is the result of the
experiment significant?
Solution: Calculated t value = 1.99,Tabulated Value
= 2.16( at 5% level
of signicance with 13 degrees of freedom)Calculated value < Tabulated value,
Accept Ho(Null hypothesis)
7. Find the confidence limits of the mean of the population for a random
sample of size 16 from a normal population with mean 53 and SD 10
with t value at 5% for 15 Degrees of freedom is 2.13. Solution (54.68 ,
51.31)
8.

A random sample of size 16 values

from a normal population is showed a

mean of 53 and a sum of squares of

the deviations from the mean equals
to 150. Can this sample be regarded
to be from the population having 56
as a the mean, obtain 95% confidence
limits for the mean of the population
Students t test where SD of the sample is not given directly)
1. A random sample of 10 boys had the following IQs
70,120,110,101,88,83,95,98,107,100. Do these data support the
assumption of a population mean IQ of 100? Find the reasonable range in
which most of the mean IQ values of samples of 10 boys lie?
Solution: Calculated t value = 0.62, Tabulated Value
= 2.26( at 5% level
of significance with 9 degrees of freedom) Calculated value < Tabulated
value, Accept Ho(Null hypothesis);95% confidence limits : (86.99,107.4)
2. The heights of 10 males of a given locality are found to be
70,67,62,68,61,68,70,64,64,66 inches. Is it reasonable to believe that the
average height is greater than 64 inches Test at 5%.
Solution: Calculated t value = 2, Tabulated Value
= 1.833( at 5% level of
significance with 9 degrees of freedom) Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)
3. Certain pesticide is packed into bags by a machine. A random sample of
10 bags is drawn and their contents are found to be as follows:
50,49,52,44,45,48,46,45,49,45. Test if the average packing to be taken 50
grams
Solution: Calculated t value = 3.19,Tabulated Value
= 2.262 ( at 5% level
of significance with 9 degrees of freedom) , Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)

Students t test for difference of

means

1.

Samples of two types of electric

light bulbs were tested for length of
life and following data were obtained.
Type I
Type II
Sample size
n2 = 7

n1 = 8

Sample means x1 = 1234 hrs

x2 = 1036 hrs
Sample S.D.
s2 = 40 hrs

s1 = 36 hrs

Is the difference in the means

sufficient to warrant that type I is
superior to type II regarding length
of life.
Solution: Calculated t value = 9.39, Tabulated Value
= 1.77 ( at 5% level
of significance with 13 degrees of freedom)Calculated value > Tabulated
value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)

2. The average number of

articles produced by two
machines per day are
200 and 250 with SD 20
and 25 on the basis of
records of 25 days
production.
Can u
regard
both
the
machines are equally
efficient at 1% level of
significance.
( 7.65, 2.58 for 48 df/rejected)

3.

Below are given the gain in

weights (in N) of pigs fed on two
diets A and B.

iet 25 32 30 34 24 14 32 24 30 31 35 25

iet 44 34 22 10 47 31 40 32 35 18 21 35 29 22

Test if the two diets differ significantly

as regards their effect on increase in
weight.
Solution: Calculated t value = 0.609,Tabulated Value
= 2.06 ( at 5% level
of significance with 25 degrees of freedom) Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)

4.The

nicotine content in milligrams of

two samples of tobacco were found to
be as follows:
Sample 24
A

27

26

21

25

Sample 27
B

30

28

31

22

36

Can it be said that two samples come

from normal populations having the
same mean.

Solution: Calculated t value = 1.92,Tabulated Value

= 2.262 ( at 5% level
of significance with 9 degrees of freedom), Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)

The means of two random

samples of sizes 9 and 7 are
given as 196.42 and 198.82.
The sum of the squares of the
deviations from mean are 26.94
and 18.73 respectively. Can the
sample be considered to have
been drawn from the same
normal population.
5.

Solution: Calculated t value = 2.63, Tabulated Value

= 2.15 ( at 5% level
of significance with 14 degrees of freedom) Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)
F test
1. Write the applications of F-test.
To test whether if there is any significant difference between two estimates of
population variance. To test if the two samples have come from the same
population we use f test.
2. What is the use of f distribution.
To test whether there is any significant difference between two estimates
of population variance. To test if the two samples have come from the
same population.

