LUPIN LIMITED, MANDIDEEP

PHARMA PLANT-II

Submitted By
PAWAN KUMAR SINGH
(0135PY101029)
B. Pharm IVth Year

Session : 2013-14

Submitted To :

RAVI SHANKAR COLLEGE OF PHARMACY

BY PASS ROAD, BHANPUR SQUARE
BHOPAL (M.P.)-462010

Certificate
This is to certify that Jaipal Singh Dangi students of 4 th year (7th
Sem.) B.E. in Department of Mechanical Engineering of the institute has
completed Minor Report of Sterling Engine.
This has been submitted in partial fulfillment of his B.E. in Department of
Mechanical Engineering of Surabhi Group of Institution, Bhopal Under
Rajiv Gandhi Prodyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal (M.P.).

APPROVED BY:Prof. Surendra Agrawal

Soni
H.O.D Mech. Dept.

GUIDED BY:Prof. Avinash

ME Dept.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I have undergone training in (Lupin Limited

Mandideep Pharma Plant-II) from 15/06/2013 to 15/07/2013

Place : Bhopal
Date : ./../2013

DEVKARAN RUHELA
0135PY101014

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am heartily thankful to our HOD Prof. Surendra Agrawal for Minor

Project Report of Sterling Engine guide Prof. Avinash Soni for giving us this
opportunity to prepare this Minor Project Report, I am thankful to them for
guiding us through the process of preparation of this Minor Project Report and
for giving us invaluable suggestions which have helped to improve the quality
of this report.

JAIPAL SINGH DANGI

Enroll. No. 0547ME101020
Sem : VIIth

The way to complete the PROJECT was nevertheless

difficult and full of hindrance,but only due to the blessing of
almighty,as we got so many helping hands that helped us in
fructifying this work.
We wish to express our profound sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to Mr. ANKUR BEOHAR H.O.D of Electronics
and Communication Engineering for his significant
suggestions and keen intrest in discussion,which proved
highly beneficial for the progress of this work.
We extend our sincere thanks to our elite project guide
lect.IRFAN KHAN for his individual guidance,supervision
and encouragement throughout the work. The words lose their
worth for their continous encouragement and cooperation in
every respect.

Finally we are also thankful to our parents, friends and batch

mates for their help during the completion of project and cooperation provided in presenting this work in a nice manner.
Thanks are also due to those who helped us directly and
indirectly in the preparation of this project

INTRODUCTION

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one

place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light
forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information.
First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optic communication systems have
revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have played a major role in
the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical
transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications
in core networks in the developed world.
The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic
steps: Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the
signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or
weak, receiving the optical signal, and converting it into an electrical signal.

Applications

Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit

telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals. Due to
much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large advantages over
existing copper wire in long-distance and high-demand applications. However,
infrastructure development within cities was relatively difficult and timeconsuming, and fiber-optic systems were complex and expensive to install and
operate. Due to these difficulties, fiber-optic communication systems have
primarily been installed in long-distance applications, where they can be used to
their full transmission capacity, offsetting the increased cost. Since 2000, the
prices for fiber-optic communications have dropped considerably. The price for
rolling out fiber to the home has currently become more cost-effective than that
of rolling out a copper based network. Prices have dropped to $850 per
subscribe in the US and lower in countries like The Netherlands, where digging
costs are low.

Since 1990, when optical-amplification systems became commercially

available, the telecommunications industry has laid a vast network of intercity
and transoceanic fiber communication lines. By 2002, an intercontinental
network of 250,000 km of submarine communications cable with a capacity of
2.56 Tb/s was completed, and although specific network capacities are
privileged information, telecommunications investment reports indicate that
network capacity has increased dramatically since 2004.

Technology

Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include an optical

transmitter to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the
optical fiber, a cable containing bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed
through underground conduits and buildings, multiple kinds of amplifiers, and
an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal. The information
transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers, telephone
systems, and cable television companies.

