Project Management Book

"The first 90% of a project takes 90% of the time, the last 10% takes the other 90%."

Project Management Book Chapter 1 - Introduction and Principles

[index of project

management book chapters]

Simplicity and humour may not be the first things that spring to mind when you think of
project management. However, we will try to keep it simple and even have the occasional
go at humour in this project management book .
This short first chapter sets out some principles and introduces themes that will be
expanded upon later.
What is a project? Definitions abound but usually boil down to something like this: a project
is a one-off, temporary activity with a clear start and a clear end (though some projects
never seem to end); it has full or part-time resources clearly assigned to it; it has a
temporary management hierarchy that takes precedence over the company hierarchy; and
it sets out to deliver something: an IT system, a new product or whatever.
Given the following four characteristics of projects:

finite time

people assigned

clear roles and responsibilities

things to deliver

Have you ever had this feeling about a project?

not enough time

too few people

people not sure what they should be doing

too much to do

What causes this feeling of sometimes overwhelming pressure? In its widest sense, a lack of
planning. People drift into projects without properly defining or planning them then one third
of the way through they begin to realise what it's really all about and the panic starts.
Sometimes the end date is thrust upon them arbitrarily, but sometimes project managers
voluntarily commit themselves to dates, costs and deliverables without troubling to define
and plan the project properly, which is lunacy.

You'll never remove the pressure altogether, in fact that's not even desirable: a bit of
pressure is good for the soul and gets the adrenaline flowing. But getting the pressure to a
sensible, containable level is the aim of many of the techniques we will cover in this project
management book . Such that when you make a commitment you at least have a fighting
chance of achieving it.
Another popular definition of a project is: the way change is achieved. Left to their own
devices many things gradually improve, but to bring about significant change, say to a
business process, a project is needed. However, to this definition we would add the word
predictable: projects are a way of bringing about predictable change. That is, at the
beginning of a project we should be able to predict cost, end date, deliverables and even
something about the quality.
What helps make a project predictable? Clear scope, clear roles, clear plans, clear control
mechanisms, clear reporting structures... in other words good project management. But
here is a question for you: if you take the total cost of a project expressed, say, in man
hours, what percentage should be spent on planning, controlling, reporting, etc. - i.e.
project management? Five, ten, fifteen, twenty percent?
The answer is: it depends. Imagine a simple project being done by a few experts who've
done many similar projects before. They may need hardly any control - perhaps only 5% of
the total cost will go on managing the project. But by contrast imagine a large, complex
project spread across many locations, staffed largely by novices who only spend part of
their time on the project. A huge panoply of control may be needed to keep everything on
track - perhaps even 35% of the project's total cost might be spent simply managing it. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"> <b>
Project Management Book </b> </a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
Suppose we conclude for a specific project it will be appropriate to spend 15% of the project
budget on project management. But the sponsor says "cut out all that bureaucracy and
reduce the project cost by 15%!". How would we respond?
Do we have a choice between a project costing 100 with project management and a project
costing 85 without it? We do not. The choice is between a project costing 100 with project
management and one costing an awful lot more than that without it. (And without the
controls in place we'd probably never know how much more!)
In other words project management is an investment: it results in the project costing less
than it would otherwise cost. If you don't believe that, it could be because your project
suffers unnecessary bureaucracy masquerading as project management. One of the many
skills of the project manager is knowing almost instinctively how much control to bring to
bear, so that small projects are not smothered by unnecessary red tape yet enough control
is applied to large projects to keep them on the straight and narrow. Some project
management methodologies seem to militate against this essential flexibility. But we will air
our prejudices on the subject of methodologies later.
Suppose you are asked to manage a project which on closer inspection you realise consists
of 5 sub-projects:
Project Management Proverbs
Humorous but oh-so-true project
business process re-engineering
management sayings, laws...

IT software development

Hardware installation

User training

Implementation and roll out

And you discover that each of the 5 groups involved has a different way of running their
projects and they each use different project management terminology. Would you have a
problem in running the programme? Probably you would. Ideally, every project in a
company (throughout for "company" read "public sector organisation" or whatever is
appropriate for you) would use the same project management approach and terminology.
This could be achieved by buying a PM methodology and imposing it, as is, on all projects.
An alternative might be to have rules and guidelines which are attuned to the needs of your
company. And notice: rules and guidelines, not standards. With a big book of standards it's
not always clear what's mandatory and what's optional and people tend to apply all of it just
in case.
What would be in the rules, what would be in the guidelines? The rules need be no more
than 16 pages of A6 (that's very small, shirt pocket sized) which, as far as any experienced
project manager is concerned, state the obvious. For example, one of the rules might be:
before each project stage begins risks must be formally assessed and significant risks
presented to sponsor. Now if you're thinking: "well of course we do that!" you've probably
been there, seen it, done it and got the project management T-shirt. But maybe you're
thinking: "that makes sense, but I'm not sure we ever tell the sponsor about the risks...".
Either way, read on. We include a sample set of project management rules in the appendix
of this project management book.
Whereas rules are mandatory and enforceable, guidelines are optional and, a bit like a
restaurant menu, offer a list of things from which you can choose: forms, procedures,
checklists, etc.
Though, faced with your first large project would you know which things to select? Quite
possibly not, which is why it might be a good idea for the project manager to state what
controls he intends to apply to his project and then have someone independent - we'll call
them Project Support - review what's intended. Project Support might conclude: "you've got
far too much bureaucracy intended...". Or they might say: "you've got nothing like enough
control planned...". Or with luck they'll say: "that looks about right". If one of the first two,
Project Support would help you devise a more appropriate set of controls for your project which is why we call them Project Support rather than Project Assurance or (ugh!) Project
Audit.

Process vs Project
In many companies there are, at the extremes, people who are process-oriented and those
who are project-oriented. For example, walk into any bank and watch what happens there.
Someone comes in to pay a bill. The clerk performs the task which takes maybe 30 seconds.
Each task the clerk will do during the day will be triggered by an external stimulus "please

can I pay this bill?" and each task they do during the day will be independent of every other
task they will do. People who grow up in these process-based or operational cultures
develop a management style appropriate for this reactive kind of work, which boils down to
Just Do It and do it now and do it quickly. You may have heard this approach referred to as
JFDI.

chapter 1 continued
This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any other
website. This project management book must not be reproduced in whole or in part
in any form without express written permission of the copyright holder M Harding
Roberts.
However, people who grow up in construction companies have a different experience. When
they joined as a young bricklayer they laid bricks in accordance to the project plan - the

customer does not ring up and say: "now lay brick number 735"! Work is not triggered by
external stimuli but by the project plan. For executives in construction the imperative isn't
so much to answer the phone within three rings but to get the housing estate built in the
scheduled 3 years. These guys know all about planning.
The trouble is, trying to do projects in inherently process-based environments can lead to a
clash of cultures which can cause many problems, though the cause of these problems often
goes unrecognised. Have you ever approached a senior business manager and said: "I need
two of your people to work full time on this project for the next month to define in detail the
business requirements that the new system will satisfy when we deliver it in eight months
time." And received the reply: "You must be joking! I've got a business to run here, I can't
afford to have two of my people taken off their job for a month. Come back in six months,
maybe we'll be able to tell you then what we'd like the new system to do."
Sometimes people who have never been involved in a project have no idea why it's
important to define requirements so far in advance of delivery. They are not being awkward
or bloody minded, they just don't understand. You've tripped over a project vs process
cultural issue.
If you ask IT people who have experience of large projects what helps projects succeed they
will tend to answer: "Planning, planning, planning and more planning." But a process-based
manager's reaction to this can be: "No! I manage two hundred people on the business side
of my company. We don't feel the need for all this planning nonsense, we just get on with
the work and do it. In fact it seems to me that planning is just an irritating, initial delaying
tactic used by the IT department to avoid ever doing any real work." Now there's a culture
clash for you.
However, you will find that if you take the trouble to explain to senior process-oriented
managers what projects are all about, they are intelligent people, they will readily
understand and will conclude that obviously projects have to be planned, business resources

properly assigned, requirements defined at the outset, etc. But all too often nobody explains
and the culture clashes persist.
In a pure process-based company the company hierarchy is primarily designed to manage
those at the bottom who actually do the work of running the business (Fig 1): <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008

Figure 1: Process-Based Company Organisation

In the extreme you join the company, say, as an order-taker and there you stay along with
19 other order-takers taking orders for 30 years. Your line manager manages his 20 ordertakers and that's the limit of his horizon. We exaggerate to make the point.
However, in a pure project-based company things are different (see Fig 2). A resource pool
of 50 engineers report to their line manager, 50 IT staff report to another line manager, 50
financial experts to another, and 25 project managers to another line manager. And they all
sit around doing absolutely nothing, just sit twiddling their thumbs all day. Until, that is, a
project comes along. Then a project manager is appointed. He selects 2 sub-project
managers, 6 engineers, 8 IT staff and 3 accountants and fits them all into a one-off
management hierarchy for the project. At the end of the project they all return to their
respective line managers and sit and wait for the next project to come along.

Figure 2: Project Based Company Organisation

In practice most companies are hybrids: some of a line manager's staff are doing work for
him - their "proper job" - while others are rented out full time or part time to project
managers. The line manager now has to be a task manager for those doing work for him, a
career manager for those on projects and he also must manage the inherent conflict
between servicing the day to day business and investing in the future.
In a hybrid company you could join, say, as an accountant: "Welcome," your boss says. "For
your first three months you'll be working not for me but for this project manager." Three
months later you return to your boss who then assigns you to another project for six
months. In fact you could spend your whole career hopping from project to project and
never actually do any work at all for your boss. (Though some would say this wasn't a
totally unknown phenomenon even before projects...)
Which skill set tends to be in shortest supply in these hybrid companies? Is it accountants,
engineers, programmers? No. Project managers. People who can manage projects in
process-based cultures are worth their weight in gold. Many if not most projects in processbased companies are managed by people who do not see themselves first and foremost as
project managers: "I'm an actuary managing this product development and development of
the IT system that will support it." Yet these people are expected to perform well as project
managers and overcome the cultural project inhibitors that are often a feature of processbased companies - lack of empowerment of the project manager being just one example.
In some companies being assigned to a project is to be cast out into the wilderness - a vote
of no-confidence from your manager, a career-limiting move and possibly a prelude to
redundancy. And yet those left handling the day to day business see those assigned to a
project as being "off on a jolly", escaping the pressures of the real world.
In other companies top management have established a more project-friendly ethos:
"Projects determine our future. I want our best people assigned to projects. I want good
project work rewarded with promotion. Indeed, henceforth, I will not appoint anyone to a
senior management position unless they have managed at least one significant project." We
will see how this state of grace might be achieved.

If you ask people what factors cause problems in projects these are the sort of things they
will say:

Undefined scope

Unclear objectives

Unclear roles and responsibilities

Vague requirements

Lack of leadership from sponsor

Lack of user involvement

Inadequate planning

Scope creep

Uncontrolled change

Inadequate monitoring and reporting

Team know it's impossible but management believe it will be done

Ignoring reality, wishful thinking

Inadequate communication

It is surprisingly rare for people to say that IT technology causes project failure or major
difficulties. It is usually project management - or a lack of it - that causes the grief.
There was a touching belief a few years ago that if only one could write down every step a
project must tread, then project managers could simply follow the process and out the other
end would pop a successful project. Huge methodologies were spawned, money was made.
But it isn't like that.
If you wanted to become a plumber you'd learn how to use each of the 50 tools in the
plumber's toolkit. On your first, simple job you might only use 2 of them, but knowing which
2 and how to use them to best effect is obviously key. On a large plumbing job you might
even use half the tools in your toolkit, but you'll never find any job on which you'll need to
use every tool in the box.
The same with project managers: it's all about being equipped with tools for managing
risks, defining scope, planning and scheduling, resolving conflict, etc and then using these
tools appropriately if and when needed. You cannot manage projects by rote.

"Successful project management is all about spotting the projects that will succeed and
shouting 'mine' and for the rest ducking and shouting 'yours'."

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2 - Projects and Stages [index] This project management book must not be copied in
whole or in part to any other website. This project management book must not be
reproduced in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.

One day you're happily sitting at your desk when your boss walks up to you and utters some
rather spine chilling words: "I have an opportunity for you."
It transpires that your company wants to write an all singing, all dancing new IT system that
will replace all the existing systems and will run the company's whole business. Your
opportunity is to manage the project. Having overcome your first reaction - to run like heck
- you take a look and you realise that, at the extremes, the project could be done in two
ways.
At one extreme you could establish a single, three year long project that would at the end of
three years deliver the new system: the "big bang" approach.
But you realise it could be done another way: as a series of releases. Release 1 would, after
8 months, deliver a subset of the eventual functionality but would be installed and used in
anger. Six months later Release 2 comes along and bolts on more function and by Release 4
everything will have been delivered.
Which might be the better approach? As always, it depends, but what might be the pros and
cons of each.
These are the arguments usually advanced in favour of the 3 year long big bang approach:

It's more visible

More focus from senior management because it's big

Only one implementation, one disruption to the business

Only one tranche of training

Plenty of time to do it properly

More holistic approach to design

Nice clean switch from old to new

If you are not involved in software projects:

The next three pages relate specifically to software development. If you want to skip
these three pages go here or see theindex

No temporary bridges from old to new

Everything being done only once so lower cost

If it's going wrong, plenty of time to get out before the end

And for the release approach these arguments are usually advanced:

Better team motivation

Less spent on project control

Greater flexibility for senior management

Learning from experience

Easier to handle change

Less business risk: evolution not revolution

Less waste on never-used functionality

Easier to manage four small projects than one large one

Easier to commit people for eight months than for three years

Fewer people leave during a release project than during the big bang project

Earlier benefits realisation

Lower cost overall (yes, it's on both lists)

Let's look at a few of these arguments in favour of releases in more detail.

Better team motivation. If you have ever worked on a long project you will know that at
the beginning the team members tend to think: "We've got three years to do this, bags of
time." And this lack of urgency can mean that not a lot gets done for several months. But if
the end date is only eight months away there's much more natural urgency and the team
think: "We haven't got long, we'd better get on with it."
Less spent on project control. The larger the project the greater the percentage of its
budget will need to be spent on controlling it. So four smaller release projects may well in
total spend less on project control than one large big bang project.
Greater flexibility for senior management. Imagine you are three quarters of the way
through a big bang project. It's growing like Topsy and getting far too expensive. Can you,
this far through, descope the project and save money? Probably not. Suppose you are
having an eight bedroom mansion designed and built for you, it's three quarters built but
getting far too expensive. Can you descope to a two bedroom bungalow and save money?
No, that will cost you even more at this stage.
The same is true when you're building IT systems - beyond a certain point descoping will
increase the cost not reduce it - not to mention the money wasted on what has been built
that must now be thrown away. But with a release strategy, at the beginning of Release 4
senior management could simply decide not to do Release 4 and save its whole budget.
Good news for the company but bad news if you happen to be the person whose need was
going to satisfied by Release 4. There is always a plus and a minus, but at least with
releases you get the choice.
Learning from experience. Release 1 goes live but the users conclude it isn't quite what
they wanted. You can learn from that and adjust in subsequent releases. If the users had
that same reaction when the big bang went live you have a bit of a problem. Equally, during
Release 1 you will learn in project management terms and each subsequent release will be
managed more efficiently and effectively than its predecessor, one hopes.
Easier to handle change. Suppose at the start of a three year long big bang project you
define in great detail the business requirements that the project will satisfy. Obviously, over
the three years a lot of those requirements will change - and change again, and change
again. The longer the project the greater the percentage of its budget will be spent
changing things that have been wholly or partially completed (see Fig 1). In fact some
projects are so long they drop off the end of the chart: they never finish - so much has
changed out there in the real world that the project is no longer relevant and it gets
cancelled.

Figure 1: Percentage of effort spent on change in a long project

With releases you can much more readily react to changing requirements (see Fig 2). Yes,
during Release 1 there will be some change to its requirements. But the real benefit is that
at the start of Release 2 you define its requirements as the world then is, not as it was six
months ago. And at the beginning of Release 3 you define its requirements as the world is
then, not as it was a year ago. Release 3 may also be able to exploit technology that wasn't
available a year ago - it's much more difficult to adopt new technology half way through a
big bang. With releases you'll almost certainly spend less on change.

Figure 2: Overall less spent on change

As an aside, if you are at the start of a large IT project and your best guess is that 35% of
your budget will be spent because requirements change as you go along, would you view
the project as high, medium or low risk? Experienced project managers would probably say
very high risk. Why? If you expect that much change you'll probably get more than that
anyway and you may find that so much is changing all over the place throughout the project
that it becomes very difficult to keep everything synchronised and you run the risk of chaos
breaking out. Even if 35% of the budget is set aside to cover the cost of the change the
change could still cause the project to get out of control. A good defence could well be to
break the project into releases. If you only spend 10% - 15% or so of your budget because
things change as you go along, you shouldn't have too much of a problem controlling
change. We will cover change more fully in a later chapter.
Of course, with releases some of the cost of Release 3 could be re-engineering what had
been delivered in Release 1, to improve it based on experience of use. This is either good
news (you're improving things) or bad news (it costs you) depending upon your point of
view.
Less business risk. When (if) the big bang project finally finishes, cutting over the
company's whole operation to the new system could represent a huge business risk - what if
it doesn't work? Cutting over a bit at a time at the end of each release may help the
Directors sleep a little easier.
Less waste on never-used functionality. Imagine you are a business manager and at
the beginning of a three year long big bang project you are asked: "What would you like this
system to do for you in three years time?" Your reaction will be: "Three years time! Well,
we'll definitely need this and this, almost certainly this, probably these things, maybe this
and we'd better put these things in just in case..." If you ever see a big bang delivered,
albeit late and over budget, and you do a hard-nosed audit of which functions are being
used and which are not being used you may be horrified to discover just how much of what

you have delivered is never used. That is a huge waste of money. The world never turns out
the way you thought it would three years ago.
Easier to manage four small projects than one large one. Small projects are usually
easier to manage than large ones and will probably need a smaller percentage of their cost
spent on project control.
Easier to commit people for eight months than for three years. It's much easier to
lock someone in to a project for 8 months than for 3 years. And committing business people
for 8 months probably means their skills will still be current when the project ends. After
three years out of the front line they may need retraining.
Fewer people leave. The longer the project the greater the risk that people will leave
during it. More people will leave during a three year long big bang than during a six or eight
month long release. Anyone leaving a project team constitutes risk.
Earlier benefits realisation. The big bang project may deliver a lot of benefits - but only
when it's finished. Three years can be a long time to wait. With the release approach you
start to reap benefits as soon as Release 1 goes live. And who knows, these benefits might
even pay for subsequent releases.
Lower cost overall. Which approach will be cheaper overall, big bang or releases? Put your
money on release. Less spent on control, less spent on change, less wasted on never-used
functionality. And the cash flow advantage of earlier benefits realisation can have a powerful
effect on the business case. Add to this the problems that large projects so often experience
and the option of breaking it up into shorter sharper releases becomes yet more attractive.
<a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008

In practice it depends upon so many factors that you can't say one option or the other will
always be the better. If it were that simple people wouldn't be paid all that money to
manage projects.
If you adopt a release approach, only include in Release 1 the functionality that will be
needed on day 1 and leave all the other stuff and the nice-to-have features until later
releases. But this raises one rather major question: whose job is it to ensure that Release 1
only contains the things that need to be in Release 1? People's answer to this question is
often "the users" - which is a pretty meaningless answer, or "the sponsor" - which is true
only to the extent that he is ultimately responsible for everything.
The correct answer is the project manager. This doesn't mean the project manager makes a
random selection in splendid isolation. It means that the project manager makes the
stakeholders (sponsor, steering committee members, users, IT, etc) work out what is really
needed and what isn't really needed in Release 1. However, in managing that process the
project manager may well find that he ends up knowing even better than the stakeholders
what they really need and in the end he may have to, with the sponsor's blessing, make the
scope decisions. It is ever so easy at the beginning of a large project to be everyone's friend
and say: "You'd like that included? No problem I'll put that in for you." Anyone can do that.

To be a good project manager you have to learn how to say the most important word in the
project manager's vocabulary: "No". Politely but firmly: "No".
At the start of Release 1 cut its scope back to the bone - for which everyone will hate you.
But they'll love you at the end when you deliver on time on budget. (Tip: having cut scope
to the bone at the beginning, during the project slip in a couple of sexy features that you
know everyone will like, but which you know will be cheap and easy to do - that'll make 'em
smile.)
There aren't all that many very large projects around so the chances are that the sponsor
and project manager will not have been involved in a very large project before. This
inexperience may mean that they drift into the big bang approach without too much thought
(or even awareness) of the releases alternative and on the unconscious assumption that it
must surely be cheaper to do everything just once. There are plenty of horror stories out
there of large projects that started out big bang, went nowhere, then restarted with a
release approach.
If nothing else, be alert to the danger that a big bang approach can imply, and the day the
boss knocks on your door and says: "I have an opportunity for you", from the very first
moment assume the release approach. Then, if after careful consideration you conclude big
bang really is better, fair enough. At least you'll be going in with your eyes open.
In summary, breaking a potentially long project into a series of short, sharp release projects
will probably cost less, deliver benefits earlier and be more likely to succeed. The release
approach will give the business a better return on investment.

Let us turn to the other end of the spectrum - making small enhancements to existing IT
systems. At the extremes there are two ways of dealing with small enhancements. At one
extreme is the ad hoc approach: each time someone raises a request to enhance, it goes to
IT, a programmer dives into the code, makes the change and it goes live whenever it's
ready. The obvious benefit is that it is quick - assuming you have enough IT guys waiting
around. Also, it doesn't require much management.
The alternative is to bundle, say, 20 enhancements together into a project - again let's call it
a release. During a year perhaps there will be four such releases on February 1st, May 1st,
August 1st and November 1st. The rule is that the live production system doesn't get
changed between releases except where there is an overriding need. What might be the
benefits of this approach? It's certainly predictable: the users know when each release is
coming and can plan around these release dates in terms of resources for testing,
procedural changes and so forth.
IT will probably do more thorough testing. There's an old adage amongst programmers:
"It's only a one line change, it doesn't need testing." Into production it goes and crash, the
live system comes tumbling down. You can't spend a week doing safety check, regression
testing of a one line change. But if it's part of a quarterly release it's much more likely that
there will be proper regression testing.
Economies of scale: it can take a programmer days to understand a complicated program
before he changes it. If a number of changes are made at the same time the understanding
overhead is borne only once. Doing those changes ad hoc would have meant reunderstanding the program each time.

The sheer act of promoting updates to the live environment costs money - do it every
quarter not every other day!
"If it works don't fix it." Every time a change is made to the live system there's a chance of
a mistake. If the system is working acceptably leave it alone.
One of the biggest benefits of the release approach to enhancements is that some
enhancements simply don't get done. Doesn't sound like a benefit? Consider this: how often
does a user shout loudly, "I want this changed, it's really urgent and important!". The
change is made but a week later the user can't even remember why he wanted it. With a
release approach there is more scrutiny of each potential enhancement and ones that aren't
worth doing are weeded out.
Bottom line, it's cheaper to do enhancements as releases: you're trading the speed of ad
hoc against the efficiency of releases.
Again, what is right for you will depend upon your environment. In a rapidly moving webbased retail environment a daily update of the program code that drives the website
mightbe worth the cost and the risk, but even here grouping changes into less frequent,
planned updates could well be beneficial. By contrast, for the system that administers your
company's pension scheme perhaps an annual release is best with changes between
releases only if they are absolutely essential.
How does this release approach to enhancements work, what is the process? Sometimes it
works like this:

User sends enhancement request to IT

User never hears anything about it ever again

We should be able to do better than that. Most IT groups have a service level agreement
(SLA) with their users. One item in the SLA might be: within 3 working days of receiving a
request to enhance we'll get back to you with a ballpark estimate. This ballpark estimate
enables the user to determine whether the enhancement would be worth doing given the
cost. If so it becomes a candidate for a future release. But who decides which release, if
any, it gets in to? All too often in the past IT decided and the perception was that IT didn't
give the business what the business asked for and needed.
There is another way.
The IT systems that run the business are company assets. Assets need owners. Suppose
the Marketing Director becomes System Owner for the company's order processing system.
What responsibilities would he have?

Account to the Board each year for the running cost of the system - this tends to
stimulate efforts to reduce running costs

Be accountable for the system's legal compliance - if the system puts the company in
breach of the law somebody has to stand up in court.

Be accountable for every penny spent enhancing the asset - decide which
enhancements get done and which don't get done.

In a small company the System Owner can personally decide which enhancements get done
but in a large company he will be too senior to do that so will delegate to his "Owner's
Representative" - a less senior business person. The Owner's Representative prioritises the
enhancement requests and, for example, recommends if only one could be done which one
it would be. It becomes the Owner's Representative's job to recommend which
enhancements get done in which release. Of course, genuinely urgent enhancements and
fixes will short circuit the process and get done now as an exception to the "no changes
between releases" rule.
Where the process works best the Owner's Representative meets informally with his IT
counterpart every month or so to discuss what's coming down the track and what the
priorities are. IT will suggest which enhancements it makes sense to do together for
technical and cost reasons. Their discussion will include consideration of the IT resource plan
(see Fig 3).

THIS YEAR
J F M A M J

BILLING
Release 10
Release 11
Release 12
Release 13
INVOICING
Release 2
Release 3
Release 4
Release 5

NEXT YEAR

J A S O N D J F M A M J

J A S O N D

2 2 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 7 6 6 5 4 4
3 4 4 5 5 5 7 7 5 4 2 2
2 2 2 2 3 3 6 6 6 6 8 11

2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 2 3 3 2 2
2 3 4 4 3 2
3 3 3 5 5

PURCHASING
Release 1
Release 2
Release 3

10 10 10 12 12 12 14 14 12 10 10 8 6 4 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 6 8 10 10 10 8 8 8
3 4 4 5 8 8 8 5 4

TOTALS

22 23 22 24 24 24 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 26 25 22 20 20 17 17 17 16 17 22

Figure 3: IT Resource Plan

Imagine you are the Owner's Representative for the Invoicing system. It's March and you're
contemplating the contents of Release 3 which starts in June and delivers in December.
Currently 2-3 IT people are planned to work on Release 3. But you, the Owner's
Representative, add up the estimates for everything you'd like in Release 3 and realise it
would need 12 IT people to deliver everything you'd like as opposed to the 2-3 that are
currently assigned. Who has the problem? You the Owner's Representative or IT? You do.
It's your job to balance the contents of the release and the IT resources. It doesn't balance

so what do you do? You'd consult with those who raised the enhancement requests and say
"we can't afford to do all of these, which ones can we live without?" Note we can't afford to
do all of them. Not "IT won't do them all for us."
By mid April you've pruned it, say, to 8 person's worth or work, but you're still 5 short. What
might you try now?
You might approach the Owner's Representatives of Billing and Purchasing to see if they'll
let you have some of the IT staff provisionally assigned to their projects. And what will they
say? "We need more IT resources too..." Worth a try.
At some point you believe you have a strong case for more IT bodies to be assigned to
Release 3 so you approach your System Owner.
The System Owners meet once a month to decide, inter alia, whether they want to re-slice
the IT cake. Maybe your Owner wins you the 5 bodies you need. But if he doesn't, you have
to cut the release content back to what can be delivered by those 3 IT guys.
This is a business led process by which the business decides how they want to use their
limited IT budget.
The business now have a nice plan showing the content of each release and the IT resources
planned for each release. But what else should the business have a plan for? Can the IT
people do these projects on their own? They most certainly cannot. Business users will need
to define detailed requirements, be involved in and agree designs, do some testing, be
trained in the new system features, and so on. Indeed, the user cost could be as great as or
even greater than the IT costs. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-books.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding
Roberts 2006 2007 2008
But have you ever seen a plan which shows the business how much of their resource will be
required for all these "IT" projects? Such a user resource plan often exists for a single large
project, but a plan that adds up all the user resources for all projects and thus tells business
managers how much of their resource will be needed for project work month by month is a
rare thing indeed. And if nobody tells the Marketing Director that, say, 20 of his 100 people
will be needed for project work what will he tend to assume in his planning? Zero. So every
time a project manager needs a body from Marketing it's going to be an uphill battle.
There is a reason why project resources are not factored in to business managers'
headcounts. Go back twenty or thirty years: there were many more people employed to
administer the business and fewer projects, so the percentage of a business manager's
resources assigned to project work was relatively small and didn't need to be planned
specifically. Today automation means far fewer people administering the business and the
pace of change means there are many more projects so the percentage of a business
manager's resources assigned to project work is much greater and must be factored into
business managers' headcounts.
It may even be appropriate to give one of the Directors an additional responsibility: Director
of Change and Project Resource Planning. At its simplest this means asking project
managers how much resource will be needed for their projects month by month (and if they
don't know make them guess - anything is better than a zero estimate by default) and then

add up all these resource requirements to show how many people (or FTEs - Full Time
Equivalents) each business area will need to set aside for project work.
The first time the totals of business resources for projects (see Fig 4) is presented to the
Board their reaction may well be "we can't free up that many from running the day to day
business!" which can then lead to a constructive discussion about the organisation's capacity
to do projects.

THIS YEAR

NEXT YEAR

J F M A M J

J A S O N D J F M A M J

1
1
2 2 2 2 2 3
2 2 2 2 2 2

1
1
3
3

J A S O N D

BILLING PROJs

HR
Marketing
Admin
Accounts

1
1 1 1
3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 6 6 6 6 8

3
8

INVOICING PROJs

Marketing
Admin
Accounts

1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 3 2 2

PURCHASING PROJs

Marketing
Admin

1 1 4 4 4 4 4 1
10 10 10 12 12 12 14 14 12 10 10 8 6 4 1

TOTALS
Marketing
Admin
HR
Accounts

1
13 13 13 15 16 17
1
6 6 6 8 8 8

2
19
1
9

5 5 5 5 5 6 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1
19 17 14 15 13 10 8 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 4
1
8 8 8 8 7 7 5 4 4 2 2 6 6 6 6 8

4
8

Figure 4: Business Resources for IT projects

If the Marketing Director has 100 people in his empire but the analysis shows that 20 will at
any time be assigned to projects (many more than in the chart above where it's only
between 1 and 6), he knows he really only has 80 people to do whatever Marketing does.
He should have to account to his boss only for how he has used 80 people. Who accounts
for how the other 20 are used? Those sponsoring the projects that use those 20. And indeed
the Marketing Director's boss should make it clear to the Marketing Director that those 20
FTEs must be working on projects.
One could even consider having everyone in the company do time recording each week. If
someone had spent all last week doing their "proper job" there could be a default time
record, but if that person spent 10 hours user testing project X they must record those 10
hours against the project X time code. Then perhaps for the first time the company will
begin to understand the true cost of projects as opposed to the IT tip of the project cost
iceberg.

How does all this help us as project managers? Fairly obviously if you ask Marketing for a
resource you're more likely to get a positive response if it's in the Marketing resource plan.
It doesn't guarantee you'll get the resource or the right resource but it makes it more likely.
This is all part of the shift in company culture from process-based to a project-based or at
least from a project-inhibiting culture to a project-enabling culture.

chapter 2 continued
Let us now turn our attention to the software development lifecycle.
IT people love inventing new words and co-opting existing ones into impenetrable jargon in
order, some would say, to bedazzle the uninitiated.
Extreme Programming, RAD (Rapid Application Development), DSDM (Dynamic Systems
Development Method), Functional Specification, EFBERD, Object Oriented - the list goes on
and on. Every few months a new way of doing software development is invented. Except
that it isn't.
There are something like 400 activities in the software development lifecycle. Define a data
item; write a program; write a test case; design an icon; hold a team meeting; etc.
Whatever you call the process into which these activities are slotted, the software
development lifecycle remains fundamentally the same. A rose by any other name... But
renaming the rose gives the illusion of dynamism, of innovation, of the availability of easy
solutions to thorny problems.
If only it were so.
Developing large software applications is tremendously difficult. Witness the number of well
publicised software projects that are seen as very expensive disasters. If anyone really had
found an easy answer to the software development challenge such disaster projects would
surely not still be happening.
Unfortunately, problem projects are not caused by "a problem" which has "a solution". We
will examine some of the factors which, if not addressed, lead to software project failure.
We have in a sense already alluded to one of these: the notion that there is such a thing as
"an IT project". This conjures up the idea that a commissioning company or public sector
organisation can call in a software house and get them to do the project: leave it all to them
and let them get on with it. The suggestion that the commissioning organisation should
commit significant numbers of their own staff to the project provokes the response "what
are we employing the contractors for?" You don't buy a dog and bark yourself, do you?
Underlying this attitude is a fundamental non-understanding of the software development
process. Talk to users who are involved in a software development project and you will find
they often have no conception of the lifecycle - the manufacturing process - of which they
are a key part.

So, let us look at the software development process and see how user and IT - client and
supplier - should work together.
Whatever you call the following steps - and everyone and every methodology has their own
terminology - you must go through these steps when developing software.
Project Definition
Defining project scope, roles, business case, etc.

Requirements Analysis
Defining in business terms the business data and
business processes that are to be automated. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b>Project
Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding
Roberts 2006 2007 2008

User Functions Design

Producing a system design that tells the users
what the system will look like and what it will do.

IT Technical Design
Technical design of the system's internals, i.e.
technical mumbo-jumbo that the user does not
need to know about and wouldn't understand.

Build and Test

Build could be writing a million lines of new code or
could be modifying a package or an existing
bespoke system, and then testing that it does what
the User Functions Design says it should do.

User Acceptance
The users say it's great and can go live.
Try this the next time you have a project team meeting. Give the team ten minutes

individually to write down what work should be done, and to what level of detail, in each of
the six steps above (or your equivalent of these six steps). Then get them to compare
notes. (And by the way, "the team" includes the users.)

Will they all have the same opinion of the major activities and outputs of each step? You can
bet your house they won't. The IT guys will have strong, but differing, opinions about what
they think should happen in each step and many of the users won't even understand the
question let alone have a clear view of the answer.
Imagine on Monday morning you're starting a project. At the peak there will be 60 people in
the team. 30 IT and 30 business users. They've never worked together before and you ask
them the question: what should happen in each lifecycle step. You'll probably get 61
different answers - 60 plus yours. Might this cause a problem in your project? It could cause
chaos. What would you do about it?
One solution might be to get all the team members you can identify (at the beginning you
won't know who all 60 will be) together for a day and define exactly what your software
manufacturing process is going to be. At the end of that day you will have for each step a
list of the activities within it and the deliverables from it.
For example, you might conclude that the User Functions Design step will deliver a User
Functions Design document (Functional Spec, call it what you will) which will have five
chapters and chapter 3 will be screen and web page designs (and you may even have a
model from a previous project); a revised Cost Benefit Case; a Test Plan; a Plan/Schedule
for the IT Technical Design step; etc.
But, you say, aren't these things all defined in the standards? Surely we don't need to reinvent the wheel for each project? And shouldn't the IT guys know what they're doing
anyway? Maybe; yes you do; and probably, respectively.
Nobody reads standards and even if they did they probably wouldn't understand them - and
that's assuming the standards actually define the software development process adequately.
Every project is different - you at least need to tailor standard processes to meet your
project's unique characteristics. Yes, the IT guys may know what they're doing within their
own specialist sphere but may lack a clear grasp of the overall development process. How
much does your average techie know about gathering user requirements? And those users
for whom this is their first project? They won't have a clue what should be done in each step
of the software development lifecycle.
So from that one day meeting you emerge with a clear manufacturing process that your
project will follow. But far more important, by the end of that day your team will have a
common understanding of the manufacturing process you will use. They know what work
will be done in each step and to what level of detail and they know precisely what will be
delivered from each step.

Requirements Analysis
In that one day session there will be a lot of debate about the level of detail at which the
requirements should be defined in the Requirements Analysis (or whatever you choose to

call it) step. Some will say they should be defined "at a high level" (which means nothing),
others will say "in quite a lot of detail" (which means nothing) and others will say "in as
much detail as possible" (which can mean anything you want it to mean), and some won't
really know what you mean by "define requirements" anyway.
In how much detail should the requirements be defined in the Requirements Analysis step?
By the end of that step you must have defined every item of data (e.g. Invoice Number):
how many digits or characters long it is and its valid values (e.g. must be all numeric). And
for each business process (e.g. take an order): which data items go in to it, what happens
to that data (look ups, calculations, is it to be stored). And for each output (e.g. an
Invoice): the data that must appear on it and how that data is calculated or derived.
One way to get across to the team, particularly to the business users, how much detail is
needed in the requirements is to say: "imagine the computer has not been invented (which
usually raises a cheer) and you have to write a procedure which somebody off the street
could follow step by step and thereby run your business - in how much detail would you
have to write the procedure?" At which point they will all go "phew" when imagining the
huge amount of detail that would be needed.

For example
1. When the phone rings pick it up
2. Ask the customer for their customer number
3. Look it up on the customer number list
4. If they don't know their customer number ask for their name and address...
And so on for many many pages. And even considering the above you can probably think of
half a dozen what ifs? that would need to be defined (what if it isn't a customer who is
ringing...?)
Holding brutally rigorous requirements definition workshops, which may last for weeks, can
be an effective way of extracting from the heads of the business experts exactly what the
process is that they want automating. But you will find that when you press an expert in,
say, Credit Checking to articulate exactly what the process is he doesn't know. (And if he
can't tell you, the programmers have got no chance.) So, you stop the session, tell him to
go and find out, and continue when he has the answer.
And you must define all the what ifs. What if the customer changes the order? What if we
entered the order incorrectly? Simply defining the basic processes that would be followed in
a perfect world where everyone gets everything right first time will leave you with a system
completely unable to function in the real world.

Defining requirements thoroughly and fully can be a very painful process - a bit like ice
breaking: you ram at the ice, get stuck, back off, ram at it again until finally you break
through.
Don't forget the less obvious users like Legal and Internal Audit: they will have
requirements too particularly if you're building a new, green field site system. Trying to
retrofit things like audit trails can be tricky.
Users are absolutely hopeless at defining their requirements - almost as bad as IT people.
So what's the answer? People - business analysts you might call them - who are trained how
to extract requirements from users. These people know how to run those hot-house
requirements definition sessions and ensure the results are clearly documented. They will be
very hard-nosed and insist that no detail is glossed over, that no-one is allowed to get away
with anything other than a complete and detailed definition of their part of the business
process. This is very difficult as the business process being defined may not exist today - it
may be a new business process or a re-engineering of an existing process. Running these
requirements definition workshops really is a highly skilled job.
The requirements definition sessions should not just be attended by users and business
analysts. Members of the IT design team should attend too. Why? Three reasons: they can
point out that the way a business process is being formulated would make it difficult to
design and program and perhaps that an equally good way of doing the thing would be
much easier to solution. Secondly, these IT designers have a very powerful incentive to
make sure the requirements are properly defined because if they aren't they will have great
difficulty in the design step. But most important, the IT people get a feel for what the users
really want - what's important to them, how things should work. They will pick up a lot of
useful insights which would never have come through from a dry business process definition
document.
Even try saying this. "Team - users and IT - in the Requirements Analysis step I want you to
define all of the requirements such that there would be no need for the IT team to ask any
user about anything later in the project."
In a project, whose job is it to make the users define their requirements properly? The
project manager's.

User Functions Design

A joint team of users and IT having fully defined and documented the requirements, we now
move on to the User Functions Design step. The primary output of this step is the User
Functions Design (UFD) document which essentially tells the users, the client, exactly what
the system will do and how it will look. It is not just pretty pictures of screens and web
pages: everything the system will do (edits, calculations, etc) is specified.
Whereas in the requirements document everything was defined strictly in business terms,
the UFD describes the IT system (or systems). Every edit, every calculation, every process

mentioned in the requirements document is reproduced here in the context of the system
design. If the requirements document says a field must be all numeric, that validation check
would be described in the UFD as part of the logic behind the screen or web page on which
that field is to be entered. Requirements that will be excluded from the design and eventual
system must of course be listed with the reasons for their exclusion.
Vitally, all of the requirements that will be satisfied in the delivered system must be
incorporated into the User Functions Design (UFD) document.
Much of the evolution of the design should be a collaborative effort between user and IT
people. For example, the requirements document would specify the, say, 23 data items that
comprise an order. The User Functions Design step will determine whether these are all to
be entered on one screen or on several screens, or even on 23 screens. This has to be a
conclusion reached both on technical grounds and on usability grounds.
Techniques such as inspection, prototyping and simulation can be adopted to ensure the
UFD is complete and correct. We discuss these and other techniques for ensuring the quality
of the UFD in the Quality Management chapter.
You might like to ponder this question (which will be answered in the Project Organisation
chapter): who should sign off the User Functions Design document and be held accountable
for its correctness?
There will be several other outputs from the User Functions Design stage: testing strategy,
implementation plan, project plan for the IT Technical Design step, a revised cost benefit
case, and you can probably think of many others.
Having finished the UFD document and got it signed off what happens when, later in the
project, somebody wants to change a requirement? Which document(s) do you update? You
could update both the requirements document and the User Functions Design document.
But this clearly has a cost. We would recommend that only the User Functions Design
document is updated. In other words, once the User Functions Design document has been
completed, the requirements document is archived. Though frankly it doesn't really matter
which document or documents you decide to keep updated. What does matter is that you
and the team are crystal clear about which document(s) you will keep up to date. This is
one of the many decisions you must make at the start of the project, perhaps in that one
day meeting in which you hammer out your project's manufacturing process. As with so
many things in projects, it doesn't matter how you do it as long as you and the team know
which way you're going to do it.

IT Technical Design
The User Functions Design document tells us exactly what the system must do. The IT
boffins can now get to work designing the system's internals: objects, databases - the
technical mumbo-jumbo. In theory the users have no involvement in this step. In practice

the User Functions Design document may not be quite as clear as we would have liked and
questions of the users may need to be asked. Further, the techies might come to the
conclusion that something specified in the User Functions Design document is just about
impossible, or would at least be very expensive to deliver as designed, so they may seek
the users' and designers' permission to change it. So the users do need to be on hand
during what appears to be a totally technical step.
It's a good idea to have some of the people who will do the IT Technical Design working on
the previous step, the User Functions Design: they will spot at that stage things that will be
difficult to do technically.
In parallel with this technical design, the users should be engaging in another set of major
activities. The users know what system they are going to get and they know when they are
going to get it, so they can now begin preparing for user testing, user training,
implementation, roll out, etc. These activities should all be an integral part of the project
plan.

Build and Test

Churning out code in accordance with the IT Technical Design should be relatively
straightforward as long as the requirements and User Functions Design are not being
constantly changed and the IT Technical Design was properly done. By contrast, if the
requirements and User Functions Design were woolly and/or keep changing, the Build stage
can be chaotic. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008
How much business knowledge do you need to do system testing, assuming there is a high
quality and stable User Functions Design document? Not a lot. If we have updated the User
Functions Design document as changes came along during the project it provides an
unequivocal benchmark against which the system can be tested. More about testing in the
Quality Management chapter.

User Acceptance
Note, we do not call this step User Acceptance Testing. In theory no separate user testing
should now be needed. We know the system works because System Test proved that it did.
In practice it is seldom like that. The users do tons of their own testing and find a mountain
of bugs. Is there any other industry in which the customer is prepared to spend a lot of time
and money getting the bugs out of a shoddy product delivered to them by a supplier?
And one hopes the days are long gone when User Acceptance Testing is where the users
start to redefine their requirements.

The users having accepted the system, we go live, pick up our large bonus for such a
successful project and live happily ever after.
It is ever so easy in a software project to claim that the requirements have all been defined
when they haven't really and move on having apparently met the milestone. It's equally
easy to "finish" the design stage and claim the credit when the design is nothing like
complete or correct. Then the proverbial spectacularly hits the fan in the build and test
stage and/or when the system goes live. Please don't do it.

Lifecycle
Clearly, we have not sought to describe all 400 or more activities that comprise the software
development lifecycle. We have given an overview of the lifecycle and laid stress on the
need for user and IT people to work together as a single team, particularly during the
Requirements Analysis and the User Functions Design steps. Having the users in isolation
write requirements and then give the document to IT who then in isolation write a design
document and pass it back to the users for sign off is a recipe for disaster. And getting the
users to write the requirements anddo the visible parts of the system design (such as
screens, web pages and output formats) and pass that document to an IT organisation and
say "deliver that" will probably be an even greater disaster.
It is unfortunate that in small, simple software development projects almost any approach
will work. The userscan define their requirements in isolation and pass them to IT and
things will probably work out. The users can even do the design themselves and pass it to
IT. Iterative prototyping, DSDM, Extreme Programming - these approaches will all work in
certain circumstances - particularly in small, simple, self contained projects with an
experienced team. Unfortunate because people's experience that these approaches work
means they try them on large, complex projects and find out the hard way that they may
not scale up.
Incidentally, techniques such as RAD and DSDM are actually highly structured techniques
that work well where applicable. It is when they are misinterpreted as being techniques that
require no project definition, no planning, no documentation, no sign offs, etc that they
become dangerous.
Whether you call your development process Waterfall, RAD, DSDM, Extreme Programming
or whatever really doesn't matter. What matters is that whatever process you're going to
use the team understand it.
Whose job is it to ensure that all members of the project team understand the
manufacturing process that the project will use? You guessed it, the project manager.
The Analogy

The software development process is complicated and not easy to explain to senior
managers. If you have only five minutes to get some key points about the software
manufacturing process across to senior people try this.
Do you buy a ticket for the Lottery every week? Well, this week you're rash - you invest
your pound and buy a ticket.
And at last your numbers come up! You haven't won a fortune though, only a million
pounds/dollars/euros. Clearly you now have a problem: deciding what to do with the million.
You consider many high level solutions to the problem: buy a small island; retire; buy a
yacht; invest it; etc. But in the end you decide the outline solution to the spend-a-million
problem will be to have a house architect designed and built.
Your Project Definition Document (PDD) says: Problem - spend a million; Outline Solution design and build a house; Sponsor - you; Users - your family.
You and the family spend many happy evenings defining your requirements. Now, secretly
you have always wanted seventeen children - which you can now afford - so the
requirement is for a house with 17 small bedrooms.
If you now approach a useless architect he will design a house for you which has 17 small
bedrooms - and nothing else. Kitchen? You didn't ask for a kitchen. Bathroom...?
But a good architect will work collaboratively with you during the design step and take you
back to your fundamental requirement which is to house the tribe, and working together
you will design a house with a kitchen, bathroom, living room and perhaps 9 double
bedrooms. Ideally you would perhaps have involved the architect in your requirements
analysis sessions so that he could have got a good feel for what sort of house you're <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 really after and so he could guide you away from asking for things that would be
impossible or ridiculously expensive to build.
Half way through the design step the architect says to you: "Look what arrived in my post
this morning, it's a brochure advertising solid gold bath taps. Aren't they lovely?" You take
one look and it's love at first sight: you must have solid gold taps throughout the house!
"But," the architect says. "They are /$/50,000 a pair!" In that case, you decide, you will
change your requirements: you will only have two children and instead spend the money on
solid gold taps throughout the house. Doubtless a wise decision.
This happens in all IT projects: when the business users see what is possible technically
they say: "ahah, we didn't know that was possible, we'll change our business process to
exploit that." You need to allow for this kind of thing in the design step plan.
A high-tech architect will now put the draft house design into a virtual reality simulator. You
will don the headset and walk around your house in virtual reality, getting a feel for what it
will be like when eventually built.

