Exceptions, Processes

and Signals
Computer Systems Organization (Spring 2016)
CSCI-UA 201, Section 2

Instructor: Joanna Klukowska

Slides adapted from

Randal E. Bryant and David R. OHallaron (CMU)
Mohamed Zahran (NYU)

Control Flow

Processors do only one thing:

From startup to shutdown, a CPU simply reads and executes (interprets) a sequence of
instructions, one at a time
This sequence is the CPUs control flow (or flow of control)

Physical control flow

Time

<startup>
inst1
inst2
inst3

instn
<shutdown>
2

Altering the Control Flow

Up to now: two mechanisms for changing control flow:

Jumps and branches
Call and return
React to changes in program state

Insufficient for a useful system:

Difficult to react to changes in system state

Data arrives from a disk or a network adapter

Instruction divides by zero
User hits Ctrl-C at the keyboard
System timer expires

System needs mechanisms for exceptional control flow

Exceptional Control Flow

Exists at all levels of a computer system

Low level mechanisms

1. Exceptions
Change in control flow in response to a system event
(i.e., change in system state)
Implemented using combination of hardware and OS software

Higher level mechanisms

2. Process context switch
Implemented by OS software and hardware timer
3. Signals
Implemented by OS software
4. Nonlocal jumps: setjmp() and longjmp()
Implemented by C runtime library

Exceptions

Exceptions

An exception is a transfer of control to the OS kernel in response to some

event (i.e., change in processor state)
Kernel is the memory-resident part of the OS
Examples of events: Divide by 0, arithmetic overflow, page fault, I/O request completes,
typing Ctrl-C

User code
Event

I_current
I_next

Kernel code
Exception
Exception processing
by exception handler

One of the following happens:

Return to I_current
Return to I_next
Abort
6

Exception Tables

Each type of event has a

unique exception number k

k = index into exception

table
(a.k.a. interrupt vector)

Handler k is called each time

exception k occurs

Exception
numbers
Code for
exception handler 0
Exception
Table
0
1
2
n-1

...

Code for
exception handler 1
Code for
exception handler 2

...
Code for
exception handler n-1

Asynchronous Exceptions (Interrupts)

Caused by events external to the processor

Indicated by setting the processors interrupt pin
Handler returns to next instruction

Examples:
Timer interrupt
Every few ms, an external timer chip triggers an interrupt
Used by the kernel to take back control from user programs

I/O interrupt from external device

Hitting Ctrl-C at the keyboard
Arrival of a packet from a network
Arrival of data from a disk

Synchronous Exceptions

Caused by events that occur as a result of executing an instruction:

Traps
Intentional
Examples: system calls (requests for services from the kernel)Returns control to next
instruction
Faults
Unintentional but possibly recoverable
Examples: page faults (recoverable), protection faults (unrecoverable), floating point
exceptions
Either re-executes faulting (current) instruction or aborts
Aborts
Unintentional and unrecoverable
Examples: illegal instruction, parity error, machine check
Aborts current program

System Calls

Each x86-64 system call has a unique ID number (assigned by the

operating system)
Examples:
Number

Name

Description

read

Read file

write

Write file

open

Open file

close

Close file

stat

Get info about file

57

fork

Create process

59

execve

Execute a program

60

_exit

Terminate process

62

kill

Send signal to process

10

System Call Example: Opening File

User calls: open(filename, options)

Calls __open function, which invokes system call instruction syscall

00000000000e5d70 <__open>:
...
e5d79: b8 02 00 00 00
mov $0x2,%eax # open is syscall #2
e5d7e: 0f 05
syscall
# Return value in %rax
e5d80: 48 3d 01 f0 ff ff cmp $0xfffffffffffff001,%rax
...
e5dfa: c3
retq

User code

Kernel code

syscall
cmp

Exception
Open file
Returns

%rax contains syscall number

Other arguments in %rdi, %
rsi, %rdx, %r10, %r8, %r9
Return value in %rax
Negative value is an error
corresponding to negative
errno
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Fault Example: Page Fault

User writes to memory location

That portion (page) of users memory

is currently on disk
80483b7:

User code
movl

c7 05 10 9d 04 08 0d

int a[1000];
main ()
{
a[500] = 13;
}
movl

$0xd,0x8049d10

Kernel code
Exception: page fault
Return and
reexecute movl

Copy page from

disk to memory

12

Fault Example: Invalid Memory Reference

intSIGSEGV
a[1000]; signal to user process
Sends
main ()
User
{ process exits with segmentation fault
a[5000] = 13;
}
80483b7:

c7 05 60 e3 04 08 0d

User code
movl

movl

$0xd,0x804e360

Kernel code

Exception: page fault

Detect invalid address
Signal process

13

Processes

14

Processes
A process is an instance of a running program.
One of the most profound ideas in computer science
Not the same as program or processor

Process provides each program with two key abstractions:

Logical control flow
Each program seems to have exclusive use of the CPU
Provided by kernel mechanism called context switching

Memory
Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Private address space

Each program seems to have exclusive use of main memory.
Provided by kernel mechanism called virtual memory

CPU
Registers

15

Multiprocessing: The Illusion

Memory
Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Memory
Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Memory

Stack
Heap
Data
Code

CPU

CPU

CPU

Registers

Registers

Registers

Computer runs many processes simultaneously

Applications for one or more users
Web browsers, email clients, editors,
Background tasks
Monitoring network & I/O devices

16

Multiprocessing Example

Running program top on my Ubuntu desktop

System has 326 processes, 3 are running, 323 are sleeping
Identified by Process ID (PID)

17

Multiprocessing: The One-Core Reality

Memory
Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Saved
registers

Saved
registers

Stack
Heap
Data
Code
Saved
registers

CPU
Registers

Single processor executes multiple processes

concurrently
Process executions interleaved (multitasking)
Address spaces managed by virtual memory system (later in
course)
Register values for nonexecuting processes saved in memory
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Multiprocessing: The One-Core Reality

Memory
Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Saved
registers

Saved
registers

Stack
Heap
Data
Code
Saved
registers

CPU
Registers

Save current registers in memory

19

Multiprocessing: The One-Core Reality

Memory
Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Saved
registers

Saved
registers

Stack
Heap
Data
Code
Saved
registers

CPU
Registers

Schedule next process for execution

20

Multiprocessing: The One-Core Reality

Memory
Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Saved
registers

Saved
registers

Stack
Heap
Data
Code
Saved
registers

CPU
Registers

Load saved registers and switch address space (context switch)

21

Multiprocessing: The Multi-Core Reality

Memory
Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Stack
Heap
Data
Code

Saved
registers

Saved
registers

CPU

CPU

Registers

Registers

Stack
Heap
Data
Code
Saved
registers

Multicore processors
Multiple CPUs on single chip
Share main memory (and some of the caches)
Each can execute a separate process
Scheduling of processors onto cores
done by kernel
(But we still will have more processes running
than there are cores on a machine.)
22

Concurrent Processes

Each process is a logical control flow.

Two processes run concurrently (are concurrent) if their flows overlap in
time
Otherwise, they are sequential
Examples (running on single core):
Concurrent: A & B, A & C
Sequential: B & C

Process A

Process B

Process C

Time

23

User View of Concurrent Processes

Control flows for concurrent processes are physically disjoint in time

However, we can think of concurrent processes as running in parallel with

each other

Process A

Process B

Process C

Time

24

Context Switching

Processes are managed by a shared chunk of memory-resident OS code

called the kernel
Important: the kernel is not a separate process, but rather runs as part of some existing
process.

Control flow passes from one process to another via a context switch

Process A

Process B
user code
kernel code

Time

context switch

user code
kernel code

context switch

user code
25

Process Control
(ways of manipulating processes)

26

System Call Error Handling

On error, Linux system-level functions typically return -1 and set global

variable errno to indicate cause.
Hard and fast rule:
You must check the return status of every system-level function
Only exception is the handful of functions that return void

Example:

if ((pid = fork()) < 0) {

fprintf(stderr, "fork error: %s\n", strerror(errno));
exit(0);
}

27

Error-reporting functions

Can simplify somewhat using an error-reporting function:

void unix_error(char *msg) /* Unix-style error */

{
fprintf(stderr, "%s: %s\n", msg, strerror(errno));
exit(0);
}

if ((pid = fork()) < 0)

unix_error("fork error");

28

Error-handling Wrappers

We simplify the code we present to you even further by using Stevens-style

error-handling wrappers:

pid_t Fork(void)
{
pid_t pid;
if ((pid = fork()) < 0)
unix_error("Fork error");
return pid;
}

pid = Fork();

29

Obtaining Process IDs

pid_t getpid(void)
Returns PID of current process

pid_t getppid(void)
Returns PID of parent process

30

Creating and Terminating Processes

From a programmers perspective, we can think of a process as being in one of
three states

Running
Process is either executing, or waiting to be executed and will eventually be scheduled (i.e.,
chosen to execute) by the kernel

Stopped
Process execution is suspended and will not be scheduled until further notice (next lecture
when we study signals)

Terminated
Process is stopped permanently

31

Terminating Processes

Process becomes terminated for one of three reasons:

Receiving a signal whose default action is to terminate (next lecture)
Returning from the main routine
Calling the exit function

void exit(int status)

Terminates with an exit status of status
Convention: normal return status is 0, nonzero on error
Another way to explicitly set the exit status is to return an integer value from the main routine

exit is called once but never returns.