Transmitters

A GBIC module (shown here with its cover removed), is an optical and electrical transceiver. The electrical
connector is at top right, and the optical connectors are at bottom left

The most commonly-used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such

as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference between LEDs
and laser diodes is that LEDs produce incoherent light, while laser diodes
produce coherent light. For use in optical communications, semiconductor
optical transmitters must be designed to be compact, efficient, and reliable,
while operating in an optimal wavelength range, and directly modulated at high
frequencies.
In its simplest form, an LED is a forward-biased p-n junction, emitting light
through

spontaneous

emission,

phenomenon

referred

to

as

electroluminescence. The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide

spectral width of 30-60 nm. LED light transmission is also inefficient, with only
about 1 % of input power, or about 100 microwatts, eventually converted into
launched power which has been coupled into the optical fiber. However, due to
their relatively simple design, LEDs are very useful for low-cost applications.
Communications LEDs are most commonly made from gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP) or gallium arsenide (GaAs). Because GaAsP LEDs operate

at a longer wavelength than GaAs LEDs (1.3 micrometers vs. 0.81-0.87

micrometers), their output spectrum is wider by a factor of about 1.7. The large
spectrum width of LEDs causes higher fiber dispersion, considerably limiting
their bit rate-distance product (a common measure of usefulness). LEDs are
suitable primarily for local-area-network applications with bit rates of 10-100
Mbit/s and transmission distances of a few kilometers. LEDs have also been
developed that use several quantum wells to emit light at different wavelengths
over a broad spectrum, and are currently in use for local-area WDM networks.
Today, LEDs have been largely superseded by VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface
Emitting Laser) devices, which offer improved speed, power and spectral
properties, at a similar cost. Common VCSEL devices couple well to multi
mode fiber.
A semiconductor laser emits light through stimulated emission rather than
spontaneous emission, which results in high output power (~100 mW) as well as
other benefits related to the nature of coherent light. The output of a laser is
relatively directional, allowing high coupling efficiency (~50 %) into singlemode fiber. The narrow spectral width also allows for high bit rates since it
reduces the effect of chromatic dispersion. Furthermore, semiconductor lasers
can be modulated directly at high frequencies because of short recombination
time.
Commonly used classes of semiconductor laser transmitters used in fiber optics
include VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser), FabryProt and DFB
(Distributed Feed Back).
Laser diodes are often directly modulated that is the light output is controlled by
a current applied directly to the device. For very high data rates or very long
distance links, a laser source may be operated continuous wave, and the light
modulated by an external device such as an electro-absorption modulator or
MachZehnder interferometer. External modulation increases the achievable

link distance by eliminating laser chirp, which broadens the linewidth of

directly-modulated lasers, increasing the chromatic dispersion in the fiber.

Receivers
The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector, which converts
light into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The photodetector is typically
a semiconductor-based photodiode. Several types of photodiodes include p-n
photodiodes, a p-i-n photodiodes, and avalanche photodiodes. Metalsemiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors are also used due to their
suitability for circuit integration in regenerators and wavelength-division
multiplexers.
Optical-electrical converters are typically coupled with a transimpedance
amplifier and a limiting amplifier to produce a digital signal in the electrical
domain from the incoming optical signal, which may be attenuated and distorted
while passing through the channel. Further signal processing such as clock
recovery from data (CDR) performed by a phase-locked loop may also be
applied before the data is passed on.

Fiber

A cable reel trailer with conduit that can carry optical fiber.

Single-mode optical fiber in an underground service point

An optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective outer

coating), in which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the
method of total internal reflection. The core and the cladding (which has a
lower-refractive-index) are usually made of high-quality silica glass, although
they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two optical fibers is done
by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires special skills and
interconnection technology due to the microscopic precision required to align
the fiber cores.
Two main types of optical fiber used in optic communications include multimode optical fibers and single-mode optical fibers. A multi-mode optical fiber
has a larger core ( 50 micrometres), allowing less precise, cheaper transmitters

and receivers to connect to it as well as cheaper connectors. However, a multimode fiber introduces multimode distortion, which often limits the bandwidth
and length of the link. Furthermore, because of its higher dopant content, multimode fibers are usually expensive and exhibit higher attenuation. The core of a
single-mode fiber is smaller (<10 micrometres) and requires more expensive
components and interconnection methods, but allows much longer, higherperformance links.
In order to package fiber into a commercially-viable product, it is typically
protectively-coated by using ultraviolet (UV), light-cured acrylate polymers,
then terminated with optical fiber connectors, and finally assembled into a
cable. After that, it can be laid in the ground and then run through the walls of a
building and deployed aerially in a manner similar to copper cables. These
fibers require less maintenance than common twisted pair wires, once they are
deployed.

Optical fiber connector

An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber, and enables
quicker connection and disconnection than splicing. The connectors
mechanically couple and align the cores of fibers so that light can pass. Better
connectors lose very little light due to reflection or misalignment of the fibers.