Even if you get this VR simulation the architect will still produce a document for you with all
the floor plans, which way the doors open, whether the taps will be solid gold or gold plated,
etc. And once you have signed off that document that will be the house you're going to get.
If it was your house and your money would you pay attention to that document before
signing it? You bet! Unfortunately users in IT projects don't have quite the same incentive to
scrutinise the User Functions Design document. In an IT project whose job is it to make the
users apply their minds to reviewing the UFD properly before signing it off? Once again
you've guessed it - the project manager.
The techies now get to work on the technical design of your house. Would you be interested
in knowing how many British Thermal Units your boiler was rated at or the Newton value of
the concrete blocks? You wouldn't.
In some IT projects IT produce a design document that contains the user functions design
and the technical mumbo-jumbo design muddled together and then ask the users to sign it
off. Result: befuddled users. Don't do it. Keep the User Functions Design document to those
things the user needs to know and put all the techie stuff in a separate IT Technical Design
document.
Back to our house. Half way through the technical design step the builder calls you and
says: "you know we promised you a twelve foot wide living room? Could we make it 4
metres instead, which is thirteen feet one and a half inches? No extra cost." You ask why.
"Well, joists all come in metric sizes now, so it's actually cheaper to build it 4 meters than
12 feet."
You might say: "Great! More space no cost? Go for it." Or you might say: "No, the living
room must be twelve feet wide because all my Persian rugs are 12 feet wide."
The same happens in IT projects. IT discover it would be much cheaper if two input screens
were combined into one - would the users like to agree to such a change?
The builder builds the house and the builder checks that it all works in accordance with the
"User Functions Design" document plus any agreed and signed off changes. How would you
feel if, house nearly finished, the builder in the middle of winter invited you to come and live
in the house on a trial basis to test whether the central heating works or not? You wouldn't
do it, would you? But for some strange reason users of IT projects seem happy enough to
test half-baked IT systems.
But your builder is a professional and gets the house right. You then move in and live
happily ever after.
Two things are obvious about the house-building project which are equally true in software
projects but not equally obvious in software projects. Firstly, in the house-building project
where would you and your family be primarily involved?

In the Project Definition step: it's a house not a yacht or an island

In the Requirements Analysis step: we want 17 bedrooms

In the User Functions Design step: the house will be like this...

In the Technical Design step your involvement is minimal (though you do need to be
available to consider changes proposed by the builder), ditto in the Build and Test step and
the Acceptance step should be just a formality. (Would you say; "ah, now I see it built what
I actually wanted was..." Don't think so.)
In the house-building project you will be heavily involved in the project definition,
requirements and the design steps. Exactly the same should be true for users in IT projects
and for the same reasons. Though you do have a fairly major sub-project that runs in
parallel with Technical Design and Build: the House Move sub-project. Getting bills and bank
statements redirected, organising the removal men, etc. Just like the user implementation
activities in an IT project.
Secondly, at the design stage you'd like a window moving three feet to the left. How much
will the change cost you? Not very much, it might even be free. But when the house is
nearly finished what will that same change cost you? A lot of money! The same is true in
software projects but nothing like so obvious.
The analogy makes a couple of things very clear to senior managers: why they should
invest their user staff in the early stages of the project; why they should ensure the design
is checked very thoroughly; and why they should not change their mind about the
requirements having signed off the design. Suddenly it's all rather obvious.
Designing and building houses is in many respects very similar to designing and building
software and the analogy can help to de-mystify the software development process.
Though this notion that we should explain to senior business managers what software
development projects are all about does rather overlook the Medieval Monk tendency
amongst some IT suppliers. Medieval monks didn't like peasants to be able to read as this
enabled them to acquire knowledge and thus potentially challenge some of the nonsense
with which the monks held them in thrall. For similar reasons some who later translated the
Bible into English were burned at the stake (e.g. by Henry VIII): can't have the peasantry
challenging our interpretation of the scriptures, bang would go our power! Interestingly
when Henry VIII later dissolved the monasteries he commissioned an English translation of
the Bible exactly for that reason - to erode the monks' power.
Projects are all different. Decide what's the most appropriate way to do yours, make sure
the team understand it and enlighten senior managers.

Manageable Chunks
We come to the last bit of this chapter (fear not, most other chapters are shorter).
Manageable chunks or more formally Management Stages. You need to grasp this next bit
or you'll be all at sea for the rest of the book.
Suppose you have a project that's five weeks long and employs you and one other person.
Having spent a couple of days defining and planning the project would you feel reasonably
confident about committing to the cost and end date, give or take a bit? Please say "yes".
How about if you were the sponsor, would you be happy to give the project manager the
whole budget for that little project in one go and say "see you when you've done it?" You
would. From a control point of view our five week project has one Management Stage.

But your next project is rather different. It takes ten weeks just to define and plan it and
you realise it will require many releases and Release 1 alone will take about 12 months and
will employ around 100 people at the peak. At the end of the project definition stage would
you commit head-on-the-block to the cost and end date of Release 1? Probably not. You
might conclude that you can only really estimate and plan with confidence up to the end of
the User Functions Design step, and only when you have done the UFD could you plan and
commit the rest of the project. The project looks like this:

Project Definition
Defining project scope, roles, business case, etc.

Stage 1

Requirements Analysis
Defining in business terms the business data and
business processes that are to be automated. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b>Project
Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding
Roberts 2006 2007 2008

Stage 2
User Functions Design
The project consists of two
Producing a system design that tells the users what
Management Stages. (And arguably
the system will look like and what it will do.
three: if the Project Definition step is
going to take ten weeks we might well
want to manage that as a formal stage
IT Technical Design
too.) You can now see why we have
Technical design of the system's internals, i.e.
hitherto been using the term step
technical mumbo-jumbo that the user does not
(Requirements Analysis step, UFD
need to know about and wouldn't understand.
step, etc.): to differentiate them from
Management Stages. In our project
the Requirements Analysis step and
Build and Test
the UFD step make up Management
Build could be writing a million lines of new code or
Stage 1. Equally stages are not the
could be modifying a package or an existing
same as releases: in our example
bespoke system, and then testing that it does what
Release 1 consists of two Management
the User Functions Design says it should do.
Stages (three if Project Definition will
be a formal stage). From hereon we
will usually refer to a Management
User Acceptance
Stage simply as a stage.
The users say it's great and can go live.
Before each stage begins the project
manager commits to the cost and end date of that stage and gives an outlook for any later
stages. Before each stage begins risks will be formally assessed, a detailed plan and
schedule for the stage will be built, roles will be defined and assigned and resource

commitments for the stage will be obtained. At the end of the stage the project manager
must re-evaluate project costs and benefits and go to the sponsor for authorisation to do
the next stage.

How long in elapsed time should a stage be? If stages are very short you'll spend your
whole life assessing risks, defining roles and getting authorisations and get completely
bound up in red tape. But by contrast if stages are too long you'll be trying to predict the
unpredictable. As always in project management the answer is: it depends. Many factors will
influence how long stages should be. But perhaps something between 2 and 6 months
would be reasonable with stages typically 3 or 4 months long?
One might say that before each stage begins the project manager makes a fixed price
contractual commitment to the project sponsor. We are beginning to apply the same sort of
disciplines to internal company projects that would be applied to outsourced projects.
If at the start of Stage 2 the sponsor does not authorise Stage 2 in writing what is the
project manager obliged to do? Stop work and send the team home. And wait for the
sponsor to make his mind up either to commit the funds for Stage 2 or to cancel the
project. This is not so much a discipline imposed on the project manager as on the project
sponsor, to force him to make an informed business decision: is the project still a good
investment for the company or not. Arguably too few projects get cancelled in this way, they
roll on under their own momentum like a giant snowball even though the need for the
project has long since melted away.
This principle of dividing projects into Management Stages for control purposes, and most of
what follows in this book, applies to just about any sort of project that goes through steps
such as design and build. If you wanted a new theatre built in your town you might get a
fixed price quote from an architect to produce all the designs, then you'd get a fixed price
quote for the construction.
(If this was a methodology textbook we would now invent a fancy name such as "Linear
Contiguous Stratification" for this simple idea of dividing a project into Management Stages.
Not only does it sound impressive, it would also mean we could set an exam which asks
"what is Linear Contiguous Stratification?" and if you picked the correct multiple choice
answer we could accredit you in our methodology and you could claim to be a qualified
project manager. We could even trumpet to the world that we had a "new" way of managing
projects, whereas what we actually would have done is coin a new term for a universally
used technique - which is essentially what all methodologies do. We will resist the
temptation.)
In conclusion, if the project team understands the work steps the project will use - the
manufacturing process - and they understand the control mechanisms wrapped around that
work you have a fighting chance your project will look like this:

Business Need ---->

Project Definition

Requirements Analysis

User Functions Design

IT Technical Design

Build and Test

User Acceptance

Benefits Realisation
----> Happy Users

But if the team don't understand, your project will look more like this one:

Business Need ---->

----> Unhappy Users

Wild Enthusiasm

Disillusionment

Confusion

Panic

Search For The Guilty

Punishment Of The Innocent

Promotion Of Non-Participants

Though we are quite sure you will not recognise any of these characteristics from your own
experience. This kind of disaster project usually has one simple underlying cause: the
project manager didn't do his job properly.

"A user is someone who tells you what they want the day you give them what they asked
for."

3 - Roles and Responsibilities [index] This project management book must not be copied
in whole or in part to any other website. This project management book must not be
reproduced in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
What makes projects such fun is that they are all
different. And because they are all different each will
need a unique project organisation. chart
If roles and responsibilities are not clear many problems
will result:

Free Year Planners

Free wall planners. Opens in new window so you won't
lose your place

ultimate source of authority unclear: poor

leadership

people do not know their responsibilities: people will not do what they need to do to
make the project successful

not clear who can decide what: slow decision making

others' roles unclear: you don't know who to talk to, poor communications

unauthorised projects start: nobody's job to authorise projects

lack of accountability: there's little incentive to do things properly

resources aren't committed: nobody is held to account for breaking resource

commitments

unclear objectives: project objectives are not owned by anyone, everyone has their
own opinion, moving target, potential failure

So, before any project begins we must ensure amongst very many other things:

a clear management hierarchy exists for the project

each person has a defined and agreed set of responsibilities

people will be held accountable by their line manager for performing their project
role

Conjure up in your mind a medium to large IT project (or another type of project if you
wish). If you feel energetic, find a piece of paper and draw a project organisation chart.
Is yours anything like this one?

Sample project organisation chart

Yours is probably quite different. Does that mean that yours is wrong? No, this isn't a
methodology textbook. Indeed, there is no right answer: the organisation chart will be
specific to your project.
Let us explore each of the roles in the example above and then consider some other
possible project organisations.
One hopes your organisation chart at least had a Project Sponsor. Ever had the experience
of asking a sponsor what his role is and getting a rather blank look by way of reply?

Role of Project Sponsor (Role of Senior Responsible Owner)

The first thing to note is that on our chart the box at the top, Board, means Board of
Directors (not project board). As far as the project is concerned the sponsor is top of the
tree. But what is his role, what are his responsibilities?

Accountable for the project. If it goes wrong the sponsor should be the first person
up in front of the firing squad. In companies where the Board of Directors hold
sponsors accountable, sponsors suddenly become much more interested in who is
managing the project for them - their fate is partly in the hands of the project
manager.

Select, or at least approve, the project manager.

Acquire funding for the project from the Board of Directors, or whoever it is that
authorises funds for projects.

Champion the project, promote and support it in high places.

Own the project's business case.

Accountable for realising benefits once the project is delivered. What effect might
this have on prospective sponsors if they know they will be held accountable for the
claimed benefits being realised post project? They will probably be a lot more
realistic about the benefits they claim in the business case.

Give the project manager the go or no go at the start of each project stage.

State and own the project's objectives, have the vision (but beware, there's a fine
line between vision and hallucination.)

Make a presentation at the project kick off meeting, explain why the project is
important.

Act as the project's Godfather, that's Godfather in the Mafia sense: if there is a
problem the project manager can't sort out, the sponsor has a quiet word with the
offending party and makes them an offer they can't refuse. One hopes the problem

will evaporate away, and that next time people will listen to the project manager.
Indeed, it is not totally unknown for project managers artificially to engineer a crisis
in the early days of a project, identify a guilty party who is on the periphery of the
project, and then get the sponsor to sort that person out very firmly and make sure
everyone knows about it. The message that goes out is then very clear: get in the
way of the project manager and the sponsor will come down on you like a ton of
bricks. This can encourage co-operation with the project manager. (Handle with
care.)

Resolve issues the project manager can't.

Ensure only needed function is delivered and that money isn't wasted on
unnecessary functionality and features.

Accountable for legal compliance of the finished product.

Chair project steering committee.

Empower project manager to manage the project.

Commission post implementation business case review.

How much work is involved in being a sponsor - how many days a month would it take? It
should only be one or two days a month. If you think about it, there are some fairly heavy
accountabilities on the list but not much day to day doing - that is delegated to the project
manager. Of course it may be more than a day or so at the start or if major problems arise.
How many projects can one person sponsor at a time? Three or four, maybe five? But
anything beyond that and the sponsor isn't going to be interested in, or even aware of,
some of their projects and they become a name in a document and nothing more.
The trick is to have a sponsor who is senior enough to have the clout your project needs,
but junior enough to be interested in your project if it's a small one. There could be several
levels of director/manager in your company who can take on the role of project sponsor, the
level of the sponsor for any given project depending upon factors such as the project's
budget, criticality and the degree of cross-functional involvement. (If HR, Marketing,
Engineering and IT are all heavily involved you'll probably need a senior person to be the
sponsor.)
How would you feel about having several people acting as co-sponsors - good idea? No:
you'd never know who was in charge. But imagine a project comes along and three
members of the Board of Directors will benefit equally from it and they are each in effect
paying one third of the project's budget. Rather than have 3 co-sponsors, one of the
Directors becomes the sponsor. But if you were one of the other two Directors would you be
happy to be shut out of the project altogether? Probably not: you'd want to see how it was
going and to make sure your part of the business was getting a fair crack of the whip. We
have just defined the project steering committee (sometimes known as the project board or
even project review board).

Role of Project Steering Committee

Nominally the steering committee comprises the heads of those parts of the company (or
companies) that are significantly involved in or affected by the project. So, if it's a large IT
project for Marketing, perhaps the Marketing Director would be the sponsor and the IT
Director would join him on the Steering Committee. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 In our example in the previous paragraph,
the HR Director might have been the sponsor with the Finance Director and Logistics
Director joining him on the steering committee, and let's assume the IT involvement isn't
that great and therefore the IT Director will not be on this project's steering committee.
But who decides who should be on the steering committee? In some companies the
Standards do! For example they might say there must be a sponsor, a senior customer and
a senior supplier. So guess what? Every project has a 3 person steering committee (project
board) whether it needs it or not. Who should decide who's on the steering committee? The
sponsor should, but the project manager should make strong representations and suggest
who would add value, who would actually help the project to succeed - that's why they're
there, after all. Also agree with the sponsor when the steering committee should meet: the
frequency may well vary during the project's life, and agree the mechanics of steering
committee meetings: who will chair them (the sponsor), who presents what, etc.
A steering committee can be a menace: they squabble, cause delay by not making
decisions, meddle in the detail - e.g. what colour the heading on a web page should be.
(Sometimes called the bicycle shed syndrome: the company board have no strategic ideas
or find them too difficult to grapple with so instead they have lengthy discussions about
something they can understand - where to locate the bicycle shed.)
By contrast, a good steering committee can be a tremendous asset to a project.
What is the role of a member of the steering committee - what would you want them to do
to help you, what would you want them not to do?
You would want them to:

Help the project manager secure resources. So as PM you want people on the
steering committee who are the ultimate owners of the bodies you will need for the
project.

Bang heads together within their own domains if their people are having difficulty
making their minds up.

Interact with other steering committee members to resolve inter-departmental

disagreements.

Make timely decisions.

Publicly back the project manager's decisions.

Support the project.

Project Management Proverbs

Humorous but oh-so-true project management sayings, laws...

But, as suggested above, you would not want them to:

Meddle in the detail.

Keep changing their minds.

Play politics (tricky to prevent!).

Undermine the authority of the project manager.

Whose job is it to make sure the steering committee members understand their role? The
project manager's. Book one-on-one meetings with each of the steering committee
members and lay it on the line for them, make it very clear what their role is and what their
role isn't. You, as project manager, might be a relatively junior person and you are now
having to tell a senior manager or Director what their job is and what it isn't. This requires a
bit of courage. It is not without reason that good project managers get paid a lot of money.
Does every project need a steering committee? Not really. If the whole effect of the project
will be felt within the sponsor's empire he is almost by definition a one person steering
committee. One can debate whether the project manager is on the steering committee or
simply attends it. It doesn't matter. But the project manager clearly must be at steering
committee meetings.
Role of Project Manager
What does the project manager do? Many a team member has muttered that question
under their breath.
The list of project manager's responsibilities is either very long or very short. The short one
is: the project manager is responsible for everything. Let's break that into some of its
component parts:
Define and get agreement to roles. If halfway through a project it becomes clear the
sponsor doesn't understand his role, whose fault is that? The project manager's. Defining
roles means defining roles upwards as well as downwards. Particularly if it is the sponsor's
first project, take half an hour to run through with the sponsor what he can do to help his
project succeed. Note, his project, not yours. And as we said on the previous page, do the
same with each member of the steering committee.
Some projects go nowhere because senior managers aren't clear what the project is really
trying to achieve. If you suspect this is the case take them offsite for a day and get them to
sort themselves out and hammer out a clear mission statement for the project. In one case
that comes to mind a project had set out to be all things to all men. After several false
starts a new project manager was brought in. He made the Directors clarify the project's
goals and strip down the project scope, and only then did useful things start to get done.
Secure resources and fashion into a team. Getting promises from Directors - the
steering committee - to provide people for the project is one thing. Getting the managers
who directly own those people actually to release them is quite another thing. We will
address this in a later chapter.

Having acquired the bodies, you will need to do some team building. This could just be a get
together meeting. But if your team comprises people from IT, HR, Finance, Marketing,
Logistics and Admin, and there has historically been antagonism between some of these
groups consider something grander. A weekend canoeing and abseiling may cost a few
thousand but this investment in team building could <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 save you a lot of money and a lot of stress
later in the project. Definitely worth considering for larger projects.
Plan the project. This covers a multitude of activities. The degree to which the project
manager personally plans the project will depend upon its scale. If there are three people in
the project team the project manager can easily plan their work. If there will be 300 people
in the team the project manager will clearly need to delegate the detailed planning.
Design project control mechanisms. How will you report progress, control change,
manage risks, etc? Every project is different, you will need to design control and reporting
mechanisms that suit your project or at least adapt and modify any standard processes that
are available within your company.
Manage project scope. If the scope is simply too big for the budget and timescale the
project will fail. If you carve out a doable scope but then let it grow uncontrolled as you go
along the project will fail. Managing project scope boils down to learning how to say the
most important word in the project manager's vocabulary: "no". More on this in the next
chapter.
Manage and report progress. This rather assumes there is progress to report, of course.
We will cover tracking, controlling and reporting in a later chapter.
Be accountable for quality. The project manager's appraisal should depend not only upon
meeting dates and budgets but also upon the quality of what is delivered. Even if the
project manager is managing a project that is outsourced to a software supplier the project
manager in the commissioning company should be held accountable for the quality of the
software delivered by the software house. Sound unreasonable? Well, someone must protect
the company from the potentially disastrous consequences of implementing a system that
doesn't work. If not the project manager, who? After your company has gone bankrupt it's a
bit late to sue the software supplier. See the chapter on quality management.
Reward and punish. Handing out the occasional small financial award to a team member
who has excelled can really boost team morale, if they view it as well deserved. Where does
the cash come from? The sponsor, of course. Or put another way, put a line item in the
business case headed "team awards and rewards".

Characteristics of a Project Manager

What characteristics do good project managers share? As you would expect project
managers are a pretty diverse bunch, but certain personal traits may help.
First and foremost they like managing projects. Managing projects is not something people
are neutral about. They either like it or they don't. Why would anyone want to do a job in
which you can all too obviously fail spectacularly and if you succeed people will shrug their

shoulders and say you just did your job? Others relish the challenge and like the feeling of
accomplishment, of getting something done that may not have happened without them.
Good project managers:

manage rather than co-ordinate, preside or spectate

are natural planners

don't like surprises, so they plan thoroughly to try to prevent them

are effective fire-fighters - when the inevitable surprises do occur they sort them out
quickly and decisively

reward and punish - not dealing with someone who isn't pulling their weight can
destroy team morale

are good motivators, good team builders

address conflict rather than leaving things to fester

do not hide in an office, they walk around and ideally sit physically in the middle of
the team so they are approachable

get consensus whenever possible but dictate when necessary

Project managers need all the personal skills that any manager needs so project managers
should not only attend courses that teach them how to manage projects (may we plug this
excellentproject management course) they should also attend people management training:
leadership skills, influencing skills, appraisal skills and so on.
Most of all, good project managers MANAGE. They do not just get swept along by the
current (see The Tale of Three Project Managers). They grab the project by the scruff of the
neck and manage it.
However, it is sometimes the case that project managers do not feel sufficiently empowered
to manage and control the things/people they need to manage and control in order to be
successful. This problem has a solution.
The sponsor should make it clear to everyone that the project manager is operating with the
sponsor's full authority: "take issue with the project manager and you are taking issue with
me; disagree with him and you are disagreeing with me; I don't care how senior you are,
what the project manager says is what I say. Now if he's obviously got it completely wrong
come and have a word with me, but other than that what he says is what I say."
Will the sponsor think of making some public pronouncement like that at the beginning of a
project? Probably not. Whose job is to write the script for the sponsor? Yes, the project
manager's.

How many project managers should a project have? One. That is, one reporting to the
sponsor. The project manager may need others below him managing parts of the project or
specialist teams, but there is only one project manager accountable directly to the project
sponsor.

Project Manager Career Path

And who should this project manager be? An IT person, a business person, an external
consultant? If the project is installing new servers with little or no effect on the users (one
hopes) it may well be appropriate for an IT person to manage that project. But a project to
develop a new software system that will run a key part of the company's business? That is a
key business project and should be run by a business person. A significant proportion of the
project team will be business users and they will do the most important tasks in the project:
defining the business requirements and ensuring the proposed system design meets the
business requirements and will be useable.
However, because process-based companies don't naturally breed project managers there
may be nobody in the business with the requisite project management skills. This is an
argument for nurturing project management skills in the business, not an argument for
leaving it all to IT. Some companies, recognising that projects determine their future, are
actively growing PM skills in the business. Training is obviously part of the answer. For noncritical projects assigning a business person to the role of project manager supported by a
PM from IT aids skills transference. For a large project, bringing in a consultant project
manager and assigning a business person as his deputy can also be an effective way of
learning the project management ropes.
(Though beware some consultant project managers: bringing in a Californian PM who knows
he can get the project done in 6 months when everyone else thinks it'll take a year can be
dangerous. You may discover too late that his 6 months pre-supposed the project team
would work 90 hours a week whenever he asked them to. Whilst that may have been true
on his previous project in Silicon Valley, public sector employees in provincial England may
feel more comfortable sticking to their regulation 35 hour week and give such a suggestion
pretty short shrift.)
In larger process-based companies that nevertheless need to do an increasing number of
projects to live long and prosper, it may be appropriate to have a small group of professional
project managers reporting to a Director who acts as their career manager (the Change
Director on the project organisation chart). These PMs could be ex-IT, ex-Finance, exconsultants - but their passports now say "Project Manager" rather than "Accountant" or
whatever. These '3 star' project managers would stand ready to manage the company's
major projects. And if the project manager's line manager is a Director the project manager
comes with a degree of ready made authority.
Two star PMs might be business line managers who from time to time manage medium
sized projects, and one star PMs are business people just dipping their toes into the project
management water. But we have a conscious project manager development programme
within the business.
If projects determine the company's future it may be wise to have senior, competent,
professional project managers managing those projects.

What's the difference between a project manager and a project director? About fifty
thousand a year. Someone managing a really big project will often have the title project
director to reflect the scale of the role. So our 3 star PMs may often take on the title project
director when managing large projects.
Strictly speaking programmes never end - projects do. BMW might have a never ending
(they hope) 3 Series programme. Within that there will be a project to develop the next
version of the BMW 3 Series and even an overlapping project to start thinking about the 3
Series model after that. However, you will sometimes find large one-hit projects referred to
as programmes. They may consist of many parallel projects (e.g. software development,
hardware installation, office move, user training) which will all end at more or less the same
time. The boss is called the Programme Director and may have many (sub) project
managers reporting to him. Titles don't matter too much as long as the roles and
responsibilities are clear.
Speaking of titles, the HR department in some organisations inhibits progression to a more
project-friendly culture. In one example the HR department refused point blank to allow a
person to take on the role title of project manager because he wasn't a Manager grade
employee. And the idea of giving someone the title of project director would have been
enough to cause apoplexy up there in HR's ivory tower. Also, in some parts of the public
sector it can be difficult to pluck someone from the ranks, give them the temporary title of
project manager and pay them a bonus if they bring the project home successfully. That
upsets quite a few applecarts. All part of the process-based, project-inhibiting culture that
we need to work to overcome.
Project Management qualifications are increasingly popular. However, if someone has
attended a 5 day course and passed the end of course exam (Prince2, PMI, APM, ISEB, etc)
that of itself tells you nothing about that person's ability to manage projects.
Have we covered everything a project manager needs to do? Not yet. You might say that
the whole of this book is about what the project manager has to do or get someone else to
do for him.
Role of Project Office
In a 6 person project the project manager can handle the project admin himself. In a 60
person project the PM will need a project office to handle the admin for him:

acquire office space, order equipment

set up and administer cross-project mechanisms such as change control and issue
logging

consolidate sub-project reports

financial tracking, adding up the numbers for the project manager

project librarian

etc.

Should the project office produce, own and update the project plan? No. This is a job for the
team leaders as we shall see.
The project office provides admin support to the project manager, they do not manage the
project for him. In a large project there can be literally thousands of documents and
versions of documents: without first class version control the project would soon descend
into chaos. Want to know how many issues have been open for more than two weeks? Ask
the project office. Or, if you want to get this information instantly on your laptop at any time
of the day or night, ask the project office to set it up for you. A good project office is vital in
a large project. Civilisation is underpinned by the competence of its administrators.

Role of Project IT Manager

If the overall project manager of an IT project has little or no IT knowledge they will need
someone from IT to pull together the IT team, manage IT's activities and report their
progress. This role is very similar to that of the overall project manager, if less broad in its
scope.

Role of Project User Manager

Some would argue that the project user manager role is the most important role on a
software project, the most difficult to perform and the role least likely to be properly defined
or assigned. A pretty deadly combination. Furthermore some methodologies don't properly
include this role.
However big the project, there is only one project user manager. If it's time for a cup of
coffee wander off and see if you can list, say, three specific responsibilities for this
role.Glance at the organisation chart to see where the user PM sits in the hierarchy.

This is what the project user manager should do:

Represent all who will use the project's deliverables. Ensure that all users have a
voice and their needs and views are considered by the project.
Find and commit business resources. It's all very well for the steering committee to
make well-intentioned promises of boundless user people to work on the project. The
project user manager has to (on behalf of the project manager) go out into the business
highways and byways to prise out real, named, warm bodies to do all those things users
need to do: define requirements, agree designs, user testing, etc.
Arbitrate amongst users. Users in Finance may want things done one way but users in
Marketing think the requirement is quite different. The project user manager has to be
empowered to resolve such disagreements so that a single view of the users' requirements
can be given.

Sign off the requirements document. The project user manager signs off the
requirements document which says to the sponsor: "your requirements have been fully
defined and are complete and correct." And if they later prove not to be, the project user
manager won't be getting much of a pay rise this year. Quite an accountability.
Sign off the User Functions Design document. At the end of the User Functions Design
step, the user project manager signs off the UFD document: "Sponsor, the User Functions
Design document is complete, correct, satisfies our business requirements and the system
as designed is useable." And if it isn't... An awesome accountability.
Put yourself in that position: you are accountable for the correctness of the design for some
huge new system that will eventually run your company's whole business. We are at the
start of the User Functions Design step: we are building the plan for that UFD step. In two
month's time, when the UFD document is finished, you must sign it off. Would you do
nothing for the next two months, and when the document arrives on your desk shut your
eyes and sign it then take it to the sponsor and say: "it's fine, you can sign this off,
sponsor"? Don't think so.
As part of the planning of the design step you approach, let's say, the marketing manager
and ask for one of his people to work full time for the next two months in the design team
to ensure that the design meets the requirements Marketing have specified. But the
marketing manager says although he'd like to help he cannot spare anyone for that. And
you get the same brush off from every other business area you approach. What would you
do (other than panic)? You would have to say to the project sponsor (directly or via the
project manager): "Sorry, sponsor, I cannot perform that role. The role has no meaning
unless it is me marshalling representatives from each business area and making them, and
the people they represent, think through whether the design really does meet their needs
and making them sign off on behalf of their domains. Only then could I sign off to warrant
to you that the design really does meet your business needs."
The sponsor has just discovered he has a problem: he hasn't got adequate user involvement
to ensure that the design will meet the business (i.e. his) requirements. If he (via the
project manager) hadn't given someone this rather awesome accountability he might never
have known - until it was too late.
In some methodologies this accountability is assigned to a member of the steering
committee (project board) but that senior manager or Director might only devote a day or
two a month to the project. We are talking here about a project user manager who works
full time on the project to make sure the design is correct from the users' perspective. What
we are suggesting is not at odds with these methodologies: it is, to be charitable, a way in
which that steering committee member's <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 responsibility may be delegated and
meaningfully discharged. To be uncharitable it fills a fatal, gaping hole in some
methodologies. Some methodologies' reluctance to assign such a significant responsibility to
anyone below Director level may be borne out of a perception that it would be "unfair" to
give such a responsibility to a more junior person. But the result can be in practice that
nobody on the ground is truly accountable for the requirements and design being correct
and - guess what - they won't be correct and the fun starts when the system goes live.

Authorise change. Having signed off the UFD document someone must authorise
subsequent changes to it. As we will see in a later chapter the project user manager has a
key role to play here.
Sell the project to the business. Explain to all affected parties what's coming and when.
Set their expectations appropriately. On a big project this can be quite a big endeavour with
road shows, executive briefings, demos and so on. But if, when the users get it, they all
complain it's nothing like what they expected the project user manager has some explaining
to do.
Manage acceptance. Acceptance Testing, if you insist. The project user manager signs off
at the end of testing and says the system is fit to go live. If there is going to be a user
acceptance testing step the project user manager might even project manage it.
Training and implementation. Listed last, but this starts in parallel with the IT Technical
Design step and includes designing and building user training materials, developing the roll
out plan and then near the end of the project executing the training and roll out plans. In
really large projects, implementation, training and roll out, etc is such a large undertaking
that it may well have its own dedicated (sub) project manager. Just another example of the
infinite number of possible project organisation variations that the project manager must
select from.
Now, if you're screaming at the page
a) surely the project manager should do all of the things we have ascribed to the project
user manager, or
b) surely the team of super users, one from each user domain, should do all of those things
it's probably because your experience has been of a) much smaller project or b) much
larger projects than we are assuming for the purposes of illustration. (Though even on huge
projects there should be one project user manager managing all those super users.) We will
consider much smaller and much larger projects in a moment.
In summary, the project user manager is responsible for ensuring the project will meet the
needs of the business.

Role of Team Leader

Our chart shows one team leader for simplicity. There could be many, both amongst the IT
team and the business users. Typically each team leader might look after a team of 6 to 8
people - maybe more, maybe less. What does a team leader do?
Detailed planning. Produce the task-by-task, day-by-day plan for each of their team
members and liaise with other team leaders to ensure teams' plans interlock. In large
projects a member of the project office may facilitate this plan interlocking but beware, the
plans must remain the property of the team leaders: if the plans are the project office's the
team leaders may not be quite so committed to achieving them.
Control and report team's progress. The team leader manages and reports upon the
work of his team. We will cover the mechanics of this in the chapter on tracking, controlling
and reporting.

Ensure the quality of the team's output. In much the same way that the project
manager will be held accountable for the quality of the project's outputs, the team leader
will be held accountable for the quality of his team's outputs. Neither diminishes each team
member's quality accountability as we shall see in the quality management chapter.
Technical leadership. IT team leaders usually provide technical leadership, guidance and
coaching to more junior team members. User team leaders similarly may have greater
business experience than their team members. A good team leader will develop the skills of
his team members, support and encourage them.
Later chapters will cover the mechanics of estimating, risk management, planning, tracking
and so on. Whereas in a small project the project manager will do all of this himself, in
larger projects the team leaders do much of it, so in a sense the next several chapters
explain many of the tasks a team leader would perform.
The role title project leader is sometimes used as an alternative to team leader (and even
sometimes as an alternative to project manager). In large projects, beneath the project
manager may be one or more project leaders and beneath them team leaders. And even
sub team leaders below them. It just depends on the scale of the project. Apparently the
project team that built the biggest of the great pyramids was around 13,000 strong
(peaking at 40,000 - and you thought your project was big!) and had a project organisation
that any project manager today would recognise: sponsor, project director, sub-project
managers, team leaders, sub-team leaders and tightly knit teams doing the actual work.
Project management is not a new invention. How did they manage it without Prince2 and
MSP?
Team leaders manage the work of their team. Team leading is a good first step on the
project management ladder. You will learn much more about managing projects by being a
team leader in a large project than you will by managing a small project - you will get
experience of many more control processes because many of those processes simply aren't
needed in small projects.
We mentioned in the previous chapter the benefit of UFD design team members being
present in requirements definition sessions, and technical designers participating in the user
functions design step. Ideally The UFD design team members will go on to become the team
leaders in the technical design, build and test steps: this gives real continuity and carries
the understanding of the users' requirements right through the project's life.

Role of Quality Leader

(Not shown on the chart). This is a member of the project team who ensures that
appropriate quality checking activities are included in the project plan and that the team
perform these tasks properly. This role will be defined in the quality management chapter as
will the role's position in the organisation chart.

Role of Team Member

Even the lowliest team member has some part to play in the management of a project:

Free Year Planners

Free wall planners. Opens in new window so you won't
lose your place

help to estimate the work that will be assigned

to them

help to plan their own work

sign up to their task plan

report status of their work

be accountable for the quality of their work

alert their team leader of problems and issues etc

suggest improvements to the project plan, control processes, etc...

The extent to which a team member can contribute to estimating and planning will
obviously depend upon their experience, but the team leader (or project manager in a small
project) should involve all team members in planning. This not only exploits their knowledge
and experience but helps get their buy-in and commitment to the plan: it's their plan, not
one imposed upon them from on high. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008

Role of Line Manager

This is not a project role yet line managers - the managers who own the people working on
the project - can have a big influence on the project's chance of success.
Put negatively, if a line manager has agreed that one of his people can work full time on the
project for, say, the first two weeks of June but when June comes around he reneges and
doesn't make the person available, that could cause major problems for the project. If June
is eight months away from the project's delivery date it's hard for business managers who
have little or no experience of projects to believe that this can possibly have any significant
impact on the project. But non-availability of that person could have severe knock-on effects
to the project schedule, and if that sort of thing happens repeatedly the project will be in
trouble.
So, being positive, what should line managers do?
Commit resources. At the start of each project stage line managers commit, in writing, to
release people - where possible named individuals - full time or part time at specified times.
This implies thorough planning by the project manager and usually involves a good deal of
negotiation.

Make people available as committed. Don't renege!

Manage careers. If a line manager makes someone available full time for six months to
work on a project he nevertheless remains that person's line manager and must keep in

contact with them. Ensure they don't feel cast out, assure them there is a job for them to
go back to when the project ends. Manage their career.
Reward project work. When a person's project assignment finishes reward them for that
project work. For example, if they spent half of their time over the past year on a project or
projects, half their appraisal should depend upon how well they did that project work. But
how does the line manager know how well his people have performed on projects? He asks
the project manager.
This is a classic symptom of a project-based culture. A person has a career or line manager
who manages them as a person but does not manage their work. He rents them out to
projects and appraises them on feedback from project managers and others.
Think about this from the project manager's perspective. Everyone working on your project
team knows that their next appraisal, and maybe pay rise, depends upon what you say
about them to their line manager. Do you now have some power and influence over those
people? You bet. Some of the project team members might even work for another company
- you should have the same arrangement with their line managers.
This implies that at the start of a project stage the project manager must not only agree
roles with everyone on the project but must also get their line managers to agree to base
those people's appraisals on his feedback. This implies a lot of up-front work by the project
manager. Which in a nutshell is one of the secrets of project success: a lot of up-front work.

Other project roles

One could list a dozen or more further project roles: risk manager, test manager, project
accountant, technical architect but since these are special cases of management roles
and/or specialist team member roles we will not clutter up the works by listing them though
we will allude to some of them subsequently. For example, the test manager gets a mention
in the quality management chapter.
Each project is unique: it will require a unique, temporary project organisation. The roles
will reflect both the project's needs and the skills and abilities of the people who will fill
those roles.
A set of project management rules, if you have such a thing, will say which roles are
mandatory (and the only mandatory roles are project sponsor and project manager) and
would list the mandatory things each of these roles must do.
The project management guidelines would provide a fuller list of the sorts of things a
sponsor and project manager might usually do. The guidelines would also list other possible
project roles (project user manager, etc) with a suggested set of responsibilities. The roles
and responsibilities that appear in these guidelines would be very much tailored to the sorts
of projects your company does. The guidelines do not tell you how to organise your project,
they provide a starting point, samples to help you work out what's appropriate for your
project. You might decide that one person should take on the roles of project manager and
project user manager - but if you do, that person in principle gets both lists of
responsibilities to perform, not one or the other. You might want to invent a completely new
role because of your project's unique needs. It's up to you if you're the project manager.

Never just assign titles. Saying: "will you be Project User Manager?" may convey nothing
about the role to the listener. A good technique is to discuss with the person what you'd like
them to do and then get them to write down their own role description (one side of A4 max)
and replay it to you the next day. Then you know whether they've taken it on board or not.
(Though you might not want to try this approach with the sponsor.)
One company had a template for their Project Definition Document. It helpfully listed their
standard project roles - sponsor, senior customer, senior supplier, project manager, etc with
a box beside each role for the name. And what happened? Project managers would write a
name in each box and that was project roles taken care of. No thought about whether a role
was needed or not, no discussion with the person concerned. Madness!
There will be disputes during the project. For example, if the users feel their legitimate
requirements are being ignored by the project user manager they must have the right of
appeal to the project manager and, if they're still not happy, to their member of the project
steering committee. If they can't decide, the sponsor makes a decision (toss a coin if
necessary). All escalations to the steering committee should be accompanied by a
recommended resolution from the project manager. Escalation paths need to be clear at the
outset.
It's a good idea to take a photo of every member of the project team and arrange them
hierarchically on a wall (and/or intranet site) showing each person's title so that anyone can
see at a glance who's who, who does what and who reports to whom. This can also
engender a feeling of belonging, even pride in being part of the project team.

Very small projects, very large projects

In the smallest project there are two people on the project organisation chart: the sponsor
and the person who will manage and do all the work.
Slightly bigger, and we have a sponsor, a project manager (who won't spend all his time
project managing) and below him a team of two or three people.
Up again, and we have something approaching our example organisation chart but, say,
with one person acting both as project manager and project user manager, no IT project
manager and an IT team leader managing the IT activities.
Up again and we have something akin to our chart, with one or more team leaders, which
might imply a total team size of twenty or so.
Up again and under the project manager we might have a project IT manager, project user
manager, quality manager, test manager, architecture manager, procurement manager and
others, all reporting to the project manager.
Then we get into projects that are really collections of projects. So the head man might be
called project director and under him a project manager for the (sub) project to develop the
new order handling system, a project manager for the (sub) project to develop the new
invoicing system, a project manager for the hardware (sub) project, etc. And some of the
(sub) projects might be in-house, some <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>

Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 outsourced and some may be hybrids with
both in-house (say users) and outsourced (say IT) elements - and a well staffed project
office doing their best to make sure everything is well organised. Quite a big task for the
project director to sort that all out before the project/programme begins.
Clearly, you can't just lift a universal organisation chart and set of roles from a book of
standards and adopt it as is.
So:

design a project organisation that matches your project's needs

ensure everyone from sponsor on down has a clearly defined role with no gaps or
overlaps

talk to each person, agree their responsibilities, get them to write it down and check
back with you

get line managers to commit resources and agree to take your input into those
people's appraisals

never just assign titles!

How to spot a good project

Ask the sponsor who is in charge. Without hesitation he will say he is. If it all goes wrong
his job is on the line; he is the ultimate can carrier.
Ask the same question of the project manager and he will say the buck stops with him - the
sponsor is just a figurehead.
If the project manager is a business person, the project IT manager will scoff and say that
actually he, the project IT manager, is really running the project - what does the PM know
about IT anyway?
Speak to the project user manager and he will tell you he is the lynchpin, the person whose
work and decisions will do more than anyone else's to make the project a success (or
failure): if the requirements are wrong we're all wasting our time!
The team leaders will tell you that actually they are running the project - doing all the
detailed planning and tracking and getting the team members to do the work. (And by the
way they probably are running the project.)
And what will the team members say? "We've no idea what all those people up there are
doing - we're the only ones doing any real work, project success is obviously all down to
us."

That is a very good sign. Everyone felt they were it, they were responsible, success
depended upon them.
Contrast that with the opposite. Ask anyone who is responsible and they will say "not me!"
and point to someone else and say "it's him". That's a worrying sign.
Whose job is it to make everyone feel responsible and accountable for project success?
You've guessed it, our friend the project manager.

"We trained hard, but it seemed that every time we were beginning to form up into teams
we would be reorganized... I was to learn later in life that we meet any new situation by
reorganizing, and a wonderful method it can be for creating the illusion of progress while
producing confusion, inefficiency and demoralisation."
Often attributed to Petronius Arbiter (c.27BC-66AD) but actually written by Charlton Ogburn
Jr. in 1957.

How long does it take to define a project? How long is a piece of string.
It could literally take five minutes to define a mini project. It could take a year or more to
define a very large project.
Good project definition is key to project success. It is the foundation upon which the project
will be built. If the foundations aren't solid the project will collapse.

Project Definition

Requirements
Analysis <a
href="http://www.hrac
onsultingltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book0101.htm"><b>Projec
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Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding
Roberts 1706

User Functions
Design

IT Technical
Design

Build and
Test

User
Acceptance

How do we get from a bright idea or business need to a properly defined and planned
project with an approved business case? We will describe the process under these 7
headings:
1. Definition stage plan and agreement: produce the plan for the project definition
stage.
2. Evaluate the business need: is there a need for a project at all?
3. Find the best solution: don't just run with the first idea you thought of.
4. Investigate costs and benefits: build the financial business case.
5. Now define the project: roles, risks, resources, etc.

6. Estimate and plan the first stage: plan the first project stage in detail, later stages in
outline.
7. Decide: go or no go.
We will describe these 7 steps as discrete and sequential - it will be obvious that in practice
there will be a degree of overlap and iteration. To give some scale, we will discuss the
definition for quite a large project - the project definition stage will take 10 weeks. At the
end of this chapter we will see how everything scales down for smaller projects, but may of
course be much more complicated for much larger projects. Remember that these seven
steps are all within the Project Definition stage.

1. Definition stage plan and agreement

One morning you are driving to work and you have a fantastic idea. If your company had a
system that could do x, y and z the company would make a fortune! What would you do
when you arrived at the office? (No, not resign, the idea wasn't quite that good.)
You mention it to a few colleagues. They think it's a great idea. You work up a presentation
and take it to a Director - someone you think would make an ideal project sponsor. He says:
"This is a great idea I'vejust had, but I'd like you to research it fully: would it really make us
money, what would it cost, could we do it...?" You have just been asked to do a full project
definition.
It dawns on you that to research the need, devise a solution, build a business case, get a
project planned out, etc would need the involvement of 25 people. You realise that project
definition is actually going to be a project in its own right.
Being a natural project manager what do you do next? Little word beginning with "p": plan.
Planning is nothing to be frightened of. It simply means understanding what must be
delivered and then working out who needs to do what and when to get those things
delivered and signed off.
What must the project definition stage deliver? Three
main things:

Project Definition Document (aka PDD, PID, TOR, Project Charter...)

Business Case

Project Plan

So we work out who will need to do what to get us from where we are today - with just a
rather vague idea - to having those things delivered and signed off and conclude it'll take
about 10 weeks. As it happens, the 25 people who will be involved in doing the project
definition are owned by 6 different line managers. From one manager you will need a
person full time for the whole ten weeks, from another manager you will need two people
for a week to build the financial business case, and so on. You negotiate with these six line
managers for the bodies you need (aided by the sponsor if necessary) and invite them to

confirm their agreement in writing (via a Stage Agreement which we will cover later).<p>A
Statement of Work or SOW is interpreted sometimes as equivalent to a Project Definition
Document. However, a Statement of Work (SOW) is sometimes just that - a statement of
the work that is to be done: the Statement of Work might not define the project that is to
be done in order to deliver that work, so in that sense a SOW is equivalent to only part of a
Project Initiation Document or PDD.
And of course, if you were smart, you would have already had discussions with the line
managers before you approached your prospective sponsor so that when he said "go get
this potential project defined" you already knew there was a fighting chance you would be
able to.
Having planned out the 10 week long project definition maybe you get the team together for
a short meeting and have the sponsor say how excited he is about this idea and how he
thinks it could be very beneficial to the company and to the futures of everyone in the
company. The team think: 'wow, this is important'.

