Topic 16:

Communication
16.1 Communication channels
16.2 Modulation
16.3 Digital communication
16.4 Relative merits of channels of communication
16.5 Attenuation
 A Transmitter and A Receiver
Transmitter Receiver

In all communication there is always a transmitter and a receiver.

As technology advances, the transmitter and receiver are getting
further apart. If everyone is to send out their information signals
through antenna as they are, then all that we receive is just noise
and no information.
 Carrier Wave

So technologists decide that we let the radio waves carry our

information signals and assign different radio wave band to
transmit various information.

Hence, they send to our receivers the amplitude modulated (AM)

or the frequency modulated (FM) signals.
AM & FM
The signals that
we receive
are either
amplitude
modulated (AM)
Or
frequency
modulated (FM)
 Modulation
Modulation is the process
where audio signal is added
onto a carrier signal.

In our case, we use the

radio waves and
microwaves as the carrier.

The carrier is of sinusoidal

form and hence carries the
function,
x = x0sint
where x0 is its amplitude
and
The carrier wave has a much
higher frequency than the
its angular frequency
information signal. both of which can be
altered.
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In amplitude modulation (AM) amplitude of the carrier

wave is made to vary in synchrony with the displacement
of the information signal.
 Frequency Modulation (FM)

In frequency modulation (FM) frequency of the carrier wave

is made to vary in synchrony with the displacement of the
information signal.
 Example
A sinusoidal carrier wave has a frequency of 800 kHz and an
amplitude of 5.0 V. The frequency deviation of the carrier wave is
30 kHz V-1, that is, for every 1.0 V change in displacement of the
signal, the frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal of frequency
10 kHz and amplitude 2.0 V. Describe, for the carrier wave, the
variation (if any) of the amplitude and frequency.

Solution:

The amplitude remains constant at 5.0 V

The frequency deviation = 30 2.0 = 60 kHz
Therefore, the frequencies fluctuate between (800 60) and (800 +
60) = 740 kHz to 860 kHz
This change of frequency occurs 10 000 times per second.
 Advantage of Sending Out
Modulated Signals
Many radio stations can now transmit signals at
the same time in a particular area (without
interference).

Each radio station is given a different carrier wave

frequencies.

The receiver is adjusted or tuned to receive the desired

frequency.

The aerials are transmitting and receiving the

carrier frequencies and so need not be long to
cater for the whole range of audible frequency of
20 Hz to 20 kHz.
 Wavebands

AM is transmitted in the long wave (LW) (30kHz-300kHz), medium

wave (MW) (300kHz-3MHz) and short wave (SW) (3MHz-30MHz)
wavebands.

FM is transmitted in the very high frequency (VHF) (30MHz-300MHz)

waveband.
 Sidebands & Bandwidth
Radio transmission involves putting audio frequency
information on a much higher frequency electromagnetic
carrier wave. This process produces frequencies which are
the sum and the difference of the carrier and information
signal frequencies.
These frequencies are called sidebands.
The difference between the two sidebands is the bandwidth.
Bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies occupied
by an amplitude modulated waveform.
Because of the existence of the sidebands, the frequency
range or bandwidth necessary for radio transmission
depends on this range of modulating frequencies.
 Example
A particular transmitter is broadcasting an AM
signal of frequency 200 kHz. The transmitter is
broadcasting a programme of music with a
maximum frequency of 4.5 kHz. Determine for
this AM signal.
(a) The wavelength (b) the bandwidth

Solution:

(a) = c / f = 3.0 108 /200 103 = 1500 m

(b) Bandwidth = 2 4.5 = 9.0 kHz

 Number of radio stations
Example:

AM radio is broadcast on MW waveband, which occupies a

region of 300 kHz 3 MHz of the EM spectrum.
If each AM radio station has a bandwidth of 9 kHz, how many
radio stations could share this MW waveband?