Application

Optical fiber connectors are used to join optical fibers where a

connect/disconnect capability is required. The basic connector unit is a

connector assembly. A connector assembly consists of an adapter and two

connector plugs. Due to the polishing and tuning procedures that may be
incorporated into optical connector manufacturing, connectors are generally
assembled onto optical fiber in a suppliers manufacturing facility. However, the
assembly and polishing operations involved can be performed in the field, for
example, to make cross-connect jumpers to size.
Optical fiber connectors are used in telephone company central offices, at
installations on customer premises, and in outside plant applications.
Connectors are used to connect equipment and cables, or to cross-connect
cables within a system.
Most optical fiber connectors are spring-loaded. The end faces of the fibers in
the two connectors are pressed together, resulting in a direct glass to glass or
plastic to plastic contact. This avoids a trapped layer of air between two fibers,
which would increase connector insertion loss and reflection loss.
Every fiber connection has two values :

Attenuation or insertion loss

Reflection or return loss.

Measurements of these parameters are now defined in IEC standard 61753-1.

The standard gives five grades for insertion loss from A (best) to D (worst), and
M for multimode. The other parameter is return loss, with grades from 1 (best)
to 5 (worst).
A variety of optical fiber connectors are available, but SC and LC connectors
are the most common types of connectors on the market. Typical connectors are
rated for 5001,000 mating cycles. The main differences among types of
connectors are dimensions and methods of mechanical coupling. Generally,
organizations will standardize on one kind of connector, depending on what

equipment they commonly use. Different connectors are required for for
multimode, and for single-mode fibers.
In datacom and telecom applications nowadays small connectors (e.g., LC) and
multi-fiber connectors (e.g., MTP) are replacing the traditional connectors (e.g.,
SC), mainly to provide a higher number of fibers per unit of rack space.
Features of a good connector design:

Low Insertion Loss

Low Return Loss

Ease of installation

Low cost

Reliability

Low environmental sensitivity

Ease of use

Outside plant applications may involve locating connectors underground in

subsurface enclosures that may be subject to flooding, on outdoor walls, or on
utility poles. The closures that enclose them may be hermetic, or may be freebreathing. Hermetic closures will subject the connectors within to temperature
swings but not to humidity variations unless they are breached. Free-breathing
closures will subject them to temperature and humidity swings, and possibly to
condensation and biological action from airborne bacteria, insects, etc.
Connectors in the underground plant may be subjected to groundwater
immersion if the closures containing them are breached or improperly
assembled.
Depending on user requirements, housings for outside plant applications may be
tested by the manufacturer under various environmental simulations, which
could include physical shock and vibration, water spray, water immersion, dust,
etc. to ensure the integrity of optical fiber connections and housing seals.

Types

FC connector

MIC (FDDI) connector

LC connector (duplex version)

LuxCis connector

MT-RJ connector

SC connector (duplex version)

ST connector

TOSLINK connector

Fiber connector types

Short
Long form
name
Avio
(Avim)
ADT-UNI
Biconic

Coupling
type

Ferrule
diameter

Screw
2.5 mm
2.5 mm

D4

Screw

2.0 mm

Deutsch
1000

Screw

DIN
(LSA)

Screw

DMI
E-2000
(AKA
LSH)

Enterprise
Systems
Connection

FC

IEC 61754-3

2.5 mm

Snap,
with
1.25 mm
dust-cap

FSMA

Screw

ELIO

IEC 61754-20

Fiber To The Home (LC

Compatible)

Datacom,
telecom,
measurement
equipment,
IEC 61754-13
single-mode
lasers;
becoming less common
Backplane connector
Datacom, telecom, test and
measurement

3.175 mm

IEC 60874-2

Snap

1.25 mm

High-density connections,
IEC 61754-20 SFP transceivers,
XFP
transceivers

Bayonet

2.5 mm

ABS1379

1.25 mm

ARINC 801

LuxCis
LX-5

Telecom & CATV networks

2.5 mm

Ferrule
Connector or Screw
Fiber Channel

or

IEC 1754-8

LAN, audio systems; for

Japanese
200 m fibers, simple field
Industrial
termination possible, mates
Standard (JIS)
with ST connectors

Fibergate

LC

IEC 61754-15 Telecom, DWDM systems;

IBM mainframe computers

and peripherals

Snap,
with
light
and 1.25 mm
dust-cap

Lucent
Connector,
Little
Connector,
Local
Connector

Telecom in Germany in
1990s;
measurement
equipment; obsolete
Printed circuit boards

Snap (duplex) 2.5 mm

F07

F-3000

Measurement equipment
Obsolete
Telecom in the 1970s and
1980s, obsolete
Telecom, obsolete