To test if the two samples have come from same population we use F test
(OR) To test if there is any significant difference between two estimates of
population variance.
F = S12/ S22 Where S12 = (x- x )2/ n1-1 ; S22 = (ythe first sample size and n2 is the second sample size

y )2/

n2-1;Where n1 is

Problems

1. In one sample of 8 observations the sum of

the squares of deviations of the sample values
from the sample mean was 84.4 and in the
other sample of 10 observation it was 102. 6.
Test whether this difference is significant at 5
% level.
Solution: Calculated F value

= 1.057,Tabulated Value

3.29 ( at 5% level of sign

significance with (7,9) degrees of freedom);calculated value < Tabulated
value, Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)
2.

Two random samples gave the following results.

Sample

Size

Sample mean

Sum of squares of
deviations from the
mean

10

15

90

12

14

108

Test whether the samples come from the same normal

population.(use t and F test)(T test values 0.74,2.086 at
20df accept)) Solution: Calculated F value
= 1.018,
Tabulated Value
= 2.9 ( at 5% level of significance with
(9,11) degrees of freedom)Calculated value < Tabulated
value, Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)

3. The time taken by workers in performing a

job by method I and method II is given below.
Method 20
I

16

26

27

23

22

Method 27
II

33

42

35

32

34

38

Do the data show that the variances of time

distribution from population from which
these samples are drawn do not differ
significantly?

Solution: Calculated F value = 1.37,Tabulated Value

= 4.95 ( at 5% level

of significance with (6,5) degrees of freedom),Calculated value < Tabulated

value, Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)

The nicotine content in milligrams of two

samples of tobacco were found to be as follows:
4.

Sample 24
A

27

26

21

25

Sample 27
B

30

28

31

22

36

Can it be said that two samples come from

normal populations having the same mean.
Solution: Calculated F value =4.07, Tabulated Value
= 6.26 ( at 5% level
of significance with (5,4) degrees of freedom),Calculated value < Tabulated
value, Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)

Pumpkins
were
grown
under
experimental conditions. Two random
5.

two

samples of 11 and 9 show the sample

standard deviations of their weights as 0.8
and 0.5 Assuming that the weight s
distributions are normal test the hypothesis
that the true variances are equal. ( 2.5,(10,8)
df at 5% is 3.35 / accepted)

6.Two horses A and B were tested according to

the time to run a particular tract Test if the 2
horses have the same running capacity.
HORSE 28
A

30

32

33

33

29

34

Horse
B

30

30

24

27

29

---

29

(CV= 1.02,TV=4.39 at (5,6 df) at 5%) Accept

CHI-SQUARE TEST
1. Define Chi square test of goodness of fit.
Under the test of goodness of fit we try to find out how far observed
values of a given phenomenon are significantly different from the
expected values. The Chi square statistic can be used to judge the
difference between the observed and expected frequencies.
2. Give the main use of Chi-square test.
To test the significance of discrepancy between experimental values and
the theoretical values, obtained under some theory or hypothesis.
3. Write the condition for the application of 2 test.
2 test can be applied only for small samples.
CHI-SQUARE TEST FORMULAE

(O E ) 2
E
Where o is the observed frequency and E is the Expected

2 =
frequency

CHI-SQUARE TEST FOR INDEPENDENCE OF ATTRIBUTES

An attribute means a quality or characteristic. Eg. Drinking, smoking,
blindness, honesty
2 X 2 CONTINGENCY TABLE
Consider any two attributes A and B. A and B are divided into two classes.
OBSERVED FREQUENCIES
A

EXPECTED FREQUENCIES
E(a)= (a+c)(a+b)/N

E(b)=(b+d)(a+b)/N

a+b

E(c) = (a+c)(c+d)/N

E(d)=(b+d)(c+d)/N

c+d

a+c

b+d

N(Total frequencies)

PROBLEMS
1.

The
number
of
accidents
per
week
are
as
follows
12,8,20,2,14,10,15,6,9,4. Are these frequencies in agreement with the
belief that the accident conditions were the same during this 10 week
period. ( CV= 26.6, TV= 16.9 at 9df/ rejected)

2.

A sample analysis of exams results of 500 students it was found that

220 students had failed, 170 had secured a third class, 90 were
placed in second class and 20 got a first class. Do thes fugures
commensurate with the general exam result which is in the ratio 4 :
321 for the various categories respectively.