Solution:

Number of radio station

= (Range of waveband) / bandwidth of each station

= (3000 300) / 9

= 300
 Example

Fig. 10.1 shows the variation with frequency f of the power P of a

radio signal.
(a) State the name of
(i) the type of modulation of this radio signal,
(ii) the component of frequency 50 kHz,
(iii) the components of frequencies 45 kHz and 55 kHz.
(b) State the bandwidth of the radio signal.
(c) On the axes of Fig. 10.2, sketch a graph to show the variation
with time t of the signal voltage of Fig. 10.1.
 Solution
(a) (i) amplitude modulation
(ii) carrier frequency
(iii) sidebands
(b) 10 kHz
(c) sketch: general shape i.e. any wave that is amplitude modulated
correct period for modulating waveform (200 s)
Correct period for carrier waveform (20 s)
 Bandwidth for Communication
Bandwidths are assigned for all types of
broadcast communication and this imposes a
maximum signal frequency which may be
transmitted.
The bandwidths assigned to AM and FM radio are
such as to limit the fidelity of music broadcasts in
AM, but permit the luxury of stereo high-fidelity
broadcasts by FM. (FM is transmitted in the VHF
region)
The high signal frequencies associated with video
broadcasting require higher bandwidths for
channels assigned to television. (TV broadcast is
transmitted in the UHF region)
Radio Frequency Band
Because of the division of
the FM band for the
transmission of FM stereo,
the frequency limit for
music transmission is at
15 kHz.

This allows high fidelity

signal transmission. The
operational bandwidth is
limited to 150 kHz, with
25 kHz on each side of
that for guard bands.
Actually FM stereo covers
106 kHz of that.

A guard band is an unused

part of the radio spectrum
between radio bands, for
the purpose of preventing
interference.
 Relative Advantages of AM & FM
Overall, AM transmission has lower quality than FM transmission because
AM can pick up noise (interfering radiation from the surrounding such
as a passing motorbike). FM is not affected as it varies in frequency
not amplitude.
AM lack higher frequencies as its bandwidth on LW and MW is 9 kHz,
the maximum audio frequency that can be broadcast is 4.5 kHz.
There is a compromise in quality of music due to the narrow
bandwidth of AM. Music or audio has a maximum frequency of 15 kHz.

Overall, AM transmission is cheaper than FM because

Due to its narrow bandwidth, more AM radio stations can share a
waveband.
AM on LW, MW and SW can be propagated over a larger distance. FM
has only a range of 30 km by line-of-sight.
AM transmitter and receivers are electronically simpler and cheaper.
Analogue Vs Digital
Analogue Vs Digital

Analogue signal has continuous

values, it has the same variation
with time as the information
itself.

Digital signal is a series of

highs and lows with no values
between the highs and lows.
 Problem with Analogue Signal

Analogue signal picks up noise and the noise is amplified

together with the original signal by amplifiers.
Noise is the unwanted random power added onto the
attenuating original signal.
One source of noise is the thermal vibrations of the atoms of
the medium that the signal is passing.
Attenuation is the gradual reduction of the signal power and
hence the signal has to be amplified by repeater amplifier
at regular distance.
 Advantage of Digital Signal

A digital signal can be transmitted over very long distances

with regular regenerations without becoming increasingly
noisy, as would happen with an analogue signal.

Attenuation and addition of noise also happen to digital signals

but as noise consists, typically, of small fluctuations, they
are not amplified by the regenerator amplifiers.

The regenerator amplifiers reproduce the original digital signal

and, at the same time, filter out the noise.
 Advantage of Digital Signal
A further advantage of digital transmissions is
that they can have extra information extra bits
of data added by the transmitting system.
These extra data are a code to be used by the
receiving system to check for errors and to
correct them before passing the information on to
the receiver.

Nowadays, digital circuits are generally more

reliable and cheaper to produce than analogue
circuits. This is, perhaps, the main reason why, in
the near future, almost all communication
systems will be digitally based.
Conversion
An analogue-to-
digital converter
(ADC) converts the
analogue signal into
digital signal through
sampling

An Digital-to-
analogue converter
(DAC) reconverts the
digital signal into
analogue signal
 Analogue-to-Digital Converter
(ADC)
In an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC), the analogue
voltage is sampled at regular intervals of time, at what is
known as the sampling frequency or sampling rate.
The value of the sample voltage measured at each sampling
time is converted into a digital (binary) number that
represents the voltage value.