2. Evaluate business need

It's quite worrying how often this step is skipped altogether. People sometimes have great
ideas about attractive solutions and nobody ever bothers to ask whether there is a problem
that needs solving, whether there really is a business opportunity.
(In one case a project manager took over a large, troubled project half way through. After
months of toil that was leading nowhere he was asked one day: "why is this project being
done?" The project manager realised he didn't really know, so investigated. It transpired
that eighteen months earlier someone had highlighted what they thought was going to be a
problem with the ordering systems when new products were launched. A solution was
devised that grew and grew and grew until it became a sizeable project, which then kept on
growing when it was in progress. On investigation, the original problem turned out to be
minor, to have a simple solution and the project was cancelled. Ironically, with hindsight,
one of the reasons the project had grown was that there was no need for it: had there been
a need there would have been a date by which it was needed and a self-defining scope.
Neither existed so the project had become "strategic". Several million dollars wasted. An
interesting learning experience for all concerned.)
Do be sure you, as project manager, understand why the project is being done and that
there is a real need for it. For some projects this means establishing not only what the
problem is but also is it worth fixing it - what would it cost if we didn't fix it? What if we do
nothing? For other projects, for example to develop a system to market a new product on
the web: how many do we think we'll sell? For admin savings type projects, how many
transactions would go through this new system and how much admin effort would that
save? Will the project make us a fortune, save us a fortune or perhaps must it be done - for
example for legal compliance? Techniques such as market research, high level business
modelling, competitive analysis may be relevant. There are a thousand flavours of the
question, but they all boil down to: does it look as though the project is worth pursuing.
If you're thinking: 'shouldn't the business have done all of this before the project starts?' it
may be because you work in IT or a similar organisation and are used to the idea that
projects start when they come to you ready defined (or more often than not when they are
supposedly defined). We are following the project lifecycle right from the project's inception,

from when it's just a gleam in the sponsor's eye. Even if you never get involved in project
definition if you know what should be done during the project definition stage you can better
judge whether the project you're being given has been properly defined or not.
Let us say that for our project we conclude the business opportunity is real.
Find best solution
Having established it looks like there's a real need or opportunity the temptation is to run
with the solution you dreamed up that morning en route to work. But there might be a
better way of meeting the need than the first one that happened to pop into someone's
head.
Hold a brainstorm meeting (some prefer the term 'mind shower') with business and IT
people. This of course will be one of the activities in the plan for your project definition
stage for which line managers have committed people. Describe the 'problem' and then for
an hour or so see how many solutions the team can come up with. Write down the solution
ideas without critiquing them. Even an illegal idea might later spawn a really good (and
legal) idea. It's not unusual to get a list of twenty or thirty solutions. Eliminate the whacky
ones to arrive at a short list of solutions which could potentially fly.
For example:

write a new bespoke software application

buy a software package, use as is and tailor the business to fit the package

enhance an existing system

administer the new product manually using call centres in India

outsource the administration to another company

These are radically different solutions that will have different timescales, costs, benefits,
risks and strategic fit. We need to assess these solutions sufficiently to be able to choose
one. A feasibility study may even be needed to see if some solutions would be technically
feasible. Indeed, in some large, leading edge projects where feasibility is uncertain, a
feasibility study may be the very first thing that is done. However, even if technical
feasibility isn't in doubt, check for 'organisational feasibility': does <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 your company have, or could it acquire, enough technically skilled people and
enough appropriately skilled business people to take this project on in addition to everything
else the company is already committed to doing.
(For projects that will buy and install a software package the choice may just be between
several packages in which case a lot more detailed work may need to be done to match the
company's requirement to the functionality of the packages before the choice can be made.
If the packages on offer all have roughly the same cost, the broad business case can be
built before the package is selected. And in fact package selection may be made at the end
of the Requirements Analysis step. In that case, during the Requirements Analysis step the

functionality of each competing package is compared to the company's requirement and the
best fit wins. Competing packages often all seem to match the business need at the
headline level and it's only when one gets down to the detail that the true fit can be judged.
An example of a different project 'manufacturing process'. It is so important to be clear
what manufacturing process your project will follow before the project starts.)
For the sake of illustration we will say that the solution that comes out top for our project is
to write a new bespoke software application.
Bearing in mind we're only about half way through the project definition stage, is it too soon
to be choosing the outline solution? It isn't. We must make the choice now otherwise we
would not be able to do the next step.

4. Investigate costs and benefits

We can now start to build the cost benefit case. Clearly you can only estimate what the
solution might cost when you know what it is.
The Finance department may have a list of typical major project cost areas and standard
rates for converting people's hours into money:

IT man hours during development

user man hours during development

implementation and roll out hours

user training hours

etc

The above non-cash expenditures, having been converted at relevant rates, can be added to
cash outgoings such as

travel

hardware

VAT (specially if your organisation can't reclaim it)

to give a total monetary cost. You may even co-opt a couple of people from Finance for a
few days to help you build a project business case (and maybe things like monthly budget
forecasts) that will meet the Finance Director's stringent requirements. Of course, the
couple of people you co-opt are amongst the 25 whose managers committed them at the
outset.
If this is an IT project, who is going to estimate the IT development cost? Clearly it has to
be IT. It can take a lot of time and effort for the IT people to get sufficient information about

what is proposed even to give a ballpark estimate. Again, these IT people are among the 25
whose availability you negotiated and secured in writing before project definition began.
Is there such a thing as a project benefit that cannot be quantified in financial terms? No.
Every benefit can be quantified. Seeking a million dollars for a project that will 'improve
staff morale' will guarantee you a quick exit from the Executive Suite. Seeking a million
dollars for a project that will halve staff turnover and thus save two million dollars a year in
training and other costs will probably get you a sympathetic hearing. You must at least
quantify enough of the benefits to justify the project - any that you choose to leave
unquantified may be icing on the cake. Naturally, in small projects the business case will be
much less formal but the principle of cost justification should nevertheless be adhered to.
Only business people can assess the benefits this project will yield. It could take many
people many days to get a quantified understanding of the likely benefits. Again, these
people's time will have been committed at the start of the project definition stage. We begin
to see that 25 wasn't such an outlandish number after all.
Let's recap. You had an idea, sold it to a Director who now thinks it was his idea and he
asked you to do a full project definition which he will fund. You planned the definition stage
(which actually you more or less did before you went to the Director), researched the
business need/opportunity and found there really is a business opportunity, considered
many ways of meeting that business opportunity and chose one. You then worked out the
ballpark costs and benefits and the business case suggests a really good return on
investment (ROI) and, given the ROI, you get the nod to carry on (or put another way, if
the business case obviously didn't stack up you would stop at this point).
All of those steps are easy compared to the next step, because in the next step we have to
decide what we're actually going to do.
. Now define the project
Now and only now can we really begin to pin down the project that will need to be done in
order to deliver the chosen solution.
Of course, one project definition stage could spawn a huge programme comprising a
multitude of projects. Let's keep it simple: our project definition will result in one new
system being developed. You now start hawking the proposed system around to potential
users and they all get very excited: "what a great idea! And could the system also include
reconciling physical stock with stock value in the accounts? And if we could handle
international transfers we could use it in the Jersey branch too. And if it could do what we in
Logistics have always wanted which is to..." And so the list goes on and on. And it dawns on
you, the project manager, that if you tried to deliver everything that everyone would like in
one go you'd be facing a big bang disaster project.
So you decide to break it into releases and you determine what will be included in Release
1. Why will that simple sounding step be a thousand times harder than anything we have
done so far?
You must tell some very senior people that what they would like won't be in Release 1, it'll
be in Release 3 - maybe. Will they say: "OK, that's fine"? Don't think so. They will escalate
to the sponsor, threaten to withdraw support for the project, tell you you certainly aren't

having any of their people for the project, brow beat and bully you, exaggerate the benefits
of the things they would like included, claim their thing is a legal requirement, undermine,
blackmail, bribe (if you're lucky), etc to get their pet things into that first release.
Will this be a pleasant way for the project manager to spend a few days? It certainly won't these can be very bruising discussions. The temptation is obvious: avoid the question of
scope altogether, leave everyone assuming that everything (including things they haven't
even thought of yet) will be there on day one.
If it's a small project this will not be a problem - you can easily do everything in one go. If
it's a large project you may have just secured project failure, or at the very least caused
major grief during the project. This is where you can make or break large projects.

Take a tough line. Carve out a doable scope. In principle include in Release 1 only those
things that are absolutely essential on day one, those things that constitute a useable
system that can go live and at least run some part of the business.
Just possibly there is no useable sub-set, absolutely everything has to be there on day one
and maybe it has to be done in one three year long big bang. If so, good luck. (And a pound
to a penny says it ain't true - there's always some stuff you could leave till later.) But even
here beware, for having concluded that all the headline functions must be there on day one,
that may be construed as carte blanche to embellish those functions with quite unnecessary
bells and whistles. Certainly, including in Release 1 unnecessary bells and whistles on
functions that aren't needed in Release 1 is the most heinous sin of all. It really is quite easy
to make a software project four times bigger than it needs to be, as the chart on the left
suggests.
Any mug can be everyone's friend at the beginning and say: "You want that included? Sure,
I'll put it in for you." Good project managers know how to say "no": politely, firmly,
rationally: "no".
If we survive that, we now have what we believe to be a sensible scope for Release 1. That
outline business case we put together earlier may now need considerable rework: we must
produce a business case specifically for Release 1, maybe with high level cost benefit
guesses for subsequent releases.
Obviously, therefore, there will in practice often be considerable overlap and iteration
between this step and the previous one, to the extent that the previous step may be
completely subsumed into this step and a business case only produced after the Release 1
scope has been thrashed out. As always these things can be almost infinitely variable in
practice (which is all part of the challenge that projects present).
Whether or not we produced a rough business case earlier, we now have a more precise cost
benefit case for Release 1 that we can take to the sponsor. Having said: "how much?", he
takes the business case to the Board of Directors who having said: "how much?" approve
(we will assume) Release 1 funding in principle.

Project Definition

Requirements
Analysis <a
href="http://www.hrac
onsultingltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book0101.htm"><b>
Project Management
Book </b></a>
Copyright M Harding
Roberts 2006 2007
2008

User Functions
Design

R
IT Technical
Design

E
L

Build and
Test

E
A
S

User
Acceptance

E
1

Now we can get down to defining the other aspects of the Release 1 project:

decide who should be on the steering committee

define and agree roles (at least for Stage 1 of Release 1, which we will say is going
to be Requirements Analysis and User Functions Design)

determine the development approach, the manufacturing process: RAD, Waterfall,

Extreme Programming, package modification...

determine how the project will be managed: issue handling, change control, status
reporting...

etc

Serious discussions about resourcing can begin.

We are now in week seven of our ten week project definition phase. It is all beginning to
come together. We now hold a pre-planned, per-diarised Project Definition Workshop (PDW).
The attendees will be:

project sponsor

steering committee members

person who will manage the project (will not necessarily be the person who is
managing the project definition stage)

other key role players (project IT manager, project user manager, project office
manager...)

independent facilitator to run the meeting

The aim of the PDW is simple: to ensure all of the above have the same understanding of
the project. The agenda should therefore include:

project's goals and objectives

business case summary

scope and contents of Release 1 and outlook for future releases

outline schedules

staging and go no/go points

roles and responsibilities

who will supply what resources when

how status will be reported, how change will be managed, etc

risks and how they will be managed

Imagine that in spite of six weeks hard work prior to this PDW, at the meeting nobody can
agree to anything. Is that a success or a failure? A bit of both maybe, but on balance a huge
success: you may have just averted a major disaster. And it happens: you thought everyone
understood and agreed, but they didn't. Sometimes you can have a one-on-one discussion
with someone about their project role and they will agree it. But repeat exactly the same
words to them in a public meeting like a PDW and they start to get cold feet and back away.
Hold their feet to the fire, get them publicly to commit to their responsibilities and
accountabilities. Given that all the key role <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-

ltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>

Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 players are present some adjustment of roles
may take place during the meeting.
If the meeting does fall apart because there are major disagreements there will be a few
days of urgent lobbying to do and even a second PDW to be held. (This is a good example of
the difference between theoretical planning and real world planning. In theory, because of
all the preparation, when the PDW is held everyone agrees to everything, so the plan shows
one PDW. In reality people don't agree and further work and a further PDW is needed. A real
world plan allows for this: it doesn't have to assume the worst case in every case, but
equally should not assume everything will work out perfectly first time every time.)
What is in a Project Definition Document (PDD)? Fundamentally the things we listed as the
PDW agenda. Indeed, the minutes of the PDW meeting could become the basis of the PDD.
In principle a PDD documents what all the key players have already agreed to. A Project
Definition Workshop (PDW) is an affective way of ensuring you have that agreement. Never
write a PDD in secret and surprise the world with it.
Every methodology has its own take on what a PDD should be called (Project Initiation
Document, Project Charter, Project Definition Report, Project Terms of Reference, even
Business Case) and what it should contain but they all boil down to more or less the same
things. See the Appendix for a suggested PDD table of contents.
One point worth making here: always have a project organisation hierarchy chart in the
PDD. Don't just list the roles and role players. The hierarchy chart makes it clear who
reports to whom. (It is not unknown for this chart to be omitted because it might upset
someone to discover they were reporting to a person junior to them in job grade terms. But
that's projects. If the project is to get done the project manager (and others) may well need
to have more senior people taking direction from them. Project-based companies take this
for granted but it can cause real unease in process-based companies where there is a clear
pecking order based on job grade.)
Estimate and plan first stage
There could be a number of (sub) projects all kicking off at the same time as a result of this
project definition in which case each (sub) project manager would need to plan the first
stage of their (sub) project. (Sub in brackets because some people would call them subprojects, others would call them projects and maybe call the overall thing a programme.)
But as we said we are keeping it simple by assuming that only one project will start now Release 1 of our new system, and that Stage 1 of Release 1 will comprise the Requirements
Analysis and Users Functions Design steps. We must now plan this stage in detail and get
resource commitments.
Planning this stage is like planning any other stage: working out what must be delivered (in
our case a requirements document, a UFD document, a plan for stage 2, a revised business
case and probably several other things too) and then planning who must do what work and
when in order to deliver those things.
Note that one of the outputs from any stage is a plan for the stage that follows it (assuming
there is one).

A key part of the planning of Stage 1 will be negotiating with the managers of the people we
will need - users to define requirement, a business analyst or two, IT designers to be
involved in the requirements workshops, the user and IT people who will do the User
Functions Design and IT technical designers who will participate in that, a project office
person perhaps, someone in the latter part of the UFD step to start thinking about testing,
etc, etc, etc.
We may have those promises of bodies from steering committee members and other
Directors but once again we are now talking to immediate line managers. Having obtained
verbal agreement we formalise them in writing in a Stage Agreement for Stage 1. An outline
plan will also be produced for Stage 2 (in our case Stage 2 will comprise IT Technical
Design, Build and Test and User Acceptance). Stage Agreements and the mechanics of
planning and scheduling will be covered in later chapters.
Everything is now in place, the project has been DEFINED. The project's business objectives
are clear. An overall business case indicates that a programme of many releases would be a
good investment for the company. The cost benefit case for Release 1, and thus the budget
for Release 1, has been approved by the Board of Directors. The project manager has
defined and agreed all the roles such as steering committee members, project user
manager, etc, and the role players have agreed to perform those roles and their line
managers have agreed to appraise them on how well they perform those project roles. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 A PDW has been held and we have buy in from all the key players. Stage 1 has
been planned in detail and resources secured for it, the remainder of Release 1 has been
planned in outline. We're ready to roll! But first we must get formal permission to begin.

D
E
F
I
N
E
D

Project Definition

Requirements
Analysis

R
E

User Functions
Design

Stage 1
$300K

L
E
A
S

IT Technical
Design

E
1

Stage 2
$700K
Build and
Test

User
Acceptance

7. Decide go or no go
This meeting should be a formality. The project manager presents to the sponsor evidence
that everything has been defined and planned, risks have been assessed, resource owning
managers have committed the necessary bodies, etc. In other words we know what we're
doing and we're ready to start doing it.
The very fact that the project manager must make this presentation to the sponsor should
be a powerful incentive to get the project properly defined and planned. You would not go to
that meeting saying the objectives are not very clear, the scope isn't clear, you're not sure
what it's going to cost and you haven't really got any troops lined up to do it. Another swift
exit from the Executive Suite. This meeting is like a Summit Signing Ceremony for an
International Treaty. There is no discussion or negotiation at the meeting, it's just a
formality, but the fact the meeting is in everyone's diary focuses minds wonderfully and
work gets done to hammer out the details prior to the meeting.
In our case the project manager confirms Release 1 will cost about $1M (which the sponsor
already knows having taken the business case to the Board of Directors), and the project
manager says he is confident that Stage 1 will cost $300K or very close thereto.

The sponsor congratulates the project manager for managing the project definition so well
and for getting everything sorted out and the sponsor gives the project manager written
authority to spend $300K on Stage 1. As we shall see, at the end of Stage 1 the project
manager will have another formal go no go meeting with the sponsor to persuade him to
part with the funds for Stage 2, which he currently thinks will cost about $700K.

Smaller projects, larger projects

In our example project definition took 10 weeks, involved 25 people and produced several
outputs: project definition document (PDD), business case, Stage 1 plan and agreement and
an outline plan for the remainder of the project. And if we break the plan into all its
component parts we might end up with quite a long list (risk management plan,
communications/reporting plan, quality plan, etc - see later chapters).
However, if your project is very small, project definition might take a couple of days of
informal discussion and your PDD, business case, project plan and stage agreement could
be combined into a single document that covers two sides of A4.
We must scale the controls to match the need of the project so that we don't smother small
projects in a blizzard of documents they don't need.
By contrast, the project definition stage for a very large project, particularly if it is to be
outsourced to a third party, will need far more paperwork than we have contemplated:
formal legal contracts, health and safety documentation, many project plans for the many
(sub) projects, etc. Furthermore, if you are managing a large outsourced project, you will
find your Procurement Department, Legal Department and others will be very heavily
involved, and there will, quite rightly, be strict standards you must adhere to and processes
you must follow (tendering procedures, etc). But if you are new to project management we
would hope it's very unlikely you'll be given such a project to manage as your first project!
There's practically infinite variability in the size and nature of projects and thus in the size
and nature of project definition stages. Before you start you've clearly got to work out
what's the most appropriate way of defining your project: a few days discussion, a formal
project stage much as we described...? Either way, there should at the end of the project
definition stage be a formal meeting with the project sponsor at which he, in writing, gives
the project manager authorisation to spend company cash on the project.
Does doing project definition properly mean you have unlimited time to do project
definition? No it does not. Project definition should be like any other piece of project work:
planned and managed so that it is done quickly and properly. And if you do project definition
properly the project itself will take less time, cost less, have happier users and be less
stressful.
Good project definition is a very good investment.
In some organisations, particularly those hidebound by project management methodologies,
some people - we hesitate to call them project managers - hide behind the bureaucracy and
use it as an excuse for inaction, inertia and procrastination. "Sponsor, I can't do anything on
that until you give me a project authorisation number." "Sponsor, I can't do any work on
that until you give me a PDD." Rather say: "Yes boss, I'll get that done for you - I'll get a

project number, work with you and others to get the project defined asap and a PDD
produced then I'll get back to you with the costs and a project plan, etc and hopefully you'll
decide to proceed."
In conclusion:

projects have many causes: legislation, problems, company strategy, new technology

there must be a project sponsor

plan the project definition stage so it's done efficiently and effectively

consider alternative solutions

hold a project definition workshop to get agreement and buy in from key players

always have a go/no go meeting at the end of project definition: make the sponsor
decide go or no go.

Good project definition makes project success much more likely.

"We haven't got time to work out where we're going, we're late already."
Chapter 5 - Risk Management

This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any
other website. This project management book must not be reproduced in
whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
Here's a nice thought: you're going on holiday. But what might take the edge off your week
of bliss?

Forget tickets, money or passport

Lost luggage

Plane crash

Lose passport, money or valuables while away

Weather isn't what you wanted

Food poisoning

Fall out with travelling companions

Get kidnapped

Get injured

Run out of money

Work pressures force cancellation of the holiday

Home is burgled while away

And we could all list a dozen more risks whose consequences range from minor
inconvenience to major disaster.
Let's look at the first risk on the list above and consider how we might address it:
Forget tickets, money or passport

have a list of things to take

make a note of ticket numbers

take a credit card

keep a photograph of passport in your suitcase

insurance

The list of things to take should help avoid the problem of forgetting something. But if in
spite of this you still forget your passport, you've got a big problem - they won't let you on
the plane. It's not very likely you'll forget your passport but if you do the impact will be
high.
If your passport is stolen while you're getting crisped on the beach, that photocopy in your
suitcase should get you back into the country without too much hassle. You haven't avoided
the risk of having your passport stolen but you have mitigated the consequences.
If your camera is stolen you can claim on the insurance. Your camera has gone along with
all your pictures but at least you've managed to transfer the financial loss to someone else.
Let's consider another of the risks and how we might address it:
Lost luggage

well labelled bags

half your clothes in your partner's suitcase

essentials in hand baggage

If one suitcase goes missing at least you've got half your stuff. If all your luggage goes
astray would that have a high impact on your holiday? It depends. If it's a skiing holiday a
bit of a disaster. If it's a naturist holiday not so much of a problem.
Plane crash

take your lucky rabbit's foot

The plane crash risk is very unlikely to happen though rather high impact if it does. In
practice you'd probably accept/ignore this risk.
We've seen how some risks can be avoided, some mitigated, some transferred to others and
some accepted/ignored.
Suppose you run a company and it will go out of business if you do not comply with new
legislation. That is rather obviously a risk to your business. So you establish a project to do
whatever is needed to comply with the legislation. The resolution of the business risk
becomes the benefit side of the project business case. The project may be simple and easy
to complete in the required time: we have a low risk project solving a high business risk.
But if by contrast the project is large, complicated and very hard to do in the time available
we have a high risk project attempting to solve a high business risk and the Board may
want to give the project a lot of assistance.
Equally, a minor business problem could be addressed by a project that is high risk. There is
no significant business risk but the project manager has a high risk of failure. Business risk
and project risk are different things.
And there is another category. Imagine your project develops a new IT system but your
project actually finishes just before implementation. There is clearly a risk that the system
might not work, but is that a project risk or not? You could argue that it isn't a project risk
since it happens after the project has ended. However, your project makes a commitment whether explicitly or implicitly - that the project's product will work when it goes live. The
project manager would be wise to consider failure to meet this commitment as part of the
project risk assessment.
Project Risk
In this chapter we are primarily considering project risk, that is things that might cause
project failure:

things that might prevent us coming in within the budget we are thinking to
committing to

things that might cause us to fail to meet any dates we are thinking of committing to

things that might cause us to fail to meet any other commitments we are thinking of
making

Though "risks" can also go the other way: that techie you're going to hire may be twice as
good as expected and the "risk" is that he does the work in half the planned time. Some say
these "risks" (better called opportunities) should be assessed and monitored in much the
same way as negative risks, to make it more likely they are exploited.
All of us have been on holiday many times so we all have in-built mental holiday risk
checklists. But imagine you are asked to manage a project and you've never managed
anything similar before. You'd have no idea what the pitfalls might be nor what to do about
them. If you had a checklist, like the holiday risk checklist, that listed the things that had
caused problems in previous similar projects, and what had been done to address those
problems, that could be very valuable to you and help you deal with similar problems in
your project. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008
Let us see how we might manage risks in projects. We will describe the process under these
5 headings:
1. Measure - realise what risks you face, assess
their probability and impact.
2. Minimise - identify what could be done to remove or reduce risks and do it.
3. Mention - speak to the sponsor, don't keep risks secret.
4. Monitor - keep risks under review, monitor and reduce them as you go along.
5. Modify - share your experience, update your company's risk checklists.
You will notice that the initials form an easily remembered acronym: mmmmm.
1. Measure
If your project involves HR, Marketing, Finance and IT, only someone from those divisions
can really tell you the risks their division poses to the project. Will they really be able to
supply the promised resources? Will they really empower somebody to represent them and
make decisions on their behalf? And only IT specialists can tell you how risky the proposed
technology is.
Hold a half day risk identification meeting with representatives from all involved areas plus
experts who you think will be able to help identify risks. Initially do not use a checklist. Ask
everyone to articulate what they think could cause problems in the project - tell them
beforehand you're going to do this so they give it some thought. List everything everyone
mentions. Then - if your organisation has one - go though the risk checklist: that will
probably highlight risks you hadn't thought of. Don't do it the other way round, don't go
through the checklist first as that can limit people's thinking. (See the Appendices for an
example of a risk assessment checklist.)
You now have a list of things that you think could cause problems for your project, i.e. risks.
For each risk assess how likely is it to happen and how severe its impact would be. Avoid
esoteric discussions on probability theory and percentages. Keep it simple. Beside each risk

write High, Medium or Low under these two headings: probability and impact. For some
risks you might decide you need an 'Unacceptably High' ranking.
Then re-order the list to show high probability high impact risks first - clearly these are the
ones that represent the biggest threat to your success. Perhaps during the meeting you can
devise ways of removing or reducing some of those risks. Where you can't, you might
decide to assign risks to individuals to follow up.
Tools that employ risk weighting and calculate an overall risk score in an apparently
scientific way may add value, but can obscure the fact that one single risk, which may not
even be considered in the tool, can make the whole project a complete non-starter.
Whatever techniques you use to assess, measure and understand the risks - brainstorming,
checklists, tools - remember that the aim is simply to focus the attention of those involved
in running the project on those things that are most likely to cause grief or even failure and
ensure they do something about them. Complicated and mathematically elegant processes
can cause one to lose sight of this. Similarly, don't clutter up the works with hundreds of
things that are unlikely to happen and would have minor impact even if they did. List them
(if you really must) but otherwise ignore them.
For very small projects risk assessment might involve getting the team together a week or
so before you are due to make you commitments to focus their mind on risks. A half hour
meeting in which you ask the team what they think are the risks and maybe to go through a
simple checklist (see the Appendix) may be all that's needed. Though risk reduction may
still be difficult.
For very large projects you may have much more formal processes, perhaps formal health
and safety risk assessments, and you may even employ consultants to assist if the company
has no experience of projects of that size and nature.
Minimise This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any
other website. This project management book must not be reproduced in whole or in part in
any form without express written permission of the copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
We now have a list of things we think will threaten our project's success and we have
ranked them with highest likelihood/impact first. It may only have taken half a day to do
this - to realise what risks the project faces - but identifying what can be done about those
risks, and doing it, could require some heavyweight, time consuming, toe-to-toe
negotiation.
If the project scope is simply too large to fit into the desired timescale, some forthright
discussions with the sponsor may be needed. If one of the major risks was, say, that HR
may be unable to provide a person properly to define HR's requirements, a meeting with the
HR manager may be appropriate. If a firm commitment is obtained for a knowledgeable HR
person to be definitely available and empowered to represent HR you may conclude the risk
has been removed. If you can only extract a half-hearted resource promise you may have
succeeded in reducing the risk a bit but not in removing it. How big the remaining risk is
depends, partly, on how important HR's requirements are in the grand scheme of things and
to what extent you believe the promise. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 You have to make a judgement.

Some risks might be avoided altogether: you simply won't use that untried technology. For
other risks, you will be able to reduce the likelihood of them occurring. If you thought a
couple of people might leave the project at some point (which could cause real problems)
what would you do?
For contractors you might offer to pay them a bonus if they stay until the end of the project.
They might still leave half way through but it's less likely.
For regular staff you might line up two backfills who would come in and replace them. In the
plan you'd then have two tasks (not yet assigned to anyone), let's say each one week long,
labelled 'hand over to your replacement'. As soon as you know someone is going to leave
that becomes the last task in their plan. And of course the first task for each of the backfills
would be a one week 'be handed over to' task. You haven't altered the risk of people leaving
but you have potentially reduced its impact. Now, if you get lucky during the project, guess
what? Nobody leaves and you've got 4 weeks of effort in hand! If you get unlucky, guess
what? More than two people leave. This illustrates two things quite nicely: for some risks
you put specific tasks into the plan to help mitigate the risk (the handover tasks) and it also
shows it is all ultimately down the your judgement. Your judgement was that two would
leave so you planned on that basis. You win some you lose some but do that across all the
risks and if you're lucky it will more or less balance out.
For some risks there may be no specific tasks that can be include in the plan, so we simply
include contingency in the budget (i.e. money) and in the schedule (i.e. elapsed time). One
risk that exists on every project is that tasks are overlooked and not included in the project
plan. When, half way through, you discover work must be done that is not in the plan what
do you do? Raid the contingency. And you will never foresee all of the risks: things that
aren't foreseen are sometimes called unknown unknowns - include contingency for them.
How much contingency should the budget and timescale include? It depends. A small,
simple, familiar project may only have 5% budget and time contingency. A huge, complex,
leading edge project may have 30% contingency, which means you're saying this: "I've
planned work tasks for everything I can see we will need to do, but this is such new
territory I know we will end up doing a lot of other work as well - I just can't foresee
specifically what those work tasks will be, so I've allowed time and money for them under
the heading contingency." Thirty percent contingency will be hard to sell. Another reason
PMs get well paid.

Project Definition

Stage 1

Stage 2

Replanning of various sorts is usually what risk reduction boils down to: extra people,
moving the end date, building in third party reviews, building in contingency, etc. Estimating
and planning contingency will be further explored in the next two chapters.
When are we doing this risk assessment? As part of the planning of each project stage. So,
as we near the end of the project definition stage we will assess the project's risks. We may
even do two risk assessments at that time: one in great detail for Stage 1 and another for
any later project stages. Then, as we near the end of Stage 1 we will, as part of the
planning of Stage 2, do a detailed risk assessment for Stage 2. Risk assessment is a key
input to the go no go decision at the start of each project stage.

3. Mention
We have done what we can to deal with the risks: removed them, reduced their likelihood,
included things in the plan to reduce their impact, put contingency in the plan, added extra
people, adjusted budgets and dates... all to try and make it more likely we'll succeed. But
we certainly haven't magiced all the risks away: risks remain.
Who owns the project risk, who ultimately is taking the risk? The project sponsor. But most
sponsors, particularly of technical projects, have no idea what the risks are. The project
manager has a duty to explain the risks to the sponsor before the sponsor gives the goahead.
But beware - there are good ways and bad ways of presenting risks to the sponsor. Do not
go to the sponsor with a hundred PowerPoint slides listing several hundred risks most of
which are minor. Instead try something like this: "Sponsor, we have been through the
following process to assess the project's risks - workshops, checklists... Initially, sponsor
these twelve things came out as very high risks. However, we have already taken these
actions... and as a result eight of those twelve risks have been removed or significantly
reduced." That is a very positive thing to say and builds real credibility for the next bit
where you say: "But these four high risks remain." You must then explain the probability
and impact of each. If you were the sponsor and the project manager said: "This risk is
almost certain to happen and when it does your $5M project will be a total write off," would
you give that project the go ahead? Probably not - unless the benefits are measured in
billions and it's worth the gamble.

For example: "Sponsor, this risk remains: it is very probable that HR will not be able to
supply resources to define their requirements. The impact will be that we will have to more
or less guess what they want and in the worst case when we go live the system won't do
what HR needs and will be unusable." Now, like any good project manager you're probably
already thinking of ten ways that risk could be reduced! But assuming all those things have
been tried and there really isno way HR can do it the sponsor may decide he will not start
the project until HR can make the requisite resource available.
But if we said: "Sponsor, this risk will be very hard to contain and if it happens we could
easily be a month late." The sponsor might say: "OK, try and bring it in on track, but I
recognise the end date is a bit exposed."
You must mention the risks to the sponsor before he gives the go-ahead. Imagine you keep
the risks secret and when the project is all going wrong you say: "well of course, sponsor, I
knew all along it was high risk and bound to go wrong," you're going to get shot, and quite
rightly so.
A face to face presentation of the risks should be mandatory for any significant project.
Monitor
We've assessed the risks, reduced them where possible and told the sponsor how great the
residual risk is, i.e. how big a risk he is running by deciding to do the project.
And the sponsor has said: "I hear what you say, I understand all those risks but succeed in
spite of them." At this point don't go off in a huff, put in place things that will make sure the
risks are managed down as you go though the project. Don't just log the risks and forget
them.
Don't try and manage hundreds of minor risks. Focus on those most likely to cause
significant problems. Assign each of these risks to someone in the team: it's their job to
ensure the team does whatever is needed to reduce that risk as we go along. For example,
if we will need a technical specialist in 3 months but they are hard to come by, one way of
reducing the risk might be to ring the agency every fortnight to remind them of our
requirement. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008
In weekly team meetings risk owners report briefly on the status of the risks they are
looking after: what is being done, what needs to be done to keep the risk at bay. These
actions could be pre-planned or involve the use of contingency time and money. In a
smallish project the team members would report risk status direct to the project manager in
the weekly meeting. In a larger project the reporting might be to the team leaders in their
weekly team meeting and the team leaders report on the more significant risks to the
project manager.
Perhaps in our example the team leader reports there are now plenty of those technical
specialists available. Or he might report there is no prospect of finding someone in which
case you might decide to trawl the world for that expertise and prepare to spend a slice of
your contingency to pay for it.

Once a month the project manager tells the sponsor the status of key project risks. More on
reporting in a later chapter.
In very large projects with many significant risks it may be appropriate to employ a risk
manager who does nothing other than help the project manager manage the risks.
Of course, new risks can crawl out of the woodwork as the project progresses - if they are
significant add them to the risk register.

5. Modify
Some organisations have a Project Support function (more later). At the end of each project
stage they ask the project manager what problems they encountered that they hadn't
foreseen. And when someone trips over a risk that isn't on the organisation's risk checklist
what do project support do? Add it to the checklist so the checklists evolve to reflect risks
actually being encountered. Checklists because there could be several: hardware projects
have different risks to software projects, so there could be a risk checklist for each type of
project the organisation undertakes.
And if project support are smart they'll also ask: how did you deal with the problems or,
with hindsight, how would you deal with similar problems next time? Project support collect
these successful ways of dealing with risks and produce something like the holiday risk
checklist - what might go wrong and what might avoid or mitigate those risks. This means
that new project managers don't all have to learn about risks the hard way.

<h2>Project Management Course</h2>

Monte Carlo
People have tried to devise elaborate mathematical risk assessment procedures. You answer
a thousand questions, the tool whirs and clicks and comes out with a risk score - 63.724%.
This can be very misleading: the scoring can obscure the fact that one risk actually makes
the project a complete non-starter (and that specific risk may not even be considered in the
tool). With checklists and tools there is a tendency just to consider the risks that happen to
be listed. They also encourage averaging: you have a list of 20 risks, 6 high, 8 medium, 6
low - what's the overall risk? The temptation is to say medium. But again, one of those high
risks could make the whole project too high risk to contemplate. Don't arrive at the overall
risk by averaging. Projects are all different, no checklist will ever have on it all the risks your
project faces. Risk assessment is a brain-in-gear activity, it is not about filling in a checklist
and filing it away.
Some projects and manufacturing processes lend themselves to techniques such as EMV
and Monte Carlo simulation. With EMV, the probability of a risk happening is multiplied by
the cost if it does happen and the resulting amount of money (expected monetary value)
put into the budget. So, 10% chance of a 1M problem biting, 100K goes into the budget.
If you had ten such risks you'd have a 1M contingency pot. The chances are one risk will
happen and nine won't and the 1M covers the one that happens.

Monte Carlo works like this: each task in the project is given a probability of happening
anything between, say, 50% early and 200% late. A computer simulates the execution of
the project many times, each time using statistical techniques for deciding how on time or
otherwise each task will be. Sometimes the simulation will result in the project finishing
early, sometimes on time, sometimes late. If, say, the most common outcome was the
project finishing around 20% late that might be where you'd want to put your money. This
is all fine in theory but it assumes you can give accurate values to all those probabilities.
Keep it simple.
To summarise the risk management steps:

Realise what risks you face, assess their

probability and impact.

Identify what could be done to remove or reduce risks and do it.

Speak to the sponsor, don't keep risks secret.

Keep risks under review, monitor and reduce them as you go along.

Share your experience, update your company's risk checklists.

Or put another way: Measure, Minimise, Mention, Monitor and Modify.

Finally, managing risk is not the same as being risk averse. Jumping out of aeroplanes is a
pretty high risk undertaking and you may decide it's wise to reduce the risk by wearing a
parachute. Sometimes doing phenomenally high risk projects is the right thing to do. But if
it is very high risk everyone knows that and exceptional action is taken to make the project
succeed in spite of all the risks. For illustration, in a very high risk, business critical project
you might ask for the mobile phone numbers of every member of the project steering
committee - who may in fact be the Board of Director - and have an understanding that if
anything arises day or night or weekend they can help with, you will call them and they will
do whatever it takes. And would you, the project manager, let everyone know you had those
mobile numbers? The unspoken promise is: get in my way and your Director will be having
a quiet word with you... <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-managementbook-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts
1706
The Appendix contains two examples of risk assessment checklists: one for very small
projects with about a dozen items on it and one for larger projects which runs to several
pages. Even the long checklist won't have anything like all the risks on it that any given
project will face - risks will be very dependent upon the project's nature and the
envirnoment in which it is being done.

"If you don't attack the risks the risks will attack you."

Chapter 6 - Estimating

This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any
other website. This project management book must not be reproduced in
whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
Estimating is like getting rich: everyone wants an effortless way of doing it. Failing that,
estimating can be done quite easily using sophisticated tools such as the one pictured.
Look up from the page at the wall in front of you. How long would it take you to paint the
wall? What's your estimate? Twenty minutes? A couple of hours? You've got the job.
Because our 'paint the wall' task of course included:

agreeing the colour with your partner (a 2 month task in its own right?)

buying the paint from a boutique paint factory in Faro, Portugal

preparing the surface

tidying up

So our two hour job is actually more like a two or three month job.
This happens, usually by the coffee machine: "I've got to go to a meeting, can you give me
a rough idea how long it would take to...?" and under pressure you say: "about two hours?"
But when you find out what's really involved it is more like 3 months work. So the first
message from this chapter is: don't guess. We will see later how we might resist the
pressure to generate random numbers.
What's the worst way to estimate how much a project will cost? Get one junior person who
has never estimated before to have a guess and then we all become committed to that
guess. We'll see later how we might bring experience to bear on this difficult task of
estimating project cost.

Project Definition

Requirements
Analysis <a
href="http://www.hrac
onsultingltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book0101.htm"><b>Projec
t Management
Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding
Roberts 2006 2007
2008

User Functions
Design

IT Technical
Design

Build and
Test

User
Acceptance

Suppose we are at the start of a year long project, can we estimate its cost accurately?
Almost certainly not, there are so many unknowns. Until we have defined the detailed
requirements and done the design it's very hard to say what the build might cost. When
we're in the project definition stage we may conclude we can only estimate with any kind of
accuracy Stage 1: Requirements and User Functions Design.
So, we will do a detailed, task by task, bottom up estimate for Stage 1 and a much softer,
top down estimate for Stage 2. When we near the end of Stage 1 and have the design done
we will then estimate Stage 2 task by task, bottom up, and provide an accurate estimate for
it (we hope!).
Top down estimating is getting as good an idea as we can of total project cost and bottom
up estimating is getting a precise estimate for the project stage we are about to start.

Let us first consider some techniques for improving the accuracy of top down estimates.

Good project definition

We were miles out with the wall painting project estimate because we didn't understand the
project scope - we did not have an agreed project definition. Crystal clear project scope is
an obvious prerequisite to good top down estimating.

Include all costs

Ask someone from IT what a project might cost and they will think about the programming
cost and - if you're lucky - the testing cost, add the two together and give the result as the
project cost. But in reality that is just the tip of the cost iceberg. Even if the estimates for
the programming and testing costs are spot on, it's what's left out that makes the overall
estimate way out.
How might we overcome that problem? Have a checklist of all possible costs a project might
incur: project definition, requirements analysis, design, documentation, team meetings,
change, project management, contingency, travel, plus a very long list of et ceteras. This
makes it much less likely cost items will be overlooked.
A good checklist includes peripheral costs too: it's all very well quoting $50K to develop a
little new system but if three other systems must be modified to interface to it, those costs
have to be included somewhere. And suppose a data conversion would be needed to get old
data into a form usable by our little new system - was that cost in the $50K project
estimate? A good checklist makes you think very broadly about all of the costs associated
with the project, not just the narrow development costs.
These checklists are relatively easy to develop by looking at where the time and money
went on previous projects. If that information isn't available, sit down with two other people
for an hour to draw up such a checklist: you will be amazed at what you end up with on that
list that you would otherwise have overlooked when doing an estimate.
When you have such a checklist, try this. Ask someone for an off the top of the head
estimate for a little project. Then give them the checklist and come back ten minutes later
for their revised estimate: you will be surprised at the difference.

Break it down
Never accept a single global figure as the estimate for anything. Always get it broken down
by the major steps the project will go through.
If someone came to you with a breakdown for a new-build software project and said the IT
effort will be as follows, would you believe the estimate?
Work
with
users to define requirements

8 man months

Develop the User Functions Design

IT Technical design
Build and Test

8 man months
2 man months
2 man months

Total cost 20 man months of IT effort. 18 man months to get to the end of the design steps
then 2 man months to do all the programming and testing for a new build software project does that ratio sound right? If it cost 18mm to do the requirements and design what do you
reckon the build and test might cost - in your experience, what percentage of the IT effort is
spent in the build and test steps of a new build software project?
Suppose in past new build software projects the IT effort had in fact typically been
distributed as follows:
Requirements
User Functions Design
IT Technical Design
Build and Unit Test
System and User Test

15%
15%
10%
40%
20%

Would you now believe the 20mm estimate in the example above? At the very least you
would need a lot of convincing why this time the work distribution will be so dramatically
different.
Your company might have a number of such models - yardsticks against which to compare
future estimates. For example, in package modification projects the IT work distribution
might be more like this:

Typographical Error?
If you spot a typo please click here
and let us know
20%

Requirements
User Functions Design
IT Technical Design
Build and Unit Test
System and User Test

20%
15%
15%
30%

Most types of projects go through a number of steps such as these. As a matter of principle,
never accept a single global number, always get it broken down by the relevant steps the
project will go through and compare to past experience as a reasonableness check.
Benchmarks such as this only work, however, if projects apply a consistent development
(manufacturing) process: if some projects do properly detailed and complete user functions
design but other projects do UFD at a much vaguer, higher level the effort breakdown would
obviously differ from project to project.

Here's a quiz for you.

At the start of the project pictured on the right, the project manager said the total cost
would be 1000 man days: 400 man days in Stage 1 and 600 man days in Stage 2. He

knows that in the past, similar projects have expended 40% of their effort in Stage 1 and
60% in Stage 2.
Stage 1 has just finished. It actually cost 800 - twice as much as estimated. So, the original
estimate for the project was 1000, 800 has been spent so far - what would you say the
remaining project cost will be? The most likely answer is 1200 man days. But what would
some project managers say? The remaining cost will be 200: 1000 budget, 800 spent,
remaining cost 200. There is a rather big difference between 1200 and 200! Always look at
what has actually been spent so far and using past ratios extrapolate forwards to get a more
realistic picture of what the remainder of the project is likely to cost.

Rules of thumb
Imagine this. Your developers estimate a project at 49 man months of effort, i.e. one
person could do it in 49 months (about 4 years) or it would take 2 people 24.5 months (2
years) or 4 people a year, etc.
Next day you tell the sponsor it's 49 man months of effort and whatever that is in money.
He says he can afford it but wants the project finished in 3 months starting from... NOW.
Can you do it? Bear in mind the project hasn't started so by definition none of the team is
there yet. You say you're not sure so the sponsor offers you unlimited funds and access to
IT consultants - whatever you need. Can you do it? While you are hesitating the sponsor
points out that in the business they handle 1000 orders a day with 10 order handlers and if
they got 2000 orders a day they'd use 20 order handlers and still do it in a day. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 So, the sponsor says, why don't you get in 49 IT contractors in on Monday
morning and do the project in a month? When you look incredulous he says: "OK, tell you
what: do it in 4 months, OK?" And if you have no rationale for rebutting his suggestion you
may find 4 months is now your 'commitment'.
This is another difference between process-based thinking and project-based thinking. For
operational activities you can simply increase the number of people - almost infinitely - as
the people are operating independently. But in a project adding too many people just causes
chaos, and we all know we can't suddenly employ a huge number tomorrow - they'd have
nothing to do. In a project we have to start off with a few, build up and then come down to
zero at the end.
So how long would a 49 man month project take? There is a rule of thumb known as the
square root rule. Express the project effort in man months, 49, and take the square root of
that number. You now know why we chose 49. That would suggest an elapsed time of about
7 months. This works well as a rough guide to the minimum elapsed time of IT development
projects. Could we do the project in 6 months? Maybe, if we ban holidays and work
weekends. But there is a limit. And if the project spans August it may take 8 months under
normal conditions because of holidays. Obviously if you choose not to use as many people
as you could, the project will take longer than the rule of thumb would suggest.
If everyone knows the square root rule, including project sponsors, as soon as you say it's
100 man months they know it's going to take around 10 months to get it done. This can
result in fewer projects trying to do the impossible. Of course, if your team is happy to bring

their camp beds into the office and work 20 hours a day you may be able substantially to
break the square root rule. But would your team do that?
The square root rule is sometimes known as the golden square rule: the average team size
is roughly equal to the elapsed time in months. Seven month project? Average team size of
seven people. Some sources say that 7 should be the <i>maximum</i> team size, but we
would suggest that on a 7 month project you could safely peak at ten or even a dozen team
members without them tripping over each other. Following paragraph added instead 9 Feb
2011
Note that the square root rule gives the average team size not the maximum team size.
Thus, in our 49mm project, the team starts at 0, may be 2 or 3 in the early stages, might
peak at 12 during the construction stage then drop to a few towards the end before
returning to 0 at the end.
In a programme of several sub-projects you'd apply the square root rule to the largest subproject to get a rough idea of the programme's duration.
This is not a magic formula that tells you exactly how long a project will take - many factors
could affect a project's duration. It is just a rough guide to the shortest duration it might be
possible to do a project in.

User effort
In your experience, who estimates how many hours of user effort will be required for "IT"
projects? If we are honest the answer sometimes is that nobody does. If you're the HR
manager and nobody tells you how much work will be needed from your people what will
you assume in your planning? A big round zero. Anything is better than a default
assumption of zero.
Suppose that on past projects the relationship between IT effort and user effort had been as
follows:
IT Effort
Requirements
User Functions Design
IT Technical Design
Build and Unit Test
System and User Test

User Effort
1
2
3
4
2

1
1
1
1
1

So, in the requirements step for every man day of IT effort there had been a man day of
user effort. In the user functions design step for every 2 man days of IT effort there had
been 1 man day of user effort. Having estimated the IT effort per step you could at least get
a very rough idea of the user effort per step. If you can estimate the user time more
accurately you should, but anything is better than a zero estimate of user time being
assumed because no other number has been mentioned.

The above are illustrations of how the essence can be distilled from past projects to yield
rules of thumb that will at least guide project managers to the right ballpark when doing top
down estimating.

Realism
In your experience do projects end up costing less than the initial estimate or more than the
initial estimate? More? Why? Why do people tend to underestimate at the beginning?
Because they e.g.:

want the project to fly

don't allow for change

don't allow for management activities

don't include quality checking activities

don't include contingency

Why do project managers sometimes leave these things out? Guilt.