Clip
2.5 mm
Snap,
with
light
and 2.5 mm
dust-cap
push-pull
type

EC

Typical applications
Aerospace and avionics

Screw
Screw

ESCON

Standard

Snap,
with
lightand
dust-cap

IEC 61754-23

PC or UPC
PC or APC configurations
(note 3)
High-density
rarely used

connections;

Fiber connector types

Short
Coupling
Long form
name
type
Media Interface
MIC
Snap
Connector

MPO
MTP

MT

MT-RJ

MU
NEC D4

Snap
Multiple-Fibre
(multiplex
Push-On/Pullpush-pull
off
coupling)

Mechanical
Transfer

Snap
(multiplex)

Ferrule
diameter

Standard

Typical applications

Fiber
distributed
data
interface (FDDI)
SM or MM multi-fiber
ribbon. Same ferrule as MT,
but
more
easily
IEC-61754-7; reconnectable. Used for
2.56.4 mm EIA/TIA-604- indoor cabling and device
5 (FOCIS 5) interconnections. MTP is a
brand name for an improved
connector, which intermates
with MPO.
Pre-terminated
cable
2.56.4 mm
assemblies;
outdoor
applications
2.5 mm

Mechanical
Transfer
Registered Jack
Duplex
multimode
or
Media Snap (duplex) 2.454.4 mm IEC 61754-18
connections
Termination recommended
jack
Miniature unit Snap
1.25 mm
IEC 61754-6 Common in Japan
Common in Japan telecom
Screw
2.0 mm
in 1980s

Opti-Jack
OPTIMATE

Snap (duplex)
Screw

Plastic fiber, obsolete

SC

Subscriber
Connector
or Snap (push2.5 mm
square connector or pull coupling)
Standard Connector

SMA 905

Sub Miniature A

Screw

Datacom and telcom;

IEC
GBIC;
extremely
61754-4
common
Industrial
military;
multimode

Typ.
3.14 mm

lasers,
telecom

Stepped;
typ.
SMA 906

Sub Miniature A

Screw

0.118 in

Industrial

(3.0 mm),

military;

then

multimode

lasers,
telecom

0.089 in
SMC
ST / BFOC
TOSLINK
VF-45

Sub Miniature C
Snap
Straight Tip/Bayonet
Fiber
Connector
Toshiba Link

Optic Bayonet

(2.3 mm)
2.5 mm
2.5 mm

Snap
Snap

IEC
61754-2

Multimode,

rarely

single-mode; APC not

possible (note 3)
Digital audio
Datacom

Industrystandard
1053 HDTV

Broadcast connector Push-pull

1.25 mm

Audio

interface

diameter

(broadcasting)

coupling

&

Data

ceramic
ferrule
Snap
V-PIN

V-System

(Duplex)
Push-pull
coupling

Industrial and electric

utility
multimode

networking;
200

m,

400 m, 1 mm, 2.2 mm

fibers

Notes
1. Modern connectors typically use a "physical contact" polish on the fiber
and ferrule end. This is a slightly curved surface, so that when fibers are
mated only the fiber cores touch, not the surrounding ferrules. Some
manufacturers have several grades of polish quality, for example a regular
FC connector may be designated "FC/PC" (for physical contact), while
"FC/SPC" and "FC/UPC" may denote "super" and "ultra" polish qualities,
respectively. Higher grades of polish give less insertion loss and lower
back reflection.
2. Many connectors are available with the fiber end face polished at an
angle to prevent light that reflects from the interface from traveling back
up the fiber. Because of the angle, the reflected light does not stay in the
fiber core but instead leaks out into the cladding. Angle-polished
connectors should only be mated to other angle-polished connectors.
Mating to a non-angle polished connector causes very high insertion loss.
Generally angle-polished connectors have higher insertion loss than good
quality straight physical contact ones. "Ultra" quality connectors may
achieve comparable back reflection to an angled connector when
connected, but an angled connection maintains low back reflection even
when the output end of the fiber is disconnected.
3. Angle-polished connections are distinguished visibly by the use of a
green strain relief boot, or a green connector body. The parts are typically
identified by adding "/APC" (angled physical contact) to the name. For
example, an angled FC connector may be designated FC/APC, or merely
FCA. Non-angled versions may be denoted FC/PC or with specialized
designations such as FC/UPC or FCU to denote an "ultra" quality polish
on the fiber end face.
4. SMA 906 features a "step" in the ferrule, while SMA 905 uses a straight
ferrule. SMA 905 is also available as a keyed connector, used e.g., for
special spectrometer applications.