An ADC converts the

analogue signal into
digital signal

An DAC reconverts
the digital signal into
analogue signal
Analogue to Digital Conversion
Here is an
example where
an analogue
signal is
sampled at
every 125 s
and the digital
signal recorded
as a 4-bit
number
 ADC: Value Given
Note that the value
given to the sampled
votage is always the
value of the nearest
increment below the
actual sample voltage.
Example:
An analogue signal of
14.3 V would be
sampled as 14 V and
one of 3.8 V would be
sampled as 3 V.
 The Recovered Signal

The recovered signal

is very grainy,
consisting of large
steps.
It can be improved by
Using more voltage
levels / bits
Sampling at higher
frequency.
Bits and Voltage Levels
A binary digit is referred to
as a bit.
The number of bits in each
digital number limits the
number of voltage levels.
In the example given,
there are 4 bits and hence
24 = 16 voltage levels.
In practice eight or more
bits would be used for
sampling.
An eight-bit number would
give 26 = 256 voltage
levels.
 ADC: Sampling Frequency
The choice of sampling frequency also determines the amount of
information that can be transmitted.

The greater the sampling frequency the more faithful is the

reproduction of the original signal

About 100 years ago, Nyquist showed that , in order to recover an

analogue signal of frequency f, then the sampling frequency must
be 2f.

For good quality reproduction of music, the higher audible

frequencies of 20 kHz must be present. Therefore the sampling
frequency is 44.1 kHz.

Human voice range is 90-1200 Hz. Therefore in a telephone

system the highest frequency transmitted is restricted to 3.4 kHz,
the sampling frequency is 8 kHz.
 Example
An analogue signal is sampled at a frequency of 5.0 kHz.
Each sample is converted into a four-bit number and
transmitted as a digital signal.

Fig. 10.1 shows part of the digital signal.

The digital signal is transmitted and is finally converted into

an analogue signal.

(a) On the axes of Fig. 10.2, sketch a graph to show the

variation with time t of this final analogue signal.

(b) Suggest two ways in which the reproduction of the

original analogue signal could be improved.
Solution

(a) correct
values of 2, 5,
10, 15 and 4
graph drawn as a
series of steps
steps occurring
at correct times

(b) sample more

frequently
greater number
of bits
 Channels of
Communication
Wire-pairs
Coaxial cables
Radio waves
Microwaves
Optic fibres
 Channels of Communication
Channels of communication are the different
means/media of transferring signals.

Wire-pairs Radio Link

Microwave Link Coaxial Cables Optic Fibres

 Wire-Pairs

Morse Code Transmitter

Consists of a pair of insulated copper wires

Used mainly for very short distances with low frequencies.
Examples:
Linking telephones to the nearest exchange
Linking door bell in a house to the switch outside
High attenuation of the signal
energy is lost as heat in the resistance of the wires
as radiation since the wires act as aerials
Easily pick up external interference that degrades the
original signal
 Wire-Pairs

A cable of wire-pairs

If several wire-pairs are arranged next to one another,

they will pick up each others signals.
This effect is known as cross-talk or cross-linking and
gives very poor security as it is easy to tap a telephone
conversation.
The bandwidth of a pair of wires is only about 500 kHz.
Consequently, as a means of carrying a large amount of
information, it is extremely limited.
Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial Cable

Essentially, a pair of wires arranged so that one

wire is shrouded by the other
The signal is transmitted down the inner
conductor and the outer conductor acts as the
return wire and also shields the inner one from
external interference.
The outer conductor is usually connected to
earth.
 Coaxial Cable

TV cable

More expensive than wire-pairs

Less attenuation of the signal. This means that, for long
distance communication, repeater amplifiers can be
arranged further apart.
Less prone to external interference, though not immune to
it, so they do offer slightly greater security.
The bandwidth of coaxial cable is about 50 MHz. It is
capable of carrying much more information than a wire-
pair.
Radio Link
 Radio Link (1)

Aerials are required for radio link.