Suppose that on a past project effort was actually expended as follows:
Change
Planning, controlling, supervising
Quality checking
Unplanned tasks

15%
10%
15%
10%

It is only reasonable to assume similar expenditures on the next similar project and
therefore to include these things in the next project's estimate. But please add those
percentages up - what do they come to? About 50%. You must now go to your sponsor or
Board of Directors with your estimate breakdown, 50% of which is change, quality,
contingency... At this point even the most experienced project managers begin to feel guilty
that they are padding the estimate and what do they do? Shut their eyes hope those things
will go away and leave them out of the estimate. If you leave all of those things out the
project is going to cost roughly double your estimate.
How might we make project managers be realistic and include the appropriate factors in
their estimates? Make them personally accountable for the estimate they give at the start of
each stage. At the end of the stage independently measure the actual cost and the closer it
is to the estimate the bigger the project manager's next pay rise - and we may even pay
him a bonus. And if the actual is miles away from the estimate...
...next

In this rather hard-edged culture would you include the relevant percentages in your
estimates? You would. (Incidentally, the percentages for things like change and contingency
will usually be lower for small, simple projects, but could well be higher for large, complex
projects).
So, you do a professional job of estimating and include the appropriate percentages. You
then present your cost breakdown to the sponsor, even the Board of Directors. They are
horrified at the cost and tell you to cut your estimate. What would you do? Offer to reduce
project scope perhaps. But no, they want full scope, just a lower estimate.
You justify your figures by showing past project actuals but they don't want to know. They
just tell you to reduce your estimate. Do you give in? No, you say something like this: "This
is what I think it is going to cost. If you can find another project manager who will do it to
your estimate please do. But if you want me to manage it this is the estimate."
Would you be taking a risk by saying that to your Board of Directors? Yes, but a very small
risk indeed compared with the risk of being brow-beaten into agreeing a lower figure and
then failing spectacularly. Another good example of why it isn't easy being a project
manager and why it should be a well paid job.
It is quite right and proper that senior managers put in a hard challenge to your numbers:
"Fifteen percent on quality? Surely that should be 5% shouldn't it?" Now he probably hasn't
got a clue what it should be - he's looking for your reaction. If you immediately cave in and
say you'll change it to 5% your whole credibility goes out of the window. But if you calmly
explain why it's 15% and appear to have good reason the sponsor,
Board or whoever you are presenting to are much more likely to
accept the rest of your numbers. The random challenge tests
whether you've just made up some numbers or whether you really
Project Definition
do know what you're talking about.

Requirements
Analysis

So, since you are accountable for the accuracy of the estimate,
you want to get it right but how do you estimate what a stage will
cost?

Bottom up estimating
User Functions
Design

Stage 1
IT Technical
Design

Build and
Test

User
Acceptance

Stage 2

1. Identify the deliverables of the stage. Sounds obvious, but consciously stop and
think: what must be delivered from the stage? If we are estimating Stage 1, the
deliverables might be the requirements document, the UFD, a revised cost benefit
case, the Stage 2 plan and agreement, a testing strategy document, a roll out plan...
and probably several other things too.
2. Write a very long list of all the work tasks you will therefore need to do in Stage 1 in
order to deliver those things.
3. Estimate how many hours of work each task will take, using records of how long
similar tasks took on past projects. Think of any project task you like - it's been done
before on a previous project. If you knew how long it took you wouldn't have to
guess.
4. Allow for 'investments'. Things like planning, time recording, team meetings,
supervision, coaching.
5. Adjust for skill level. If last time a task took 1 day but was done by an expert, a
novice might take two, three or even four days to do a similar task. Clearly, the
hours a task will take will depend upon who you give it to.
6. Develop the draft stage plan. Sketch out who might do which tasks and when. This
will usually reveal extra tasks that will have to be done but which were not on the
list.
7. Assess the risks. We know roughly who will do what and when. Now is the time to
take a detailed look at the stage risks. This may result in adding risk reduction tasks
into the plan (remember the handover tasks for those who might leave?) plus an
amount of effort/money for anything else that might crop up that might mean tasks
will have to be added to the plan once the stage is underway - in other words
contingency.
8. Validate the estimate. Never use just one person to do the estimate or just one
technique. Use many people and come at the estimate in as many ways as you can:
top down, bottom up, third party quotes, comparison to past projects, rules of
thumb, etc.
Have you got a telephone directory handy? Try this. Estimate and write down how many
names you think are listed in it - just a top down guesstimate.
<h1>Project Management Course</h1>
Now estimate and write down these 3 numbers:

how many pages there are in the book (no peeking!)

how many columns of names there are on each page

how many names are listed in each column

Now multiply those 3 numbers together to give you something akin to a bottom up
estimate.
Next, look at the cover of the phone book (don't open the book). It says what area the book
covers. Estimate how many houses there are in that area then subtract the percentage you
think may be ex-directory. If the phone book includes businesses estimate how many of
them there are in the area and add them.
You should now have 3 different estimates for the number of names in the book. Now,
taking those three estimates into consideration, form a revised judgement of how many
names there are in the book and write it down (and remember your next pay rise depends
upon the accuracy of this estimate!). <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M
Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
Now open the book and multiply the actual number of pages x the number of columns per
page x the number of names per column. (You may need to do separate calculations for the
residential and business sections of the directory).
Your final estimate should be a lot closer to the right answer than your initial top down
guesstimate. Your bottom up estimate (pages x columns x names per column) will probably
have been the closest of your initial three estimates.
This little exercise doesn't always work, but it does show there are usually several ways of
arriving at an estimate for something. Use many methods and many people, consider the
results in the round and arrive at a more informed estimate.
Let us go back to that encounter by the coffee machine when you were being pressed to
guess what a project might cost. Say: "I don't know, I'll get back to you." If it is a small
piece of work gather a couple of colleagues round your desk, go through something similar
to the phone book exercise, zip through your estimating checklist (if you haven't got one,
start compiling one!) then arrive at an estimate. That number will probably be very different
from the one you would have given beside the coffee machine. Of course, if you have been
asked to estimate a large project it could take days or even weeks of work to arrive at
anything approaching an accurate estimate: using rules of thumb, consulting records of past
projects, consulting experts, talking to potential team members, getting external quotes,
etc. The time it takes to produce a reliable estimate is clearly related to the size and
complexity of the project.

Mandatory review
Many companies mandate that having produced an estimate using whatever techniques are
appropriate, the project manager must get the estimate peer reviewed before quoting the
estimate to the sponsor/client/sales team/senior management.
The project manager talks through their estimate with someone from project support.
(Note, talks through. This is not a box-ticking exercise in which you send a document to
someone who checks you have filled in a particular form.) The project manager describes
how they arrived at the estimate - who was involved, which past projects the estimate has
been derived from or compared with, etc. Project support will ask questions such as:

"Where's the change budget? Why only 5% contingency? Where's the user training time?
How much time's in there for quality assurance? Why no travel costs?" Etc.
Frankly it's easy for a project manager to con the sponsor (what does the sponsor know
about what should be included in an estimate?) but you cannot pull the wool over the
project support guy's eyes: he's been there seen it and done it (see the chapter on project
support). No longer can project managers get away with a guess, they must show someone
independent that they have arrived at the estimate professionally. (You're no doubt thinking
that you would of course arrive at your estimates thoroughly and professionally without
such a check. No doubt you would. Checks like this aren't for you, they are for those
colleagues of yours who might otherwise be tempted just to guess...)
Once the project support person starts seeing several project estimates he will rapidly tune
in to the errors people most commonly make and he can then issues guidance to project
managers. For example: don't forget to include time for team meetings which is usually
around x% of total project man hours.
It takes maybe half an hour to go through an estimate with project support - more for a
very large project obviously - but if mandatory estimate reviews are put in place it can
result in an overnight and dramatic improvement in the accuracy of estimates
Inherited estimates
Have you ever inherited an estimate and had to manage a project to it? Was it a pleasant
experience? The only person who should be allowed to quote an estimate is the person who
will manage the project. That is the only person with an incentive to get the estimate right.
If you do take over a project and an attached estimate, in the first week review everything
and if the estimate is wrong shout loudly (and by implication blame your predecessor). If
you leave it for more than a week or so it's your fault, you caused it. Unfair, but that will be
the perception.
Best advice of all is: never take over a (large) project half way through - you never know
what you're taking on, you never know what stones have been left unturned that conceal
nasty surprises. Go on holiday, retire, get pregnant - whatever it takes. But if there's no
escape and you're forced to take a project over, in that first week lift up all those stones,
even get an independent review (see the project support chapter). Maybe you'll be lucky,
everything's fine. But why did the previous project manager leave?

Why people get estimates wrong

There are many reasons people get estimates wrong:

Over optimism - nothing will go wrong

Underestimating things like

o

control

coaching

supervision

project meetings

training time

communications time

user effort

Lack of understanding of project scope

Ignoring reality - assuming nothing will change, nothing unexpected will bite you

Just guessing

Being able to get away with no independent validation

Estimating isn't a managed activity

Suggestions for getting it right

Break a big programme into sub-projects, releases, stages. Estimate each bit separately and
add it all back up.
Keep the first release to essential functions. This helps in two ways. Release 1 is obviously
smaller than the whole thing would have been and therefore inherently easier to estimate,
but you will tend to put the stuff into Release 1 that's best understood and therefore easier
to estimate. Leave all the vague stuff till a later release by which time one hopes it will have
become clearer.
Don't quote narrow ranges. If someone told you a project was going to cost between 100
and 120 which number would you hear? Probably 100. But the estimator is thinking it will
cost 120. Immediate mis-communication.
Quote a very wide range to indicate your level of uncertainty. "I've been looking for you,
I've got to go to a Board meeting - can you tell me roughly what a project to do... would
cost?" "Yes I can. It will definitely cost you between ten thousand pounds and ten million
pounds." "Can't you be more precise than that?" "No, not on what you've told me so far."
(One project manager carried a pair of dice for such occasions. He would roll the dice and if
they showed, say, nine he'd say: "The project will cost nine." "Nine what?" "I don't know,
you decide.")
Don't factor in savings from new tools. First use will probably increase costs due to the
learning curve.

Have a fixed budget. This can greatly empower the project manager to say 'no' to nonessential functions. "I'd like to do that for you but I'm afraid it won't fit into the budget." If
you've ever run a project you will know that some things are going to be easy to do, other
things you just know are going to cause difficulties. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0001.htm"><b>Project Management Books</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 Any excuse not to include things like that if
they are non-essential is useful.
Test those who come to you with an estimate: "What is the chance the work will cost less
than this estimate?" If the person now starts laughing helplessly what does that tell you?
It's going to cost a lot more than their estimate. Ask them to try again and come back with
a revised figure and tell them there must be a 50% chance the work will cost less than the
estimate.
Check the estimator lives in the real world. Some people live in a fantasy world in which
nobody makes mistakes, nobody changes their mind, nobody has holidays or goes sick...
They are estimating what the project ought to cost. That figure is of no use to man nor
beast. We want to know what the project's going to cost in the real world. Indeed, some
experienced project managers never ask anybody for 'an estimate', they never use that
word. They ask the question like this: "Please would you go away and work out for me how
much you think this piece of work really will actually end up costing us?" And they say if you
ask the question that way you'll get a much more realistic figure than if you asked for 'an
estimate'.
Avoid automated estimating tools. The estimating tool asks you several hundred questions.
Some questions you don't understand, so you guess at their meaning and give an answer.
The tool gives you a very precise but very wrong answer - garbage in, garbage out!
When top down estimating, and you don't know who will be in the team, you have to
assume an average skill level. But remember you will probably have more junior people
than senior people so the average skill level isn't half way down, it's lower than that. If in
doubt assume any A.N.Others will have the skill of a raw trainee.
Sketch out the plan/schedule before quoting the estimate. If you list all the tasks you think
you'll have to do, size each one and add it up you'll get an estimate. But when you start to
build the plan you will find you have to add extra tasks in to make it all fit together properly.
They weren't on your list.
When bottom up estimating get team members to agree to the estimates for their tasks.
Put your estimate in writing, stating the assumptions upon which it is based. If the
estimator of our wall-painting project had said: "Well, assuming the wall's prepared and
there's a pot of paint and a roller there and I've got to give it one coat it'll take two hours",
it would have been obvious we had quite different understandings of the project scope.
Be aware of some individual's inclinations. Some will give macho estimates: "Me? I could do
that in a day easy." Others are very pessimistic: "Ooh, that could take weeks..." Perhaps
ask them how long it would take someone else to do the work: "I could do it in a day but
him? About a week?"

The real secret of good estimating is recording on today's projects how many hours of work
each and every project task actually takes so next time we have hard evidence and don't
have to guess. More on this in the next chapter.
If you estimate properly and allow for everything we have suggested does that mean all
your estimates will be too high and all projects will start coming in way under estimate? No.
If you include in the estimate everything that will in fact cost you time and money estimates
will simply be more accurate. If you do find that all projects come in under estimate then
start to worry that people are padding estimates. But the risk is usually the other way:
people tend to underestimate. In theory half of the projects should come in slightly over
estimate and half slightly under so that across the organisation it balances out.

In conclusion:

Project Management Proverbs

Full collection of project
management proverbs

Good project definition is key

Document assumptions

Use history

Don't guess

Manage the process that produces the estimate

Have mandatory independent validation

Record actuals on today's projects to enable better estimates in future

"The person who says the project will take the longest and cost the most is the only person
with a clue how to do it."
Chapter 7 - Planning

This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any
other website. This project management book must not be reproduced in
whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
Planning who will do what when - or scheduling as some purists would insist - is fairly
straightforward if you have a team of two people. But with a team of a hundred people it
can be difficult to work out who will do what and to get it all to interlock neatly. But get the
plan right and your projects should run like clockwork and before long your colleagues will
be saying you're the one who always gets the easy projects to manage.

There is a big difference between planning small projects and planning large ones. For a
small project a back-of-an-envelope plan may suffice but this won't work for large projects
(unless you have a very large envelope).
Every member of a project team has a right to expect it will be clear to them which tasks
they will perform, when each task should be done and what each task should deliver. In a
two person project the project manager can easily plan the work for the two team
members. But in a hundred person project there is no way the project manager can
personally produce the work plans for every team member. On these larger projects we will
need to employ team leaders to produce the detailed work plans for their teams.
In a large project the project manager will not be interested in the thousands of individual
tasks in the plan: we need to find some way of summarising the project plan, and progress
against it, for the project manager. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M
Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 And for the project sponsor an even more summarised
plan is needed, maybe just showing the resource profile and key milestone dates. But what
the sponsor sees should be no more than a summary of the mass of detail that will be
required at the working level in a large project.
Good plans:

help make best use of resources - a bad plan can mean people sitting around with
nothing to do because something they need hasn't been produced yet.

show each team member what they must do and when

include everybody who has some work to do in the project - there is still a tendency
among IT people only to show IT people in the project plan. The plan must include
everyone: in principle if someone only has one 1 hour task in the whole project they
should be shown in the project plan.

are visible and intelligible. It is very reassuring when you walk into a project team's
working area and up on the wall is a whiteboard across the top of which is a calendar
of week-ending dates and down the side the team members' names and in each
week some indication of what each person will be doing in that week. Why is this
reassuring? If the plan is that visible and that public everyone will have critiqued it
and pointed out the errors and it will have been changed so that it is now a viable
and realistic plan. By contrast you get very nervous when you see a plan that you
can't make head nor tail of and very nervous indeed if no-one will show you the
project plan: what are they hiding? Have they even got a plan? The plan must leave
nobody in doubt about what they must do and when.

are agreed by everyone mentioned within them. Some team leaders get everyone to
sign the plan to evidence the fact they've seen it and think they have a fighting
chance of achieving their part of it.

lead to better quality deliverables - put the other way around, will a badly planned,
chaotic project deliver good quality? It's less likely.

take time and expertise to produce - planning a large project is quite an art.

Project Definition

Stage 1

Stage 2

are revised as the project progresses.

are a key factor in project success. Good plan, successful project: pay rise and
promotion for the project manager. A bad plan can lead to a great deal of stress
during the project.

Stage planning and task size

Imagine the project on the right is a year long. At the project definition stage is it possible
to plan the whole year out in detail, task by task? No. How far into the future is it possible
to plan in detail? Perhaps a few months. This is one reason for breaking the project into
stages. So, in the project definition stage we only produce a detailed plan for Stage 1 and a
high level overview plan for Stage 2. Which implies that one of the tasks in Stage 1 will be a
task to plan Stage 2 in detail. One of the deliverables from any project stage is the detailed
plan for the next stage (assuming there is one).
When building the detailed plan for a stage, how large or how small should each task be? If
you could choose, what would be the ideal task size? One hour? One week? Six weeks long?
If each task was one hour long there would be a vast number of tasks and you'd never keep
track of them all. And what would be the problem if the tasks were all six weeks long? You'd
never really know where you were. Tasks would be started and open for weeks and it would
be difficult to gauge how far through they were. Overall progress would be hard to assess.
Ideally each task would be about a week long, about 30 hours work. In practice some tasks
will be bigger than this and there will be some very small ones. A good sniff test of a stage
plan is to see how many hours it includes, divide by the number of tasks to get the average
task size. An average around 25 hours suggests the plan has about the right level of detail.
An average much smaller and there are probably too many very small tasks. An average
much bigger than that and there probably isn't enough detail in the plan.

Avoid long thin tasks. A task may be only 10 hours but if it's spread over 10 weeks it can
cause control problems. Ideally no task will span more than two or three calendar weeks.
Each task should have an unequivocal end point: the meeting has been attended; the test
case has been written; the object has been successfully tested.
Each task must be assigned to one person. If four people will attend a meeting there will be
4 tasks in the plan - one each.
The above guidance, however, only applies to what we might call 'real work' tasks. Plans,
certainly for larger projects anyway, will contain two other sorts of tasks. Tasks that are
fixed in time such as a team meeting every Monday morning 9am - 10am and control tasks
that span the whole duration of a stage. For example, a team leader may have no 'real
work' tasks to do, he just controls his team. His control task will be as long as the stage. In
a small project it's all real work, but in very large projects there could be multiple layers of
team leaders and sub team leaders who just control others.
So there you are at the beginning of a stage and on your desk is a very large but blank
piece of paper - except at the top where it says 'The Plan'. How do you go about
transforming this blank piece of paper into the plan for the stage? Where do you start?
1. Understand what must be delivered from the stage. It is surprising how often people
do not think this through and thus miss deliverables. If we're planning Stage 1 the
deliverables might be the requirements document, UFD, Stage 2 plan, etc.
2. On another piece of paper, write a very long list showing every single work task that
will need to be done during the stage. Referring to past projects and standards will
help. Team input could be very valuable.
3. Estimate, in hours, how much work each task will take. Bear in mind the number of
hours will depend upon who does the task.
4. Put week ending dates across the top of 'The Plan' and your first cut of who will be in
the team down the left hand side then shade out the time people will not be available
to work on the project: Christmas, public holidays, holidays, courses, etc. (If
someone says they're not sure when they're having holidays don't fall into the trap of
putting no holiday in their plan! Guess when they might take it.) Allow for their nonproject commitments and commitments to other projects.
5. In another colour as it were, shade out time for 'investments' such as team leading,
coaching, orientation and meetings. Allow time for handling change requests and
contingency (see below).
6. Having allowed for everything that will prevent each team member from doing 'real
work' tasks, we can now turn to that list of 'real work' tasks and start the tricky
business of trying to fit them into the remaining white space. This could take a lot of
time and have you tearing your hair out, but stick at it. You will very likely have to
add or subtract people and/or adjust the end date you were aiming for. Involve the
team in this planning activity.

7. The stage plan is beginning to take shape. You now know when you will need people
who are owned by other managers. You may have vague resource promises from
Directors, but now you can be quite specific with people's direct managers about
when you will actually need their people. We will consider how best to formalise
resource agreement in the chapter on stage agreements.
8. When you believe the plan is finished, get the team together and present the plan to
them line by line, task by task. Will the team find errors in your perfect plan? They
will. A bit embarrassing, but better to be embarrassed one Friday afternoon than to
spend the next six months having a slow motion nervous breakdown.
9. In some companies there would now be a rule that for a large project the project
manager must spend an hour or so running through the plan with project support.
Project support do what they can to make sure the plan seems to have been put
together properly. Project support can't second guess whether the plan is complete
and correct and achievable, but if someone presents a plan to you it is usually pretty
obvious whether it's at the right level of detail, clearly assigns tasks to people,
includes contingency, etc. and seems to have been properly thought through. (As we
shall see in a later chapter, the project support person is a peer project manager who
has been there seen it and done it and they'll know whether the planning has been
done properly or not.)
10. Record your plan in a tool such as Prima Vera or Track-It or Microsoft Project. We
have not mentioned tools earlier for a good reason. So often team leaders get sent
on an MSP course, come back and are then asked to plan a project. They open up an
MSP plan and, brain totally empty, expect the plan to appear by magic on the screen
in front of them. There are two totally unrelated skills at play here: one skill is
knowing how to plan a particular type of project and the other completely unrelated
skill is knowing how to use MSP. You could be the world's best novelist yet completely
unable to use a wordprocessor. Equally you could be a Microsoft Word expert but
unable to string an intelligible sentence together. Some project managers would even
forbid a novice team leader from using any planning tool on their first project: make
them plan on a large piece of paper and track that way too. Then they find out what
planning is really all about and on their next project understand how a tool like
Track-It can actually help them. Whatever you decide, avoid novice planners getting
lost in the tool and losing sight of the real job: building a viable plan.
11. Tools
12. The best planning tool of all? Book a conference room. Lay the tables in a line almost
corner to corner. Get a roll of plain wallpaper and lay it out along the tables. Draw
lines across the roll every foot (30cm) or so to delineate weeks and write in weekending dates. Get the team in the room, write each task on a Post-It note and have
fun planning the project stage by jigging the Post-Its around until it all fits together.
<a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts
2006 2007 2008 Roll the plan up, put it on the office wall and track progress against
it using different coloured Post-Its.
13. We have nothing against MSP or other tools, only the tendency for them to get in the
way rather than aid the planning process. Indeed, a good tool is a great asset for
larger projects as we shall see in this chapter and also in the tracking, controlling
and reporting chapter.

14. Part Timers

15. Have you ever had someone on your project team who was assigned for, say, 50% of
their time to the project? They can be difficult to manage - you never really know
when they're going to be there. Instead of nominally 50% all the way through try for
something like this: you have them full time in week 1, nothing in week 2, full time
in week 3, etc. Or even full time on Monday, nothing on Tuesday, etc. It is definitely
worth the effort if you can get this sort of arrangement.
16. Critical path
17. If a task on the critical path slips, by definition the end date slips. Try and avoid one
person in the team having all the critical path tasks in their plan and all the pressure
therefore heaped upon them.
18. Having said that, relatively few tasks in software development projects will really be
on the critical path. If you're building a block of flats the bricklayer can't lay the
bricks for floor 2 unless floor 1 is there. Things have to be done in sequence. But in a
software project you can write the programs in any order you like: the writing of
program 2 isn't dependent upon program 1 having been written. Milestones like
handover to system test are about as close as you get to a critical path task - if that
slips the end date may well slip. Tools such as Microsoft Project (MSP) lay great store
by their critical path analysis capabilities but these are much less relevant to
planners of software projects than planners of construction projects or planners of
large IT hardware projects.
19. How long does it take to plan a project stage?
20. Suppose you were planning a project stage that was 5 weeks long and employed 2
people. With the aid of that envelope it might take you an hour or two to get the plan
done.
21. But the next stage you are asked to plan is 5 months long and will employ 30 people
who are owned by 10 different managers. Can that be planned in a couple of hours?
No chance! This could take more like 6 weeks. Say it's mid March and the stage will
begin on June 1st. You approach one of those 10 managers and ask provisionally for
one of his staff full time for June. And he says yes. You ask manager 2 for a body for
July and he says yes too! This is going to be easy. You ask manager 3 for a person
for August but he says that person is on holiday in August, but by chance has
nothing to do in June - could you take him off his hands? So you go back to manager
1 and see if you can switch his guy from June to August...
22. You can see that by the time you have been round ten managers - who usually won't
give you quick answers - and round again, and round again - six weeks can very
quickly zip by. This is not 6 weeks full time work, it is spreading the planning out
over that period. But if you start early enough, by the time you get to June 1st you
should have firm resource commitments in place and people should then turn up
when you need them. You will then find that when you finish the project everyone
will say how lucky you were - everyone turned up by magic when you needed them.
It's an old adage, but: the more you plan the luckier you get. You really do make
your own luck in projects. The project management proverb "The more you plan the
luckier you get" was actually coined in about 1990 by MHR after Arnold Palmer's
famous "The more I practice the luckier I get."
23. There is only one snag with this. Suppose a critical business need pops up from
nowhere. A project involving 30 people owned by ten managers must start on
Monday morning - you've got 3 days to plan the project, not 6 weeks. What would
you do (other than panic)? You might ask the sponsor to tell those 10 managers to
come to an all day meeting tomorrow and you might ask the sponsor to attend and
bring his baseball bat with him to help you extract the resource commitments from

those 10 managers. This will require some quick outline planning by you before the
meeting and a lot of tidying up afterwards - not to mention removal of blood from
carpet. Planning a large project can be done in a short time, if painfully, but if you
have 6 weeks take 6 weeks.
24. Change and contingency
25. We mentioned above the need to put change and contingency into the plan. But
where in the plan should they be put?
26. Imagine we are planning a 10 week long user functions design step. Let's say we
have decided that 10% of all the hours will be spent investigating and implementing

change requests. (Change requests will be fully considered in a later chapter but to
give an example: half way through the UFD step the users want to alter their (signed
off) requirements, so they raise a change request.) Those 10% of the hours must
appear somewhere in the plan, but where? We will consider two extreme options.
27. Option A would be to spread the hours out evenly, i.e. assign to each team member
10% of each week - which is half a day - for dealing with change requests. Their plan
would therefore have 4.5 days work each week with, say, Friday afternoon set aside
in case a change request comes along. The last task in each team member's plan is
scheduled hard against the committed end date of the UFD stage.
28. The other extreme option would be to put those 10% change hours at the end of the
UFD plan. 10% of 10 weeks is 1 week, so each team member has contiguous tasks
for 9 weeks with the last week showing as reserved for handling change requests.
29. Which extreme do you think would be better? Before you decide, there is one
important condition. Even if all the change time is at the end of the UFD plan this
does not mean that all change requests are left to pile up until the tenth week. If a
change request arrives in week 1 it would be given to a team member to deal with
straight away, and of course all his planned tasks would shuffle along a bit to make
way for the 'deal with change request' task. With option A, where half a day is left for
change each week, perhaps only two or three tasks have to move along to make way
for the change task.
30. There are good arguments for both extremes but if forced to choose one or the other
we would go for option B - all the change time shown in week 10. Why? Option A has
half day gaps all along the plan. If no change request comes to fill a team member's
half day gap at the end of week 1, will he start his week 2 task early and get half a
day ahead of schedule? Everything is possible, but the risk is he won't. People
usually work to whatever they perceive to be each task's deadline. Those carefully
planned half days for change will just evaporate away, and when the change requests
do arrive guess what? We haven't got the time to handle them. With option B that
won't happen: everything else being equal, that last week that's reserved for change
is going to be there until you choose to use it.
31. Luckily in practice you do not have to choose one of the extremes. What might
trigger the users to raise requests to change their requirements during the user
functions design step? When the users see prototypes of screen layouts and dialogue
flows what happens? They will say things like: "Er, which screen is the discount code
entered on?" And the designers say: "Discount code? What discount code?" And the
users say: "Oops, we left that out of the requirements." Result: one change request.
32. Strange though it may seem one can often predict when change requests may be
raised, often coinciding with things such as prototyping, reviews and sign offs. Why,
therefore, might there be a mini change surge in the first week or two of the UFD
step? The users are focusing their attention on the requirements document and, one

hopes, signing it off. Strictly speaking it's debatable whether a change to the
requirements document prior to sign off is actually a change request or error
correction - either way work to change the requirements document is likely.
33. So, plan the change time when you think change requests might arrive and if in
doubt put the change time at the end of the stage plan, with maybe a little bit of it
spread all along for those few change requests that will dribble in.
34. In addition to the 10% for change, the sponsor has agreed that a further 5% of the
effort/budget can be set aside for anything unexpected that crops up - in other
words contingency. Whereabouts in the stage plan should the contingency be
located? At the end. So the last 3 days or so of the UFD plan simply says
'contingency'. The UFD stage plan now has two end dates: the one the project
manager has committed to the sponsor and one three days earlier which will be
achieved if nothing crops up to use the contingency. Should you show both end dates
to the project team? YES. Put the plan up on the wall and make it clear to the team
that while you have committed the later date to the sponsor their target and their
commitment to you (upon which their appraisals depend...) is the date 3 days earlier.
Only if and when something crops up that you didn't expect will you, the project
manager, raid contingency, create new tasks in the plan, reset the team's targets and
move their earlier date a bit closer to the date you committed to the sponsor. In this

way you can be honest with the team about the contingency but avoid Parkinson's
Law: work expands to fill the time available for its completion.
35. Have a look at the picture on the right. If you see a plan with the change and
contingency effort distributed a bit like this it is quite reassuring - the planner has
thought about it. They have put the change effort in the plan when they think change
is most likely to arrive and they've put contingency at the end. The picture
represents a stage, the area above and just to the right of the green line is change
effort, the red slice is the contingency. We might assume the green notch near the
start coincides with sign off of the previous stage's output and the larger green notch
three quarters of the way through coincides with design reviews and prototyping. A
small amount of change time has been allowed all the way along, and some of the
change time is at the end of the plan, just before the contingency slice.
36. Very small and quite large
37. Project disaster lies in wait for the project manager who is "very experienced", but
very experienced in running small projects. He learns over and over again a very
unfortunate lesson: you don't need to bother too much about the planning. Just tell
the two guys what you want them to do and that's it, that's the planning taken care

of. That project manager is then given a large project to manage: he knows
(whatever the theory says) that in reality you don't need to bother with formal
planning so he doesn't and... disaster. Large projects and small projects are totally
different animals when it comes to planning.< p>Project disaster lies in wait for
project managers who are very experienced, but very experienced in running small
projects. They learn over and over again a very unfortunate lesson: you don't need
to bother too much about the planning. Just tell the two guys what you want them to
do and that's it, that's the planning taken care of. They are then given a large project
to manage, they <i>know</i> (whatever the theory says) that in reality you don't
need to bother with formal planning so they don't and... disaster. Large projects and
small projects are totally different animals when it comes to planning.<h1>Project
Management Course</h1>
Small projects
For small projects something like the plan on the right could be all that is required. A simple
bar chart that reminds each group what has to be done and when.
Or, for a team who have done many similar projects before, the plan could simply be a list
of dates to remind them of the schedule this time: <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008

June 20: Project defined

July 2: Market research complete

July 16: Product spec finished

July 20: Literature drafted

July 30: To printers

Aug 15: Proofs

Sept 1: Printing complete

Sept 15: Mailing completed

<h1>Software Development Project Management Book</h1>

Large projects
However, for large projects something quite different will be needed. What follows in an
example of a plan for a project with a team of about 20 people. Have a look at the table
below - it may look like a jumble of numbers but we will go through it line by line and
explain it.

Please do follow this plan through as it lays the ground work for a couple of later topics
including the all important project tracking, controlling and reporting.
The table is the plan the project leader put together for himself. The first row is simply a
calendar of week-ending dates - so week ending June 9th, June 16th etc.
The next row tells us how much holiday the project leader is planning to take - the numbers
being hours. As you can see, he is on holiday for the last two weeks of August and for a day
(the bank holiday) in the week ending September 1st. This team had a standard working
week of 37 hours.
The next row shows some training courses he has planned. How do you feel about the
Sickness row? In fact the planner planned every full time team member 1 hour per week for
sickness. DON'T PLAN SICKNESS LIKE THAT! In our view it is quite wrong to plan sickness in
this way. Sickness should be put at the end of the stage plan along with contingency but
shown separately from contingency so that actual sickness time can be tracked specifically
against the sickness 'plan'.
Planned Hours For: PROJECT LEADER
Task Description

Vacation
Courses
Sickness
Non-this-project time

June
July
August
September
October
09 16 23 30 07 14 21 28 04 11 18 25 01 08 15 22 29 06 13 20
1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

- - 37
1 2 -

Project Admin/meetings 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Project Control
32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Week Total Non-project
Project
TOTALS

- - 37 37
- 14 - 1 1 - 2 2 - -

- 2 2
- 32 18

7
1
2

1
2

- 15
- 22
1 2 -

- 2 2 2
- 25 32 32

1
2

- 37
- 1 2 -

- 2 2
- 32 32

1
2

- 2
- 32

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 37 3 17 37 37 10 3 3 37 3 3 37 3
34 34 34 34 34 34 34 - 34 20 - - 27 34 34 - 34 34 - 34
37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37

As an aside, let us lay to rest a quite common novice's planning error with a little quiz.
Imagine you work in a company that pays you for 37 hours a week. You have a one year
long project. A person is assigned to your project full time for the whole year. On average,
how many hours project work will that person do per week? For argument's sake, let's say a
full time team member will on average do 29 project hours per week over a year.
You are now planning that person for next week. Next week he will be in the office for 5
days working full time on your project. How many hours project work should you plan him
to do next week?
We hope you didn't say 29! Why is 29 definitely the wrong answer? Because it is an annual
average - averaging out some weeks when he is there and some weeks when he's away on
holiday or on a course or sick. So, bearing in mind that lunch time is not included in the 37
hours and time to discuss football or gaze out of the window is included in task estimates

(yes - talking about football is a project activity!), in a week when he is going to be in the
office should he have 37 hours project work to do?
In our example the planner would have said 35. He would argue that even a full time
project team member will typically spend 2 hours a week doing legitimate non-project
activities such as:

talking to their line manager about their career

(nothing to do with the project)

reading emails that are not project related

attending meetings that are not project meetings

The amount of non-project time will depend upon your environment and may vary by
person. For example, a team member from HR, although nominally full time on the project,
may have to attend an HR meeting every month, keep abreast of HR matters by reading
emails, etc, whereas a contractor will have no such distractions and all 37 hours will be
planned for project work (and indeed contractors may be employed for 40 hours a week so
have 40 project hours planned per week.) If a team member is only assigned to the project
for, say, 50% of their time they would have around 18 hours a week showing on the 'Nonthis-project time' row.
The next row, Project Admin/meetings, tells us the project leader will spend 2 hours a week
attending the (Monday morning) team meeting and doing admin tasks such as time
recording. And the next row, Project Control, tells us he will spend most of his time
controlling his team - he has no 'real work' tasks to do.
The tool has then added up for us the non-project and the project hours each week. The
TOTALS row will always come to 37, except for contractors where it could be 40 and for
part-time employees where it will show how many hours they are employed per week.And
to be quite clear: for a full time employee who is working only part time on the project
TOTALS will show 37, their non-project work showing on the 'Non-this-project time' as we
said above.<h3>Project Management Course</h3>
This second page is for a sub team leader. There were half a dozen trainees in the team and
he was asked to look after them. How do we know he is a full time member of the project
team? He only has 2 hours a week on the 'Non-this-project time' row. Again he has 2 hours
a week for the weekly team meeting and for time recording admin, but most of his time is
down to mother-henning his team of trainees. And what might PCR Investigation be? It is in
fact Project Change Request Investigation time. Please look at July.
Planned Hours For: TEAM LEADER
Task Description

Vacation
Sickness
Non-this-project time

June
July
August
September
October
09 16 23 30 07 14 21 28 04 11 18 25 01 08 15 22 29 06 13 20
1
2

1
2

1
2

7
1
2

7
1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

- 37 37
1 - 2 - -

1
2

- 14
1 1
2 1

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

Project Admin/meetings 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Team Leading
30 30 30 23 15 22 22 22 25
PCR Investigation
2 2 2 2 10 10 10 10 7
3A code duplex
interface
3A code web query
3A test web query

Week Total Non-project

Project
TOTALS

2
5
2

2
5
2

- 2 2
- 15 15
- 2 2

- 25 25

- 15 15 - - - - - - 10 10 10 10

1 2 2 2 2
9 20 20 20 30
1 2 2 2 2
-

3 3 3 10 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 37 37 3 3 16 3 3 3 3
34 34 34 27 27 34 34 34 34 34 34 - - 34 34 21 34 34 34 34
37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37

The planner knows something we don't know. He is predicting a surge of change requests in
July and has given this team leader 10 hours a week during July to investigate them.
The next three lines we might call 'real work'. The first is a 50 hour task to be done in the
middle two weeks of August. What does that suggest about his team of trainees during
those two weeks? Most of them are on holiday, so the team leader can do some real work
while they're away. And the planner has made an interesting assumption that by October
those trainees will have had four months experience and won't need a full time mother hen
anymore, so the team leader can do some real work in October as well as keeping an eye on
his team. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 In smaller projects, the project leader would look a bit like this: a mix of
supervision and real work. In huge projects there can be several layers of leaders who do
nothing except control those below them.
Before we leave this team leader, please have a look at his vacation plan then go back to
the project leader's plan: if you were project support and you were reviewing this project
plan what comment would you make? Back.
Yup, the project leader and team leader are both on holiday at the same time at the end of
August. Luckily there was in fact another team leader who looked after the shop while they
were away. But this does illustrate the sort of thing it is quite easy to pick up if you are
doing an independent review of a project plan.
The plan below is for one of the real workers. The plans for the majority of people in a large
project would look like this. As you can see, his first task is 'orientation' which suggests he
joins the team at the beginning of June. He's only with us until the middle of August and the
planner has put 17 hours contingency at the end of his plan just in case he runs a bit late on
his tasks. As you'd expect, almost all of his time is assigned to real work tasks. Please look
at task number 253 - how many hours should that task take him?
Planned Hours For: JOHN SPENCER

Task Description

June
July
August
September
October
09 16 23 30 07 14 21 28 04 11 18 25 01 08 15 22 29 06 13 20

Vacation
Courses
Sickness
Non-this-project time

- 14
10 1 1
2 1

Project Admin/meetings
PCR Implementation
279
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
282
259
286
287
260
des
261
des
262

OR Orientation
CM OLT Tables
3A code web OE
Q3 review OE code
R3 rework OE code
3A test OE
Q3 review OE test
R3 rework OE test
FD email enq UFD
ID email enq IT des
Q1 review enq UFD
R1 rework enq UFD
Q2 review enq IT
R2 rework enq IT
CO Contingency

Week Total Non-project

Project
TOTALS

1
2

- 21
- 1 1
2 1

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
1

2
1

20 - - - - - - - - 19 26 21 - - - - - - - 9 12 3 - - - - - - - 3 - - - - - - - 3 - - - - - - - 21 10 - - - - - - - 3 - - - - - - - 4 - - - - - - - 13 7 - - - - - - - 25 31
- - - - - - - 3 - - - - - - - 2 -

2
2

1
1

1
1

- 17

13 16 3 3 23 3 3 - 3 3
24 21 30 34 14 34 34 37 34 34
37 37 33 37 37 37 37 37 37 37

It's 24 hours work over a 3 week period. And what is task number 254? It is a 3 hour task
for John to sit down with other people to check his work for any errors. What, therefore is
task 255? Rework - correcting any errors found by the quality inspection. How did the
planner (the project leader) know the rework would take 3 hours? Was that a guess he
made? It was not a guess.
On previous projects time had been separately planned for doing, reviewing and re-doing,
and time recorded separately against each of those three tasks, so they knew for a fact that
rework averaged around 10% of the time it took to do the task in the first place, so the
planner assumed rework would be 10% this time, to the nearest hour. Of course, John

Spencer might make no errors, zero rework, or he might make a complete hash of it, 30
hours rework. But across all team members across the whole stage it will probably work out
to about what it was last time. This is a good example of using past factual data when
planning future projects.400 tasks, though on the next page we can see they were grouped
into about 60 categories
There are something like 400 different types of tasks in a software development project. It
is surprising how few of them are fundamentally changed when switching to a new
technology or a 'new' development methodology.
You can see that some of John Spencer's tasks are rather more than 30 hours, and some
are 3 weeks long, but again this is a good example of a realistic plan which would easily
pass the project support censor: John is in no doubt what he has agreed to do and by when.
It is also obvious that if you have a team of 20 people, planning like this will take a lot of
brain time if it is all to fit together. That 3 hour task to review John's work involved two
other people so they will each have had time in their plan to participate in the review during
that week. Quite tricky to get it all to interlock. But invest the time and project execution
will be a joy to behold.
Please don't be frightened by the chart on the next page... <h1>I.T. Project Management
Book. How to manage IT projects. Planning and Scheduling IT projects.</h1>
Any good project planning and tracking tool should be able to do something like this for you.
The left-hand-most column of numbers is no more than an addition of all the hours in the
plan. For example, top left, the team will have 2443 hours holiday over the duration of the
project stage. They shall be sick for 448 hours. How do we know how sick they're going to
be? Look across to the third column from the right hand side: there's a figure of 2.4. That's
2.4%. In other words the 448 sickness hours represent 2.4% of the team members' time.
Why 2.4%? Well, that's how sick they were last year - we're just re-using past factual
information.
The second block are project investments (not overheads!). The P1 row tells us the team
plan to invest 877 hours in team meetings and admin tasks such as time recording. Please
would you add up the P4, P5 and P6 hours? They come to 1253. This is the change budget the planner thinks 1253 hours will be spent investigating, implementing and controlling
changes during the stage. Please look across to the 6th column in from the right hand side
and add up those three numbers (coloured green). They come to 8.7 which simply tells us
that the 1253 hours for change are 8.7% of the project hours. And you've guessed it, it's
8.7% because that's roughly what it had been in project stages like this in the past.
Please imagine you are the manager of this project. We are now at the end of week 4 of this
24 week stage. According to the plan, how many hours holiday should the team have taken
so far? 228 hours. And how many have they actually taken? 246 hours. So, over the first
four weeks they've had 8% more holiday than they told you about. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 Now please look at the P6 row, PCR Control. The fourth number along is 2.42 what is that telling us?
EFFORT DISTRIBUTION

------Hours-------Total ---To Date--Plan Plan Actl A/P

_____________________PERCENTAGES__________
________
Of Proj / Non--Of Category--Of Grand TotalProj
Total -To DateTotal -To Date- Total -To DatePlan Plan Actl
Plan Plan Actl
Plan Plan Actl

NON
PROJECT
TIME
Vacation
Courses
Sickness
Non-thisproject
NON
PROJECT
TOTAL
PROJECT
TIME
"Investmen
ts"
Proj
P1
admin/meets

1.0
61.3 41.2 45.7
8
1.0
226 90 97
5.7 16.2 18.0
8
0.2
448 89 24
11.2 16.1 4.5
7
1.1
882 161 185
21.8 26.5 31.8
5

2443 228 246

3999 568 552

0.9
8

100 100 100

1.2
14.0 15.5 18.3
5
0.7
Proj control P2 491 96 73
7.9 9.5 6.8
7
1.1
Team Leading P3 1856 322 351
29.7 31.8 32.9
0
PCR
0.8
P4 607 122 105
9.7 12.0 9.8
Investigation
7
PCR
0.2
Implementati P5 468 73 15
7.5 7.2 1.4
1
on
2.4
PCR Control P6 178 43 104
2.8 4.2 9.7
2
Quality
Q
613
3 100
9.8
- 0.3
Assurance
A
Int Qual
Q
0.6
75 40 26
1.2 3.9 2.4
check
1
5
Ext Qual
Q
- 10 100
- 0.9
check
E
Technical
0.8
TA 444 96 83
7.1 9.5 7.8
Assur
7
1.0
Staff Support PS 640 64 67
10.2 6.3 6.3
5
Actions
PA
- 35 100
- 3.3
877 157 195

61.1 40.1 44.6

13.4

7.8

8.6

5.7 15.8 17.6

1.2

3.1

3.4

4.3

2.4

3.0

0.8

22.0 28.4 33.5

4.9

5.6

6.5

11.2 15.7

100 100 100

21.9 19.5 19.3

6.1

6.7

8.4

4.8

5.4

6.8

3.4

4.1

3.2

2.7

3.3

2.6

13.0 13.7 15.2

10.1 11.0 12.3

4.2

5.2

4.5

3.3

4.2

3.7

3.3

3.1

0.6

2.6

2.5

0.5

1.2

1.8

4.5

1.0

1.5

3.6

4.3

0.1

3.4

0.1

0.5

1.7

1.1

0.4

1.4

0.9

0.4

0.3

3.1

4.1

3.6

2.4

3.3

2.9

4.5

2.7

2.9

3.5

2.2

2.3

1.5

1.2

activity
Investment
s Totals

6249

101 106 1.0

3
7 6

100 100 100

43.7 43.1 46.2

34.2 34.7 37.3

10.2 26.4 30.6

5.7 15.0 16.5

4.5 12.1 13.3

"Real Work"
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type
Task Type

F
1.0
819 353 380
D
8
Q
64
9
1
R
1.5
82 11 17
1
5
D
0.8
1023 132 111
D
5
Q
0.4
111 10
4
2
1
R
1.4
122
5
7
2
0
D
124
U
QI
16
0.5
3A 2101 181 94
2
C
406
O
Q
0.6
494 185 123
3
7
R
202
8
3
O
1.0
265 259 272
R
6
C
1.5
619 93 143
M
4
Q
0.5
58 33 17
A
2
C
31
D
U
31
T
Q
3
4
R
4
4
1.3
P3
15 15 20
4
1.2
ST
35 35 43
3
U
1.0
1420 10 10
S
0

0.8

0.7

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3

1.0

0.8

1.4

0.6

0.5

0.7

0.4

0.4

0.6

12.7

9.9

8.9

7.2

5.6

4.8

5.6

4.5

3.9

1.4

0.7

0.3

0.8

0.4

0.2

0.6

0.3

0.1

1.5

0.4

0.6

0.9

0.2

0.3

0.7

0.2

0.2

1.5

0.9

0.7

0.2

0.1

0.1

26.1 13.5

7.6

14.7

7.7

4.1

11.5

6.2

3.3

2.8

2.2

6.1 13.8

9.9

3.5

7.9

5.3

2.7

6.3

4.3

1.4

0.3

1.1

0.3

3.3 19.3 21.9

1.9 11.0 11.8

1.4

8.9

9.5

7.7

6.9 11.5

4.3

4.0

6.2

3.4

3.2

5.0

0.7

2.5

1.4

0.4

1.4

0.7

0.3

1.1

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.2

1.1

1.6

0.1

0.6

0.9

0.1

0.5

0.7

0.4

2.6

3.5

0.2

1.5

1.9

0.2

1.2

1.5

17.7

0.7

0.8

9.9

0.4

0.4

7.8

0.3

0.3

5.0

2.5

0.6

Real Work
Totals

8045

133 124 0.9

9
1 3

PROJECT
TOTALS

1429 235 230 0.9

4
2
8 9

GRAND
TOTALS

1829 292 286 0.9

3
0
0 8

100 100 100

56.3 56.9 53.8

44.0 45.9 43.4

100 100 100

78.1 80.5 80.7

100 100 100

Over the first four weeks the team have spent nearly two and a half times more hours on
PCR Control than expected - 104 hours vs a plan of 43 hours. If you were the project
manager would you ignore that information? You'd investigate. It could simply be a time
recording error or it could be a start up problem that won't recur - both of those would be
good news. But if you conclude you haven't allowed anything like enough time for PCR
Control in your plan what would you do? You'd adjust the plan to allocate more hours to that
activity over the remaining 20 weeks of the stage. With luck you're rebalancing - something
somewhere else is running under estimate. If you're not so lucky everything is running over
and you may have a real problem. What we are getting here is early warning: so far, activity
by activity, how good have the estimates proven to be.
In small projects you don't need this data as you can track each person and each task
individually. But beyond a certain team size you can't do that any more and you need
something like this to distil the essence out of the detail so you can read the runes (to mix a
couple of metaphors).
One last thing on this page: what will the fourth column from the right tell us when we
reach the end of the stage? It will tell us, to one decimal place, what percentage of the
project hours was actuallyspent on meetings, on change, on rework, etc. Might that data be
valuable when planning the next similar project? Absolute gold dust. You've got a checklist
of all the task types that were done and what percentage each was of the total project
hours.< h1>Project Management Course</h1>< h4>Project Management Manual</h4><
p>For those of you involved in software development, look at the 3A row. 3A tasks are
coding tasks - actually tapping the keyboard to write code. It is planned to be 14.3% of all
the hours in this stage and this is the code and test stage. So if this stage is around 60% of
the total project cost - requirements and UFD accounting for the other 40% - coding works
out at around 8.5% of the total project cost. So, in a software development project less
than 9% of the project cost is actually what a programmer might consider to be 'software
development'.
The Key Controls report contains some of the most valuable data a tracking tool will ever
give you. Again, we are at the end of week 4 of this 24 week stage. Please look at block D,
Total Project Hours.
KEY CONTROLS REPORT
June June June June July July July July Aug Aug

9
A. Non-project
hours

Week Plan
Week Actual
Week Actual/Plan
To Date Plan
To Date Actual
To Date
Actual/Plan

B. Project
investment
hours

C. Project
real work
hours

Week Plan
Week Actual
Week Actual/Plan

16

23

30

14

21

57 196 145 170 264 306 170

48 177 172 155
.84 .90 1.19 .91
57 253 398 568 832

28

11

96 187 147

113 130 140

173
1591
8
8
4
8

48 225 397 552

.84

.89 1.00

.97

71 313 332 297 268 281 317 395 296 365

38 303 372 354
.54 .97 1.12 1.19

To Date Plan

71 384 716 1013

To Date Actual
To Date
Actual/Plan

38 341 713 1067

.54

128 156 187 227

293
2570
1
2
9
4
5

.89 1.00 1.05

Week Plan 57 404 436 442 381 326 426 422 430 401
Week Actual 65 438 383 355
Week Actual/Plan 1.14 1.08 .88 .80
To Date Plan

57 461 897 1339

172 204 247 289

372
3324
0
6
2
4
5

To Date Actual 65 503 886 1241

To Date
1.14 1.09 .99 .93
Actual/Plan
D. Total
project
hours

Week Plan 128 717 768 739 649 607 743 817 726 766
Week Actual 103 741 755 709
Week Actual/Plan .80 1.03 .98 .96
161
300 360 435 516
666
2352
5894
3
1
8
1
8
0
159
To Date Actual 103 844
2308
9
To Date
.80 1.00 .99 .98
Actual/Plan
To Date Plan 128 845

In week 4 the team should have worked 739 hours on the project but only recorded having
worked 709, so it looks as though we lost 30 hours last week. However, over the first 4
weeks in total they should have worked a total of 2352 hours and they have in fact worked
2308 hours - very close to the planned number. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-

ltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>

Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 So would you agree we have a very healthy
project on our hands? Did you say "yes"? Please look at block F, tasks started.