3.

Test if the digits may be taken to occur equally frequently in the

directory. The following figures show the distributions of digits in
numbers chosen at random from a telephone directory.

Digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Frequency : 1026,1107,997,966,1075,933,1197,972,964,853
(CV= 58.5442,TV=16.919 for 9 df at 5%)
4. Theory predicts the proportion of eans in the four grouls A,B,C D should be
9 : 3: 3:1 In an experiment with 1600 beans the numbers in the four groups
were 882,313,287,118. Does the experimental reslt support the theory (CV=
17.6362,TV=11.07 for 5 df at 5% rejected)
5 A die is thrown 264 times with the following results. Show that the die is
biased
No
appeared
on the die

Frequency

40

32

28

58

54

60

Solution: Calculated 2 value =17.6362,Tabulated Value

= 11.07 ( at 5%
level of significance with 5 degrees of freedom),Calculated value > Tabulated
value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)
6. 200 digits were chosen at random from a set of tables. The frequencies of
the digits were
Digits

Frequency

18

19

23

21

16

25

22

20

21

15

Use the 2 test to assess the correctness of the hypothesis that the digits were
distributed
in the equal number in the tables from which these were
chosen. Solution: Calculated 2 value = 4.3, Tabulated Value
= 16.919 ( at
5% level of significance with 9 degrees of freedom)Calculated value< Tabulated
value, Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)

In a certain sample of 2000 families

1400 families are consumers of tea.
Out of 1800 Hindu families, 1236
families consume tea. Use Chi square
test and state whether there is any
significant
difference
between
consumption of tea among Hindu and
Non Hindu families. Solution:
Calculated
2
value
=
15.238,Tabulated Value
= 3.841 ( at
5% level of significance with 1 degrees
of freedom)Calculated value >
7.

Tabulated value,
hypothesis)

Reject

Ho

(Null

8. Given the following contingency table for hair colour and eye colour. Find the
value of Chi-Square and is there any good association between the two
HAIR COLOUR
FAIR

BROWN

BLACK

TOTAL

BLUE

15

20

40

GREY

20

10

20

50

BROWN

25

15

20

60

TOTAL

60

30

60

150

Solution: Calculated 2 value = 3.6458, Tabulated Value

= 9.488 ( at 5%
level of significance with 4 degrees of freedom),Calculated value < Tabulated
value, Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)

9. Two groups of 100 people each

were taken for testing the use of a
vaccine 15 persos contracted the
disease out of the inoculated
persons,while 25 contracted the
disease in the other group. Test
the efficiency of the vaccine.

LARGE SAMPLES
TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE OF LARGE SAMPLES
If the size of the sample n>30 then that sample is called large sample.
1. Test of significance for single proportion
Let p be the sample proportion and P be the population proportion, we use
the statistic Z= (p-P) / ( PQ / n)
Limits for population proportion P are given by p3 ( PQ / n)
Where q = 1-p
2. Test of significance for difference of proportions
Let n1 and n2 are the two sample sizes and sample proportions are p1 and p2
Z=

( p1 p2 )
where p= n1p1+n2p2/n1+n2 and q=1-p
pq (1 / n11 1 / n2 )

3. Test of significance for single Mean

z= X - / (/n) where X is the same mean
is the population mean, s is the population S.D.
n is the sample size.

The values of x 1.96 (/n) are called 95% confidence limits for the mean of
the population corresponding to the given sample.

The values of x 2.58 (/n) are called 99% confidence limits for the mean of
the population corresponding to the given sample.
4. Test of significance for Difference of means
Z= (

) / (12/n1) + (22/n2)

1. Write down the test statistic for single mean for large samples.
= X - / (/n) where X is the same mean, is the population mean, s is
the population S.D.
n is the sample size.
2. The mean score of a random sample of 60 students is 145 with a SD of 40.
Fine the 95 % confidence limit for the population mean.
solution z = X 1.96 (/n),

= 145 (1.96) (40/60)