Energy is radiated from an aerial in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
These waves travel outwards from the aerial with the speed
of light.
Electromagnetic waves in the frequency range 30 kHz to 3
GHz are generally referred as radio waves.
 Radio Link (2)

The first radio waves used for communication were of very

low frequencies and very long wavelengths. The radio
waves were switched on and off so that communication was
by morse code.
Later use of higher frequencies and the development of
amplitude modulation (AM) enabled voice communication.
Further development, including FM broadcasts and the use
of different carrier frequencies, enabled higher-quality
communication and also more radio stations to operate in
the same area.
 Radio Link (3)

The choice of aerial for broadcasting determines whether the radio

waves are emitted
in all directions (for broadcasting to a whole area)
or in one direction only (for point-to-point communication).
Similarly, for the receiving of radio signals, the choice of aerial is
determined by whether the signal is to be received from one direction
or all directions.
Aerials with dish reflectors enable the radio waves to be transmitted
as parallel beams.
 Radio Link (4)

Some Data on Frequencies and Ranges of Radio Waves

Surface waves: Waves that travel along

the contour of the Earth by diffraction
Sky waves: Waves that are reflected by
the ionosphere
Space waves: Waves that are
transmitted in a straight line (line-of-
sight, LOS) from transmitter to receiver
Radio Link (5)

The three types of transmitting

waves complement each other.
Skip zone is an area where the
waves are not received.
Microwave Link
 Microwave Link (1)

The Frequency Bands used for Radio Communication

Microwaves are radio waves in the SHF waveband from 3 GHz to
30 GHz.
With such high frequencies, it has very short wavelengths of only
a few centimetres.
The wavelength of the radio waves determines the length of the
aerial.
For mobile phones, the aerial must be, for the sake of
convenience, short and hence microwaves are suitable for its use.
As the frequency of the carrier wave increases, the bandwidth also
increases.
 Microwave Link (2)

The bandwidth of a microwave link is of the order of GHz. This

large bandwidth means that the microwave beam has a large
capacity for transmitting information.
Microwaves are generally used for point-to-point
communication where signals are transmitted directly from
transmitter to receiver (space waves).
For terrestrial use, the range of the transmissions is limited to
line-of-sight and relay stations are used.
For very long distance transmission, microwaves are
transmitted beyond the atmosphere and sent back to Earth by
communication satellites.
 Microwave Link (3)

The transmitting element is placed at the focus of a parabolic

reflector.
The parabolic reflector, reflects and focuses the wave power
on to a receiving element.
In this way, the wave power is radiated in a parallel beam.
Note: The reflecting parabolic dish is not the aerial. The aerial
is found at the focus of the reflecting dish.
 Radio Link (4)

The intensity of the waves will always be reduced

(attenuated) as the distance from the transmitter
increases.
They need to be strengthen / amplified at regular
distance.
Optic Fibres
 Optic Fibres

Optic fibres are strands of optically pure

glass as thin as a human hair that carry
digital information over long distances
 Optic Fibres

CLICK IMAGE
 What are Optic Fibres

CLICK IMAGE

Optic fibres are solid glass.

 How Does Optic Fibre Work?

CLICK IMAGE

Optic fibres transmit optical pulses using the principle of

total internal reflection.
 Structure of an Optic Fibre

A single optical fibre, will have the following parts:

Core - Thin glass center of the fibre where the light travels
Cladding An outer optical material (glass of lesser density)
surrounding the core
Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fibre from
damage and moisture

Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibres are arranged in

bundles in optical cables. The bundles are protected by the
cable's outer covering, called a jacket.
 Transmitting Optical Pulses
One single optic
fibre can
transmitter as
much data as a
bundle of
coaxial wires

Optic fibres carry digital information in the form of pulses of light

or infra-red radiation.
These pulses are provided by lasers and the light produced has
very high frequencies of the order of 108 MHz.
In theory, a bit or individual light wave could last for only 10-14 s.
This would allow hundreds of thousands of individual information,
telephone calls for example, to share the same optic fibre.
However, present technology does not allow control at such high
frequencies. The duration of a bit is governed by how fast the
laser providing light to the fibre can be switched on and off. This
is, at present, of the order of GHz but is increasing as technology
develops.
 Transmitting Optical Pulses

Pulses of light or infra-red radiation travel along the fibre

as a result of total internal reflection.