E. Percent
complete
F. No. of
tasks
started

To Date Plan
To Date Actual

0.9
0.9

5.9 11.3 16.5 21.0 25.2 30.4 36.2 41.2 46.6

6.0 11.2 15.2

Week Plan
Week Actual
Week Actual/Plan

6 24
5 26
.83 1.08

29
21
.72

25
13
.52

22

25

26

19

10

To Date Plan
To Date Actual
To Date Actual/Plan

6 30
5 31
.83 1.03

59
52
.88

84 106 131 157 176 186 191

65
.77

Still happy? To date your team should have started 84 tasks but they have in fact only
started 65 tasks, so they're a quarter behind despite putting in roughly the right number of
hours. Please look at block I, task completed.

G. Tasks started, not due

H. Tasks overdue starting

21

Week Plan
Week Actual
Week Actual/Plan

4
3
.75

13
10
.77

19
10
.53

27
19
.70

26

To Date Plan
To Date Actual
To Date Actual/Plan

4
3
.75

17
13
.76

36
23
.64

63
42
.67

89 110 144 160 171 179

J. Tasks completed, not due

K. Tasks overdue completing

17

26

I. No. of tasks
completed

L. Hours for

Week Plan

25 118 167 391

21

34

16

11

completed
tasks

Week Actual 44 139 135 475

Week Actual/Plan 1.26 1.18 .81 1.21
To Date Plan 35 153 320 711
To Date Actual 44 183 318 793
To Date Actual/Plan 1.26 1.20 .99 1.12

M. Hours ahead of schedule

-11

-65

23 -177

<h2>Project Management Course</h2>

How do you now feel about your project? Your team should have finished 63 tasks by now
but have only finished 42. Ouch.
One last number: near the bottom right hand corner of the table is a figure of 1.12. What is
that telling us? The 42 finished tasks took on average 12% more hours to complete than
estimated. What rather worrying thought is in the back of your mind about all the remaining
tasks in your plan: will they all run over by 12% as well? Maybe they will, maybe they
won't, but today at the end of week four we have some investigating to do. We're getting
early warning of a possible overrun here, we should not ignore it.
Please take a few moments to study this Key Controls Report to get a feel for what it is
telling us. In the tracking, controlling and reporting chapter we will explore how reports
such as this provide the raw material for crisp and concise project status reporting.
But where do all these nice numbers come from?
It relies on each team member recording each week how many hours they have actually
worked (paid or unpaid) on each project task, and for unfinished tasks how many hours it
will take to finish them.
Have a look at Frank Barlow's time sheet. This is his blank timesheet given to him at the
beginning of the week. How is Frank doing so far on the project?
WEEKLY TIME SHEET (including current status): Frank Barlow

DAILY HOURS
Task
No.

TASK
DESCRIPTION

Total
Hours

Hours
Left

Hours
Ahead
Last
Week

Planned
Hours
This
Week

Planned
Left
Next
Week

100

Web path 1 code

inspection

-1

101

Web path 1 code

rework

-3

102

Web path 2 code

inspection

-1

103

Web path 2 code

rework

-2

104

Web enquiry 1
coding

105

Web enquiry 2
coding

13

Project Admin/
meetings

Team Leading

Inspecting
others' work

Vacation

Courses

Sickness

Non-project time

TOTALS

Frank is 7 hours behind schedule and should have finished the first 4 tasks last week. The
'Planned Hours This Week' column tells us how he should be spending his 37 hours this
week. Let's hope he puts in a bit of extra effort and does those tasks as well as catching up
the 7 hours and 4 tasks from last week. Clearly, this time sheet shows a mixture of data
from the project plan and Frank's actual status as of last Friday. (The first W under DAILY
HOURS stands for Weekend.)
The time sheet captures hours actually worked on each task rather than chargeable or paid
hours. If it took 90 hours to do a task we want to know that. Depending upon your
environment you may also need to record paid hours and paid overtime hours for charging
purposes.If someone worked 75 hours on the project last week it might have been 37
chargeable (normal time), 20 hours paid overtime and 18 unpaid hours. (In the extreme
case you might even decide <i>for each task</i> to have 3 columns: normal paid hours,
overtime hours and unpaid hours, but this will make time recording and reporting
complicated.)
If the project team is working unpaid extra hours but are running on schedule, should we
care? We should. We are relying on the team's goodwill - which has its limits. And if they
work excessive hours to keep on schedule diminishing returns set in, and eventually they
may get so tired that the lid suddenly blows off the pressure cooker.
Most time recording tools allow individuals to enter their time directly. However, this can
result in made up numbers being recorded and the data not being used.
An alternative is to have the team leader speak to each member of his team on a Friday
afternoon for a five minutes one-to-one discussion about the team member's week and to
go through their hard copy time sheet. You might even want to consider insisting that the
team leader keys in the time sheets for each and every one of his team - that way you know
the team leader has at least seen the data. The team leader should also quality assure the
numbers: if he suspects Frank is making up random numbers, visit Frank at the end of each
day to go through his time record for that day. He'll soon get fed up with that!
Time recording has to be sold to the team and there are a couple of ways of doing it. "Team
member, I've estimated this task at 30 hours but frankly it is a guess. If it actually takes
you 90 hours or whatever please let me know by recording that on your time sheet so next
time I'll know to estimate 90 hours and it'll be less stressful for you next time around."
Secondly, show the team how you will use the time sheet data to track and control

progress. If the team see there's real value in accurate time recording they are more likely
to do it.
We are primarily recording project time on these time sheets. In principle if someone
worked on three projects during a week they will get visits from three team leaders on
Friday. Time sheets are a project tracking mechanism: if someone is assigned to your
project for, say, 20 hours a week we only want to know how they spent the hours they
worked on the project, we're not interested in what else they did during the week. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008

Miscellany
Even if you have a plan a bit like the one we have been through, still buy a whiteboard and
put a summary of the plan up on the wall so that everyone can understand at a glance what
is going on. If the team is spread across several sites also buy a webcam.
Large projects can be divided into 'work-intensive' and 'milestone' projects. In a large workintensive project there are many people mostly working full time on the project - the sort of
plan we have been through is appropriate in those circumstances. However, some very large
projects in terms of budget are of a different nature. In these projects a succession of high
cost items is delivered and installed. The project plan consists largely of milestone dates and
the project manager's main job is chasing suppliers to make sure they deliver as promised.
Even if several people are involved and they are doing critical things the number of hours
they will work on the project is relatively small. This sort of project needs a milestone chart
or a critical path network diagram rather than a mechanism for counting and analysing
hours and tasks.
When planning a long stage - say 5 or 6 months - it may not be desirable at the start of the
stage to plan the whole stage at the task level. One way round this is to have 'block' tasks.
For example a block task of 250 hours for a team member in months 5 and 6 that covers
code, review, correct, write test data, test, and handover of a part of the system. Perhaps
only in month 2 or 3 would the planner break this out into 2 coding tasks, 2 review tasks, 2
correction tasks, etc, i.e. the one block task becomes 14 work tasks. This is fine but it can
look as if the plan is growing because the number of tasks is increasing. Counting the block
task as 14 tasks from the outset can overcome this.
Some planners plan all the easy tasks at the beginning of the stage. Their rationale might
be that this aids team morale. But all the hard tasks come at the end and they're the ones
that tend to overrun. If you can, plan the chewy tasks at the start and plan the easy,
predictable ones at the end of the stage.
If you publish a design document on June 1st, does the design stage end on that day?
Probably not. What happens when any document is published for review and sign off?
Nothing. Which means you must go and chase people to read the document. And then they
start asking questions, want things explaining, request changes, etc. If you assumed your
team were going to be available full time to work on the next stage you will get a nasty
shock: they keep getting pulled back to do these tidy up activities. At the end of Stage 1
allow effort for tidy up that overlaps with perhaps the first two weeks of Stage 2. Stage 1

actually finishes two weeks after Stage 2 has started. More on this in the tracking,
controlling and reporting chapter.
Always plan and track in hours, never days or half days. People will argue how long a day or
a half day is but an hour is an hour is an hour.
Net vs gross can be a source of confusion. Firstly an hour is an hour is an hour - there are
no net hours or gross hours - just hours. For the purpose of illustration let us assume that a
full time project team member will do 29 hours project work a week on average over the
course of a year. There are 4.333 weeks in a month, so the person will on average do 29 x
4.333 which is around 125 project hours a month. This is sometimes referred to a gross
man month - a full time team member will do 125 man hours project work per (gross) man
month. This is useful for working out how many people the project will need: the project
requires 49 gross man months of effort? That's about 7 people on average for 7 months.
Usually when people refer to man months they mean gross man months. If people do use
terms such as net man days or gross man weeks ask them to explain exactly what they
mean - a pound to a penny they won't be able to.
We have seen how very small projects can have simple plans and we have also seen the
sort of detail that will be needed for larger projects. Only you can gauge what will be most
appropriate for your project.
Whether large or small, well planned projects tend to cost less, take less time to do and
deliver better quality than badly planned ones.< h1>Project Management A Beginner's
Guide.</h1>

"There are no good project managers - only lucky ones."

"The more you plan the luckier you get." The project management proverb "The more you
plan the luckier you get" was actually coined in about 1990 by MHR after Arnold Palmer's
famous "The more I practice the luckier I get."
Chapter 8 - Stage Agreement

<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to

any other website. This project management book must not be reproduced
in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
We are about to begin a stage. We have built the plan and we have verbal agreements from
resource owning managers to supply the people and other things (hardware, office space...)
that we need. Why bother to write it down and get written commitment, don't we trust their
word?
People have an amazing ability to 'forget' what they promised verbally. Put it in writing in a
Stage Agreement and get resource owning managers to sign it.
It is completely unreasonable to expect a project manager to commit if he has no way of
securing firm commitments of the resources he will need in order to deliver. <a

href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006

2007 2008
It's easy for a senior manager who sits atop an empire of 300 people to promise the 6
people a project manager wants. It is quite another thing to get the immediate managers of
those 6 people actually to release them.
Before the project manager commits he must be confident that the resources he needs will
be available. Getting the IT team members committed to the project is relatively easy: they
exist to do projects. It is usually much harder to get business users' time committed to the
project: they've got other things to do like run the business.
A stage agreement is first and foremost an agreement between the project manager and
those who must provide resources for a project stage. It's a bit like a mini PDD - a PDD for
a stage but with the added ingredient that resource providers sign it.
Stage agreements also help resource owning line managers. If you are a Marketing
manager with 20 people reporting to you and you're providing people to 5 projects you will
have signed 5 stage agreements and it will be clear to you what you've given away and
therefore what's left to carry out your department's day to day work.

A stage agreement should be no more than 2 or 3 pages and should contain:

Distribution list
o

resource owners for sign off

others for information

Description of stage

Deliverables from stage and who will sign off to accept them

Completion criteria: how we will know that the stage has finished

Success criteria: how we will know whether the stage was successful

Roles and responsibilities, including junior roles that will not appear in the PDD

Risks that threaten the success of this stage and how they will be managed

Resources needed for this stage

Cost of this stage

Key milestone dates (one every 2 or 3 weeks)

Management and reporting: how change will be controlled, progress reported, etc.

Quality plan: how the quality of the stage deliverables will be assured

Outlook for later stages: indication of resources that might be needed for subsequent
stages

If you know how you'll manage risks, report progress, control change, etc summarising it in
a stage agreement won't take very long. If you don't know how you'll do those things you're
not ready to start the stage. The ability to sit down and write a stage agreement in an hour
or so is a revealing test of readiness.
Let's write a stage agreement for Stage 1 of the project on the right.

Project Definition

Stage 1

Requirements
Analysis <a
href="http://www.hrac
onsultingStage 2
ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-bookStage Agreement for Stage 1 of Project XYZ
0101.htm"><b>Projec
t Management
Distribution
Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding
G Smith (HR manager) for resource sign off
Roberts 1706

User Functions
Design

IT Technical
Design

J Jones (Marketing manager) for resource sign off

B Gates (IT manager) for resource sign off

R J Patel (IT infrastructure manager)

Steering committee members for information

Project role holders and team members for information

Description of stage
Build and
Test

User
Acceptance

This is Stage 1 of project xyz and it comprises

requirements analysis and user functions design.

Deliverables and sign off

Requirements document April 10th

o

User Functions Design document May 14th

o

to be signed off by G Smith, J Jones, R James and R J Patel by May 28th

Stage 2 plan and stage agreement May 14th

o

to be signed off by G Smith, J Jones and R James (project user manager) by

April 24th

to be signed off by resource owners (to be identified by May 1st)

Stage 1 completion report May 28th

o

to be signed off by H E Goodboss May 28th

Stage completion criteria

Above sign offs achieved

Sponsor sign off to concur that stage has completed

Stage success criteria

All issues resolved within 14 days of documents being published and sign offs
achieved as scheduled.

Roles and responsibilities

Sponsor: I Topman (Director, Operations)

Steering Committee: Ivan Empire (Marketing Director), J Goodheart (HR Director)

Project Manager: H. E. Goodboss

Project User Manager: R. James

Requirements Team Leader: P. D. Q. Finklestein

Design Team Leader: P Boseman

A project hierarchy chart showing every team member can be found on the intranet
at www.ourco.xyz.roles.htm

Risks

A full risk register for Stage 1 and for the whole project can be found at
www.ourco.xyz.risks.htm. The main risks threatening the success of this stage are:

Lack of user resources:

o

written resource commitments are sought via this document

the sponsor has agreed personally to intervene should resource owners in the
event be unable to fulfil their commitments

Lack of office space where the team can be co-located:

o

Jason Fixit (Facilities Manager) is pursuing a refit of the old canteen for our
use

In the meantime the team will use the Executive Board Room

Resources needed for this stage

The attached week by week, person by person plan shows precisely who is needed and
when. In summary, resource owners will supply the following:

G Smith 2 people full time March 1 - May 28

J Jones 1 person on a one week on, one week off basis starting March 1 and ending
April 20 (see plan for details)

B Gates 1 person March 1 - May 28, second person April 10 - May 28. These two will
continue through to the end of Stage 2 (which is the end of the project which we
hope will be October 30th) as development team leaders.

Project Support will conduct a Health Check around the end of April. (This is included
in project support's plan which has been committed to the Exec.)

R Patel has committed to make the development environment available by June

10th. Although this date falls after the end of Stage 1, commitment is sought now
due to its criticality.

Cost of stage

$400K. This is primarily people's time costed at Finance Standard Rates. The
development environment cost of $45K will be included in the Stage 2 cost (current
best guess $600K). See the business case www.ourco.xyz.buscase.htm for a full cost
and benefit breakdown.

Key dates
The attached plan shows milestones in red. The major milestones are:

Stage start: March 1st

Requirements workshops completed: March 30th.

Requirements document published: April 10th.

Requirements document signed off: April 24th.

Design simulation completed: May 12th.

Design document published: May 14th.

Plan and agreement for Stage 2 completed: May 14th. (And Stage 2 starts on May
14th.)

Design signed off, all Stage 1 deliverables signed off, Stage 1 end: May 28th.

Management, reporting and communications

weekly team meetings run by team leaders

weekly reporting by team leaders to PM (Mondays)

fortnightly reporting by PM to sponsor

reporting pro formas can be viewed at www.ourco.xyz.reps.htm

issue and change management will be handled personally by the PM given the tight
timescales. Procedures and forms at www.ourco.xyz.issue_pcr.htm

risks will be reviewed in weekly meetings. The project risk procedure and risk
register is at www.ourco.xyz.risks.htm

Quality management

The requirements document will be fully inspected by relevant user personnel (see
attached plan that shows inspection meeting dates and attendees).

The UFD design document will be inspected and a 3 day simulation will be conducted.

Our quality processes are documented at www.ourco.xyz.quality.htm and are almost

a direct copy of those used by J. Clever on the recent rxt project (thank you, John).

Outlook for later stages

Stage 2 (build, system test and UAT) will start on May 14th (a 2 week overlap with
Stage 1's tidy up period) and will complete around October 30th. Contract software
developers will be recruited and on board by May 1st and so have 2 weeks for

education in our standards and project orientation, and they will sit in on design
inspections and simulations so they know what the project is all about before they
start 'work' on May 14th.

We anticipate we will need 2 user testers from HR and 1 from Marketing for the
period Sept 1st - Oct 21st, dates to be firmed up and committed in the Stage 2
agreement by May 14th.

A real stage agreement wouldn't have many more words than this one. This document is not
your entry for the Pulitzer Prize, it is a summary of what is already known by and agreed to
by all parties.
If you saw a stage agreement like that, signed by the resource providers, to which was
attached a plan of the sort we explored in chapter 7 you would probably have this feeling:
the project manager knows what he's doing.
Suppose there was a rule in your company that before any stage could start you, the project
manager, had to make a 20 minute pitch to the sponsor essentially presenting the contents
of the stage agreement to demonstrate that things were planned, resources committed, etc.
Would you go to that meeting saying: "er, the plan isn't quite done yet, we haven't got any
resource commitments yet and the costs are being looked at by Finance..."? You wouldn't.
As the date for that sponsor presentation approaches it focuses the mind wonderfully and is
a real incentive for the project manager to get off his backside and get things sorted out.
How would you persuade the sponsor that resource owning managers had committed
resources? Show him their sign offs (in most organisations an email suffices as a sign off).
Even better than that, bring those managers to the meeting and have them commit eyeball
to eyeball to the project sponsor (and then sign). Much harder to renege on that
commitment.
And in this short meeting, how would you persuade the sponsor that the plan is viable and
realistic? Present a one page summary plan signed by every team member as evidence they
think they can do it. That is very persuasive. Compare it to past projects. Show evidence
that project support have looked at it and OKed it. And bring a ton of backup charts showing
every single work task and threaten to show them all if he still doesn't believe you!
But what if a few days before you are due to make this presentation to the sponsor you
email G Smith, the HR Manager inviting him to sign the stage agreement to confirm his
verbal agreement. There is no reply, so you go to see G Smith but you can't get hold of him.
You find his boss who says: "resource commitment? That's news to me you need to talk to
G Smith." Tomorrow morning you are due to make the presentation to the sponsor either to
ask permission to start the stage or to explain that start must be delayed because you
haven't got G Smith's sign off.
You ring the sponsor asking if you can delay the meeting as you haven't got G Smith's
written resource commitment. A half decent sponsor, satisfied that you've done what you
can and now facing a delay to the start of his project will say: "leave it with me".
G Smith gets a call from the sponsor asking whether he will be able to supply the 2 people
as verbally promised. If you were G Smith would you now want to be saying: "I'm sorry, I
know I promised them but I didn't really think about it and actually I can't supply them."

You would not want to be in that position. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
But if you knew that would be the consequence of making empty promises you'd probably
think a lot harder about it before making even a verbal promise.
As project manager you want to find out before you commit whether resources really are
going to be available or not. In the example, if those 2 HR people really cannot be made
available the go no go meeting will have to be delayed while you do some speedy
replanning, see what can be done with resources that can be made available - which may
mean higher costs and later delivery dates - and then go to the sponsor with a revised, well
founded plan that you have a reasonable chance of achieving.
In reality we all know people in our own organisations whose promises we know will be
fulfilled. And we may know people who will promise almost anything we ask for without
really thinking about it. If you suspect the latter, you would not leave it until a last minute
panic, you would be talking to that person a week in advance, helping them think about
their resources, other commitments, etc helping them understand whether they really can
support your project, so that when they do promise you're fairly confident they will be able
to deliver.
If there is a rule in place: 'no sign off no start', it does focus minds and make it less likely
your plan is built on sand. When you commit it's based on rock-like commitments made to
you. Written commitments won't guarantee resources will actually turn up as committed,
but it does make it a lot more likely. 'No sign off no start' is like a nuclear deterrent: you
hope you never have to use it but the threat must be credible.
Either the resource is committed and the project manager commits on that basis or the
resource cannot be made available and the project manager replans and commits on some
other basis.
For large projects it is worth considering having the project sponsor send the stage
agreement out requesting resource commitments with a covering note saying something
like: "Thank you for agreeing to support this key company project. Please confirm your
commitments as documented herein to me in writing within 2 days." So resource providers
commit in writing to the sponsor - they will probably be less inclined to renege than had
they committed to the project manager. Of course, the project manager has drafted the
sponsor's note and all the sponsor has done is agree that the note can go out in his name.

Programmes
We have described how the project manager demonstrates readiness to start a stage by a
short presentation to the project sponsor.
The same principle can be applied by managers of programmes: before each stage of each
sub project can begin the sub project manager makes the same sort of presentation to the
programme manager. If several sub projects are starting at the same time have all the sub
project managers present at the same meeting. This will sometimes identify overlaps and

gaps: two sub projects thought it was their job to produce the UAT plan - or worse, nobody
was going to produce it.
It may well be that in practice there is no option but to start, so the presentation becomes a
readiness review. But if you were the programme manager and a sub project manager came
to you seeking the go for a sub project, but it is abundantly clear that the plan is half baked,
estimates are vague and no firm resource commitments are in place you might:

a) note this as a black mark for the sub project manager's next appraisal (unless
there are clear extenuating circumstances)

b) realise that by allowing the sub project manager to break the 'no sign off no start'
rule you are now a little exposed

c) give that sub project some help and put it on special watch until you are confident
the deficiencies had been rectified

Benchmark, foresight, relationship to PDD

The stage agreement also provides a benchmark against which the project manager's
performance can be measured: he has said very clearly what will be delivered at what cost

by when and with what resources.

If you were a line manager and a project manager asked you for two people to do some
testing starting tomorrow morning, you might try and do what you can to help but politely
point out to the project manager that next time would he please give a bit more notice. A
stage agreement mandates and formalises that notice.
In a large project or programme there will be an overall PDD which outlines the many sub
projects, stages, etc. If you are managing one of those stages you have to pin things down
in much more detail than the overall PDD ever will.

Time goes from left to right in the picture on the right. This project/programme has three
sub projects and 8 stages in total so will end up having 8 stage agreements.
Sub project 1 has no IT involvement. In Stage 1 of sub project 1 the business will consider
how they might re-engineer the manual part of their processes and Stage 2 of sub project 1
- if approved - would implement those changes (new office layout, cross-skilling, training,
etc.).
Sub project 3 is a fairly large software development project. Note that in this sub project
Stages 3 and 4 will run in parallel. Stage 3 (technical design, build and unit test) done by
the IT team, and in parallel with that Stage 4 (preparing for and performing system test and
implementation) performed by a separate team made up of user and IT people.
In a project with two stages, the PDD and the Stage 1 agreement will be produced at
roughly the same time towards the end of project definition, and there will be a degree of
overlap in their contents - senior role players will be listed in both. By the time the Stage 2
agreement is produced a few months down the track, even some of the senior role players
may have changed.
In small projects which only have one stage, do not produce two separate documents. A
combined PDD/stage agreement is all that is needed, the added ingredient when compared
to a PDD alone is the sign off from resource owning managers. This is a good example of
scaling the project management controls to the need of the project. Indeed, in very small
projects a couple of sides of A4 may serve as the PDD/stage agreement/project plan all
rolled into one. Don't smother those tiny ones with unnecessary bureaucracy.

Monitoring commitments
Suppose it's March and your stage agreement contains a resource commitment for June three months away. Between now and June it may be a good idea to bump into the resource
owning manager every now and again and say: "Are we still OK for Fred Smith in June...?"
And if the manager moves and is replaced, go see the new manager and get him to re-sign
the stage agreement - otherwise when June comes he'll say: "Sorry, that's news to me..."
Clearly, there will need to be sanctions against those who commit resources in writing but
still renege. If a manager signs to commit a resource then at the last moment refuses to
supply the body for no good reason (up to that point having told the project manager the
resource will be available as promised) it would be quite unreasonable for the pain to be
inflicted upon the project manager - assuming he has done all the right things to secure the
resource. In this case the sponsor should ensure that the reneging resource owner feels the
pain via his next appraisal.
A stage agreement is in essence a summary of the stage plan and the minutes of the
meetings you had with resource owning managers. It is a tool to be used by the project
manager to make it more likely the project will succeed. Put other things in the stage
agreement if that will help you. Leave suggested things out if there is no need to including
them. This is a document to help you succeed, not a bit of bureaucracy to keep the
methodology police happy.

Stage agreements help in several ways

Writing things down reduces vagueness

Secures resource commitments

Sign offs flush out false promises

Promotes understand of what the stage will do

Documents agreements already reached verbally

Increases the chance of project success

"I know that you believe that you understand what you think I said but I am not sure you
realise that what you heard is not what I meant."
Chapter 9 - Project Support

<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to

any other website. This project management book must not be reproduced
in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
Why do projects fail? Usually because they weren't planned properly, risks weren't
managed, roles were unclear, etc. In other words inadequate project management tends to
be the underlying cause rather than technical failure.
The aim of project support is to help projects start out with things adequately planned and
to provide advice during project execution. In this chapter we will consider what project
support do at the start of, during, and at the end of project stages. We will also look at
things they may do at any time. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Books</b></a> Copyright M
Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008

At the start of a stage

Unless a project is very small we would recommend a rule that the project plan must be
reviewed by project support before the sponsor is asked to make the go no go decision. It
takes a couple of hours to go through:

estimates: how were they arrived at?

schedule: does it exist, has the team signed up to it?

risks: have they been assessed, is there a plan to manage them?

stage agreement: are resources committed?

change and issue procedures: are they set up?

reporting: are adequate tracking and reporting mechanisms in place, is it clear who
will communicate what to whom?

quality: are quality assurance activities included in the schedule?

The aim is not to catch the project manager out, it is to help him ensure that the project is,
in the broadest sense, properly planned and therefore more likely to succeed. This is not a
box ticking exercise: have you got a document called a Risk Management Plan? Yes? Tick in
the box. Next.
This is much more: talk me through how you're going to manage risks. "Yes, that sounds
good and would it also help to assign each risk to someone to look after...?" This comes
down to consulting an expert who can add value. It is not the methodology Thought Police
checking bureaucratic compliance.
If the project manager has got the project adequately planned the review won't take long. If
the project manager is inexperienced the review may add a lot of value. But the fact that
everyone running any significant project must go through the review means fewer projects
start with half-baked plans. And common sense would, one hopes, make it occur to less
experienced project managers to invite project support to advise them while they are doing
the planning so there are no surprises at the mandatory plan review.
So, in the round, project support help project managers start each project stage with better
plans than might otherwise have been the case. A project support review does not mean the
plan is perfect and guaranteed to succeed - if only that were possible!

During a stage
We will describe two types of independent reviews of projects: health checks and informal
reviews.

D
E
F
I
N
E
D

Project Definition

Requirements
Analysis

User Functions
Design
Health Check----->

IT Technical
Design

Health Check----->

Build and
Test

User
Acceptance

Health checks - which projects and when

The Board or project sponsors decide which are their most significant projects and designate
these as key projects. These will tend to be the large, business-critical or high risk projects.
The rule then is that any project designated as a key project must plan in at least one
health check. For a software project, half way through the UFD step is a good time to do a
health check: there's enough track record from which to draw conclusions and, one hopes,
enough time to rectify any shortcomings. Long projects may have a second health check
planned in, perhaps half way through the build stage.
Note that the health check is planned in - this is not a surprise dawn raid by the secret
police. We shall see that the health check aims to offer advice to the project manager and
also provide the sponsor with independent verification of project status. It will also become
clear that health checks only really work if project managers see them as adding value and
therefore do not hide things from the health check review team.

Health checks - who does them

Our favoured approach is that the health check team consists of 3 people:

a project support person to lead the review

a project manager from another project

a team leader from another project

There are (at least) two other ways of building review teams each with pros and cons:
1) 3 people from project support and/or internal audit or similar groups conduct the review.
The pros might be that they get very good at doing reviews but they are open to the
criticism: "what do they know about the realities of running projects, stuck up there in their
ivory tower?"
2) 3 project managers or project leaders from other projects. The pros are that they should
be able to offer good, pragmatic advice given that they are also running projects in the real
world, but the old pals act may mean problems don't get into the health check report and
senior managers are none the wiser.
The mixed team approach ensures consistency and rigour - that the process is followed and
problems are reported - and that some real world pragmatism is injected.
A week or so before the health check, the project support person who will lead the review
meets with the project manager to discuss possible areas of project weakness. It is then the
job of the project support person to choose review team members who can add most value
in those perceived areas where improvement is most needed. So, if the change control
process seems to be causing problems project support seek out someone with expertise in
that area who is best placed to offer good advice.

Health checks - typical schedule

Monday afternoon. The review team trawl through the project's written records: plan
vs actual data (such as we saw in the planning chapter), change logs, risk register,
etc.

Tuesday morning. The project manager makes a full disclosure presentation of

status, problems and planned actions, issues, major risks, and so on. Warts and all.

Tuesday lunchtime. The review team go into a huddle and begin to formulate their
assessment and identify further information they need.

Tuesday afternoon. Vitally, the review team is empowered to speak to anyone they
wish to: the project sponsor, the users, trainee developers, or whoever. Essentially
this is fact finding.

Wednesday morning. The review team discuss their findings and recommendations
with the project manager.

Wednesday afternoon. The review team write the health check report.

For very large projects, and those scattered across many sites, it may take longer than this,
but the schedule above gives an idea of how long it might normally take. Bear in mind two
things: health checks are only done on larger projects and the work entailed in being
reviewed is in the project plan.

Health checks - what is checked

The project plan. Remember, the health check review is being conducted half way
through a stage. A project plan must exist - we know this because project support
saw it before the stage began. But sometimes the plan looks great on paper but
when you go back half way through and talk to the team members it's obvious they
don't really understand what the plan is telling them to do and they're ignoring it. So
the review team establish whether the plan is as good as it looked, is being followed
and is being updated as the project progresses.
Imagine this. On the Monday afternoon the written records reveal that the stage is
half way through and tasks completed so far have all, on average, cost 25% more
than expected.
On Tuesday morning you ask the project manager: "what are you doing about this
overrun of 25% on task costs to date?" And the project manager replies: "Oh, that's
interesting, I didn't know about that...". What might you write in the report? (And
keep it clean!)
The temptation is to say: 'The project manager is not managing the project' or 'the
project is out of control' or something like that. Both may be true, but never write
anything like that in the report. If you say the project manager is not controlling the
project he may say that he is, but in a different way. The point is: keep the findings
factual and unarguable. So you might say: 'the project manager did not know that
completed tasks were on average 25% over budget.' That is a fact which, one hopes,
the project manager will not dispute.
What recommendations would you make to the project manager? Perhaps:
o

every week sit down with the team leaders and review the numbers coming
out of the tracking tool: there is valuable information which is currently not
being exploited.

revise the plan to reflect the cost overrun to date.

go and have a chat with the project sponsor as it looks on current trends as
though the project budget will be exceeded.

A health check report might contain a dozen or so findings - each a sentence or two
long - and a bulleted list of recommendations for each. So the report is not a huge
document and may even be in the form of presentation charts.

Change. Is it being controlled? And even if it is, is so much change being taken on
board that project success is being jeopardised?

Quality management. When dates start to slip what tends to get sacrificed? (No, not
the project manager...) Quality. All those finely planned quality checking tasks in the
plan get skipped. And quality problems go undetected until later in the project and
then they cause much bigger delays.
So the review team check that the planned quality tasks (see the quality
management chapter) are being properly performed despite pressure on dates.

Roles. Are role players stepping up to their responsibilities?

Resources. Are promised resources being supplied?

And you may be thinking of a dozen other things you would want to look at if you were
conducting the health check review.
One thing health check reviews do not do is to examine work products (such as the
requirements document) to try and assess their correctness and completeness: the health
check review team neither have the time nor the expertise to do that. What they do
examine is whether those who were planned to check these products for correctness have
actually done so.
Health checks - report
The health check report contains these things:

summary and rating

findings (e.g. finished tasks have cost 25% more than expected)

recommendations (e.g. review figures weekly with team leader, speak to sponsor)

rules and guidelines recommendations

health check process (who participated)

project manager's comments (how useful the review was to the project manager)

When the health check team review a project they may conclude that the project is in great
shape but isn't following some of the project management rules because it is different from
most of the company's projects. The review team don't recommend that the project should
be shoe-horned into the rules but that the rules be modify better to help such projects in
the future. This provides effective feedback from the project management coal face to
project support who are the custodians of the rules and guidelines.

The health check team form a judgement about how likely they think it is the project will
meet its commitments. One way of expressing their opinion is the A, B, C, or D rating.

A: we think the project has every chance of meeting commitments, potential

problems are under control.

B: the project will probably meet commitments so long as actions are put in place to
address identified problems.

C: major problems exist which will cause project failure unless significant action is
taken urgently.

D: the project will not meet its commitments.

Health checks - follow up

The follow up will clearly depend upon the rating.
To ensure findings are not simply ignored, following a B, C or D rating the project manager
must in subsequent monthly reports to the sponsor report each finding until it has been
actioned.
However, after a C or D more urgent action will be needed. Bearing in mind health checks
are only done on the larger, more business critical projects, a C or D rating could be an
exposure for the company, let alone the project. So the follow up after a C or D might be as
follows.
Within 3 working days of the health check the project manager must meet face to face with
the sponsor and explain the problems and the actions to be taken. And no doubt the project
manager will get help from the sponsor and other relevant senior managers.
Strange though it may seem project managers sometimes positively welcome C or D
ratings. Why might this be? Here is one example: A project manager had a resource
commitment. The date arrived but the resource didn't. The project manager went to the
resource owning manager who told him to go away. The project manager escalated to the
resource owning manager's manager who also told him to go away. The project manager
escalated to his own line manager for help in resolving the problem, but his boss said:
"can't you deal with that?" Nobody wanted to know. The health check happened then to
come along and gave the project a C rating. The sponsor received an independent report
saying he was the only person with the authority to fix the problem. The sponsor ignored
the report. The project failed. An audit was then carried out and the sponsor was asked
what he did when he received the report and he replied "er, nothing..." and an audit finding
went against the sponsor's name.
This is a rather extreme example but it does make the point that an independent report
should be enough to galvanise senior management into action when they might otherwise
be tempted to ignore the problem and hope it will go away. In our example, in a perfect
world, the project manager would have gone to the sponsor with a clear statement of the

problem seeking his support before the review team turned up. Though in a perfect world all
projects would succeed and health checks wouldn't be needed.
Project managers may also welcome C or D ratings when they have just taken over a
project. The project's in a mess, the project manager asks for a health check a) to get
experts to help him identify the problems and b) to make it clear to the world that what he's
taking over really is in bad shape.
And project managers may even ask for health checks even if they have managed the
project from the start: the project manager is courageous enough to realise he is out of his
depth and needs help, so asks the experts to come and do a review and help him identify
what needs to be done.
Following a C or D, replanning is usually required and new budget and date commitments
will probably need to be agreed with the sponsor. A follow up health check will be scheduled
6 weeks or so later to assess whether the project will at least meet its revised
commitments. One hopes this second review will be an A or B - revised commitments will be
met. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b> Project Management Book </b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 Getting occasional Cs or Ds happens - all part of the fun of being a project
manager. But getting two Ds in a row can be a little painful for the project manager.

Health checks - anecdote

One afternoon the project support manager was bumped into at the coffee machine by a
developer. After the usual pleasantries the developer asked: "is a review planned of our
project?"
What was the developer telling the project support manager? You should come and do a
review of our project...
The project support manager spoke to his boss and said that although no health check was
planned for that project he thought it would be a good idea to do one. His boss said: "that's
what I pay you for, go do it". The project support manager approached the project manager
and asked him if he would like a health check done on the project. The project manager
was, to put it mildly, hostile. What would you have concluded if you had been the project
support manager?
After some discussion with their mutual boss a health check was conducted. It was
abundantly clear the project manager had been suppressing the bad news, not addressing
problems and misreporting status. The team were all getting thoroughly disenchanted. The
boil was lanced, corrective action was put in place. Suppression of difficult reality shouldn't
happen but it does. Occasionally project support can in this way be a useful safety valve,
releasing the pressure before projects spectacularly explode causing collateral damage to all
in the vicinity.

Health checks - audience

Following an A or B rating a one line email goes to relevant senior managers: nothing you
need worry about. After a C or D they get the full report or better still a presentation from
the health check team. Senior managers should then ensure the project manager takes
appropriate action and they will be aware of what they need to do to help get the project
back on the straight and narrow.
Having said all of that, the health check report is first and foremost for the project manager,
offering constructive and practical advice on how they might improve the project's health.

Informal reviews
Health checks, as described above, take a few days and are only appropriate for larger
projects. For medium sized and less critical project an informal review can be valuable to
the project manager. One person, maybe a project support person or perhaps another
project manager, spends half a day with the project manager at his desk looking at the sort
of things a health check would look at and offers advice, guidance, suggestions, etc. No
written report, no A, B, C, D rating. Look upon this as a mentoring process.
Informal reviews can sometimes pose a dilemma though. If you did an informal review of a
colleague's project and it was obvious to you the project was going to fail but the PM has
been hiding the truth what would you do? You'd probably strongly recommend to the PM
that he tells the boss and point out that if he doesn't you have a duty to. Otherwise you
become an accessory.

Health checks - musts for successful reviews

To return to formal A, B, C, D health checks. The 5 Cs for successful health checks:

Consensus. The review team strive to reach agreement with the project manager on
findings and actions before they write the report.

Constructive. The review must be seen to offer useful, constructive advice on how
shortcomings may be addressed. Try also to comment on what the project is doing
well.

Courteous. Never write in the report: "the project manager is an idiot".

Dispassionately report problems and actions.

Confidential. Don't go around the building telling everyone what a mess the project
is. Keep ratings, findings and conclusions to those who have a right to know
(sponsor, steering committee, etc).

Concise. Keep the report succinct.

Health check - benefits

Do project managers ever lie about project status? Of course not. But occasionally they do
forget to mention certain things and inadvertently leave the wrong impression in the

sponsor's mind. However, if the project manager knows a health check is coming in 2
months time he is more likely to report the problems himself today: if he hides them and
the review flushes them out the sponsor is going to ask: "why didn't you tell me...?" Health
checks should reassure the sponsor that the project really is as healthy as the project
manager says it is.
In the couple of weeks before a health check the project manager will often get around to
dealing with things he has been putting off. Indeed, it may well be that half of the corrective
actions get taken before the review team even shows up.
Even if you are your company's best and most experienced project manager you will learn
something by reviewing another project. You'll spot some really elegant technique they are
using. And what will you do? Steal it and use it on your project.
And sometimes another member of the review team will highlight a problem with the project
being reviewed and you will realise you have exactly the same problem and you'll nod
sagely and then scurry back to fix your own project.
Inviting a novice team leader to sit in as a 4th member of a review team provides a great
learning experience. He is forced to see in great detail how all these project management
things are done in reality.
Health checks are a good way of spreading best practice and good ideas across an
organisation.
Bottom line, though: health checks save money. Sometimes a health check brings to light a
problem that would otherwise have lain dormant. The sooner you spot them the cheaper it
tends to be to fix them.

Health check - project managers' reactions

The project manager should be obliged to write a comment in the report about how useful
the review was to him. One hopes they might write things like this:

encouraging to see real problems identified

health check helped me focus on problems in estimating and controlling

very sensible recommendations, I would like to express my appreciation

But that isn't quite always how they react. Occasionally there is a dispute. The review team
says it's C or D the project manager says the project's fine and should be A or B. Who would
you put your money on? Back the review team. Sometimes the project manager can't see
the wood for the trees and sometimes they are in psychological denial - they won't even
admit to themselves it's a mess.
Review teams are not infallible, they don't always spot all of the problems. Project support
need to develop a checklist of things to look at, questions to ask, etc. Where a project fails

despite recently scoring an A or B rating, project support do need to take a look to establish
why the project went wrong, whether warning signs could in fact have been picked up at the
health check and if so to update their processes so they don't miss similar things in future
health checks.

Compliance monitoring
This is something quite different from health checks or informal reviews. Compliance
monitoring involves spending half an hour with the project manager making sure he is
adhering to the company's project management rules:

Have you got a signed off PDD? Yes? Tick.

Have you got a signed authorisation to be spending this stage's budget? Yes? Tick.

Have you got a stage agreement signed by resource providers? Yes? Tick.

Have you got a risk register? Yes? Tick.

This is largely a waste of time so project support should only do these compliance checks
very occasionally if they believe too much backsliding is creeping in. This type of compliance
check tells you next to nothing about the project's health.
Project support's attitude may be summed up thus:

If you're breaking all the rules and going to succeed that's interesting and we'd like
to know how you're doing it.

If you're following all the rules and failing that's a shame and we'll come and help
you.

If you're breaking all the rules and going to fail you're in deep doo-doo.

Safest bet: follow the rules and succeed.

Technical Reviews
The health checks described above do not, by and large, look at work products to gauge
their correctness (they look at whether the team is doing the things they planned to do to
ensure their work products are correct).
Technical reviews do look at a project's work products. For example, in a leading edge IT
project, a technical review team may spend a week or more examining in detail the system
design to assess whether it will work, will give the desired performance, etc. Whereas health
checks are conducted by people with project management skills, the technical review team
will be technical experts. However, a technical review finding that says: "The XLQ to TDQ
link object will not allow transference of TIF image data" will have non-technical senior
managers' eyes glazing over. They will have no idea whether individual technical review

findings are showstoppers or minor suggestions. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>

Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 So, for technical reviews, the review team
rate each finding A, B, C or D as well as giving an overall rating.

Other things project support should do

Collect, collate and disseminate lessons learned (this will be covered in the stage and
project end chapter).

Write, own, update, publicise, explain and help projects intelligently adhere to the
company's project management rules and guidelines.

Organise project management training.

Run a project management forum. A quarterly open house meeting at which project
support, project managers and team leaders share experience. For example: "we're
finding in health checks that this... is a very common problem, this is how you can
avoid similar problems..."

Maintain an intranet forum for project management hints, tips, rules of thumb, etc.

Write an annual report to senior management summarising how projects went over
the past year. For example: "Over the past 12 months 63 projects had this
problem... Board of Directors, you need to take this action... otherwise it'll happen
63 times next year..." Tell senior managers what needs to be done to make the
company a more project-friendly environment.

Be a free consultancy resource. Arguably this is the most important role of all. See
the next paragraph.

Who fills the project support role

Who are these paragons who inhabit project support?
The most junior team leader must feel able to consult project support and ask the dumb
questions they may not want to ask their boss. They won't do this if the project support
person is too senior.
People in project support must be seen to have been there, seen it and done it: they must
have been involved in projects and so have that credibility.
They do not need to be experts in everything, but they do need to know who the experts
are so they can point enquiries in the right direction. "You want to know the best way of
reporting system testing stats in a games development project? Have a chat with Lara
Homestead, she's the expert on that."

Project support must be seen to be 'us', part of our family. So, if 'we' are an IT shop, project
support must reside in IT and be staffed by IT people. If 'we' are marketing, project support
is in marketing and staffed by marketing people.
In some companies project support begins life within IT, and they own the rules that govern
how projects are run. But when senior business managers begin to appreciate that projects
are not IT things but are the way the company makes it future, they decide that project
support should move and report to someone other than the IT Director and be staffed by
people with relevant project skills whether they be from IT, marketing or wherever.
Project support should not be part of an Internal Audit function. The "when the auditors
come and see you answer honestly using only the words yes or no but don't volunteer any
information" mentality will not result in project health checks that add value. Internal Audit
might perhaps audit the processes used by project support to satisfy themselves that the
project community has in place appropriate self-policing procedures.
The best people to have in the project support role are team leaders who have been
personally involved in major disaster projects: they know the problems, they know the
warning signs (which were probably ignored on their project) and they know the pain. And
they should be naturally helpful people who want to help their fellow human beings avoid
similar pain.
As a rule of thumb there should be one person in project support for every hundred people
involved in projects. In a large company with two thousand people in projects perhaps
project support will be 15 strong comprising a couple of heavyweights to lead health checks
of major projects through to several team leaders who are assigned to project support for
eighteen months or so. In a small company with only 20 people doing projects one of the
PMs may be nominated to spend, say, one day a week doing some of these project support
things but obviously much less formally.
Project support do not assist in the day to day running of projects. Project administration
and reporting is the job of the project manager and his project team. And do not populate
project support with methodology theologians.
Reviewing project plans and conducting health checks requires judgement, the ability to
offer useful advice and the ability to formulate and present controversial conclusions. This
can be difficult. Compliance monitoring - checking projects have the right bits of paper in
place - is easy. But plan reviews and health checks add value.
When the first health checks are done in a company it is possible that they are almost all
Ds. Not because all projects will fail but because project planning and tracking is so poor the
review team conclude they have no idea whether the project will succeed or not and they
conclude the project manager hasn't either. A better way to improve project governance is
to embark upon an education programme to teach project managers and team leaders how
to manage projects (don't send them on courses that teach them how to pass a
methodology exam), write a starter set of in-house project management rules and
guidelines (which takes days not months), put in place start-of-stage plan reviews, and then
start doing formal health checks.
Project support must be empowered by senior management - Directors, sponsors, etc - to
conduct reviews on their behalf.