Mnemonics

LC connectors are sometimes called "Little Connectors".

MT-RJ connectors look like a miniature 8P8C connector commonly

(but erroneously) referred to as RJ-45.

ST connectors refer to having a "straight tip", as the sides of the ceramic

(which has a lower temperature coefficient of expansion than metal) tip
are parallelas opposed to the predecessor bi-conic connector which
aligned as two nesting ice cream cones would. Other mnemonics include
"Set and Twist", "Stab and Twist", and "Single Twist", referring to how it
is inserted (the cable is pushed into the receiver, and the outer barrel is
twisted to lock it into place). Also they are known as "Square Top" due to
the flat end face.

SC connectors have a mnemonic of "Square Connector", and some

people believe that to be the correct name, rather than the more official
"Subscriber Connector". This refers to the fact the connectors themselves
are square. Other terms often used for SC connectors are "Set and Click"
or "Stab and Click".

Analysis

FC connectors' floating ferrule provides good mechanical isolation. FC

connectors need to be mated more carefully than the push-pull types due
to the need to align the key, and due to the risk of scratching the fiber end
face while inserting the ferrule into the jack. FC connectors have been
replaced in many applications by SC and LC connectors.

There are two incompatible standards for key widths on FC/APC and
polarization-maintaining FC/PC connectors: 2 mm ("Reduced" or "type
R") and 2.14 mm ("NTT" or "type N"). Connectors and receptacles with
different key widths either cannot be mated, or will not preserve the angle
alignment between the fibers, which is especially important for
polarization-maintaining fiber. Some manufacturers mark reduced keys
with a single scribe mark on the key, and mark NTT connectors with a
double scribe mark.

SC connectors offer excellent packing density, and their push-pull design

reduces the chance of fiber end face contact damage during connection;
frequently found on the previous generation of corporate networking
gear, using GBICs.

LC connectors have replaced SC connectors in corporate networking

environments due to their smaller size; they are often found on small
form-factor pluggable transceivers.

ST connectors have a key which prevents rotation of the ceramic ferrule,

and a bayonet lock similar to a BNC shell. The single index tab must be
properly aligned with a slot on the mating receptacle before insertion;
then the bayonet interlock can be engaged, by pushing and twisting,
locking at the end of travel which maintains spring-loaded engagement
force on the core optical junction.

In general the insertion loss should not exceed 0.75 dB and the return loss
should be higher than 20 dB. Typical insertion repeatability, the
difference in insertion loss between one plugging and another, is 0.2 dB.

On all connectors, cleaning the ceramic ferrule before each connection

helps prevent scratches and extends the connector life substantially.

Connectors on polarization-maintaining fiber are sometimes marked with

a blue strain relief boot or connector body, although this is far from a
universal standard. Sometimes a blue buffer tube is used on the fiber
instead

MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack) uses a form factor and

latch similar to the 8P8C (RJ45) connectors. Two separate fibers are
included in one unified connector. It is easier to terminate and install than
ST or SC connectors. The smaller size allows twice the port density on a
face plate than ST or SC connectors do. The MT-RJ connector was
designed by AMP, but was later standardized as FOCIS 12 (Fiber Optic
Connector Intermateability Standards) in EIA/TIA-604-12. There are two
variations: pinned and no-pin. The pinned variety, which has two small
stainless steel guide pins on the face of the connector, is used in patch
panels to mate with the no-pin connectors on MT-RJ patch cords.

Hardened Fiber Optic Connectors (HFOCs) and Hardened Fiber Optic

Adapters (HFOAs) are passive telecommunications components used in
an Outside Plant (OSP) environment. They provide drop connections to
customers from fiber distribution networks. These components may be
provided in pedestal closures, aerial and buried closures and terminals, or
equipment located at customer premises such as a Fiber Distribution Hub
(FDH) or an Optical Network Terminal or Termination (ONT) unit.

These connectors, which are field-mateable, and hardened for use in the OSP,
are needed to support Fiber to the Premises (FTTP) deployment and service

offerings. HFOCs are designed to withstand climatic conditions existing

throughout the U.S., including rain, flooding, snow, sleet, high winds, and ice
and sand storms.