As there is no loss of energy in total internal reflection, the

light impulses can travel great distances.

However, some of the light signal do degrade within the

fibre, mostly due to impurities in the glass.
 Advantages of Optic Fibres

Large bandwidth, giving rise to large transmission capacity

Much lower cost than metal wires
Diameter and weight of cable is much less than metal
cable, hence easier handling and storage
Much less signal attenuation, so far fewer regenerator
amplifiers are required, reducing the cost of installation
Do not pick up electromagnetic interference, so very high
security and negligible cross-talk
Can be laid alongside existing routes such as electric
railway lines and power lines.
 Optic Fibre: May 2008 Q12
(a) Optic fibre transmission has, in some instances, replaced
transmission using co-axial cables and wire pairs.

Optic fibres have negligible cross-talk and are less noisy

than co-axial cables.

Explain what is meant by

(i) cross-talk, [2]
(ii) noise. [2]

(b) An optic fibre has a signal attenuation of 0.20 dB km1.

The input signal to the optic fibre has a power of 26 mW.

The receiver at the output of the fibre has a noise power of
6.5 W.

Calculate the maximum uninterrupted length of optic fibre

given that the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver must not
be less than 30 dB. [5]
Solution: May 2008 Q12
 Channels: Nov 2008 Q9
Different frequencies and wavelengths are used in
different channels of communication.
Suggest why

(a) infra-red radiation rather than visible light is

usually used with optic fibres, [2]

(b) the base stations in mobile phone networks

operate on UHF, [2]

(c) for satellite communication, frequencies of the

order of GHz are used, with the uplink having a
different frequency to the downlink. [2]
Solution: Nov 2008 Q9
Satellites
 Why Communication Satellites
Long-distance communication using radio waves is possible
on the MW waveband (as surface waves) and the SW
waveband (as sky waves). However, there are major
disadvantages:

Using sky waves is unreliable as it relies on ionospheric

reflection. The layers of ions in the upper atmosphere vary
in height and density giving rise to variable quality of
signal.
Surface waves are also unreliable because there is poor
reception in hilly areas.
The wavebands available on MW and SW are already
crowded.
The available bandwidths are too narrow to carry the
required amount of information.

Satellite communication enables more wavebands to be

made available and at much higher frequencies, thus giving
rise to as much greater data-carrying capacity.
Principle of Satellite Communication
satellite

Earths
surface

A carrier wave of frequency fup is sent from a transmitter T on

Earth to a satellite
The satellite receives the greatly attenuated signal.
The signal is amplified and the carrier frequency is changed to a
lower value fdown.
The carrier wave is then directed back to a receiver R on Earth.
The carrier wave frequencies fup and fdown are different so that the
very low power signal received from Earth is not swamped by (can
be distinquished from) the high power signal that is transmitted
back to Earth
Values of the uplink frequency fup and the downlink frequency
fdown might be 6 GHz and 4 GHz respectively (the 6/4 GHz band).
Other bands are 14/11 GHz and 30/20 GHz.
 Geostationary Satellite

Geostationary satellites orbit the Earth above the Equator

with a period of 24 hours at a distance of 3.6 104 km
above the Earths surface.

If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as the

direction of rotation of the Earth, then, for an observer on
the Earth, the satellite will always appear to be above a
fixed position on the Equator
 Geostationary Satellite

Advantages:
In fixed position, can have permanent link with a transmitting
ground station.
A number of satellites with overlapping areas can maintain
communication with any point on the Earths surface
Disadvantages
As it is in equatorial orbits, communication in polar region is not
possible
As signal travels twice the distance between the satellite and Earth,
there is a delay of 0.24 s. To reduce this problem geostationary
satellites may be used in conjunction with optic fibres.
 Polar Satellites

Polar satellites are satellites that have low orbits and pass over
the poles.

Polar orbits have a period of rotation of the order of 90 minutes.