The Appendix contains a sample project support job description.

In conclusion
Project support is there to:

Help project managers

Reassure sponsors of large projects

Help identify problems early - ideally during project planning

Make it more likely that more projects will succeed

"The least used phrase in a project manager's vocabulary is "I don't know"."
The sooner you get behind schedule the more time you have to make it up."
Chapter 10 - Tracking, Controlling and Reporting

<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to

any other website. This project management book must not be reproduced
in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
Project control is very simple in principle. It boils down to knowing where you are and what
you have done, comparing that to where you should be and what you should have done,
spotting the difference and deciding what to do about the difference. Simple as that. Shall
we move on to the next chapter?
Make your friends groan with this one. It works better spoken than written. Controlling a
project is great fun if you remember the three basic laws of project management. Do you
know what Murphy's Law is? "If it can go wrong it will". Do you know what Sod's Law is? "It
will go wrong in the worst possible way". Do you know what Cole's Law is? "Coleslaw is
finely chopped cabbage in mayonnaise."
The old adage that no news is good news does not apply to projects. An information black
hole conceals one thing only: bad news. And if you have data about the project you could
interpret in several ways only the most painful interpretation will be the correct one. This is
no place for optimists.
What is the purpose of project control? It helps the project deliver as committed: dates,
costs, quality, etc. It also enables accurate reporting of project status. Clearly, we must be
able to spot deviations from the plan and sort them out, but the real art of project control is
looking forward to foresee potential future problems so that we can avoid them. This

Porsche driver has had a bit of a plan deviation, you haven't got to be a genius to figure that
out and even the corrective action is fairly self evident.

Identifying a plan deviation

Taking corrective action

But we want to be more like this next Porsche driver who has a sensitive, forward looking
problem alert mechanism (a pair of eyes). He sees the pylon coming, makes a small course
correction and just skims past it. This is what good project control comes down to - spotting
the problems in advance and avoiding them rather than discovering them the hard way. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0001.htm"><b>Project Management Books</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008

Identifying potential problem

And avoiding it

Control boils down to 'are we on plan?' which implies we have a plan. But imagine we have
a plan that only contains half the work we will actually need to do. Knowing we are bang on
plan is highly misleading. For good control we need a good plan.
Where are our commitments written down? In the Project Definition Document (PDD), stage
agreement and the plan itself. But suppose we are half way through a 5 month long stage.
Are we still tracking against the plan we built two and a half months ago? Almost certainly
not - over those first two and a half months we will have had to change the plan and we're
now tracking against that changed plan.

Who authorises changes to the plan? Maybe you're thinking 'the sponsor'. Imagine at the
start of a stage we told the sponsor it would cost 10,000 hours of work. But at the end of
week 1 we realise we have made a mistake: we don't think it will cost 10,000 hours, we
think it will 10,001 hours. Should we get the sponsor to approve the 1 extra hour? No. But
suppose at the end of week 1 we don't think the stage will cost 10,000 hours we think it will
cost 20,000 hours, should the sponsor approve the extra 10,000 hours? You bet.
Where should the boundary line be drawn? There should be a predetermined tolerance limit
- only variances outside that limit need be approved by the sponsor. If the tolerance is too
small the project manager would spend all his time getting tiny variances approved. If the
tolerance is too wide the sponsor has little or no control over costs. Before a stage starts the
project manager agrees how much he can change things by without seeking sponsor
approval - i.e. his tolerance limits. The project manager must then decide how much of his
tolerance he will delegate to those below him in the chain of command. The sponsor may
have the freedom to move the end date by a month without seeking the approval of anyone
more senior, but would you allow that same tolerance to the most junior member of the
team? Probably not. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-managementbook-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts
2006 2007 2008 The amount of tolerance you have depends upon who you are. We will
discuss some actual amounts a little later.
Bear in mind also that tolerance is not on the current position vs the plan but on where we
are going to end up. So, if we're currently 25% over budget but nevertheless confident of
completing the stage on budget, no approval is needed. If we are currently on budget but
think we will end up 25% over budget that requires approval (unless we have a very
generous tolerance limit indeed!).
Let us consider the tracking, controlling and reporting activities that we would expect team
leaders, project managers and project sponsors to perform.

Team Leader
What should a team leader do to keep a grip on the work for
which he is responsible?

Monitor team's status. Know exactly where the team is

versus their plan.

Check tasks really are completed. Particularly at the

start, and for new team members, if someone says a
task is finished check that it really is finished until you
know you can trust what they say.

Responsible for quality of team's work. Individuals are

accountable for the quality of their work but if someone
in your team delivers bad quality that will feature in
your appraisal as team leader too (see the quality management chapter).

Keeper of project records. On large projects the project office will look after most of
the record keeping but on smaller projects it often falls to the team leader(s) to keep
the records straight.

Collect weekly time sheets. Once a week establish precisely where each team
member is versus their individual plan.

Keep the team work plan up to date. This is a thorny one. At the extremes team
leaders come in two flavours. At one extreme are the theoretical perfectionists. At
the end of week 1 of a 4 month stage they spend the whole weekend moving tasks
planned for months 3 and 4 around for some theoretical precision in the plan. And at
the end of week 2 what do they do? Move them back to where they were in the first
place and shuffle several hundred other tasks around in pursuit of that theoretical
perfection. The other extreme, however, is much worse. The lazy sods. Once the
work has started they never update the plan so after the first few weeks the plan
bears no resemblance to what is actually happening and is never seen again.
Somewhere between these two extremes must be a happy medium. Each Friday the
team leader captures actual status from each member of their team - tasks finished,
hours worked, etc. The team leader then revises the team plan so that at least over
the next 6 weeks or so the plan reflects exactly what we now think will actually
happen over those next 6 weeks. Critical path tasks more than 6 weeks out should
be replanned if we know they're going to be late, but as long as the plan is roughly
right between 6 weeks out and the end of the stage leave that part of the plan alone.
Do whatever is right for you, but don't waste time being a theoretical perfectionist
and don't be lazy.

Weekly team meeting. The team leader gets their team together for an hour once a
week. Each person says where they are and what they are doing. Risks, issues and
changes relevant to the team are reviewed.

Report status weekly to the project manager. See below.

Liaise with other team leaders. Keep your team's work synchronised with other
teams'. Escalate to the project manager if you can't.

Agree tolerance limits with team members. The team leader may have an
understanding with each of their team members rather as follows: As long as you
can complete your tasks by their scheduled end dates I will be happy. If that means
you must work a few more or a few less hours than planned just get on with it. But if
you will not be able to meet any task's deadline let me know and I will change the
plan.

The team leader manages the work of his team.

Team leader's tolerance
At the start of a stage your team leader says to you: "boss, I've heard about this thing
called tolerance which I understand to mean that I can change my plan in some ways
without getting your prior approval - but I'm not sure what I can and can't change..." How
would you as project manager respond, what would you let your team leader change
without your approval? Maybe you're thinking: 'nothing at all'. But if he's told you the stage

will cost 10,000 hours and wants to change his plan so that it shows 9,999 hours you would
doubtless be happy for him to do that. And a change to 10,001? Perhaps you'd set
something like this as his tolerance limits:
Stage milestones and end
date:
Stage cost:
Hiring and firing:
Change of project scope:
Quality:
Dependencies:

0% tolerance
5% tolerance
0% tolerance - he can't
0% tolerance - he can't
meet dates etc.
0% tolerance - he can't
there's a novelty!)
0% tolerance - he can't
screw up other parties

hire and fire team members

unilaterally reduce scope in order to
sacrifice quality to meet the date (now
change his plan such that it would

How much freedom has the team leader now got to change the plan without your approval?
You may be thinking 'not a lot', but the answer actually is a huge amount.
The team leader can switch tasks between team members, resequence tasks, make some
tasks bigger than they were others smaller. He can make a lot of change to the plan without
getting anywhere near any of those tolerance limits. There are two points here: first you are
explaining to your team leader what he is allowed to do but much more important you have
just explained why you pay his salary: he must move things around if that would improve
the outcome. He can't change key dates, unilaterally descope, hire and fire, screw up
dependencies, sacrifice quality or go more than 5% over his budget but within those limits
he must manage to best effect.
If you do not have this five minute discussion with novice team leaders they are sometimes
frightened to change anything in their plan in case they breach a limit they didn't even know
was there. You are empowering them - indeed obliging them - to change their plan if that
would be beneficial.
(Quiz. Six team leaders each have 5% cost tolerance on their bit of the plan. They all use
their 5%. By how much has the overall budget increased? 5%.)

Project manager
What should the project manager do to keep a grip?

Project Management Course

Project management training for
team leaders and PMs
www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk

Keep his finger on the pulse - wander about, talk

to people informally.

Weekly meeting with the team leader(s). See

below.

Manage issues and changes - this is covered in the next chapter.

Monitor stage agreement commitments - as we mentioned in the stage agreement

chapter, don't let managers forget what they have committed to you.

Project Management Books

Short introduction to project
management downloadable book

Consolidate sub project reports. If there are just 2 team leaders this is not too
difficult. If there are 4 sub projects each with 6 team leaders the project manager
will need a project office to add it all up. This does not mean the project office
reports status to you (or to anyone else), it means they add up some numbers for
you. Better still, in a project with, say, 8 team leaders, designate one of them as the
senior team leader, or perhaps project leader, and have him consolidate the plan and
status for you. Keep ownership of the plan and status reporting strictly in the chain
of command, don't hive it off to an admin support office. If you do that you may find
the team leaders start to disown and even disdain the plan and status data. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Books</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts
2006 2007 2008

Revise the plan. If one team can't make their dates you may need to move resources
between teams or direct another team to move their dates to reflect the first team's
slippage.

Control contingency. As we discussed in the planning chapter, the last 5 days of your
stage plan may initially be labelled contingency. When there is no alternative, you
give some of that contingency elapsed time to a team leader, they reset their plan
and their team's targets and let's say you've then got 3 days contingency remaining.
The trick is to sell to the project team the tightest possible task by task plan you can
get them to sign up to at the beginning of the stage and to hold in your back pocket
things like contingency. Lash them regularly like galley slaves into meeting those
aggressive targets, and only when you conclude the targets are genuinely impossible
do you give them some of your contingency and reset their targets. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Books</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts
2006 2007 2008 Moving dates in this way is not slippage or failure, it's how you
avoid Parkinson's Law. If you and the team meet the date you committed to the
sponsor you have succeeded. If the team think they can spend the contingency
whenever they want to they'll spend it for you ten times over in the first fortnight!

Report monthly to the sponsor. See below.

These days some sophisticated clients of large software development projects demand that
their suppliers include contingency in the project plan and budget and show them (the
client) where it is in the schedule. Then every month report how much of the contingency
has been used and for what, and therefore how much contingency is still left. This level of
maturity is rare among sponsors in process-based companies - we all have an informal
education job to do to explain that contingency is there to help them maketheir project
successful.

Project office
The project office has no part to play in controlling the project.
All they do is administer the processes, add up numbers and maybe physically produce the
report you'll show the sponsor. This is not to say their role is unimportant. On the contrary
it's vital. On a large project if change requests aren't administered properly there could be

chaos - but the management of change, i.e. making decisions about change requests, is the
project manager's job. Similarly, the team leaders produce, revise and own the plans for
their teams - their plan is a tool they use to help them manage the work of their team - it is
not a bit of administration to be shuffled off onto the project office.
The project office no more runs the project than the Managing Director's secretary runs the
company.

Project sponsor
How does the sponsor know what's going on and keep overall control of the project?

Monthly status meeting with the project manager (or more frequently if he so
chooses)

Health check reports

Stage go no go authorisation with agreed tolerance e.g.

+/- 1 week on the end date

+/- 10% on stage costs

Authorising revised budgets and dates

Let's say you as project manager have committed a stage cost of 10,000 hours to the
sponsor and you have 10% tolerance - you must come in between 9,000 and 11,000 at the
end of the stage.
But you realise at the end of week 1 that it won't be 10,000 it will cost 12,000. You've only
spent tuppence so far, but you must inform the sponsor now of this projected overrun.
The sponsor reluctantly agrees to approve a revised budget of 12,000 hours with new limits
of 11,000 and 13,000. But at the end of week 2 guess what? Sorry, sponsor, I think it's
going to cost more like 15,000. The sponsor will conclude you don't know what you're doing.
Going back once within a stage with your begging bowl happens all the time. Going back
twice as above will be a bit painful for the project manager. But the pain of going back twice
is nothing compared with the pain of coming in after the end and telling the sponsor you've
overspent the upper tolerance limit. If you do that you get hung, drawn and quartered (and
then fired). This is an encouragement to come forward during the stage as soon as it
becomes clear you'll need more budget. The sponsor must be able to control what is spent
in his name before it is spent.
Bear in mind the budget, 10,000 in our example, includes the change and contingency
budgets both of which are estimates of the amounts of money you think you are actually
going to spend, in exactly the same way that the travel or testing budgets are estimates of
amounts of money you think you are going to spend.

If the project will under run its 9,000 lower tolerance limit, why should the project manager
have to come forward and tell the sponsor? So he can spend the money elsewhere. (Please
email us if you ever see this happen.)
Weekly status meeting
Each Monday morning the project manager meets with the team leader(s). Keep the
meeting informal and relaxed but at the same time factual and objective. So it's not: "it's
fine boss, don't worry...", each team leader reports:

tasks done or not done versus the plan

hours worked versus plan

problems and how they are being dealt with by the team

status of issues and risks

how the team leader has re-jigged his plan. Even though the re-jigging has been
within their tolerance they keep the project manager - and other team leaders informed about how they have changed their plan.

problems the team leader needs to escalate to the project manager

permission to change things which are outside their tolerance limits, e.g. to move a
milestone.

It might take half an hour or so per team leader, so it'll be a long morning if you have 6
team leaders.
The project manager should tell the team leaders about the discussions he has had with the
project sponsor and get the team leaders to pass that to the team members. This is often
overlooked, but it can aid team morale and motivation if they are kept in touch with what
the bigwigs are talking about. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b> Project Management Books </b></a> Copyright M
Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
One benefit of tasks that are about a week long is that they are either done or they are not
done - end of debate. With long tasks one can spend all Monday morning debating how far
through they are this week. Long tasks tend to remain 90% complete for about half their
lifespan. Never have anyone report 'percent completed' for a project task, it's meaningless.
Minute these weekly meetings. Just the facts reported by the team leaders, permissions
given and actions agreed.
Clearly, if major problems or issues arise during the week the team leader shouldn't wait for
the Monday morning meeting to tell the project manager.

Whole team meeting

Every now and again get the whole project team together. How often depends on many
factors. In a large project perhaps a monthly whole-team meeting (and more frequent
meetings of sub teams as discussed above). Sometimes, perhaps at critical times in the
project, a ten minute project team meeting at the start of each day may be appropriate.

Monthly status meeting

Once a month present status to the sponsor. We give an illustration of this below.
In a large project there will be an extra layer of management. There will be a project
director, below him project managers and below them project leaders and or team leaders.
In this case the project director may hold a monthly meeting at which each project manager
formally presents the status of their (sub) project. Some project directors like to run this
monthly meeting with all project manager and all team leaders present and the reporting
actually isn't done by the project managers but by one of their (well rehearsed) team
leaders on their behalf. Sometimes called leapfrog reporting. Why do it this way? Well, it's
excellent experience for the team leaders and helps them develop their project management
skills. But some project directors feel they get a truer picture of what's going on from a
team leader than they would from a project manager. Project managers sometimes put a
gloss on things whereas team leaders tend to tell it like it is. This sort of forum also aids
cross-project (cross-programme) team building and communication.

Project Monthly Report (PMR)

Let us see what would be shown to the sponsor (or project director, as in the previous
paragraph) in the monthly status meeting.
Please imagine you are the project sponsor. Have a look at this and see how you feel about
your project:

PMR for Project: Project XYZ

Report Month: June

Project Manager: I.Goodboss

Author: A.T.Leader

1.STATUS SUMMARY vs LATEST APPROVED PLAN

RAG status: GREEN

YES

NO

yes

Will the Project products meet specifications?

yes

Will products be delivered on approved schedule?

yes

Are External commitments being honoured?

yes

Are External relationships satisfactory?

yes

Will the project milestones be met?

You have a big grin on your face, you are being told everything is wonderful. But have a
look at a bit more of the report:

PMR for Project: Project XYZ

Report Month: June

Project Manager: I.Goodboss

Author: A.T.Leader

1.STATUS SUMMARY vs LATEST APPROVED PLAN

RAG status: GREEN

YES

NO

yes

Will the Project products meet specifications?

yes

Will products be delivered on approved schedule?

yes

Are External commitments being honoured?

yes

Are External relationships satisfactory?

yes

Will the project milestones be met?

+ 10%

- %

Project hours to date as +/- percentage of plan

+ %

- 33%

Completed Tasks to date, as +/- percentage of plan

+ 20%

- %

Hours for Completed Tasks as +/- percentage of plan

Would you now believe the green status and the yes column? What are we being told:

we've spent 10% more hours to date than we should have

we've completed a third less tasks than we should have

completed tasks have taken 20% more hours to complete than we expected

This project cannot be green, the yes column cannot be correct.

As a principle we should never report only our opinion nor should we only report bald
numbers - always both, just as in company accounts.
Project managers often track and manage work on the basis of hours worked and tasks
done. However, we also need to know how much money has been spent. If we only have
half the number of people we should have, we could be way underspent on our budget to
date. At the same time, if we have more (expensive!) contractors than expected the costs of
tasks completed could be way over in cash terms.
Whether money spent is just people's time converted to money (by the project office) or
money spent is only cash expenditures such as contractors, equipment and travel, or both
added together, or whether each is tracked separately, etc is one of the myriad decision you
must make before your project starts.

Please have a look at section 3 Outlook To Completion:

PMR for Project: Project XYZ

Report Month: June

Project Manager: I.Goodboss

Author: A.T.Leader

1.STATUS SUMMARY vs LATEST APPROVED PLAN

RAG status: AMBER

YES

NO

yes

Will the Project products meet specifications?

yes

Will products be delivered on approved schedule?

yes

Are External commitments being honoured?

yes

Are External relationships satisfactory?

yes

Will the project milestones be met?

+ 10%

- %

Project hours to date as +/- percentage of plan

+ %

- 33%

Completed Tasks to date, as +/- percentage of plan

+ 20%

- %

Hours for Completed Tasks as +/- percentage of plan

+ %

- %

Project spent to date as +/- percentage of plan

+ %

- %

Cost of Completed Tasks as +/- percentage of plan

2. PLAN vs ACTUAL?

THIS MONTH
Plan Actual

Hours
Tasks Completed

TO DATE
Plan Actual
4000

4400

174

117

IT headcount
User headcount
Other headcount
3.OUTLOOK TO COMPLETION
Original Plan

Latest Approved Plan

Date approved: May 1st

Current Outlook

October 31st

November 30th

December 14th

Tasks

360

390

402

Hours

8000

9000

9250

End Date

360K

405K

420K

The middle section, section 2, essentially gives the raw numbers from which the
percentages in section 1 are derived (we haven't filled in all the numbers).
Section 3, however, is what the sponsor most wants to know. What is Section 3 telling us?
We originally thought we'd finish by October 31st. On May 1st, two months ago (let's say it's
July 1st today), the sponsor approved a move to November 30th and a budget increase to
405K - that's the current commitment. But as of today, July 1st, our best guess is that
we're going to be 2 weeks late and it'll cost 420K which is 15K more than our latest
approved budget.
How do you feel about this project? It's slipped once, it's sliding again and the current
status would probably make us very suspicious about their projections anyway. And if we
felt really nervous we might even want to consider commissioning a Health Check. What's
your gut feeling? A, B, C or D? If you believethe Current Outlook probably a C. But if, given
they are at the moment 33% behind on task completions and completed tasks have cost
20% more than expected and you suspected they had not properly factored that into the
outlook, maybe you'd be thinking D. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M
Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 If there is doubt about project status experienced project
managers tend to assume the worst case until somebody proves to them it really ain't that
bad. Starry eyed, inexperienced young optimists hope for the best, let things run and then
get very nasty shocks later in the project.
And how would you feel about the project's change status?

5.PCR STATUS SUMMARY

Hours

Spent investigating PCRs to date

200

9,000

Allocated to approved PCRs to date

670

30,150

So, total to date on PCRs COMMITTED & SPENT

870

39,150

In current approved plan, total PCR BUDGET

800

36,000

1500

67,500

Total PCR expenditure, estimated OUTLOOK

number submitted
to date
month

number approved
to date
month

number
rejected

number under

evaluation

Number not
looked at

24

There was a budget of 36K for change which has already been overspent and they are
outlooking a change spend of more like 67K by the time they finish - they are going to
spend almost twice as much on change than they allowed for.

The person reporting then tells you there are 24 change requests sitting on his desk that he
hasn't even had time to look at yet. Not good. That D is definitely looking favourite.
A good stage agreement will summarise the plan by declaring a milestone every couple of
weeks: start date, requirements workshops finished, sign off achieved, etc.
One project had their plan up on a whiteboard. Every couple of months there was a drawing
of a champagne glass. They represented key milestones - if the team met them the sponsor
would take them out and buy the drinks. Every few weeks was a drawing of a beer mug. If
the team met these milestones they went out and bought themselves a drink. Mineral water,
no doubt. You do need something like this to get a bit of team spirit going. Tangible
recognition and reward from senior management can also be a great aid to motivation.

5.PCR STATUS SUMMARY

Hours

Spent investigating PCRs to date

200

9,000

Allocated to approved PCRs to date

670

30,150

So, total to date on PCRs COMMITTED & SPENT

870

39,150

?In current approved plan, total PCR BUDGET

800

36,000

1500

67,500

Total PCR expenditure, estimated OUTLOOK

number submitted
month
to date

number approved
month
to date

number
rejected

number under
evaluation

Number not
looked at

24
6.KEY ACTIVITIES LAST MONTH
7.KEY ACTIVITIES NEXT MONTH
8.KEY MILESTONE DATES

Plan

Actual

Outlook

Section 8 shows when we thought we'd achieve the milestones, for those we have achieved
when we actually achieved them, and for those still in the future when we now thing we'll
achieve them. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 A quick glance at this section of the report tells us instantly whether the project
is more or less running to its schedule.
Page 3 below is more free format: risks, issues, concerns, problems, health check findings:
things we've previously reported on and new things we need to bring to the attention of the
sponsor.

9.RISKS, ISSUES, CONCERNS, PROBLEMS, HEALTH CHECK REVIEW

FINDINGS
Item No: Month first reported:
Description of Risk/Issue/Concern etc:

Proposed Action:

Action by whom:

Item No: Month first reported:

Description of Risk/Issue/Concern etc:

Proposed Action:

Action by whom:
Item No: Month first reported:
Description of Risk/Issue/Concern etc:

Proposed Action:

Action by whom:

For example: "Item 1, sponsor, we declared a major risk at the outset that we might not be
able to recruit a graphic design specialist. He joined on Monday, that risk has now gone
away. Item 2, we had a health check which recommended that we change our intention to
have a single test team and instead have two sub-teams for better control - we'll do it. Item
3, we can't get HR to provide the committed resource to review the requirements document
please would you have a word with the HR Director?"
How long would it take somebody to fill in three charts like this each month? An hour or so
assuming there is a plan, hours and tasks are tracked, change requests are managed, etc. If
planning and tracking are done properly, reporting is quite straightforward. If there's no
plan or no tracking, reporting becomes just an unsubstantiated opinion and of little value.
Always do the reporting face to face in presentation mode. If you received those three
pages via email, even with tons of backup, you wouldn't know whether the person who sent
it to you really understands what is going on. But if they're presenting to you you'll know
instantly if they know what's going on in their project.

Whether this data is being reported by the team leader on behalf of his (sub) project
manager to the project director or by the project manager/director to the project sponsor
the same reporting format is used, though the focus of the presentation and discussion may
be different. The sponsor won't want too much detail - just reassurance that you'll deliver as
committed. The project director will want to dig much deeper. If you were the project
director and were shown the data in our illustration above, you would have a hundred and
one questions. Indeed, when a team leader is presenting to a project director if he, the
team leader, is any good he'll come armed with loads of backup information, such as we saw
on the Key Controls report in the planning chapter, and be ready for those questions. If he
isn't and can't answer the questions, the project director may not want to wait a month
before having another update on that project's status.
In a programme it is useful to have all sub projects reporting to the project director in the
same meeting. Healthy competition develops - who's in best shape, who clearly knows what
they are talking about. Those whose control isn't quite what it should be will realise they
don't know as much about their project's status as their colleagues
and will, one hopes, improve. And again, knock on effects between
sub projects may become evident in this forum. If a couple of the
Project Definition
sub projects are under pressure to meet dates and are
contemplating declaring a slippage you may find it becomes a
matter of who blinks first. Eventually someone cracks and says
they will slip and the others oh-so-reluctantly agree to move their
dates later to realign while breathing a silent 'phew!'.
Requirements
In some IT organisations the senior managers like to see a
Analysis <a
href="http://www.hrac snapshot each month of all of the projects in which IT is involved again the same format is used.
onsultingltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-bookStage authorisation
0101.htm"><b>Projec
t Management
At the start of each stage the sponsor gives the go ahead and
Book</b></a>
approves the stage budget. Sometimes whether we go or no go
Copyright M Harding isn't in doubt - there's no choice - and it's not so much a meeting
Roberts 2006 2007
to decide go or no go as to demonstrate readiness to begin.
2008

User Functions
Design

If we're not as ready as we should be the sponsor may give a

conditional go: "well, you can start but I'm not satisfied you've got
necessary resources properly committed. Get it sorted out and
come back and see me in a week's time. And let me know if I can
help." We are starting with more risk than we would ideally like,
but that's the real world. And as we said earlier, having to present
at these meetings is a powerful incentive to get things properly
planned.

IT Technical
Design
Stage 1
Build and
Test

User
Acceptance

Stage 2
When we reach the end of Stage 1 we have two things to do: prove we have finished Stage
1 and invite the sponsor to take out his chequebook and fund Stage 2.
For illustration: "Sponsor, we have finished Stage 1. I said it would cost $300K, it actually
cost $315K - a bit over budget but well with tolerance. We finished the stage on schedule
and we have delivered everything we committed to deliver (UFD, Stage 2 plan, revised
business case, testing strategy, etc). We have all the requisite sign offs (here they are...)
and there are no issues open on any of the documents we have produced." If that's all true
the sponsor says: "Well done, I agree you have finished Stage 1."
But if by contrast the project manager says: "The end date of Stage 1 has arrived. We have
published the User Functions Design document and there are currently 99 open issues and
everyone has refused to sign off..." Have we finished Stage 1? Certainly not. We must
demonstrate that we have finished the work and met the completion criteria specified in the
stage agreement.
Without this kind of discipline what happens? Nobody signs off the UFD, work continues
regardless and when the system is delivered everyone complains that it's wrong and isn't
what they wanted. This is completely unacceptable. If people will not sign off the UFD we
must crystallise the issue and deal with it or we must stop work while people make up their
minds. The premise being that every day you delay signing off the UFD delays delivery by a
day. This is another nuclear deterrent. You hope you never actually have to stop work but
the threat must be credible and fully backed by the sponsor. This gives you power to twist
arms: either sign off or tell me clearly why you cannot sign off or we will stop work and wait
until you make your mind up.
As an example of this. At the end of the design stage of a project the business users, in
Finance, just would not get around to reviewing and signing off the design document. After
the usual channels had been exhausted the matter was escalated to the IT Director. The IT
Director phoned the Finance Director on Friday lunchtime and said: "unless your guys get
their fingers out and sign this thing off, or tell us what's wrong with it, as of Monday
morning I'm reassigning the technical design team to other work. We're not going to deliver
this thing and then have you tell us IT got it wrong again." This was a fairly brave thing to
do because at the time the IT Director reported to the Finance Director! The sign off was
forthcoming within the hour.
If we persuade the sponsor that Stage 1 has been finished we then seek authorisation for
Stage 2: "Sponsor, four months ago at the beginning of the project we gave you a top down
estimate of $1M for the whole project. Having finished Stage 1 and re-estimated we now
think the project will cost $1.4M. The benefits are, however, much greater than we first
thought so I recommend we continue despite the estimated cost increase."

Why might the sponsor cancel the project at this meeting even if the cost estimate has not
increased? The anticipated benefits may have dribbled away - we're better to cut our losses
and cancel the project now. We are forcing the sponsor to make a decision: carry on or
stop. Without this, some projects simply roll on under their own momentum even though
their raison d'etre has long since evaporated.
In theory Stage 2 should be authorised before any work is done on Stage 2. In practice the
rule might be that you can proceed 2 weeks into Stage 2 before it is formally authorised. In
other words there are 2 weeks to sort out any issues and get things signed off. When you're
one week and 4 days into Stage 2 the arm twister then becomes: "If you don't sign off by
Friday the rules mandate that I must go to the sponsor on Monday morning and ask him to
stop the project and redeploy the team onto something else while you make your mind up."
Address and resolve issues, don't sweep them under the carpet and have them explode all
over you at the end of the project.
Without the go no go meeting with the sponsor - the summit signing ceremony - it is much
easier to fudge these things, drift from one stage to the next and leave UXBs (unexploded
bombs) all over the place.

Definitions
Checkpoints and milestones are not the same thing. A milestone denotes an
achievement: a workshop has been held, a document has been published, a document has
been signed off - the last of these being the best sort of milestone as it signifies real
achievement. Publishing something is easy, getting it signed off is much more significant.
A checkpoint is a point at which one checks things, e.g. a status meeting in which one
checks whether milestones have been achieved or not.
Original plan, baseline plan, latest plan, latest approved plan, current plan... It's
amazing how many names people will invent for various versions of the project plan. One
way of using some of these terms might be:

Original plan. The plan you started the stage with. By definition this plan can't
change. At the outset, since there is only one version of the plan, the original plan,
baseline plan, latest approved plan, etc are one and the same thing

Latest approved plan. If during the stage the sponsor approves a change to the
stage's commitments (revised budget, different dates, etc) the plan that supports
these new commitments is the latest approved plan. Some would call this the
baseline plan or the new baseline plan or the latest baseline plan.

Latest plan. The project manager and team leaders will have a working level plan
that shows when individual work tasks will be done. This plan can be changed quite
substantially without affecting commitments made to the sponsor. This 'latest plan' is
the one against which the project team is tracking its progress. If they achieve it
they will achieve commitments made to the sponsor.

If you speak to ten project managers you will probably get eleven different opinions of the
above, but whatever you call them there will usually be several versions of 'the plan'

scudding about. As long as you're clear what they all are, call them what you like - though
consistent naming within your company would obviously be a good idea.

Objective, factual reporting

Objective, factual, numerical reporting makes it much harder for the project manager to
hide problems and much harder for senior managers to ignore painful reality.
Having to present status face to face means the project manager has to know what's going
on in his project.
All (large) projects should report using the same reporting template - senior managers soon
tune in to the language of the numbers.
Most businesses employ fewer than 10 people but must report numerically in their annual
report and accounts. Many projects employ more than 10 people. Look upon these larger
projects as a small business: they require the same sort of entrepreneurial flair, leadership
and control that a small business requires.
Before your project begins you must decide what you will track and how you will control. For
a small project a Gantt chart on a whiteboard with the plan as green bars and the actual as
red bars may be all you need. For large projects you will need something of the sort we
have described. For very large and complex projects you may well require sophisticated
critical path analysis software to guide you through the maze. Decide what's appropriate for
your project, design controls accordingly and allow time in the plan for gathering, analysing
and reporting status data.
In a large project that does not have any factual status reporting data the following does,
and will continue to, happen:

On Friday afternoon the IT team prove to the IT team leader that the project is dead
in the water, and it is, but there are no numbers to prove it.

On Monday morning the IT team leader tells the IT project manager: "there are
major problems, we aren't going to make it", but there are no numbers to prove it.

On Tuesday morning the IT project manager tells the project director: "there are
some big problems, it looks rather doubtful", but there are no numbers to prove it.

On Wednesday morning the project director tells the project sponsor: "IT have some
problems, but they always say that don't they?".

On Thursday morning the sponsor tells the Board of Directors: "it's business as
usual, it'll probably be OK."

It's gone from being dead as a dodo to probably OK because each person changes the
message a bit on its way up. But if even the sponsor when reporting to the Board must
show the sort of numbers we have seen, that can't happen. The Board can read the
numbers as well as we can - probably a lot better than we can. However high the reporting

goes some numbers should be presented. Just like company accounts.

And finally

You cannot control unless you have a plan

Good control detects problems early

Early detection makes resolution easier

If in doubt assume the worst case until something better is proven

With facts it's harder to hide the truth and harder to ignore the reality

"All project managers face problems on Monday morning. Good project managers will be
working on next Monday's problems."

Chapter 11 - Change and Issue Management

<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to

any other website. This project management book must not be reproduced
in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
At the start of a project there is always uncertainty. However well the requirements are
defined, they will change as the project progresses. Issues will arise that were not foreseen.
What is an 'Issue' in the context of a project? A risk that has happened, something
unexpected that has occurred, a potential problem that has come to light - in other words a
threat to project success has been identified. We need to deal with these threats, not leave
them lying around festering.
What is the difference between an Issue and a Risk? Some people will offer definitions and
distinctions and argue their view with religious fervour. In practice what sometimes happens
is this. Threats to project success that are identified at the start of the stage or project are
called risks. Things that crop up during the project are handled as issues - though if a
potential problem that wouldn't bite for 3 months crops up maybe that should be added to
the risk register and handled as a risk whereas if the problem would bite in two days time
maybe that's an issue. You can see how the arguments start.
Frankly it doesn't matter too much whether these things that crop up during the project are
called issues or risks. What does matter is that they are managed.

In a small project the issue management process may boil down to discussing the issues in
the weekly status meeting, assigning them to a person to resolve and documenting in the
minutes the issue and its eventual resolution. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
In one very large project the project office devised an electronic process for handling issues.
There were 6 categories. Category 6 could be raised within a team and resolved by the
team with nobody above the team leader being involved. But if a category1 issue was
raised, as soon as enter was pressed an email went to the project sponsor - by definition
category 1 issues required the sponsor to make a decision. The system produced excellent
reports of issues raised by category, number open, number overdue resolution, average
time to close, etc.
Whichever extreme your project is closer to the issue management process comes down to
this:

Before the project starts design an issue process that will meet your project's need.

When an issue arises write down what it is.

Assign the issue to somebody to resolve. In a small project the project manager will
decide who to give the issue to for resolution. In a large project that might be
delegated to the team leaders - they decide which team member should be asked to
resolve an issue.

The person asked to resolve the issue does whatever it takes to get it resolved.

Escalation paths must be open. The last thing you want to happen when the first
major issue arises is not to know how to get to the sponsor - so you send him an
email which sits in his inbox for a week. Before the project starts, agree with the
sponsor and steering committee members how you'll get urgent issues to them - via
their secretary, via a phone call? Get them to agree they will make timely decisions.
(In one case this ground work hadn't been done. A key team member left, the PM
identified a contractor with the same rare skills. An email to the sponsor asked for
authorisation for the cost. It sat in the sponsor's inbox for a fortnight. When he
eventually said yes the contractor had got a job elsewhere.)

Write down how the issue was resolved.

In status meetings monitor open issues and give particular attention to issues that
are past their target resolution date. Occasionally what seems to be a minor issue is
raised, given to a team member to resolve by Friday - but they don't resolve it by
Friday - and what seemed to be a minor issue conceals a much bigger problem
lurking underneath.

Let's have a look at a sample issue form and illustrate the process with an example. Half
way through the build phase one of the developers is about to write some code that will do
a complex interest rate calculation. The calculation specified in the design document looks
wrong to him. He's not quite sure so he raises it as an issue and completes the form as far
as the 'Description of Issue' box.

Project Name:
Short Description of Issue:
Raised By:
Date Raised:

ISSUE FORM
Issue No:

Description of Issue:
Resolution Comments:

Closed By:
Date Closed:

Issue Closing Agreed By:

Date:
No. of PCR (if one was raised as a result of closing this Issue):

Someone - maybe him maybe someone else - asks the relevant business person whether
the calculation specified is right or not. If you're lucky the business person says that
although it looks odd it is in fact perfectly correct. The resolution is a huge sigh of relief there's no problem.
If you're unlucky the business person says the calculation has got completely garbled
somehow and is completely wrong. The expert spends five minutes writing down the correct
calculation. However, this represents a change to the signed off User Functions Design

document and as such it must be managed as a Project Change Request. So the issue
resolution is: the calculation is wrong in the UFD, this is the correct calculation, PCR number
735 has been raised.
A third way of closing issues is also possible. For example, the team is growing and was due
to move into the refurbished canteen next week. But the refurbishment isn't finished - we
have an issue. After investigation the conclusion is the refurbishment will be 3 weeks late
and in the interim the team will colonise the sponsor's palatial office - that's how the issue
will be resolved. You probably wouldn't raise a PCR for that.
So issues can have 3 closings:

there's no problem - phew.

there is a problem but it has been sorted out like this...

there is a problem which necessitates a change to a previously signed off project

deliverable: the issue is closed, a PCR is raised and the change is managed under the
auspices of the change control process.

One thing to watch out for on larger projects: make sure the person who raised the issue is
satisfied it is closed. Otherwise, if the loop isn't closed like that, and they aren't happy with
the closing they will raise the issue again under a slightly different title.
The form above is only an illustration - as are any forms to be found in project management
standards or in a methodology text book. Before your project begins design a form that
meets the specific needs of your project.
"If project content is allowed to change freely the rate of change will exceed the rate of
progress."
Chapter 11 - Change and Issue Management

<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to

any other website. This project management book must not be reproduced
in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
At the start of a project there is always uncertainty. However well the requirements are
defined, they will change as the project progresses. Issues will arise that were not foreseen.
What is an 'Issue' in the context of a project? A risk that has happened, something
unexpected that has occurred, a potential problem that has come to light - in other words a
threat to project success has been identified. We need to deal with these threats, not leave
them lying around festering.
What is the difference between an Issue and a Risk? Some people will offer definitions and
distinctions and argue their view with religious fervour. In practice what sometimes happens
is this. Threats to project success that are identified at the start of the stage or project are
called risks. Things that crop up during the project are handled as issues - though if a

potential problem that wouldn't bite for 3 months crops up maybe that should be added to
the risk register and handled as a risk whereas if the problem would bite in two days time
maybe that's an issue. You can see how the arguments start.
Frankly it doesn't matter too much whether these things that crop up during the project are
called issues or risks. What does matter is that they are managed.
In a small project the issue management process may boil down to discussing the issues in
the weekly status meeting, assigning them to a person to resolve and documenting in the
minutes the issue and its eventual resolution. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
In one very large project the project office devised an electronic process for handling issues.
There were 6 categories. Category 6 could be raised within a team and resolved by the
team with nobody above the team leader being involved. But if a category1 issue was
raised, as soon as enter was pressed an email went to the project sponsor - by definition
category 1 issues required the sponsor to make a decision. The system produced excellent
reports of issues raised by category, number open, number overdue resolution, average
time to close, etc.
Whichever extreme your project is closer to the issue management process comes down to
this:

Before the project starts design an issue process that will meet your project's need.

When an issue arises write down what it is.

Assign the issue to somebody to resolve. In a small project the project manager will
decide who to give the issue to for resolution. In a large project that might be
delegated to the team leaders - they decide which team member should be asked to
resolve an issue.

The person asked to resolve the issue does whatever it takes to get it resolved.

Escalation paths must be open. The last thing you want to happen when the first
major issue arises is not to know how to get to the sponsor - so you send him an
email which sits in his inbox for a week. Before the project starts, agree with the
sponsor and steering committee members how you'll get urgent issues to them - via
their secretary, via a phone call? Get them to agree they will make timely decisions.
(In one case this ground work hadn't been done. A key team member left, the PM
identified a contractor with the same rare skills. An email to the sponsor asked for
authorisation for the cost. It sat in the sponsor's inbox for a fortnight. When he
eventually said yes the contractor had got a job elsewhere.)

Write down how the issue was resolved.

In status meetings monitor open issues and give particular attention to issues that
are past their target resolution date. Occasionally what seems to be a minor issue is
raised, given to a team member to resolve by Friday - but they don't resolve it by

Friday - and what seemed to be a minor issue conceals a much bigger problem
lurking underneath.
Let's have a look at a sample issue form and illustrate the process with an example. Half
way through the build phase one of the developers is about to write some code that will do
a complex interest rate calculation. The calculation specified in the design document looks
wrong to him. He's not quite sure so he raises it as an issue and completes the form as far
as the 'Description of Issue' box.

ISSUE FORM
Project Name:
Short Description of Issue:

Raised By:
Date Raised:
Description of Issue:

Resolution Comments:

Closed By:
Date Closed:
Issue Closing Agreed By:
Date:
No. of PCR (if one was raised as a result of closing this Issue):

Issue No:

Someone - maybe him maybe someone else - asks the relevant business person whether
the calculation specified is right or not. If you're lucky the business person says that
although it looks odd it is in fact perfectly correct. The resolution is a huge sigh of relief there's no problem.
If you're unlucky the business person says the calculation has got completely garbled
somehow and is completely wrong. The expert spends five minutes writing down the correct
calculation. However, this represents a change to the signed off User Functions Design
document and as such it must be managed as a Project Change Request. So the issue
resolution is: the calculation is wrong in the UFD, this is the correct calculation, PCR number
735 has been raised.
A third way of closing issues is also possible. For example, the team is growing and was due
to move into the refurbished canteen next week. But the refurbishment isn't finished - we
have an issue. After investigation the conclusion is the refurbishment will be 3 weeks late
and in the interim the team will colonise the sponsor's palatial office - that's how the issue
will be resolved. You probably wouldn't raise a PCR for that.
So issues can have 3 closings:

there's no problem - phew.

there is a problem but it has been sorted out like this...

there is a problem which necessitates a change to a previously signed off project

deliverable: the issue is closed, a PCR is raised and the change is managed under the
auspices of the change control process.

One thing to watch out for on larger projects: make sure the person who raised the issue is
satisfied it is closed. Otherwise, if the loop isn't closed like that, and they aren't happy with
the closing they will raise the issue again under a slightly different title.
The form above is only an illustration - as are any forms to be found in project management
standards or in a methodology text book. Before your project begins design a form that
meets the specific needs of your project.
Project change requests (PCR)
A project change request is a request during the life of a project to change a signed off
project deliverable. So, once the PDD has been signed off, if later in the project someone
wants to change the project scope they raise a PCR. Once the User Functions Design
document is signed off if someone wants a change to the design they raise a PCR. We are
not discussing here changes that are requested to live systems - we would call these
Improvement Requests. However, if an improvement request is raised and a live system is
changed and there happens at the same time to be a project underway to enhance that
system, we may also need to raise a PCR to reflect the change to the live system in the
copy of the code the project developers are working on.

What happens if continuous, unbridled change is allowed during a project? The project will
go on for a very long time and may never finish. At the other extreme allowing no change at
all is a nice idea but would probably mean that whatever was delivered wouldn't meet the
business need.
Almost always in a project some change has to be taken on board as the project progresses.
Clearly we need a process for managing that change. A key aspect of this process is
deciding, at the start of the project, who will be authorised to spend the company's hardearned cash on changes. We will consider later who this should be.
How will the PCRs be administered? If only a handful of PCRs are expected the project
manager can administer the PCRs himself. But some projects, notoriously software projects,
get hundreds or even thousands of PCRs in which case a project office will be needed to
handle the administration. For medium sized projects perhaps a team leader can look after
the paperwork.
Planning for PCRs is like quadruple crystal ball gazing:

Project Management Training

Project management course for
how many PCRs might be raised during the stage
people in IT
projectswww.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk
when might they be raised

what type of changes might be requested

and therefore who would investigate and do the changes

Putting the change hours in the right team members' plans at the right time is very difficult,
but the change hours must be put somewhere in the plan. If in doubt put the change time
at the end of the stage plan as we discussed in the planning chapter.
Never muddle the change budget with contingency. There should be a clear, separate
budget for change with a clear owner. Contingency is there for anything else that might crop
up. Though one reason for spending contingency could be that there is more change than
expected and contingency is raided to fund it.
Of course, one could begin the project or stage with a zero change budget. Every change
that is accepted increases the project budget and, in principle, moves the project end date.
However, this will almost certainly be perceived as failure.
Setting aside 5%-15% of the stage budget for change is typical and may be broken down
into three pots:

a number of hours for administration of PCRs

a number of hours for investigation of PCRs

a number of hours for making changes

A project might spend more time investigating PCRs than actually making changes. Why
might this be? Having worked out what a change would cost everyone decides it's not worth

doing. In a way this is a waste of money - investigating a PCR that then gets rejected. We
will see how we might limit this wasted expenditure.
A change request process typically has three steps.
In the first box (please have a look at the form below) the person raising the PCR says two
things: what change they would like and why - what is the business justification for
disrupting this project half way through; who raised the PCR; and when was it raised.
The PCR then goes to somebody - say the IT team leader - whose first reaction to a PCR is
usually a sharp sucking-in of breath: "tch, oooh, just to investigate this change request
would take me two days." We now have a 14 hour estimate just to investigate the impact of
this PCR (the first line of box 2).
Somebody should now have to make a decision: do you want to spend 14 hours worth of
the company's hard earned cash to investigate this PCR or not? At the extremes PCRs come
in two sorts. At one extreme everyone know the PCR has to be done so we get on and do
the impact analysis. At the other extreme, particularly in software projects, there can be
hundreds of 'bright idea' change requests. An extreme example of that: we are half way
through the build step and some bright spark thinks it would be a nice idea if one particular
web page, rather than being green on black, flashed on and off bright pink but only on
February 29th every leap year. Just a bit of fun for our customers.
This great idea goes to IT who say it would take a month just to establish if that was
feasible, let alone the cost of doing it. At this point even the bright spark who had the idea
would say: "forget it!". The point is that one can save wasting limited PCR investigation time
by saying what the investigation would cost. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008

Project Change Request (PCR)

Project:
Description of Proposed Change and Business Reason:

PCR No:

Submitted By:

Date:

Estimated Hours to Investigate Change Request:

Accept Reject
For Investigation
Accept Reject
For Investigation

Project User Manager

Date:

Project IT Manager

Date:

Reason for Rejection: (add attachments if necessary)

Actual Hours Spent Investigating Change Request:

Description and Impact of Change: (add attachments if necessary)

Estimated
Implementation
Cost By Phase:

Current phase

Phase:

Phase:

Estimate Valid Until:

(delay will increase change cost)
Approve Disapprove
Project User Manager
For Implementation:
Approve Disapprove
Project IT Manager
For Implementation:

Phase:

Total Hrs:

Date:
Date:

...next
If we decide to investigate the PCR, someone establishes what the change would cost and
what its impact would be on the project's schedule. Let's say (box 3) it takes 12 hours to do
this investigation. That's 12 hours spent from the change budget, we can't spend it again.