Testing
Glass fiber optic connector performance is affected both by the connector and
by the glass fiber. Concentricity tolerances affect the fiber, fiber core, and
connector body. The core optical index of refraction is also subject to variations.
Stress in the polished fiber can cause excess return loss. The fiber can slide
along its length in the connector. The shape of the connector tip may be
incorrectly profiled during polishing. The connector manufacturer has little
control over these factors, so in-service performance may well be below the
manufacturer's specification.
Testing fiber optic connector assemblies falls into two general categories:
factory testing and field testing.
Factory testing is sometimes statistical, for example, a process check. A
profiling system may be used to ensure that the overall polished shape is
correct, and a good quality optical microscope to check for blemishes. Optical
Loss / Return Loss performance is checked using specific reference conditions,
against a "reference standard" single mode test lead, or using an "Encircled Flux
Compliant" source for multi-mode testing. Testing and rejection ("yield") may
represent a significant part of the overall manufacturing cost.
Field testing is usually simpler. A special hand-held optical microscope is used
to check for dirt or blemishes, and an optical time-domain reflectometermay be
used to identify significant point losses or return losses. A power meter and light
source or loss test set may also be used to check end-to-end loss.

Comparison with electrical transmission

A mobile fiber optic splice lab used to access and splice underground cables.

An underground fiber optic splice enclosure opened up.

The choice between optical fiber and electrical (or copper) transmission for a
particular system is made based on a number of trade-offs. Optical fiber is
generally chosen for systems requiring higher bandwidth or spanning longer
distances than electrical cabling can accommodate.
The main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally low loss (allowing long
distances between amplifiers/repeaters), its absence of ground currents and
other parasite signal and power issues common to long parallel electric
conductor runs (due to its reliance on light rather than electricity for
transmission, and the dielectric nature of fiber optic), and its inherently high
data-carrying capacity. Thousands of electrical links would be required to

replace a single high bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of fibers is that
even when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber cables experience
effectively no crosstalk, in contrast to some types of electrical transmission
lines. Fiber can be installed in areas with high electromagnetic interference
(EMI), such as alongside utility lines, power lines, and railroad tracks.
Nonmetallic all-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high lightning-strike
incidence.
For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than a
couple of kilometers require in-line signal repeaters for satisfactory
performance; it is not unusual for optical systems to go over 100 kilometers
(62 mi), with no active or passive processing. Single-mode fiber cables are
commonly available in 12 km lengths, minimizing the number of splices
required over a long cable run. Multi-mode fiber is available in lengths up to
4 km, although industrial standards only mandate 2 km unbroken runs.
In short distance and relatively low bandwidth applications, electrical
transmission is often preferred because of its

Lower material cost, where large quantities are not required

Lower cost of transmitters and receivers

Capability to carry electrical power as well as signals (in speciallydesigned cables)

Ease of operating transducers in linear mode.

Optical fibers are more difficult and expensive to splice than electrical
conductors. And at higher powers, optical fibers are susceptible to fiber fuse,
resulting in catastrophic destruction of the fiber core and damage to
transmission components.
Because of these benefits of electrical transmission, optical communication is
not common in short box-to-box, backplane, or chip-to-chip applications;

however, optical systems on those scales have been demonstrated in the

laboratory.
In certain situations fiber may be used even for short distance or low bandwidth
applications, due to other important features:

Immunity

to

electromagnetic

interference,

including

nuclear

electromagnetic pulses (although fiber can be damaged by alpha and beta

radiation).

High electrical resistance, making it safe to use near high-voltage

equipment or between areas with different earth potentials.

Lighter weightimportant, for example, in aircraft.

No sparksimportant in flammable or explosive gas environments.

Not electromagnetically radiating, and difficult to tap without disrupting

the signalimportant in high-security environments.

Much smaller cable sizeimportant where pathway is limited, such as

networking an existing building, where smaller channels can be drilled
and space can be saved in existing cable ducts and trays.

Optical fiber cables can be installed in buildings with the same equipment that
is used to install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications due to the
small size and limited pull tension and bend radius of optical cables. Optical
cables can typically be installed in duct systems in spans of 6000 meters or
more depending on the duct's condition, layout of the duct system, and
installation technique. Longer cables can be coiled at an intermediate point and
pulled farther into the duct system as necessary.

References
1. Alwayn, Vivek (2004). "Fiber-Optic Technologies".
2. Keiser, Gerd (August 2003). Optical Communications Essentials.
McGraw-Hill Networking Professional.
3. Shimoji, Naoko; Yamakawa, Jun; Shiino, Masato (1999). "Development
of Mini-MPO Connector".
4. Hayes, Jim (2005). "Connector Identifier". The Fiber Optic Associator.
5. Sezerman, Omur; Best, Garland (December 1997). "Accurate alignment
preserves polarization".