= 145 10.12; = 155.12 or 134.88; The confidence limits are

155.12 and 134.88.
3. A manufacture claimed that at least 95% of the equipment which he
supplied to a factory conformed to specifications. An examination of a sample
of 200 pieces of equipment revealed that 18 were faulty. tEst his claim at 5%
level of significance.
Solution: Calculated Z value = 2.59,Tabulated Value
= 1.96 ( at 5%
level of significance) Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho (Null
hypothesis)
4. in a sample of 1000 people in Karnataka 540 are rice eaters and the rest are
wheat eaters. Can we assume that both rice and wheat are equally popular in
this state at 1% ? (AcceptCV= 2.532,TV=2.58)
5. In a big city 325 men out of 600 men were found to be smokers. Does this
information support the conclusion that the majority of men in this city are
smokers.
Solution: Calculated Z value = 2.04. Tabulated Value
= 1.645 ( at 5% level
of significance) Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)
5. A die is thrown 9000 times and of these 3220 yielded 3 or 4. Is this
consistent with the hypothesis that the die was unbiased?
Solution: Calculated Z value = 4.94 since z>3,Calculated value > Tabulated
value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)

6. A random sample of 500 apples were taken from the large consignment and
65 were found to be bad. Find the percentage of bad apples in the
consignment.
Solution: (0.175, 0.085) Hence percentage of bad apples in the consignment
lies between 17.5% and 8.5%

Difference of Proportions:

1.

A random sample of 400 men

and 600 women were asked
if they would like to have
flyover. 200 men and 325
women were in favour of the
proportion.
Test
if
the
hypothesis that proportions
of men and women in favour

of the proposal at 5%
( CV=1.28,CV1.96, accept)
2. Before an increase in excise duty on tea, 800 persons out of a sample of
1000 persons were found to be tea drinkers. After an increase in duty
800 people were tea drinkers in the sample of 1200 people. Using
standard error of proportions state whether there is a significant
decrease in the consumption of tea after the increase in the excise duty.
Solution: Calculated Z value = 6.972,Tabulated value at 5% (one tail) =
1.645,Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)
3. In two large populations there are 30% and 25% respectively of fair haired
people. Is this difference likely to be hidden in samples of 1200 and 900
respectively from the two populations.
Solution: Calculated Z value
= 2.55,Tabulated value at 5%
1.96,Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)

Test of significance of single mean

1. A sample of 900 members has a mean of 3.4 cms and SD 2.61 cms. Is
the sample from a large population of mean is 3.25 cm and SD 2.61 cms. If
the population is normal and its mean is unknown find the 95% confidence
limits of true mean.
Solution: Calculated Z value
= 1.724,Tabulated value at 5%
1.96,Calculated value < Tabulated value, Accept Ho (Null hypothesis)

Limits (3.57, 3.2295)

2. An insurance agent has claimed that the average age of policy holders
who issue through him is less than the average for all agents which is 30.5
years. A random sample of 100 policy holders who had issued through him
gave the following age distribution.
Age

16-20

No
of 12
persons

21-25

26-30

31-35

36-40

22

20

30

16

Test the significant difference at 5% level of significance.

Solution: Calculated Z value
= 2.68,Tabulated value at 5%
1.645,Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)

Test of significance for difference of mean

1. The means of 2 large samples of 1000 and 2000 members are 67.5 inches
and 68 inches respectively. Can the samples be regarded as drawn from the
same population of SD 2.5 inches.
Solution: Calculated Z value = 5.16
Tabulated value at 5% = 1.96
Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)
2. The mean yield of wheat from a district A was 210 pounds with SD 10
pounds per acre from a sample of 100 plots. In another district the mean
yield was 220 pounds with sD 12 pounds from a sample of 150 plots.
Assuming that the SD of yield in the entire state was 11 pounds test
whether there is any significant difference between the mean yield of crops
in the two districts.
Solution: Calculated Z value
= 7.041,Tabulated value at 5%
1.96,Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)

3. In a survey of buying habits,400 women shoppers are chosen at random

in super market A located in a certain section of the city. Their average

weekly food expenditure is rs.250/-with a SD of Rs.40/- . For 400 women
shoppers chosen at random in super market B in another section of the
city the average weekly food expenditure is Rs.220/- wih sD Rs.55/- Test
at 1% if the average weekly food expenditure of the two populations of
shopper are equal.
Solution: Calculated Z value
= 8.82,Tabulated value at 5%
2.58,Calculated value > Tabulated value, Reject Ho (Null hypothesis)