Project Change Request (PCR)

Project:
Description of Proposed Change and Business Reason:

PCR No:

Submitted By:

Date:

Estimated Hours to Investigate Change Request:

Accept Reject
Project User Manager
For Investigation
Accept Reject
Project IT Manager
For Investigation
Reason for Rejection: (add attachments if necessary)

Date:
Date:

Actual Hours Spent Investigating Change Request:

Description and Impact of Change: (add attachments if necessary)

Estimated
Implementation
Cost By Phase:

Current phase

Phase:

Estimate Valid Until:

(delay will increase change cost)
Approve Disapprove
Project User Manager
For Implementation:
Approve Disapprove
Project IT Manager
For Implementation:

Phase:

Phase:

Total Hrs:

Date:
Date:

And, for example, the investigation reveals that the impact of the PCR would be a 2 week
delay to the project end date; 100 hours (5000) extra work in the current step (let's say
we're in IT technical design), 50 hours extra cost in the build and test step (another 2500)
and 80 hours extra user testing time (3000). So total cost 230 hours (10500).
Very simply someone can now make an informed, business-like decision: does the benefit of
this change justify the date hit and the extra cost (and justify jeopardising quality - see the
next chapter). That's all the PCR process is trying to do: let the paying customer - the user make informed decisions about change. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-

ltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Books</b></a>

Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
On the form (again, any form is just an example to help you devise one appropriate for your
project) you'll notice the 'Estimate Valid Until' box. Imagine you're having a house designed
and built for you. The design has a 2 car garage. You ask what it would cost to change it to
a 3 car garage. The builder says it depends: if you make your mind up by the end of the
week it will be 1000. But next week the foundations are being dug and concrete poured, so
the 1000 estimate is only valid until the end of Friday - leave it later and it will cost you an
ever increasing amount.
On a large project this approach can galvanise people into making timely decisions on
change: make your mind up by Friday or it will cost you more than this. This helps prevent
a large number of change requests sitting around awaiting decisions, each of which is a
potential source of project disruption.
Where do change requests come from? If you're not careful they will assail you from all

directions: the users change their minds (for good and bad reasons), the IT guys have great
ideas for 'improving' the design, company policy changes, unforeseen external events affect
the project. But unfortunately in software projects most change requests result from two
causes:

errors and omissions in the requirements

vague, incomplete or just plumb wrong design documents

When running a software project we would recommend that each change that is taken on
board is categorised by cause. If you discover that most change is caused by vague
requirements that will drive you almost subconsciously to invest more on the next project in
getting the requirements right: rigorous, hothouse requirements definition workshops, etc.
If you were a non-technical person managing an IT project and one day a techie said:
"boss, please can you sign off this PCR. We want to change the name of this object from
XYZ-3 to XYZ/3. The cost is virtually zero, there is no impact on the user's view of what
we'll deliver." Would you really want to see that change request? You wouldn't even know
what they were talking. But if changes of that sort are not carefully managed amongst the
IT team there could be chaos.
So you might invite the IT team leader to run his own cut down PCR process for these small
technical changes. But be careful: this can become a back door change control process
through which things get slipped that should have come to your attention as project
manager. Sit down with the IT team leader every now and again and get him to talk you
through the changes on the small change log and woe betide him if you understand any of
them.
Clearly, at the other end of the spectrum there could be a PCR that would cost more than
the whole change budget. Obviously the sponsor would need to approve it as it would
increase the project cost.

Before you begin you might decide that any PCR that would cost more than 25% of the
change budget will not come out of the PCR budget, they will be an addition to the project
budget - the PCR pot will be used only for changes smaller than that. Indeed, you might
draw a matrix that shows for each type of change who has to be involved in investigation
and consideration of it and for each size of PCR who has to be involved in approving it. So
from the outset you know that a technical change costing less than x can be handled by
the IT team leader, but a business change costing more than y needs a decision by the
sponsor. Work out the rules of engagement before each stage begins: the rules will probably
be different for each stage and may even change during a stage.
Estimating what a change might cost can be very tricky. Back to that house you are having
built for you. At the design stage you want a window moving 3 feet to the left. The change
won't cost much and it is very clear to the architect what the cost will be - he's just got to
change the drawings.
However, when the house is nearly finished how much will that change cost? A lot of money
- that's obvious. What is less obvious is this: the builder thinks he'll send someone with a
large hammer to knock some bricks out of the wall, move the window across and brick up
the other side - to you 1000. But when he's knocking the bricks out of the wall what does
he discover? A water pipe or a power cable, so he has to get the plumber or electrician in.
The change costs a lot more than he estimated. If he has given you a fixed price quote
that's his tough luck, but in IT projects the user ends up paying one way or another
whatever IT say the change will cost. People tend badly to underestimate the cost of
changes that come along later in the project.
It is worth recording the estimated cost of each change and recording what each change
actually cost and then working out by how much PCRs at each stage tend to be
underestimated. These wobble factors can then be used as fairly crude adjusters next time
around. So next time, you estimate a change during build will cost 2000 but you know you
usually miss things and changes at this stage typically cost 50% more than estimated, so
you quote 3000 as the estimated cost to try and give the user a more honest view of the
likely true cost of the change.
The later the change comes in the more it will cost and the more it will tend to be
underestimated, as illustrated by the graph. Beware of taking on changes during the later
stages of testing - one small slip can cause significant delay and the change can cost many
many times more than expected.
If you're managing a project where development is outsourced to a software house and you
want a change that the software house knows you have to have, how much can the
software house charge you for that change? Anything they like.
This should be a powerful incentive to get the requirements and the UFD right in order to
avoid these potentially huge change costs. A fixed price contract is only a fixed priced
contract if you don't change your mind. If you do keep changing your mind it will be the
fixed price plus a very large amount of money. In the next chapter we will address how we
might try and get it right at the requirements and design stages.
A software house can make a lot of money on change requests, so one might argue that
maximising change is in their interest. Not necessarily so. There can be so much change
that the project gets out of control and fails - that does neither client nor supplier any good.

And even if the project eventually delivers, the client may feel they have been taken to the
cleaners on change and go elsewhere in the future.
Being everyone's friend and saying yes to change is easy. Saying no isn't quite so easy. In a
project some change will be essential to the user/customer/client. From the project
manager's point of view all change is bad news: it is disruptive, tends to introduce errors
and can have unforeseen consequences. Minimising change is in just about everybody's
interest. But if we go back to our roles chart, which of our generic role players should be the
first line of defence against non-essential change?

The Project User Manager. On a well set up project it might work like this. The sponsor says:
"I understand we need to set aside 10% of the project budget for essential changes. Project
manager, please come and account to me at the end of the project how you spent my
change budget and woe betide you if you wasted it on flashing-on-and-off-pink type change
requests." The project manager will exhort the project user manager saying: "you are
closest to the real needs of the business, only allow through changes that really are
essential."
A good user project manager is worth his weight in gold. He knows how to say the all
important word: "no". Politely but firmly: "no" - unless it is essential or has an
overwhelming business benefit. A good defence against potentially valuable but not
absolutely essential PCRs is to make them candidates for a future release. The PCR is closed
and an Improvement Request (or whatever you call such things) is raised which will
subsequently compete for inclusion in a future release.

A good user project manager won't even let people raise a PCR form for trivial changes as
they clutter up the works and cost money to administer, let alone to investigate.
For internal company projects approving change requests does not feel like spending real
money, and user reps can end up approving change like there's no tomorrow.
In one case a large project had a project user manager and 5 business areas whose
requirements would be met by the system under development. The project user manager
and 5 user reps were the first level change control decision makers. Hitherto they had been
approving any change that anyone felt was desirable and the project was being engulfed by
a tidal wave of changes and sinking fast. A new process was instigated. At the first meeting
the user project manager said: "who would like this change request included in the project?"
Five hands went up. "Under the new process I must tell you that it will add 10,000 cost to
the project, do you still want it?" Again 5 hands went up. "And under the new process I
have to ask you: whose departmental budget is the 10,000 going on to?" No hands went
up - nobody wanted it that much. Find some way of making it clear to those approving
change that it is real money they are spending.
In weekly team meetings mention every change that has been approved in the past week.
Someone may pipe up: "don't you realise that affects all the training materials I've
developed?" And you didn't. Make sure the team know about all accepted changes.
Change can cause major difficulties if you're not careful. In one case on a commercial
project the software supplier said they would charge to investigate PCRs unless the
investigation would cost less than a man day, in which case the investigation would be done
free. Good idea?
The project ran into difficulties. The project manager was replaced. The new project
manager found 4,000 PCRs sitting on the backlog awaiting investigation, each of which it
was reckoned would cost less than a day to investigate. What would you have done?
Apparently the new project manager went to the customer and showed them a list on his
laptop of the 4,000 PCRs. He said he was contractually obliged to investigate them for free
but he said: "I'm not going to." And he then dramatically pressed the delete key and they all
disappeared. He said if any were really important re-raise them - and sue if you want to but otherwise they no longer exist.
Brave man! But everyone knew they were just so much clutter and were pleased to see that
at last someone was prepared to take a hard line on this and other matters and get a grip
on the project.
Are errors found in system test PCRs? If the system is not performing as per the user
functions design that is an error - it is not a change request. If the system is performing as
per the UFD but someone wants the system to do something different that is a Project
Change Request (PCR) - even if the UFD is plain wrong it's still a PCR. The developers are
contracted to deliver whatever it says in the UFD: if you want something else delivered
that's a change and it will cost you. So get the UFD right. See the next chapter.
Finally,

Be realistic, you'll always get some change

Include a change budget in the overall project budget

Make someone accountable for how the change budget is spent

Design Issue and Change Control procedures that meet the needs of your project

Good control is forward looking. Always ask: how much have we spent so far on
change and therefore how much more do we think we will need to spend on change.
If it becomes clear half way through that the change budget is nothing like big
enough get more change budget now from the sponsor, don't wait till it's all been
spent.

Minimising change in a project is in just about everyone's interest.

"There is no such thing as scope creep, only scope gallop."

"There's never enough time to do it right first time but there's always enough time to go
back and do it again."
Chapter 12 - Quality Management

<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to

any other website. This project management book must not be reproduced
in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
Which of these would be the better way to do a project:

Do it right as quickly as possible

Do it quickly as right as time allows

This represents a choice between two quite different approaches to projects. Setting out to
do it quickly as right as time allows not only means there is a perfect excuse for not
bothering too much about quality, it will probably mean the project will actually take longer:
driving for quality tends to reduce project cost rather than increase it. Set out to do it right
as quickly as that is possible - that should mean the project delivers better qualityand gets
done more quickly.
We trust you do not recognise any of these symptoms of poor quality in systems:

errors in live running

system crashes

floods of improvement requests

unhappy users

overtime during testing

mushiness

Mushiness? Go and look at a project and everything about it is mushy. Nothing seems to be
firm, pinned down or disciplined. It can be an indication that quality, amongst other things,
isn't being managed.
What causes errors in systems?

continuously changing requirements

no clear "manufacturing process", no-one is quite sure what should be done at each
stage

lack of testing

no process for removing errors

and many more

Even in some large projects there is no process in place for getting rid of errors as the
project progresses and then everyone wonders why there are huge numbers left to be found
at the end - surprise surprise.
And some project teams never ask the question: what causes us to make errors? If that
question is never asked, error causes are unlikely to be addressed and the same problems
are repeated over and over, but nobody realises.
When building anything complicated the errors probably won't be distributed evenly
throughout it, they will tend to cluster together. If the project manager and the team have
no idea where these clusters are, corrective action will not be focused where it is most
needed.
So often people say they want to deliver good quality but in practice on the ground they are
doing little or nothing to achieve it. As project managers we need to manage quality not just
hope for it.
What is quality in the project context? Delivering what the customer/user asked for in terms
of functionality, auditability, enhanceability, performance, etc and meeting the requirement
to deliver on time and on budget. If the customer wants a bicycle we deliver a bicycle that
works not a gold-plated Rolls-Royce. Adding unnecessary features is not adding quality it's
wasting money.
If the customer wants a system with 1000 bugs in it and we deliver one with 1000 bugs in it
we have met the customer's requirement - a quality job has been done. If the customer, by
implication, wanted a system with few or no bugs and we deliver one with 1000 bugs we
have failed. And that is usually what the customer wants - a system with few or zero bugs.

Unless the customer states otherwise, this should be the target. Can we guarantee zero
defects in software? On the contrary, we can be almost certain there will be some defects we can almost guarantee we will fail to meet the zero defect target. This may sound odd,
having a target we know we will fail to meet. We will resolve this apparent conflict later in
this chapter.
Quality should not be something we hope for vaguely and we should not only measure it
after delivery - that's rather too late. Quality should be something that has objective, even
numerical, targets set at the outset of the project, a plan for achieving those targets and
some way of knowing as we go along whether we are meeting those quality targets. Quality

Getting the Quality Message

should be as planned, predicted and measured as any other aspect of the project something we manage actively rather than hope for passively.
The chart shows two project cost profiles. One before getting the quality message, the other
after seeing the light.
Before getting the quality message a relatively small amount of resource is spent getting
the requirements roughly right but if we're honest not really correct or complete. The user
functions design is sort of right but again not complete or correct and not fully understood
or agreed by the users. Then during the build stage all the problems start to crawl out of the
woodwork. And sometimes there is a huge panic peak in testing where a very large number
of errors are tested out and the actual user requirements are tested in. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 And when the system goes live a flood of bugs to fix and enhancements to be
made.
When people get the quality message they invest a lot more during the requirements step:
rigorous, hothouse sessions to identify business processes fully and in detail and then time
and money to check that the requirements are right. At the UFD stage it is very hard to

over-invest in getting it right. Churning out good quality code from a thorough, complete
and correct UFD document is relatively straightforward these days. And then no panic in
testing and many fewer problems when the system goes live.
Looking at the chart, which will be the cheaper way of doing the project? The 'After' way,
the quality way: what you invest up front in getting the requirements and design right you
will almost certainly more than get back in build and test - and the real benefit comes when
the system goes live.
Unfortunately the notion that going for quality will make the project cost less is not how it
feels at the beginning: all people perceive is this 'enormous' cost of being meticulous and of
checking, checking, checking. This cost is real and tangible and certain whereas the savings
that will come in the build and test step are only potential. The easy option is not to fight to
incur that upfront cost, and instead to fire-fight the 'inevitable' problems at the end of the
project. Be strong, plan those upfront checks in - you may find nobody tells you to take
them out: it's your own inhibitions you're fighting, not others' resistance.
When talking to business users and sponsors about quality, IT people have a tendency to
say things like: "We should improve quality, we are getting far too many defects, far too
many bugs, far too many crashes." And the users have no idea what you're talking about they don't know what these words mean and so they aren't interested. How might we
interest the sponsor in quality? Talk about money.
Some bugs found in live running are cheaply and easily fixed. Others can be very expensive
indeed, not so much to IT to fix, but expensive for the business. There is a nice story of a
UK bank that sent a letter one Christmas to its richest clients thanking them for being good
customers and entrusting the bank with their money. The programmers, as programmers
always do, made up silly names when testing the production of the letters and due to a
slight oversight several thousand of the bank's best customers got a letter which began:
"Dear Rich Bastard". Apparently some were highly flattered, but others were not at all
amused and took their money elsewhere.
We are all aiming for no errors in live running - they can have expensive consequences.
Finding errors in system test and user acceptance test isn't quite as expensive but is still
expensive and the more errors there are the longer testing will take and the more it will
cost. Ideally there would be no errors to be found in system test or user test.
If programmers can find errors when testing units of code it's cheaper but certainly isn't
cheap - ideally there would be no errors to be found in unit testing.
Finding errors by inspecting requirements and design documents is very cost effective but
certainly isn't free. Ideally there would be no errors in these documents.
The only ultimate aim a quality programme can have is to end up with perfection: no error
is ever made at any stage of any project. Now of course we will never reach that promised
land. But each time we do a project we should try and get a bit closer, and project by
project try to drive the errors out earlier in the lifecycle - the earlier they're found the
cheaper they'll be to fix.

This implies we need a plan: how will we find errors early, how will we know we're
succeeding, how will we reduce the causes of errors?

Quality planning
In the Project Definition Document (PDD) or stage agreement, under the heading 'quality
plan' we could say: 'in this project we will not check anything, we will not do any testing,
the system will go live completely untried and the errors will be found by our customers.'
That is a perfectly valid quality plan. It's not a very good one, but it is a very clear
statement of what we intend to do, or rather not to do, quality-wise.
But we hope you'd be saying something more like this: 'we will check the requirements and
UFD documents like this... we will analyse error causes like this... we'll measure quality like
this... and these are the team's quality related targets...'.
In a small project deciding what should be checked by whom is not too difficult. In a large
project deciding who should check what and building quality checking tasks into the plan
can be complicated, which is why some project managers have a specialist - we'll call him
the quality leader - inside the team (we stress inside the team) who helps decide what level
of checking is appropriate, builds quality tasks into the plan and makes sure the team
execute the quality tasks. More of this role later.
Would you agree that the sooner we can find an error the cheaper it will be to fix it? Then
perhaps we should measure the time gap between when errors are introduced and when
they are found and if it's on average a short gap financially reward the project team, and if
it's a long gap (and all the errors are found near or after the end of the project) financially
penalise the team.

Quality in all projects

Within a company it could be that some projects deliver excellent quality while others
deliver terrible quality. The chances are that those producing good quality are checking up
front, the others aren't.
How might we get all projects to include appropriate quality checking activities in their plan?
Or should we leave it to project managers and hope they plan quality tasks in - and let the
cowboys and the inexperienced learn the hard way? <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 One way would be to have a rule that at the
start of each stage the project manager must review his plan with project support, as we
suggested in that chapter, and project support must agree appropriate quality tasks have
been built into the plan. (We stress appropriate. In a simple project done by experts very
little checking will be needed. In a complex project staffed by novices a lot of very thorough
checking will be required.) Again, this is not about showing project support some boilerplate
document called 'Quality Plan', in means project support reviewing the task by task work
plans to assess whether in their judgement quality tasks are properly planned in. And a
further rule might be that the sponsor will not give the go ahead unless project support are
satisfied. In this arena policing is sometimes required to bring the laggards on board.

Error cost in business case

How about this: at the start of a project the project manager must estimate, perhaps based
upon past projects, how many errors might be found in live running. He must multiply by an
average cost per error (i.e. roughly what it costs the organisation - business costs and IT
costs - each time a bug is found in a live system) and include the resulting amount of
money as a cost item in the project's business case.
Imagine you're the sponsor and the project manager presents his cost breakdown to you
and says: "...and based upon past projects we expect 50 errors in live running at an
average cost to fix of 10,000, so the bug fixing cost will be around 500K." What would
your reaction be? You may well ask the project manager what he could do to reduce that
cost of failure. Suddenly the sponsor is interested in quality. The project manager then
describes how he could make that more like 20 errors and 200K by investing up front in
getting it right. And you will need the sponsor's support for this because much of that up
front cost will fall upon his people - the users, as we shall see.

Team quality briefing

It is a good idea to have a kick off meeting at the beginning of each project stage. Invite the
sponsor along to say a few well-chosen words, including these: "Team - user people and IT
people - I don't really know what program bugs are but I do know that each one you deliver
to me will cost me something like 10,000 to sort out, so I don't want too many of them
please."
The team know the sponsor is interested in quality, not just any old thing delivered on the
right date. The ground is now fertile for the project manager to run through the quality
plan: "This is how we're going to try and meet the sponsor's requirement: we are going to
check our work like this... during the project we are going to measure and analyse errors
like this... we are going to analyse and address error causes like this... and, team members,
these are your individual quality objectives upon which your next appraisal will partly
depend." The team know the sponsor wants good quality and also that it is in their personal
interest to deliver good quality. We will discuss team members' targets later in this chapter.

Inspections
An inspection is a meeting to identify errors and omissions in a piece of work. One cannot
sit down and inspect a 1000 page document in one meeting. Twenty pages is about as much
as can be done in one inspection. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M
Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 So that's 5 inspection meetings if you're producing a 100
page document and 50 inspections if you're producing a 1000 page document. Already
you're thinking it's too expensive - hold on.
We do not wait until all 1000 pages are written before inspecting. Each section is inspected
as soon as it is produced. Because the team are essentially checking each other's work,
inspections are also a great aid to understanding what's going on elsewhere in the project.

The inspection is attended by the author, a moderator to chair the meeting and a number of
inspectors - we'll see in a moment who they might be.
Suppose you have written 20 page section of a user functions design document. You send it
to the moderator and the inspectors. Each inspector will have, say, a 2 hour task in their
plan to check, on their own, the section for errors and omissions.
There is then a meeting - another task in each attendee's work plan. The moderator asks
those present: "how long did you spend preparing for this inspection?" If they all say "no
time at all" the inspection is cancelled. If you were the moderator and someone said they
had spent 3 hours preparing but you knew they were fibbing and they had spent no time at
all, what would you do? You might complement them and ask them if they would quickly run
through all the errors they found. They won't try that again. The moderator has to make
sure inspections are done properly, we're not just going through the motions.
Sometimes moderators will invite someone to read the material out loud. Other times it
might be a case of: "Paragraph one any comments? Paragraph two..?" Whichever approach
is taken we all know where we are. If someone pipes up and says: "the part number is
missing from this web page layout" and we all agree that it should be there, fine. But if a
long debate threatens to break out the moderator guillotines it. This is a meeting to record
errors and possible errors, not a meeting to have long discussions about how things should
be corrected.
The author makes corrections after the meeting and, strictly speaking, the moderator
should check that they have. Again, this correction task will be in the author's work plan as
we saw in the planning chapter. Occasionally there are so many errors that major rework is
needed and the moderator decides a re-inspection is required. One hopes this does not
happen too often but clearly the overall plan has to allow for a certain percentage of reinspections.
The moderator records the total cost of the inspection - preparation hours plus meeting
hours - and the number of errors found. Only real errors are counted. Generally, if the error
would have resulted in a bug in the final system it is counted as an error. Spelling mistakes
in internal documents that will not have any subsequent effect on the project might be
noted for correction but not counted in the statistics. How might we use this data in the
future? If we discovered from this simple measurement that it typically costs about 2 hours
work to find and correct errors by inspecting the UFD and we also know it takes about 10
hours work to find and correct similar errors in system test - in other words it's five times
cheaper to find and fix errors via UFD inspection than via system testing - that should drive
us almost subconsciously to invest more in UFD inspections next time. But if you never
measure this you'll never know which is the cheapest way of finding errors and you won't
even have the evidence to persuade yourself to invest at the right time, let alone the
evidence to persuade anyone else.
In principle any project deliverable can be inspected but the biggest bang for the buck will
usually be had by inspecting requirements and UFD documents.

...next

When checking the User Functions Design (UFD) one is largely checking that it satisfies the
relevant bit of the requirements, so have a copy of the requirements document to hand
when preparing for and holding the UFD inspection. Similarly, when inspecting the IT
technical design have the UFD to hand.
We will see that driving for zero defects does not imply infinite cost nor unconstrained cost,
nor even great cost - nor actually any cost. The tasks that we put into the plan for
inspection preparation, inspection meetings and re-work following inspections are like any
other tasks in the plan: they have an allotted number of hours. And the original task to
produce the bit of work will have had a number of hours within it for the author to check his
own work. We are not pursuing quality regardless of cost - we are investing a
predetermined amount of effort and money in what we believe to be the most cost effective
way of removing errors. Further, this investment should be recouped via lower testing costs
later in the project - and the real 'profit' comes because there will be fewer problems when
the system goes live.
Can't we rely upon people to get things right without all this checking? If only we could.
Defining a complicated business process fully and unambiguously is very difficult. Producing
complete and correct systems designs is very difficult. Checking will be needed. And by the
way this does not let the author off the hook - he still has an obligation and an incentive to

get it as right as he can, as we shall see towards the end of this chapter. In the processoriented world the aim is for people to get it right without checking. If we found they
weren't getting it right we would change the process (or change the people). But if Finance
was producing the Annual Report and Accounts or a Takeover document there is no way one
person, however skilled, would produce that and it would be published without being
checked. Inspections are not unique to IT projects. They are used when anything
complicated, and usually one off, is being produced where correctness is important.
If we were inspecting the heart of a complex system design we might need many people
there to verify its correctness from their perspective - inspections with a dozen people
present are not unknown. But if by contrast an expert has done something very simple a
dozen people checking it might be a bit over the top. There are three equally valid forms of
inspections:
1. The full works with a meeting as described above.
2. A multi check. The author writes something, sends it to a couple of inspectors, they
check (again, they will have tasks in their plan to do this), they email any errors to
the author but there is no meeting.
3. A simple check. One person has a quick look at the author's work.
The real fine art of quality planning is this: at the beginning of the project stage thinking
through every bit of stuff that will be produced and deciding whether it will need 12 people
in an inspection meeting to check it or a quick over-the-shoulder-glance check, and then

planning all those inspecting tasks into the project plan. This can be horrendously
complicated to do. This is why it helps to have a quality expert in the team who can take the
lead in this.
For example, let's say we are planning the project on the right. Who should attend the
inspection of the section of the UFD indicated?
First, the author must be there. Also the 'user', though this is actually two people: the
person who wrote the relevant bit of the requirements document (who may never actually
use the system) plus someone from the genuine end user community who will eventually
use this part of the system. And what should those two users say at the end of the
inspection? It meets the requirements and we are happy to use it as it has been designed.
When in the bad old days did the users give their verdict on those two things? Perhaps in
user acceptance testing or even when the system had gone live. A bit late in the day.
Think back to that house you are having built for you. The architect rings to say he's
designed the kitchen so you go into his office, check the design and sign it off - or point out
how you'd like it changed. One week later he rings to say he's designed the bathroom. You
go in and check it out. If it was your money and your house would you do those design
inspections thoroughly and carefully? You bet. Unfortunately in IT projects the users don't
have quite the same incentive to do the inspections. Whose job is it to make them do the
inspections properly? You guessed it, the project manager.
Again we stress that these inspections are tasks planned into the users' project plans. At the
start of the stage their time was committed to the project manager by their line managers
and the individuals have agreed to perform these tasks. <a
href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008
Who else should be at the inspection of that section of the UFD and why will this next
person probably be the best inspector of all? The person who must do the relevant bit of the

IT technical design. He will be a very assiduous inspector because his ability to do the IT
technical design depends upon the UFD section being complete correct and intelligible.
And who else, later in the project, will be working from this section of the UFD? The test
team, so we may want someone there from the test team to verify they will be able to base
their testing upon it. Incidentally, involving the test team in this way can also result in the
design being changed so that the system will be easier to test, which can save time and
money later in the project.
We may also invite other members of the UFD design team to the inspection to check that
this bit of the design fits with their bit. You can see that quite big teams can form to check
key sections of the UFD.
Generalising, an inspection team comprises:

the author

the moderator

the author(s) of the previous stage to ensure their work has been translated
correctly

peers - people alongside the author to check for correctness and for fit with their bit

the author(s) of the next stage plus any others who will use the thing being
inspected

experts who we think will be able to help us find errors

Moderators do need to be trained (takes half a day) to ensure inspections don't descend into
personal abuse, arguments over grammar or discussion about document prettiness. We are
after a short sharp meeting that identifies things that, if left uncorrected, would have been
bugs in the final system. The moderator will need to be a strong chairman to curtail debate
about how errors should be corrected.
One person who should not attend inspections is the project manager. If the team like the
person whose work is being inspected no errors will be found in the meeting (and after the
meeting the author will be slipped the list of errors under the table). If the author isn't so
popular all the errors will be painfully dragged out in front of the boss. Make this a pure
peer review process without the beady eye of the boss skewing it.
A word of caution about multi checks. They can seem like a cheaper version of inspections
but can end up costing more. Suppose you have written a section of a UFD. You send it to
the relevant users to check it. They send errors and comments back to you. You correct the
UFD and sent it back to them. Someone who was happy with the first version now thinks
there is something wrong in the revised version. You do your best to change it to their
satisfaction and re-issue it, but now someone who made no comments at all on the first
version makes loads of comments on version three - maybe because they didn't read
versions one and two. And so it goes on, ping-ponging back and forth. Particularly where
many people are reviewing a piece of work it can be cheaper and quicker to hold an
inspection meeting.
Plan inspection preparation tasks, inspections meeting tasks and re-work tasks like any
other project tasks and then resist the temptation to skip them when the project gets
behind schedule.
Inspections can be mind-numbingly boring so try and give inspectors some incentive to put
their backs into it. One simple idea is to put a chart up on the wall which plots how many
errors each team member has found (note: found not made) and reward this month's top
inspector with a 50 award. This is an unequal competition as some people will attend more
inspections than others but at least it provides some recognition for those who are finding
errors and saving you and the team stress later in the project.
Inspections are good value for money - but you will need to measure this for yourself before
you'll really be persuaded. However, they do have one major weakness. If a team sits down
to inspect a section of a document they tend to check what is there - they don't always spot
what is missing.

...next

Simulations
There is a technique we will call simulation that can be very effective at finding the gaps
that inspections miss.
Having finished the inspections of the UFD, and believing it to be correct, gather the team in
a room and open the UFD at page 1 which, say, shows the initial web page the customer will

see. Generate some test data, e.g. post code X74Y-4, and invite someone to be the
computer. He slavishly, without adding any of his own knowledge, executes the logic
specified in the UFD and says: "ah, if post code X74Y-4 is entered this pop up would appear
saying invalid post code." We may even have the screen layout on a transparency and write
in X74Y-4 then show an OHP of the pop-up. This low-tech approach works well.
Then try test case number 2. This time it's a valid post code and the simulator (i.e. the
person executing the logic specified in the UFD) tells us which web page would then be
displayed to the user. Perhaps someone else now takes over the role of the computer and
some more test data is 'entered' to see what the system would do. The simulator says that
the data would be stored: post code P74 7YQ; Mr Smith; 74 Arcadia Avenue; Part number
34712; quantity 3. Someone takes on the role of keeper of the database and writes this
data onto a flip chart on the wall.
When we get to page 392 of the UFD and we are trying to produce an invoice - actually
doing the calculations with a calculator using data on the flip charts - the person doing it
says: "oops, I can't calculate the invoice amount because the customer discount code, which
gives the discount percentage, is blank". And we realise the discount code has to be a
mandatory field rather than an optional field on the input screen on page 94. That kind of
error tends otherwise to remain dormant until the later stages of system testing.
You will usually find that the simulation has to be stopped after the first hour or so. Why?
The design just doesn't say what's supposed to happen next. So you stop the simulation,
plug the gap and come back to it. It can take a couple of weeks to simulate right through a
system but that could save a month of system testing. Give it a try, you will be amazed
what a simulation will find.
This has been described as getting the users to do the user acceptance testing at the design
stage: it's much cheaper to find the errors here than later when you have a million lines of
code to unpick and rework. The simulation uses test data which can be re-used during
system test. Simulations are excellent education for the test team. And those charged with
writing user guides will find participating in simulations very informative.
How does this differ from prototyping? Prototyping is often interpreted as showing users a
series of screen shots to illustrate how the dialogues flow. A simulation is much more than
that. We are pumping test data through the system logic to see if it produces the right
outputs. We are exercising not only the visible parts of the system but the invisible parts as
well. We are system testing the UFD.
If you're thinking there's no way your design documents are ever at a level of detail or state
of completeness that would allow them to be simulated in this way you have such a
fundamental problem that no quality assurance techniques in the world are ever really going
to help you. Simulation is a technique for refining silk purses, not a technique for the
miraculous transformation of sow's ears. If you haven't got the basics of the software
manufacturing process right everything we are describing in this chapter will sink without
trace into the quagmire of your disorder.
"Agile Project Management" is a technique you may have come across. It is perhaps most
readily applied to projects that lend themselves to rapid development of small pieces of
software. Nevertheless, many of agile project management's principles should be applied in
all software projects. For example, a leadership philosophy that encourages teamwork and
accountability; joint IT and User teams; and, particularly in the context of this chapter, a

disciplined project management process that encourages frequent inspection. Indeed,

inspections and simulations as we have described them require disciplined project
management (to make them happen) and joint IT and User teams (to make them effective).
(And please remember that agile project management is not a technique that suggests you
approach large projects with no planning, no disciplined software development process, etc.
And agile project management certainly does not mean rushing to get some easy, flashy
bits working to impress the users, only to have the project fall apart later because you
never got down to the hard, unflashy graft of working out what the complicated bits of the
system were supposed to do.)
Simulations require the project manager to make a decision: to do simulations rather than
not do them. Getting the bugs out by system testing doesn't require any decision to be
made: if there are bugs you will have no choice but to keep testing. Simulations represent a
pro-active approach to quality management, leaving it all to testing a reactive one.
Strangely, people will sometimes tell you they can't afford to have someone spend two
weeks doing a simulation but they will happily commit that same person for two months to
do testing - nobody will argue with the need to throw in limitless resources to sort out the
manifest problems in testing - there is no choice. Earn your money, be proactive, get the
bugs out early, save money.
If the requirements document is inspected and simulated (yes, the business processes can
be simulated too) and the user functions design document is inspected and simulated and
the IT guys inspect their IT technical design and do code inspections (a.k.a. walkthroughs or
code reviews) there will be many fewer errors left to be found in system and user testing.
If you have no personal experience that leads you to know that inspecting and simulating up
front will mean many fewer errors in system test you may be reluctant to plan significantly
less testing time than you normally would. That's OK. Plan in inspections and simulations
and the usual amount of testing time - belt and braces. Then when system test finishes
early because you have run out of bugs to find nobody will complain. But this might mean
'quality' shows up as an addition to project cost in the estimates, even thought the actual
outcome will be a reduced project cost (everything else being equal!).

Expected results
As soon as the user functions design document has been signed off, the system test team
can start work. They can produce test data and work through the UFD to determine the
expected results. For example, the customer orders 3 of product x at n and 4 of product y
at m - the tester can then work out what data should appear on the invoice by following
the logic specified in the UFD. But the tester realises that the expected result is very
obviously wrong - the logic specified in the UFD is incorrect. He has found a bug months
before he has done any actual testing, maybe even before the code is written.
When he comes to do the testing it should be quick - all his thinking has been done in
advance - he just has to check the system produces what he was expecting, he doesn't
have to spend time working out whether the system has produced the right result.

System testing
If the UFD is complete and correct how much business knowledge would one need to do
system testing? None at all. The best testers can read and write but have no other obvious
skills. There is only one way they can test - by laboriously generating 'what if' test cases
based upon the UFD. After all, system test is fundamentally checking one thing: does the
system do what the UFD says it should. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b> Project Management Book </b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 And the very best testers of all are university
vacation students - they're bright people, they work hard because they want a job when
they leave university and they get paid peanuts - it's like employing slave labour to do
testing.
In practice a good test team comprises a test team leader (or test team manager in a large
project), the junior people to do the donkey work plus one or two wise heads to say if the
system is really right despite what the UFD says. Leading system test is a highly skilled job.
In a moment we will discuss when the system test leader should join the project team.
In projects that are modifying packages or bolting new functions onto them the UFD will be
the design for the changes or additions to the package and the same principles will apply in
system test: do the changes and addition perform as per the UFD. If it is a tried and tested
package we will not need to test its underlying functionality. However, if we are the first
users of a package or a new version of a package we may want to test it as well as our
changes: this can mean the test cost is disproportionately high when compared to the build
and unit test cost - something to watch out for if we are using rules of thumb for design cost
vs build cost vs system cost, etc.
Is the following reasonable: the developers get behind schedule, skip the planned quality
checks, deliver late to system test, system test overruns because there are so many bugs,
the end date slips and the system test leader/manager gets the blame. Not very reasonable.
With good quality management the following becomes possible. At the start of development
the test manager and the development manager agree how many errors the developers will
deliver to system test to find - let's say 300. (The prediction at the simplest could be based
upon how many bugs per development man month have been found in the past in system
test). They further agree this would mean that around 50 bugs would be found in the first
week of system testing and further still that if more than 80 are found in the first week that
will constitute statistical proof there are many more than 300 bugs in the system. And the
system test team will go home and the system will be handed back to the developers until
they can show they've done their job properly. This is another nuclear deterrent, we hope
we never have to use it but everyone on the production line has the right to expect that
good quality work will be passed to them. Even if, when it comes to the crunch, you decide
not to suspend system test it must be made clear that the development manager has failed
and he should be appraised accordingly. If he knows at the outset he will be held
accountable for the quality of what he delivers he is more likely to take quality seriously.
Having completed system test without the usual panic and maybe even early, the system is
thrown open for a final user acceptance test - which should be something of a non-event.
After all the users know, having done the simulation, that the system is acceptable and they
should find very few, if any, errors in this final test. Indeed this should be more a
demonstration of how wonderful the system is than a test.

When is a bug a bug? If the system is not performing as per the UFD that's a bug. If the
system is performing as per the UFD but the UFD is wrong and you want it changed that's
not a bug, that's a change request.
If quality management has been good during development we will know roughly how many
bugs will be found in testing: we can plan the number of tests to be done per week, the
expected number of bugs per week, the expected number of bugs outstanding at the end of
each week, the average time to fix bugs, and then we can track actual performance against
that plan. And one could devise several other measures to track both the quality of the
system and the efficiency with which bugs are being fixed. A key measure is the bug finding
trend: if the number being found each week is above plan and keeps going up each week
the alarm bells start to ring. A declining number of bugs being found each week may
indicate we're on the home straight.
A lack of quality management earlier in the project will mean system test is unpredictable
and the project manager is not so much managing it as clinging to a tiger's tail. Manage
quality throughout and system test becomes as predictable and manageable as any other
part of the project.
Quality Measurements
Why might we want to measure quality? If we want to find out whether it's cheaper to find
errors by simulation or by system testing we'll need to measure the cost effectiveness of
each. And everyone already uses some quality measurements - we all count the number of
bugs found in testing, don't we?
A lot of quality professionals go around muttering strange statistical terms like "standard
deviation", "least squares fit" or "six sigma" which nobody else understands. If one is not
careful the whole business of 'quality' becomes something far too complicated and esoteric
for most people. (One organisation appointed a quality manager. Everyone expressed
support - that was the right thing to be seen to do. He started to collect charts from
projects and soon his office wall was full of them. Quality then became a matter of who
could produce a chart so pretty that it would make it onto the wall and displace a rival's.
They all had copies of the software which could produce lovely zigzag plots bounded by
control lines, elegant bell shaped curves - great fun. Nobody had any idea what the charts
meant and nobody used them for anything, but they seemed to make the quality manager
happy.)
The purpose of quality measurement is not to produce pretty charts and statistically elegant
metrics, it is to stimulate and direct quality improvement. We prefer simple raw numbers
the average team member can understand that are used by the team to help them deliver
better quality outputs.
One could devise hundreds of ways of measuring some aspect or other of quality - we will
show just a couple to illustrate the principles.
Imagine your project team have just finished inspecting and simulating their business
requirements document. The team report to you the number of errors they found in each of
the document's five sections. What would you ask the team?

Requirements Inspections and Simulations

Section

Errors

Pages

Errors per 10 pages

change account type

16

53

close account

24

20

12

open account

43

45

10

change interest rate

25

39

data transfer

<h2>Project management training course teaches how to manage IT

projects</h2>
"Why were there so many errors in the 'change account type' section?" The chart shows
there were 16 errors in 3 pages which is 5.3 per page (though they chose to show errors
per 10 pages to avoid decimal points). That's four times more errors per page than any
other section. You would want to know what that was. And then what would your follow on
question be? "What are you going to do about it?" If you can ask those two questions "why's it like that?", "what are you going to do about it?" - you can manage anything. We
have found an error cluster, we can address the problem. The team say: "we did have a
problem with that section, the user who wrote it didn't really have the right knowledge - it is
currently being revised by a more experienced person and it should not be a running sore
throughout the project." The measurements are beginning to enable us to manage quality.
A couple of months later the team show you the results of the user functions design
document inspections. What would you be asking about this time?

User Functions Design Inspections and Simulations

Section

data conversion

Errors

Pages

Errors per 10 pages

36

12

30

change account type

18

18

10

interest rate change

29

52

close account

15

39

open account

24

63

The data conversion section of the UFD tops the poll so you'd certainly ask about that.
Maybe the data transfer requirements, only 3 pages long, had been a bit vague and high
level and only now at the design stage are the problems coming to light? Would you ask
about anything else?
Too slow, missed your chance. A month or two later you get the results of the IT technical
design inspections. What would really be worrying you now?

IT Technical Design Inspections

Section

Errors

Pages

Errors per 100 pages

change account type

39

63

62

close account

17

110

15

57

12

115

124

39

data conversion

open account

interest rate change

Change account type again. What are we being told? When the IT team inspected their
technical design they found four times more errors in the change account type section than
in any other part of the document. We'd want to know why.
If you're lucky the team say: "it was done by a trainee, he made a bit of a hash of it - not
really his fault - but it has already been reworked and is now up to scratch." That would be
good news. Bad news would be: "boss, the requirements for 'change account type' keep
changing - it's chaotic. We need to go back and redo the requirements for 'change account
type' and re-inspect them, redo the UFD and re-inspect it then completely redo the technical
design for 'change account type' from scratch and re-inspect it."
Will that be painful for the project manager? It will, but a lot less painful than discovering
the problem three months later in system test and then having to do all that rework plus rewrite the code, delay testing and who knows what else. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>IT Project Management
Books</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 To be a good project
manager it helps if you're a masochist: you are willing and able voluntarily to inflict pain
upon yourself - with the aim of avoiding twice the pain being inflicted upon you involuntarily
later. (In our example it would seem the team didn't spot the problem at the requirements
stage - though perhaps they did but chose to ignore it or they failed to sort it out properly.
One hopes they would at least have dealt with it at the technical design stage.)
The quality leader would show the project manager numbers like these each week or
month. But he wouldn't just be showing the numbers - he'd be saying something like:
"boss, we realised from the numbers there was a bit of a problem in this area and we have
put John Spencer on it and he will have it revised and corrected by Friday." In other words
the team, prompted by the quality leader, are using the measurements to help them identify
and fix any quality weaknesses as the project progresses.

One more example of a measurement. You've just finished the project shown in the table
below and you're about to start the next similar project. On the just finished project the
team found 3 errors when they inspected the PDD and 41 when they inspected the
requirements document. When they inspected the user functions design document they
found 120 errors but they realised 3 of them had in fact been errors in the requirements,
which had obviously been missed at the requirements inspection.
(Look at the column headed 'UFD': 120 is the number of errors found at the UFD inspections
and the number 3 just above is the number the team judged were errors in the
requirements document. For example, the requirements said 'invoice amount is quantity x
discount%' and the UFD faithfully reproduced that 'invoice amount is quantity x discount%'
but at the UFD inspection it dawned it should actually say 'invoice amount is quantity x price
x (100-discount%)'. Though few errors are quite that obvious!)

Step in which error found

Step in which error caused

PDD

Req

UFD

ITD

B&UT

Sys

Live

PDD

Requirements

User Functions Design

IT Technical Design

Build & Unit Test

System & Accept Test

Live Running

100%

41

84%

120

85%

185

49

41

67%

292

68

11

79%

141

15

90%

15

The IT team found 185 errors in the technical design and even 2 of those were in fact
requirements errors that had been missed both at the requirements inspections and the
UFD inspections.
If you wait long enough you even can put errors found in live running on the chart. And 2 of
the errors found in production were errors in the requirements which had got right through
all the nets.
Is there any particular weakness on the production line quality-wise that you would like your
team to address before the next project begins? <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>I.T. Project Management
Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
At the right hand side of the IT technical design row there a figure of 67% - what's that
telling us? When the IT team checked their technical design they found two thirds of the
errors, and one third of the errors that were under their noses in black and white, they
missed. Is that good, bad or criminally appalling? It's dreadful. And the project manager
should say so and invite the team to fix it before the next project. If it transpired, say, that
the IT technical design hadn't been well structured which made it difficult to check it all
fitted together properly, the project manager might insist that before the next project the
team figure out how to construct the IT technical design so that it can be cross checked
properly, and he would be looking for an efficiency nearer 90% next time.
Identify which step in your process is weakest and improve it - and keep doing that for ever.
You may be thinking that the measurements we have looked have taken no account of the
severity of the errors nor the cost to fix them, and you'd be right - you are starting to

devise some of those hundreds of ways of measuring quality-related things. The danger
though is that one gets carried away with devising ever more 'correct' measurements. A
crude, even not very accurate measurement that drives improvement is infinitely preferable
to a statistically perfect one that doesn't.
We mentioned a couple of pages ago the sort of measurements the system test team will
use: errors found per week (probably broken down by severity), number open, average time
to fix, etc. Extrapolating from these numbers after the first few days or weeks of system
test should enable good prediction of how long testing is going to take and how many errors
will be found in total.
And really good quality management will enable the following sort of discussion. Suppose at
the beginning of the project we try to get commitment of user resources to do thorough
user functions design inspections, but for apparently good business reasons they cannot be
made available. We will be able to predict how many extra errors this will result in both in
system test and in live running. We can then say to the sponsor: "by not investing
this30K's worth of user effort in UFD inspections there will be about 20 extra bugs in the
system when it goes live which will cost you about 200K to sort out - what would you like
to do?" Now, the sponsor might decide the current business need is overriding and he'll pay
the failure cost. Or he might decide the current business need isn't thatimportant and direct
the manager of those users to make them available to get the UFD right. Quality becomes a
thing we can have a business-like discussion about rather than something abstract that is
hard to get a hold of. But we are approaching a PhD level of sophistication here which,
regrettably, all too few software projects aspire to let alone achieve.

Cause analysis
In the best run projects someone, perhaps the quality leader, gets the team together every
couple of weeks to ask: what errors have we made in our work in the last two weeks, what
caused us to make them, what can we do to remove or reduce those error causes? This is
not about finding someone to blame for the errors but we do need to know who has made
them: for example if the contractors are all making the same mistakes over and over
perhaps some training is needed to address the cause. The aim is to identify what we can
do to eliminate the causes of errors that we as a team are making. These meeting are
sometimes called quality circles.
Usually when one starts to run these causal analysis meetings some very 'obvious' error
causes are identified which can be fixed quite easily, and everyone wonders why they
weren't sorted out ages ago. Sort them out now.

Quality lessons learned review

At the end of the stage a two hour team quality lessons learned meeting is held. The team
look back over the whole stage and identify the top two or three causes of errors and work
out what could be done to engineer those error causes out of the project process in future.
Again, try to avoid heaping all the blame on people who aren't there, and focus on what you
can do to improve your part of the process. Though if most of the problems experienced in
the stage were in fact caused upstream in an earlier stage the team may want to develop
constructive proposals to take to those who were involved in that earlier stage. Primarily,
though, the team should be identifying what they can do to remove error causes before the

next stage or the next project begins. Equally, when these meetings are first held some
quick wins can usually be had - things that can easily be changed that will significantly
improve the initial quality of work and/or the timely and effective detection and correction of
errors.
Some would strongly advise that the project manager should not be present at causal

analysis meetings or these end of stage quality lessons learned meetings as this can inhibit
soul baring.