Such satellites will, as a result of the rotation of the Earth, at
some time each day orbit above every point on the Earths
surface.
Each orbit crosses the Equator 23 to the west of the previous
orbit (due to the rotation of the Earth).
 Polar Satellites

Disadvantage:
Continuous communication with a single polar satellite is not
possible.
Ways to overcome:
Information may be transmitted to the satellite while it is
overhead and the data stored and be transmitted back to Earth
when it is over the appropriate area.
Continuous communication is possible using a number of polar
satellites in orbits that are inclined to one another so that at least
one satellite is always above the transmitter and receiver. In this
case, the aerials must track the satellites in their orbits.
 Polar Satellites

Advantage:
As their orbital height is only of the order of 105 km (a few
hundred kilometres) delays in the data transmission such as
telephone conversations are not noticeable.
Uses:
Since polar satellites pass over the whole of the Earth in any 24-
hour period, they are used for remote sensing such as military
espionage, geological prospecting and weather forecasting.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) uses the signals from many
of these satellites.
ATTENUATION

Reduction of energy in
transmission
 Attenuation
When an electrical signal is transmitted along a
metal wire, it gradually loses power, mostly as
thermal energy in overcoming resistance of the
wire and a small amount as electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the current.
A light pulse travelling along an optic fibre loses
power, mostly by absorption due to impurities in
the glass and by scattering due to imperfections.
Electromagnetic waves lose power by absorption
and dispersion through the medium.

A reduction in signal power is

referred to as attenuation.
 Amplification
In order that a signal may be detected
adequately, its power must be a minimum
number of times greater than the power
associated with noise. Typically, this signal-to-
noise ratio could be 100.
Repeater amplifiers may be required to increase
the power of a signal that is being passed along a
transmission line.
The gain of such an amplifier (the ratio of the
output power to the input power) could be
100000 (105).
For a radio link between Earth and a
geostationary satellite, the power received by the
satellite may be 1019 times smaller than that
transmitted from Earth.
 Comparison of Power
In comparing power levels, two numbers are involved and the
ratio can be very large or very small.
An extremely convenient unit by which power levels, or any other
quantities, may be compared is the bel (B).
The number of bels is related to the ratio of two powers P1 and P2
by the expression:

number of bels = lg(P1/P2)

As the bel is a large unit, the ratios are usually expressed in

decibels (dB), where 10 dB = 1 B.
Consequently,

number of decibels = 10 lg(P1/P2).

If there is amplification, P2 > P1

If there is attenuation, P2 < P1
 Example 1
The gain of an amplifier is 45 dB.
Calculate the output power Pout of the
amplifier for an input power Pin of 2.0 W.

Solution:

number of decibels = 10 lg(P2/P1)

45= 10 lg(Pout / 2.0 10-6)
4.5 = lg(Pout / 2.0 10-6)
104.5 = (Pout / 2.0 10-6)
Pout = 104.5 2.0 10-6
Pout = 6.3 10-2 W
 Example 2
A signal having a power of 2.4 W is amplified in a two-stage
amplifier. The first stage has a gain of 18 dB and the second stage
provides a further amplification of 25 dB. Calculate:
(a) The total gain of the two-stage amplifier
(b) The power of the output signal from the amplifier.

Solution:
(a) Total gain in dB = 18 + 25 = 43 dB

(b) Gain in dB = 10 lg (Pout / Pin)

43 = 10 lg (Pout / 2.4 10-6)
4.3 = lg (Pout / 2.4 10-6)
104.3 = Pout / 2.4 10-6
Pout = 2.4 10-6 104.3
Pout = 0.048 W
 Attenuation per unit Length

A transmission line has an input power P2 and the power at

a point distance L along the line is P1 as illustrated in the
diagram.

Then, attenuation in the line = 10 lg (P2 / P1) dB.

Since a transmission line may vary in length, an important

feature of a transmission line is its attenuation per unit
length.
 Example 3
The input power to a cable of length 25 km is 500
mW. The attenuation per unit length of the cable is
2 dB km-1. Calculate the output power of the signal
from the cable.

Solution:

signal loss in cable = 2 25 = 50 dB

50= 10 lg(500 10-3 / Pout),
where Pout is the output power.

Pout = 500 10-3 10-5 = 5 10-6 W.

 Distance to Amplify
The signal cannot be allowed to travel indefinitely in the cable
because, eventually, it will become so weak that it cannot be
distinguished from background noise.

An important factor is the minimum signal-to-noise ratio that

effectively provides a value for the lowest signal power allowed in
the cable.

In the previous example, the background noise is 5 10-13 W and

the minimum signal-to-noise ratio permissible is 20 dB. Then if PM
is the minimum signal power,

20 = 10 lg(PM / 5 1013)
PM = 5 1013 102 = 5 1011 W.

This enables the maximum uninterrupted length of cable along which

the signal can be transmitted to be determined.

Maximum loss in cable = 10 lg(500 10-3 / 5 10-11) = 120 dB

Maximum distance = 120 / 2 = 60 km.
 Example 4
The signal input to an optical fibre is 7.0 mW. The average noise
power in the fibre is 5.5 10-19 W and the signal-to-noise ratio must
not fall below 24 dB. The fibre has an attenuation of 1.8 dB km-1.
Calculate:
(a) The minimum effective signal power in the cable
(b) The maximum uninterrupted length of the optic fibre through
which the signal can be transmitted.
Solution:
(a) Number of decibels = 10 lg(P2 / P1)
24 = 10 lg(Pmin / 5.5 10-19)
2.4 = lg(Pmin / 5.5 10-19)
102.4 = Pmin / 5.5 10-19
Pmin = 102.4 5.5 10-19
Pmin = 102.4 5.5 10-19
Pmin = 1.38 10-16 W
(b) Attenuation = 10 lg (Pin / Pout)
= 10 lg(7.0 10-3 / 1.38 10-16) = 137 dB
Therefore maximum uninterrupted length = 137 / 1.8 = 76 km
 Attenuation: May 2009 Q12

A signal is to be transmitted along a cable system of total length 125 km.

The cable has an attenuation of 7 dB km1. Amplifiers, each having a gain of
43 dB, are placed at 6 km intervals along the cable, as illustrated in Fig.
12.1.
(a) State what is meant by the attenuation of a signal.[1]
(b) Calculate
(i) the total attenuation caused by the transmission of the signal along
the cable, [1]
(ii) the total signal gain as a result of amplification by all of the amplifiers
along the cable. [1]
(c) The input signal has a power of 450 mW. Use your answers in (b) to
calculate the output power of the signal as it leaves the cable system [3]
Solution: May 2009 Q12
 Digital: May 2007 Q10

An analogue signal is sampled at a frequency of 5.0 kHz. Each

sample is converted into a four-bit number and transmitted as a
digital signal.

Fig. 10.1 shows part of the digital signal.

The digital signal is transmitted and is finally converted into an

analogue signal.

(a) On the axes of Fig. 10.2, sketch a graph to show the variation
with time t of this final analogue signal. [4]

(b) Suggest two ways in which the reproduction of the original

analogue signal could be improved. [2]
Solution: May 2007 Q10
 Modulation: May 2008 Q11
(a) (i) Describe what is meant by frequency modulation. [2]

(ii) A sinusoidal carrier wave has frequency 500 kHz and

amplitude 6.0 V. It is to be frequency modulated by a
sinusoidal wave of frequency 8 kHz and amplitude 1.5 V.

The frequency deviation of the carrier wave is 20 kHz V1.

Describe, for the carrier wave, the variation (if any) of
1. the amplitude, [1]
2. the frequency. [3]

(b) State two reasons why the cost of FM broadcasting to a

particular area is greater than that of AM broadcasting. [2]
Solution: May 2008 Q11
 Modulation: Nov 2009 Q11

The variation with time of the signal transmitted from an aerial is

shown in Fig. 11.1.
(a) State the name of this type of modulated transmission. [1]
(b) Use Fig. 11.1 to determine the frequency of
(i) the carrier wave, [2]
(ii) the information signal. [1]
(c) (i) On the axes of Fig. 11.2, draw the frequency spectrum (the
variation with frequency of the signal voltage) of the signal from
the aerial. Mark relevant values on the frequency axis.
(ii) Determine the bandwidth of the signal. [1]
Solution: Nov 2009 Q11