Quality leader
Let us round out the role of quality leader:

must be a member of the project team, not an outsider

may be a part time role perhaps for one of the team leaders, but will be a full time
role on a large software project

help build the quality plan: who will inspect which bits of others' work and when

ensure the team perform the planned quality tasks properly

organise inspections, acts as moderator for some inspections (though any team
member can moderate inspections)

organise and drive simulations

compile and analyse quality measurements and ensure the team address quality
problems revealed by the measurements

report on quality matters to the project manager

chair causal analysis meetings and ensure the team take action to eliminate error
causes

run stage end quality lessons learned meetings and ensure action is taken to
improve quality management in future stages and projects

Even if there is a quality leader in the project team he does not become accountable for the
quality of what is delivered. Each author remains accountable for the quality of the work
they produce. With one exception to that rule. If, heaven forbid, the quality at the end of
your project is awful and you, the project manager, conclude the reason is that the
inspections had not been done properly then you shoot the quality leader! It was his job to
make sure the team did the inspections properly and if they weren't to come and tell you
about it.
But imagine this. You are the quality leader of a software project that your company is doing
for a client. The team leaders are refusing point blank to let their team members do the
planned inspections. Why? Because they are behind schedule. What would you do?
You go and speak to the project manager and point out that the way things are going the
quality is going to be terrible. But the project manager says: "never mind about that, we've
got a date to meet for the client." What would you do now?
You speak to the project manager's boss, say you're being overruled and that quality checks
are being skipped. And you show the statistical evidence that quality is going to be poor.
Let's say this triggers an independent health check and they conclude you are right, it's
going to be a disaster in quality terms the way things are going. The senior manager
removes the project manager and the new project manager tells the client he is going to
delay delivery by two months to ensure a good quality system is delivered.
The point of the story (and by the way any similarity to real events, characters or projects is
purely coincidental) is that the quality leader has a real responsibility to protect both the
supplier and the client from the consequences of poor quality.
In that example it was the supplier who, belatedly, dealt with the problem and sorted it out
before delivery - the client was fortunate.
Suppose you are the client sponsor of a software project. When it's delivered and installed
your company's business will depend upon that system working properly. If the quality is
really bad it could even put you out of business. Who would you make accountable for the
quality of what was delivered to you? You might appoint a project manager in your company
to manage the project and the relationship with the software supplier. You would make him,
your in-house project manager, accountable for the quality of the system the software
supplier delivers to you. Now put yourself in the position of that project manager. You're
accountable for the quality delivered by the supplier! What would you do?
Well, you'd make very sure the supplier had good quality management procedures in place you may even commission independent consultants to conduct an audit of the supplier's
quality processes if you didn't have the expertise to do it yourself. You might contractually
oblige the supplier to put a quality leader in place and you might oblige them to present to
you each month the sort of quality measurements we have seen in this chapter. Do you

really want to see the numbers? Not really. What you do want is evidence that they, the
supplier, are managing quality as they go along. You may even want them to predict and
commit to, on pain of penalties, the maximum number of errors they will deliver in the final
system.
Let us bear in mind also that even if you are outsourcing a software development project
you're not outsourcing the whole project - only the easy bit, the technical, design build and
test. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>I.T. Project Quality Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding
Roberts 2006 2007 2008 The bit that will have the most influence on the final quality - the
defining of the requirements and reviewing and approving the user functions design - will be
your in-house responsibility. Only your people, the users, can define the requirement; only
your people can verify that the system design is correct. You, the client project manager,
have got a very powerful incentive to ensure that your company invests users' time up front
and in things like inspections and simulations if you will be accountable for the final product
meeting the business need and having few or no errors.
When should the quality leader be appointed? In an in-house project, where the project
manager is managing the project from start to finish, the quality leader should be one of the
first appointments that is made - the quality leader should be in place right from the
beginning of the project. It needs to be made clear to him that it is his responsibility to
ensure the team do whatever it takes to make the project's deliverables good quality. The
quality leader should also be told that half way through the project - at the end of the UFD
step - his job title will change and he will become the system test leader/manager. Why
should this work like a charm? If the quality is bad come system test, who will spend those
nice warm summer evenings and weekends in the office during system test? The system
test leader. This should give him a powerful incentive to ensure the team really do get the
bugs out at the requirements and UFD stages.
Quality leaders tend to select themselves - they have a passion, even an obsession about
quality (a good thing!), about things being right - and they drive the rest of the team
accordingly.
How might we appraise the quality leader - how do we know if they have done a good job?
If the team find 50 errors when checking the UFD and 50 more come to light later in the
project, was a good job done at the UFD inspections and simulations? No, only 50% of the
errors were found. Blame the quality leader. If by contrast the team found 90 at the
inspections and simulations and only 10 came to light later, the quality leader did a great
job in getting the team to check things properly. And if 95% of the errors are found at any
stage that's pretty spectacular - give the quality leader a pay rise.
Similarly, if system test finds 50 bugs and 50 are found in live running how good a job was
done by the test team? Abysmal. If testing finds 95%? Wow.
There is a risk that people will start building errors in so that they can be found by
inspection and make the numbers look good. This shouldn't happen but it may be worth
gently pointing out to the team that since performance appraisals and possibly salary
increases partly depend upon these metrics, fiddling the figures would constitute fraud.
With really good quality management in place it becomes possible to establish benchmarks.
Let's say we typically find 20 errors per 100 pages at UFD inspections. That's the
benchmark. If next time around the team find 50 errors what would your suspicion be?

Maybe they're getting sloppy and submitting half-baked work to inspection (or building in
errors so that they can be found - not that they would do that, of course...). And if next
time they only find 2 errors per 100 pages what would you suspect? They are not doing the
inspections properly. You can investigate and take action - you're really beginning to
manage quality.And if it's only 2 because the team have found some way of getting that
much better, reward them handsomely.

...next
Team members' quality objectives
"Team member, every error found in your work post inspection will count against you in your
next appraisal. But the meter only starts running after your work has been inspected." Why
might this work really well?
It means that authors become agents for quality. They demand a good inspection of their
work - errors found there don't count against them. But perhaps you're thinking people will
therefore submit unchecked work to inspection and let their colleagues find all the errors for
them? Only once. It is embarrassing to be in a meeting at which your work is being
inspected and it is riddled with errors - it's obvious you haven't done your job properly. In
really bad cases the moderator may stop the inspection and tell the author to sort the work
out and resubmit it when it's in a fit state - which can be quite humbling. Next time one
hopes the author will do what he can to get it right - and glow with pride when few or no
errors are found at the inspection.
We said earlier the target should be zero defects even though we know we'll fail to achieve
it. If the target is any other number - say 20 and there are 10 team members - they all
know they're allowed 2 errors each. They won't check their work all that well on the basis
that a couple of errors are OK. And there will probably be 5 or 10 or 15 errors there
actually.
The team leader's target is also zero: if a member of his team is continually submitting bad
work to inspection that jeopardises the team leader's appraisal too. The team leader will,
one hopes, offer support to that team member to help him improve the quality of his work.
If there are several development teams and there is a certain amount of rivalry over which
team will have the fewest errors found in their work in system test, that team member may
also come under some peer pressure to pull his socks up. Generally, the more errors there
are in a piece of work prior to inspection the more errors will be missed by the inspection,
so anything that can be done to help and encourage authors to get it right themselves will
have the biggest influence on the final quality. And when we reach the promised land
inspections and simulations just verify that there are indeed no errors there.
Fundamentally we are trying to reduce the number of bugs in live running. If in the past
there have typically been say, 20 bugs in live running for every 50 man months of project
effort, and this time there are only 5 errors per 50 man months, you know the team have
done a good job. There may be other factors such as project complexity and team
experience to take into account, but that's the final criterion - did we deliver a good quality
system and save a lot of problems and cost in live running. That's the only reason for
attending to quality - to save money.

If you are brave you might even want to try this. At the beginning of your next project
explain to your team all about inspections and simulations. Tell them you are a quality
fanatic. Tell them you'd like them to plan the project for you and tell them they can plan in
as much checking time as they like at the requirements and UFD stages. There's a risk
they'll take you to the cleaners but they probably won't - even the prospect of too many
inspections can result in brain death.
But by saying they have carte blanche to plan is as much time as they like in order to get
things right at those early stages how have you almost guaranteed a good quality outcome?
You have removed the excuse for bad quality: we didn't have enough time. The team know
that one won't wash with you so they will check their work that one more time just to make
sure it's right.
Consider these two projects:
Project A. The perception is that the schedule is very tight, there isn't enough time to do
quality checks in the requirements or design steps. The requirements and design steps
'finish' on schedule but the documents aren't really finished and are in fact riddled with
errors. Build is fraught and runs behind schedule. Testing takes a very long time and
delivery is late. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008
Project B. The perception is that the schedule isn't too tight. Quality checks are planned in
at the early stages and are done, and the requirements and UFD are top notch - as
complete and correct as one could hope for. Build runs like clockwork. Testing goes to plan
and delivery is on time.
Project A and project B are the same project.

Objective quality and subjective quality

When the system goes live, counting the number of bugs (by severity), the number of
crashes and outages and the number of mandatory improvements gives us an objective
measure of the system's quality. However, users sometimes love a system despite all the
bugs - it makes their lives easier, does what they want, and even has some sexy features.
Conversely they may hate a system that is available 24/7 and has no bugs at all. So it's
worth doing a user satisfaction survey to gauge this subjective view of the system's 'quality'
- more on this in the next chapter.

And finally:

Everyone in a project team should have a written quality objective upon which they
know their next pay rise partly depends.

Set out with the aim of getting it right first time every time but have a secondary
aim of finding any errors as soon as possible after they are made.

Build good quality in. No manufacturer ultimately succeeds by throwing bad quality
things together and then trying to test out the bad quality at the end of the
production line.

Plan quality checking tasks into the project plan. It may feel expensive at the outset
but will make the project cost less in the end: rework is expensive.

Identify error causes and take action to reduce them.

There is only one reason for driving for quality. It saves money. Crosby said quality is
free - it's better than that!

"The bitterness of poor quality lingers long after the sweetness of meeting the date has
been forgotten."

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If at first you don't succeed remove all evidence you ever tried."
Chapter 13 - Stage and Project End

<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to

any other website. This project management book must not be reproduced
in whole or in part in any form without express written permission of the
copyright holder M Harding Roberts.
And now, the end is near... and no doubt you did it your way. But could others learn from
your travelling of each and every highway?
There are three ends to be neatly wrapped up:

stage end

project end

benefit assessment period end

At the end of each project stage

Let's see if you have been paying attention: when you produce a deliverable such as a user
functions design document how do you know who has to sign it off?

At the start of the stage you agreed who would sign off the stage deliverables and you
documented that in the stage agreement. People reviewing and signing things off should be
subject to the same project disciplines as any member of the project team: if they agree to
sign off within two weeks of publication, the project manager should make sure they do.
Also, if they agreed at the start of the stage they'd sign something off it's more likely they
will be involved during the stage and as a result one hopes there will be fewer problems and
surprises at the end.

Team lessons learned meeting

Sometimes known as a team post mortem, hold a team lessons learned meeting at the end
of each stage. Typically this is done the week after the 'real work' of the stage has finished,
in the tidy up period. It may only be a 2 hour meeting but put it in as a task in each
person's plan otherwise it may not happen.
Some say the project manager should not attend. We want the team to confess their sins the project manager's presence might inhibit that - so the team leader may be the right
person to run the meeting. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/projectmanagement-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M
Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 The whole team should be represented or preferably
present. Ask them to come prepared to articulate what went wrong and how similar
problems could be avoided next time. But also have them think about what they did really
well and how we might ensure those successes are repeated next time.
The chairman will need to be careful that the meeting does not become a witch hunt spending 2 hours vilifying an absent third party may be fun but doesn't really help. It's all
about what we can do better next time. Emerge from the meeting with an action plan lest
the good intentions evaporate.
An example. The team conclude that a lot of time was wasted during the design stage
because they didn't have a clear idea at the outset how the UFD document would be
structured. Someone is actioned to put together a template detailing what should go into
each UFD chapter in future projects.
If the project manager isn't present at the meeting the team leader would run through the
conclusions with him.
It is important to do this at the end of each project stage: if you leave it and only do it once
at the very end of the whole project you will long since have forgotten what happened in the
early stages.
Some advocate you shouldn't even leave it unil the end of the stage: have a lessons learned
log that is continually updated as you go along as well as having the post mortem meeting
at the end of the stage.

Share experience

Your natural generosity of spirit might incline you, as project manager, to share your
experience with other project managers simply by going and talking to them or by making a
presentation at the next project managers' forum (if you have such things).
However, project managers sometimes won't do this, and there are a couple of reasons why.
The project went extremely smoothly because the project manager applied what, to him,
are very obvious, common sense disciplines - so obvious, in fact, there's no point in talking
about them. But of course to a novice those things aren't at all obvious. At the other
extreme, the project was such a painful experience the project manager doesn't even want
to think about it, let alone go around talking about it.
Either way valuable experience doesn't get shared. Which is why there is often a rule in
place that at the end of each stage key data and lessons learned must be captured in a
stage end report.

Stage end report

The stage end report records:

which stage the report is about

what kind of project it was and what technology was used

how many people (at the peak) worked on the stage

who the key role players were

original planned cost and end date of the stage

extra budget approved by the sponsor

actual cost and end date

tools & techniques used and would you recommend them

things that helped and how to ensure they are repeated

things that hindered and how to avoid them

how the company's project management rules and guidelines could be improved

And for example the information could be recorded on a template something like this:

Stage End Report (Page 1)

Project Name:
Stage:

Project Number:
Risk Assessment:

PROJECT TYPE
( ) Normal Lifecycle
( ) Rapid Application Development
( ) Package Modification
( ) Maintenance Release
( ) Other:

TECHNOLOGY
( ) Java
( ) VB
( ) C++
( ) Package:
( ) Other:

Number of Individuals Involved:

IT TEAM: IT OTHER: USERS:
Project Manager:

Dept:

Project User Manager:

Dept:

Project IT Manager:

Dept:

Project Leader:

Dept:

Project Sponsor:

Dept:

Brief Description of Stage:

Which SER is this? (First/Interim/Last/Cancelled/Overall)
Overall: User Satisfaction (1.0 low - 5.0 high)

...next

These are pages two and three of the stage end report:
<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any other
website. This project management book must not be reproduced in whole or in part in any
form without express written permission of the copyright holder M Harding Roberts.

Stage End Report (Page 2)

Resources & Duration Summary
(Express Changes as +/-)
Stage Agreement
(Original Plan)

IT
TEAM
Hrs

IT
OTHER

USERS

START
DATE

END
DATE

Sponsor Approved
Plan Changes

Hrs

Latest Plan (Sum of Above)

Hrs

Actual

Hrs

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES (eg SIMULATION, PROTOTYPING)

Rate from 1 - Very Low
To 5 - Very High
Description of Tool/Technique

Level of Usage
During this
Project

Usefulness
During this
Project

Stage End Report (Page 3)

Familiarity
With Tool/
Technique
at start

Expand upon points made above where appropriate and note any other factors that had a
good/bad effect on this project below:

On this third page one might record things like this:

Positive: The sponsor wandered around every couple of weeks asking how it was
going and this helped to spur the team's efforts.

Negative: The users were 100 miles away from the IT people. Next time we should
move the IT team to the users' location during the requirements and UFD stages. If
we had done this we would probably have finished UFD a month earlier: definitely
worth the hotel bills!

And if the project tracked and recorded hours as we described in the planning chapter,
attach that gold-dust data to the stage end report. We then have a neat record of what was
learned and what could be done better next time, and also a record of where every man
hour was actually spent.
This is potentially a very useful document to anyone about to start a similar project and it
should be available to anyone who wants to see it. However, with the best will in the world,
documents like this do sometimes get filed away on the intranet somewhere and forgotton.
<a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 Which is why, in companies with a project support person or group, there might
be another rule: you must send a copy of your stage end report to project support.
They could simply act as librarian, but maybe we should charge them with a rather more
proactive duty: to read each and every stage end report and where a lesson has been
learned by project manager A that is clearly relevant to the project that project manager B
is about to start up, it is the job of project support to get A and B talking to each other - or
at least send B a copy of the stage end report. And if project manager A's experience would
be of interest to the wider population of project managers and team leaders, project support

twist A's arm to make a presentation at the next project managers forum. Project support
become agents forcing cross-fertilisation.
So, all of the above would be done at the end of each project stage: team post mortem
(lessons learned meeting), produce a list of actions you will take to make the next
stage/project even better, share experience, summarise lessons learned and costs in a stage
end report and send it to project support.

At the end of the project

Finally you reach the end of the project. Or more precisely, you reach the planned go live
date - the project may not end there as we shall see. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
Before the new system goes live there should be a mandatory presentation to the project
sponsor, at the end of which the sponsor has to make a decision: whether it can go live or
not. This should be done for both in-house and outsourced projects.
Think for a second - if you were the sponsor and your part of the company's business was
due to be run by this new system as of Monday morning what would you want the project
manager to show you before you'd give approval for it to go live?
Perhaps these sorts of things:

evidence everything promised has been delivered

evidence all required sign offs (as specified in the PDD and/or most recent stage
agreement) have been achieved, e.g.
o

users

IT operations: they're happy to install and support it

help desk manager

audit

users have been trained

a fallback plan exists in case the system doesn't work

disaster recovery is in place

evidence the project manager has spent the change budget wisely and hasn't wasted
it on 'flashing on and off pink' type change requests

evidence that the system and other deliverables are fit for purpose
o

evidence that quality has been managed throughout the project

evidence that testing is complete as opposed to the end date has arrived

a prediction of how many (unknown) errors might be in the system which will be
found during live running - plus that number multiplied by the typical cost of fixing
an error in live running

Let us consider the penultimate item on the list. How would we persuade the sponsor that
testing had actually finished? Here is an example of the sort of chart we might show the
sponsor:

Testing took 8 weeks and a total of 132 errors were found. The message of the chart is that
no errors were found during the last two weeks of testing (and we would need to present
data showing that testing was still being done in weeks 7 and 8).
If by contrast the chart looked as follows, have we finished testing?

Clearly not.
If you had to predict how many as yet unknown errors might emerge over the first few
months of live running, how would you do it? At the simplest you could look back at past
system and user tests and see what percentage of the bugs they usually find. So say for
example it's normally around 90% and you found 180 bugs in testing this time, you might
expect there to be around 20 in live running and you would bring a chart like this to show
the sponsor:

Bugs @10K predicted in live running

And the sponsor might invite you to put that chart up on your office wall and every now and
again he would saunter past looking for the green line, the actual number of errors found in
live running. If the chart looked like this after six months the sponsor would probably be
quite happy:

Errors predicted vs actual in live running

But if you were the sponsor and you saw the chart at the end of month 2 and it looked as
follows, what would you conclude?

Errors predicted vs actual in live running

You were conned at the go live approval meeting.

The appraisal of the project manager should remain open for a couple of months post
cutover so that he knows quality will at least be an equal partner with cost and dates when
determining his next pay rise. If right from the beginning of the project the project manager
knows he will have to predict the number of live errors at the go live approval meeting he
has an incentive to manage quality properly so that a) he will be able to predict a low
number and b) he will be able accurately to predict the number: his appraisal depends upon
both of these things.

...next
Occasionally as a project's end date nears it becomes apparent that the quality won't be
right by the planned end date - there isn't enough time left to get the bugs out. An
emotional debate about quality can ensue.
With good quality management something a little more rational becomes possible. "Sponsor,
sorry, but if we go live on the planned date of June 1st there will be 100 or more errors in
live running and it could cost us 1M to sort out the mess. If we delay by 6 weeks to mid
July it'll cost 100K in extra test costs but there should then only be 15-20 errors in live
running. What would you like us to do?"

The sponsor might say: "Go live on June 1st as planned. We have a one off opportunity in
June to win 500M of new business - we'll bear the 1M failure cost." Or he might say:
"Delay till mid-July. The last thing we need is for this thing not to work properly and get us a
bad reputation in the market place - that could cost us dear. Get it working properly asap
then come back and see me."
The debate becomes more business-like. In extreme cases going live with systems that
don't work can drive a company into bankruptcy.
When does the project end? In the PDD or final stage agreement be clear about this. You
might say: 'the project ends on the day of cutover.' Or you might say: 'the project ends 2
weeks after cutover' which implies the project team stay together for a couple of weeks to
sort out any production problems.

Final stage end report

We mentioned stage end reports earlier. At the end of the last stage the final stage end
report should look back over the whole project and record total project metrics as on this
template:

Stage End Report (Page 4)

Use this form with project's FINAL SER to summarise TOTAL project effort.
For all stages, attach Effort Distribution Report.
DETAILED RESOURCE
ACTUALS (In Man Hours)
Project Control
Inspections/M_Checks/Checks
External Reviews
Orientation
Base System Installation
Define Requirements
User Functions Design
IT Technical Design
System Test Preparation
Program Development/Unit Test
Procedure Devel & Unit Test

IT TEAM

IT OTHER

USERS

System Test
System Documentation
User Acceptance Test
Education Given
Implementation / Cutover
Technical Environment
Risk Adjustment
Re-work (Inspection/Testing)
Other:

It then becomes relatively easy for project support to distil out some of the rules of thumb
we saw in the estimating chapter such as the percentage of project effort that is spent in
the requirement, UFD, IT technical design, build, test and UAT steps and the relationship
between IT effort and user effort in each of those steps.
And project support can do simple things like emailing project managers every now and
again saying things like: "you might like to know that our best quality projects invest around
12% of the hours in the UFD step in inspections and simulations. Also, rework following UFD
inspections is usually around 9% of the time it took to produce the work in the first place."
<a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008 It is surprising how quickly the knowledge level rises and people begin to
assume all humans are programmed at birth with the knowledge that post-inspection
rework is around 9% (surely everybody knows that...?). In the buzz phrase we become a
'learning organisation'.

User satisfaction survey

Maybe some time after the end of the project users should be surveyed to see how they feel
about the new or enhanced system. The survey might ask questions such as:

Does the system meet the business need?

Were you or your representative adequately involved in defining the business

requirements?

Were you or your representate adequately involved in reviewing and approving the
system design?

Is the system easy to use?

Is help and support available when you need it?

And no doubt you can think of a host of other thinks we should ask the users, including 'how
could the system be improved?'
Questions such as 'Were you or your representate adequately involved in reviewing and
approving the system design?' may prompt the reaction: 'gosh, should we have been
involved in reviewing the design? That would have been a good idea!' which could lead to
better user involvement in future projects.
If the project manager knows right at the very beginning of the project that this survey will
be done at the end, and the results will feature in his appraisal, he'll probably look at those
questions at the outset and try and ensure the project does the things that will yield positive
responses to the survey - like involving the users properly at the appropriate time.

...next
At the end of the benefit assessment period
Probably many months after the project team has long since disbanded an independent
team look back, not at how well the project was done, but at how good the original business
case was by conducting a post implementation review.

Post implementation review (PIR)

Since the project team is long gone the post implementation review (PIR) of the business
case might, for example, be run by Finance. Essentially the PIR tries to quantify the actual
benefits of the thing the project delivered and assess its actual costs to establish if we're
getting the expected return on investment.
Benefits can be easy to measure: if the project developed a new product how many have we
sold? The product might be a physical thing or it might be something like a new insurance
product where the IT system and the product are more or less one and the same thing and
we can easily count how many people bought our new holiday insurance package on the
web.
Sometimes it's much harder. If the project's benefit was a percentage saving in manual
workload that may not be so easy to measure, but we need to make an assessment.
Occasionally benefits realisation is a major undertaking: the project may have delivered a
new system that enables a company reorganisation and rationalisation, but that itself needs
to be managed as a project in its own right - two projects delivering one ultimate benefit.
So, under the leadership of Finance, let's say, a team of business users count sales or
measure admin workload savings or look at the headcount savings actually achieved after
reorganisation and IT look at running costs, bug fixing costs and any other costs associated
with operating the system. It's just like building the business case, but after the event.

Having done that we compare actual benefits and costs to those foreseen in the original
business case created at the start of the project. One advantage of having Finance run the
PIRs is they can ensure half a dozen projects don't all claim the same benefit as theirs.
It may nominally be the (ex) sponsor's responsibility to commission this post
implementation review but why might he be the very last person who wants it done? It may
reveal that the benefits predicted were illusory and the original project cost estimate was
hopelessly optimistic. In the worst case, what looked like a good investment for the
company at the outset has actually lost us money. We do not want to do that too often.
One of the conclusions of the post implementation business case review might be that we as
a company need to strengthen our business case review procedures at the start of projects
to be more honest about project costs and more realistic about benefits so that the Board
can make better investment decisions in the future. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>Project Management Book</b></a>
Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 Indeed, it may well be that it is the Finance
Director who mandates that PIRs are carried out for all large projects.
Although the PIR is primarily a financial review, we may also want to assess how well the
system (or whatever the project's product was) is performing. Strictly speaking we are not
examining how well the project was done, but if it's clear the system is not properly meeting
the business needs and requirements, there may be lessons there for how future projects
might better understand business needs before charging off and buying packages or writing
new systems and hoping they'll be fit for purpose.

Rewards
But let us go back a step. What is by far the most important thing to do at the end of any

project? Have a party. Don't forget to invite those who were involved during the early stages
who've since left the project team. Most important of all make sure the sponsor is there with his wallet. Seeing the sponsor handing 20 notes over the bar to buy the drinks is sure
to bring a smile to the team's faces.
On the more serious side the project manager has a duty to feed back to the team
members' line managers how their people performed on the project. Make sure people who
did a good job for you get rewarded by their boss. This, apart from anything else, is in your
self interest - they'll want to work for you again.
In truly project-oriented companies there will be significant financial rewards for project
managers and project team members who bring large projects in on time, on budget, meet
business needs and deliver good quality. Projects can entail hard work, long hours, great
stress and the sort of proactive, 'making things happen' approach that may not always be
needed when running day to day operations. Process-based senior managers may not
always appreciate the sheer energy that goes into setting up and running projects particularly the energy that goes into those that as a result are made to look easy.

Summary

In summary many of these techniques force people to crystalise their experience and learn
lessons so that future projects can be even better. Things like stage end reports also enable
that experience to be shared with others.
We are trying to find out what it is that prevents all projects being perfect and, one by one,
address these inhibitors so that projects get better over time.

"Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."George Santayana
(1863-1952)

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Chapter 14 - Project Management Routemap

<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any
other website. This project management book must not be reproduced in whole or
in part in any form without express written permission of the copyright holder M
Harding Roberts.
We have covered a lot of ground - to some readers familiar territory, to others much will
have been new. Particularly for the latter, let us see how some of the major themes we have
covered might come together and wrap around a project.

Project Management Routemap

One morning you're driving in to work and you have a mega-brilliant idea: you envision a
new IT system that would make your company a fortune. What would you do when you got
into the office? (No, not resign, it wasn't that good an idea.) You discuss the idea with a few
people and everyone agrees it is a great idea.
And there it might end were it not for the fact that you are a natural, entrepreneurial project
manager.

You approach a senior manager who you think would make an ideal project sponsor. The
first question he asks you is "what would such a project cost?" But you're not falling for
that. You tell him you've got no idea. "OK," he says, "how much would it cost to find out
what it would cost?" You're ready for that one. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>IT Project Management
Books</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008 You tell him it will cost 60K
to do a proper project definition. Which implies, does it not, that in preparation for your
pitch you did a fair bit of preliminary planning for the project definition stage.
The senior manager can't authorise 60K so he takes his great idea (yes, his great idea!) to
whoever does authorise project expenditure - maybe the Board of Directors - and they
approve a speculative investment of 60K to research and define this potential moneyspinning project. Our senior manager has now acquired the mantle of sponsor.
Meanwhile, in anticipation of Board approval, you have been rushing around finalising the
project definition plan.

Project definition is going to take 10 weeks. Twenty five people will need to be involved and
they are owned by 10 different managers. This is not 25 people full time for 10 weeks.
Maybe there will be 2 or 3 full time people to drive it through, business experts spending a
few days defining high level needs, IT guys assessing options and feasibility and doing some
estimating, and Finance guys helping you build the financial justification, etc.
You spend a day or so building the project definition stage plan and twisting managers' arms
to get them to agree to make the necessary people available. You write the stage
agreement for the project definition stage which summarises the plan, says what you're
going to deliver (PDD, business case, project plan, etc) and documents which managers will
provide what resources - and you get those managers to sign it.
You invite the sponsor to pop down and have a chat with your project definition team. The
sponsor tells them that his(!) vision is in their hands, that he thinks the project could have
big benefits for the company and asks to be kept informed.
Work starts in earnest to give the vision substance, to define the (potential) project. First,
was the vision actually just an hallucination? Setting enthusiasm aside, the team step back
and ask: is there really an opportunity here, was it really such a good idea? Depending upon
the circumstances, this could entail market research, competitive analysis, assessing
workload savings or any number of other ways of establishing that the need/opportunity is
real.
But the sober reflection only strengthens the realisation that this is a very good idea indeed
- there is an opportunity for the company to make a lot of money.
Having established the opportunity exists, you set aside the eureka solution you imagined in
your car that morning and you consider how else the need might be met. Buy a package?
Modify an existing IT system? Develop a new system? Adopt a manual approach?
Outsource? Having brainstormed loads of whacky and some sensible solutions, you conclude
the best bet would be to write a new IT system from the ground up.
You now start to consult potential users (key ones' time having been committed via the
stage agreement). They all think it's a terrific idea and Marketing say "wow, and could it do
this sort of thing as well..?" and HR say: "ah, and if it could do this... we could use it for..."
and Finance say "and could it also...". Everyone you speak to has something they would like
included in this new system. You realise you have a tiger by the tail and it dawns on you
that to try and do everything everyone would like in one go would result in a never-ending
big bang disaster project.
So what do you do? You break it into releases and have those tough negotiations: "sorry,
Marketing, your stuff will be in Release 3 (maybe)". The scope of Release 1 thus begins to
emerge from the mist. Perhaps you now do some high level process modelling to try and get
a clearer view of the things you are going to include in Release 1. That helps you

understand what it will take fully to analyse the detailed requirements for those things so
that you can start to do some estimating and planning for the Requirements Analysis step.
If you're smart (let's assume you are) one of your project definition team is the person who
will work for you as project leader (if the project gets the go ahead) and he has time in the
project definition plan to help you do the planning of the project proper. The scope of
Release 1 is now fairly well pinned down so you and your project leader rough out the high
level plan for Release 1 on the back of an envelope and reckon three management stages
would be appropriate: Stage 1 Requirements and UFD, Stage 2 IT Technical Design, Build
and Unit Test and Stage 3 System and User Test and Implementation. The IT guys come up
with some estimates, you use some rules of thumb to work out what the user costs might
therefore be, think about the risks and 'unexpected' costs you might end up incurring in the
project then get the whole estimate looked over by project support and the man hours
translated into money by Finance and conclude Release 1 will cost around 1M - including
bags of contingency given the number of unknowns there are at this stage. The users on
your project definition team estimate the bottom line benefit that will accrue to the
company from the new system and think it will be at least 1M a year. A pay back within 12
months - pretty good.
You go and see the sponsor and tell him what you think Release 1 will cost. He says: "How
much?" but he approaches the Board who approve in principle a 1M budget for Release 1.
It starts to become clear who you will need on the project steering committee, who would
make a good project user manager, etc, so you sit down with those people and describe the
roles you'd like them to fulfil, get their backing for the project, agreement to scope, etc. You
and the project leader flesh out the plan for Stage 1 (Requirements and UFD) and start to
get outline resource agreements with relevant line managers. You set the Finance guys to
work building the formal project business case.
You are now in week 8 of the 10 week project definition stage. You hold a (pre-planned)
project definition workshop (PDW). Sponsor, steering committee members and project role
players all attend.
You run through scope, roles, plans, estimates, resource requirements, risks, how you'll
manage issues and changes, what you'll communicate to whom, what might be in Releases
2 and 3 and so on, and due to your assiduous lobbying prior to the meeting everyone
present agrees to everything (if only it were so - in practice there will be issues to resolve
despite all the lobbying).

...next

continued
<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any
other website. This project management book must not be reproduced in whole or

in part in any form without express written permission of the copyright holder M
Harding Roberts.

You, or more likely one of your project definition team, write the project definition document
(PDD) to record what everyone agreed at the PDW.
At the PDW the Marketing Director (one of the steering committee members) said: "sure
you can have 3 guys for 6 weeks to define detailed requirements". Fine. But you must now
finalise agreements with their immediate managers which 3 people and precisely when they
will be available. You will have spoken provisionally to the resource owning managers earlier
so this should be a matter of firming up the outline agreement you've already got.
At the beginning of week 9 you hire your quality leader and set him to work with the project
leader to make sure quality assurance tasks are solidly included in the plan. The detailed
task by task plan for Stage 1 begins to crystallise - you can now estimate Stage 1 bottom
up and by hook or by crook get a clearer top down estimate for the remainder of Release 1.
You add it all up and hope the answer is still around 1M (it is - but if it wasn't, you'd need
to tweak the business case and have a quiet word with the sponsor). The more you know
about the project the higher the estimate will be - which is why any initial guesstimates
must have large amounts of contingency in them to allow for things you couldn't specifically
itemise that early on.

So where are we? You've just about got everything done. You've agreed scope, roles and
resources. You have a detailed plan for Stage 1 and outline plans for Stages 2 and 3. The
Finance guys have helped build the business case and perhaps prepare a month by month
project budget. You've agreed which people will be available, and when, to work on Stage 1:
users, IT and anyone else we'll need.
You now write the stage agreement for Stage 1: what Stage 1 will deliver and when
(requirements document, UFD, Stage 2 plan, revised business case, testing strategy, etc);
risks; milestones; and most important of all: resources - who when; and maybe things
people have agreed to deliver to you: before the end of Stage 1 you'll need the technical
development environment set up and ready to go. You get resource owners to sign the
Stage 1 agreement.
In reality these last 2 weeks of project definition will entail an awful lot of problem solving,
negotiation and issue resolution. There will also be a lot of setting up to do: office space,
time recording mechanisms, change control procedures, etc. The setting up of all of these
will of course have been tasks in your project definition plan.
In week 10 you get the team together for a post mortem. How did we do? Could we do
future project definitions better? The team distil out lessons learned and capture them in the
stage end report (SER). If you have been time recording during the project definition stage,
you attach a record of where the hours went. You might even attach a bar chart showing
the plan you would have produced for the project definition stage with the benefit of
hindsight.
When planning a project it's quite useful to start at the end and work backwards. At the
very end you'll need a user satisfaction survey - when should that be produced? You'll need
a handover-to-production checklist - when should that be produced? You'll need test data
and before that test scripts and before that a test plan and before that a testing strategy when will each need to be produced? All of these things - and many, many more - will
feature in your outline plan for Stages 2 and 3 of Release 1 and help you work out costs and
when you will need people to join the team. Throughout Stage 1 keep revising this map of
Stages 2 and 3 as new things occur to you (they will).
At the end of week 10 you have the summit signing ceremony - the formal go no go - with
the sponsor and anyone else he chooses to invite, perhaps the Finance Director and IT
Director. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-management-book0101.htm"><b>IT Project Management Books</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006
2007 2008
Your presentation demonstrates the project is indeed well defined and everyone has agreed
the project definition. If you have kept the sponsor in the loop it should be a matter of
saying: "Sponsor, as you know, scope has been agreed, Finance have signed off the
business case..." etc. But there is one bit of bad news you must tell the sponsor about.
Having added up the hours everyone spent on the project definition the actual cost was
80K versus your budget of 60K. The sponsor wraps your knuckles, tells you not to do that

again, but nevertheless says you've done an excellent job turning his vision into a solid
project.
You then present your Release 1 plan: a summary of the detailed plan for Stage 1 and your
outline plan for Stages 2 and 3. You estimate Stage 1 will cost 400K and Stage 2 and 3
very roughly 600K - but you stress this is not a commitment, just your best estimate on
what is known at the moment. To demonstrate that you have resource commitments for
Stage 1 you then call in the waiting line managers and at your behest the sponsor asks each
in turn if they really can make available the bodies shown on the Stage 1 plan, and they all
commit eyeball to eyeball to the sponsor and then sign the Stage 1 agreement. Back out of
that commitment if you dare.
The sponsor authorises 400K for Stage 1 and says: "As soon as you think it might cost
outside a range of 350K to 450K come and tell me. Don't wait till you have overspent - is
that clear?" Yes, sir.
And he gives you a cheque for 1000 - not for you personally but to take the team out to
celebrate a project definition well done.
Did we take a risk by investing in all that project planning and for example in hiring the
quality leader before we got the go ahead? Not really. In practice it becomes evident long
before the end of project definition whether the project is going to fly or not. If, say, in week
6 it became clear the project was infeasibility, or would have a negative return on
investment, or the company didn't have the people to do the project, you'd wrap it up then,
hold a post mortem, produce a SER and get back in your car in search of a better
brainwave.
You can perhaps see why a project definition stage for a large project needs careful
planning. A lot of people have to do a lot of disparate things in the right order in a limited
amount of time to get a project well defined. If project definition isn't carefully planned it
will be chaotic and, more important, the project will not get properly defined or planned and it's failing before it's even started.
But our project is well defined.

After the meeting the sponsor calls you back for a private discussion. He tells you that if you
bring the project in on time, on or around budget and it works, he has agreed with the
Board that you will be paid a large bonus and that another amount of money will be made
available for you to disburse as bonuses to the project team at your discretion.
The project proper begins. You organise a kick off meeting. The sponsor tells the team - IT
people and users together - the project is important and they, the team, hold a key part of
the company's future in their hands and he wants it done on time, on budget and top notch
quality. And if anything or anyone gets in the way of the project, just let him know. The
team are enthused.
Ideally core members of the project team will have worked on the project definition so they
have a good understanding of what's really needed from the project. Also, ideally, they will
become the team leaders during the build and test stage and so carry that understanding
right through the project.

The tough job of engineering or re-engineering business processes begins. Intensive

workshops force the business users to define every item of data the system will have to
handle (length, valid values, etc) and every operation to be carried out on these data
(lookups, calculations,...), including exception routines, special cases, what happens when
things go wrong, etc.
Luckily you have a tough business analyst running these sessions who calls a timeout
whenever a user is unable to say exactly what is required and makes them go away and find
out. This encourages them to come better prepared next time.
By the end of the requirements analysis step you must believe you won't need to ask the
users anything else about what they want. Don't be tempted to leave tricky requirements to
be defined later. To do this is to litter your future path with bear traps of your own making.
Every month you report status to the project sponsor in a monthly status meeting.
The team conduct thorough inspections of each section of the requirements document as it
is finished. When the whole document is completed they run a simulation - pumping real
test data through the business process, performing the validations and calculations, writing
down the data that will appear on the outputs of the business process. Many problems are
found. Most are gaps - the business process doesn't say what should happen in particular
circumstances. It takes two weeks of stopping, plugging gaps and restarting to simulate the
whole business process from end to end. Naturally this was in the plan.
The requirements document is published. The Stage 1 agreement will have said who will
sign it off and how long they'll take (2 weeks?) to do it. Ones hopes they will have been
involved all the way through the requirements analysis step and they or their people will
have been involved in inspections and simulations so they know the requirements document
is OK before they even get it.

chapter 14 continued
<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any
other website. This project management book must not be reproduced in whole or
in part in any form without express written permission of the copyright holder M
Harding Roberts.

Work begins on the user functions design (a.k.a. functional spec, external design,...). Joint
user/IT teams evolve the user-visible functions of the system: screen/web page layouts should the 15 data items that comprise an order be input on one screen or several? Output
document layouts - how should the 21 data items that comprise an invoice be laid out? The
IT team design all the invisible user functions and the system's infrastructure.
At some point during the UFD step the techies, who will later do the IT technical design, do
a quick preliminary technical design just to make sure what is being proposed in the UFD
can be built. Indeed they may suggest changes to the UFD to make it
simpler/easier/cheaper to build.

As each UFD section is completed it is inspected - users, other UFD designers, technical
designers and test team members are all involved.
Once the UFD is finished, a major simulation exercise is undertaken. Someone pretends to
be a customer accessing the order entry web page. Someone else writes down the data that
the 'customer' entered (e.g. customer number 326-086). The simulation team perform the
edits specified in the UFD. Data is stored on flip charts. Output documents are compiled and
written out by hand. This is simply people pretending to be a computer, simulating what the
machine will do when the code is written. Areas that caused concern when the business
processes were simulated during the requirements analysis step are given special focus.
If you can do the simulation you probably have a reasonably good UFD. If you can't do a
simulation because the UFD is vague, incomplete, wrong or incomprehensible, stop the
clock, delay the end date of the UFD step and get the UFD right. If you carry on regardless
you'll just have a much bigger delay later.
The quality leader is strong and ensures all the planned quality checks are conscientiously
performed.
Midway through the UFD step an independent team come in and do a health check. They
conclude you're pretty much on schedule, on budget and the evidence suggests the UFD will
be a high quality document: complete and correct. The health check team give your project
an A rating.
Six weeks or so before the end of Stage 1 what must you do? Start planning Stage 2 in
detail, negotiating for resources, assessing risks, etc. You estimate the cost of Stage 2
bottom up and revise the top down estimate for Stage 3. You add those two numbers to
what will have been spent on Stage 1 to get a revised total project cost.
And does it add up to 1M? Er, no. It comes to 1.3M. Do you wait until the formal go no go
meeting at the end of Stage 1 to spring the surprise on the sponsor? Definitely not. You go
and have a word with him now, a few weeks before the end of Stage 1. The extra 0.3M,
however, is way beyond even his tolerance so he goes to the Board and manages to acquire
the extra 0.3M.
You publish the UFD for sign off - which again should be a formality given the users'
involvement in the inspections and the simulation.
Line managers commit resource via the Stage 2 agreement. You hold a post mortem and
produce a stage end report for Stage 1. <a href="http://www.hraconsultingltd.co.uk/project-management-book-0101.htm"><b>IT Project Management
Books</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts 2006 2007 2008
Why is there a 2 week delay before the formal go no go meeting at the end of Stage 1? To
allow for issue resolution, time to get sign offs, etc. But of course work begins on the IT
technical design in the meantime.

At the formal go no go meeting you tell the sponsor you've achieved all the required UFD
sign offs and there are no open issues (if only it were so!) and that Stage 1 actually cost
445K - just within tolerance. This figure does not come as a surprise to the sponsor as you
will have been revising your prediction of this figure at each monthly status meeting.
You prove you're ready to start Stage 2 and the sponsor approves its budget of 600K +/10%. IT technical design and build run like clockwork because the UFD is complete, correct
and stable. Integration test goes remarkably smoothly due to the very detailed planning
dovetailing build, handover and component testing. In the penultimate monthly status
meeting of Stage 2 you predict Stage 2 will probably come in a little under budget at around
550K.

At the end of Stage 2 the pattern is repeated. What is the implication of the fact there are
no double arrows up to the 'Project Authorisation Body' at the end of Stage 2? You still think
it's going to cost around 1.3M. The sponsor does not need to go back to the Board with his
begging bowl. But why might the sponsor cancel the project at this meeting? Because the
projected benefits have evaporated- maybe somebody beat you to that market opportunity.
This is why we should re-examine both costs and benefits at the end of each stage.

But our project's benefits are still there. Having shown you have Stage 3 planned, resources
committed, etc you get the go and a Stage 3 budget of 250K.
However, a remarkable thing happens during Stage 3. The system test plan took no account
of all that quality checking you invested in up front. System test finishes two weeks early as
you have run out of bugs to find. And this is two weeks earlier than planned - probably a
couple of months earlier than everyone was expecting given the usual slippages that such
projects encounter. System tests always overrun, don't they? Not if you really do get the
design complete and correct. Users are trained, roll out is readied, system documentation is
finalised.

...next

...chapter 14 continued
<p>This project management book must not be copied in whole or in part to any
other website. This project management book must not be reproduced in whole or
in part in any form without express written permission of the copyright holder M
Harding Roberts.
Just before the system is due to go live you present to the sponsor and show you've
delivered what you promised, users have been trained, help desks are raring to go - you
really are ready to cutover. You show the evidence that testing has finished. You predict
around 20 bugs will emerge during the first 3 months of live running and make the point
that you would have expected 50 or more bugs if the users had not got involved in the
requirements and the UFD inspections and simulations. The final cost is 1.22M, well within
the final budget of 1.3M. The sponsor gives permission for the system to go live.

You feed back to the line managers of people who have worked on the project to ensure
their project performance is reflected in their next appraisal. At the post project party the
sponsor visibly pays for the drinks. A month or so after cutover, when it's clear the system
works properly and there aren't too many bugs a large bonus cheque finds its way into you
bank account and smaller ones into the bank accounts of team members.
Six months down the line the post implementation review shows that the idea you had in
the car that morning was indeed as good as it seemed - the system has resulted in extra
business cascading in. <a href="http://www.hraconsulting-ltd.co.uk/project-managementbook-0101.htm"><b>IT Project Management Books</b></a> Copyright M Harding Roberts
2006 2007 2008
Meanwhile, Release 2 started up under another manager in parallel with Release 1 build.
Although the original PDD suggested what might be in Release 2, nine months on the world
has changed and the Release 2 project definition could conclude it should contain quite
different things. You hope the manager of Release 2 follows your lead and invests in getting
it right in the early stages. The danger is he thinks Release 2 will be easy because you made
Release 1 look easy, not put in the effort you did, deliver a poor quality Release 2 and

undermine the system's reputation and yours. But one hopes Release 2 will be as well
managed as Relesae 1 and will be another successful project.
That's how large-ish projects might look, what about smaller ones?

Small projects
If you're lucky your project will look more like the one below. A couple of days is sufficient
to define and plan the project, rather than ten week's work. A single side of A4 suffices as
the PDD/stage agreement/plan combined. The sponsor says: "Yes, that's exactly what I
want you to do." You tell him how it's going every now and again. At the end you say:
"there it is, boss." He says: "thank you." And that's it.

Whether it is at one extreme as simple as this or at the other extreme as complicated as the
earlier chart, or even much more complicated than that, it is exactly the same in principle.
The great skill of the project manager is scaling the controls to the need of the project
rather than laying the same bureaucratic structures on all projects whether they need them
or not.

Conclusion
Well, there we are. Wasn't difficult, was it?

The only snag is that no project is ever quite like the one in the text book - this one or any
other. Why? Because each project is unique - they are all different - so short of there being
an infinite number of text books you probably won't find one that speaks directly to you
about your project.
In much the same way, the Highway Code won't tell you how to do your specific journey
from Little Snoring to Auchtermuchty. But adhering broadly to the Highway Code's principles
will make it more likely you'll arrive in one piece. The same with projects: adhering broadly
to good project management principles will make it more likely you'll succeed.
We hope, having read this book, you have a good understanding of how IT projects should
be set up and run. If you have colleagues who would benefit from a similar understanding
perhaps you would like to suggest they attend our project management course?

"And it ought to be remembered that there is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more
perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the
introduction of a new order of things. Because the innovator has for enemies all those who
have done well under the old conditions, and lukewarm defenders in those who may do well
under the new."
Nicolo Machiavelli c.1505 (trans. W. K. Marriott)

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