32

Creating Processes
Parent process creates a new running child process by
calling fork

int fork(void)
Returns 0 to the child process, childs PID to parent process
Child is almost identical to parent:
Child get an identical (but separate) copy of the parents virtual address space.
Child gets identical copies of the parents open file descriptors
Child has a different PID than the parent

fork is interesting (and often confusing) because

it is called once but returns twice

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fork Example
int main()
{
pid_t pid;
int x = 1;
pid = Fork();
if (pid == 0) { /* Child */
printf("child : x=%d\n", ++x);
exit(0);
}

Call once, return twice

Concurrent execution
Cant predict execution
order of parent and child

Duplicate but separate address

space
x has a value of 1 when fork
returns in parent and child
Subsequent changes to x
are independent

Shared open files

stdout is the same in both
parent and child

/* Parent */
printf("parent: x=%d\n", --x);
exit(0);
}
linux> ./fork
parent: x=0
child : x=2

34

Modeling fork with Process Graphs

A process graph is a useful tool for capturing the partial ordering of

statements in a concurrent program:

Each vertex is the execution of a statement

a -> b means a happens before b
Edges can be labeled with current value of variables
printf vertices can be labeled with output
Each graph begins with a vertex with no inedges

child: x=2
printf
exit
x==1
main

fork

parent: x=0
printf

exit

Child
Parent

35

Process Graph Example

int main()
{
pid_t pid;
int x = 1;
pid = Fork();
if (pid == 0) { /* Child */
printf("child : x=%d\n", ++x);
exit(0);
}

child: x=2
printf
exit
x==1
main

parent: x=0

fork

printf

exit

Child
Parent

/* Parent */
printf("parent: x=%d\n", --x);
exit(0);
}

36

Interpreting Process Graphs

Original graph:
child: x=2
printf
parent: x=0

x==1
main

exit

fork

printf

exit

Feasible total ordering:

Relabled graph:

Infeasible total ordering:

a

37

fork Example: Two consecutive forks

Bye

void fork2()
{
printf("L0\n");
fork();
printf("L1\n");
fork();
printf("Bye\n");
}

printf
L1
printf

L0
printf

Bye
fork

L1
fork

Feasible output:
L0
L1
Bye
Bye
L1
Bye
Bye

printf

printf
Bye
printf
Bye

fork

printf

Infeasible output:
L0
Bye
L1
Bye
L1
Bye
Bye

38

fork Example: Nested forks in parent

void fork4()
{
printf("L0\n");
if (fork() != 0) {
printf("L1\n");
if (fork() != 0) {
printf("L2\n");
}
}
printf("Bye\n");
}

Bye
printf
L0
printf

Bye
printf

L1
fork

L2

printf fork

Feasible output:
L0
L1
Bye
Bye
L2
Bye

Bye

printf printf

Infeasible output:
L0
Bye
L1
Bye
Bye
L2
39

fork Example: Nested forks in children

void fork5()
{
printf("L0\n");
if (fork() == 0) {
printf("L1\n");
if (fork() == 0) {
printf("L2\n");
}
}
printf("Bye\n");
}

L2
Bye
printf printf
L1
printf
L0
printf

fork

Bye
printf

Bye
fork

printf

Feasible output:
L0
Bye
L1
L2
Bye
Bye

Infeasible output:
L0
Bye
L1
Bye
Bye
L2
40

Reaping Child Processes

Idea
When process terminates, it still consumes system resources
Examples: Exit status, various OS tables
Called a zombie
Living corpse, half alive and half dead

Reaping
Performed by parent on terminated child (using wait or waitpid)
Parent is given exit status information
Kernel then deletes zombie child process

What if parent doesnt reap?

If any parent terminates without reaping a child, then the orphaned child will be reaped by init
process (pid == 1)
So, only need explicit reaping in long-running processes
e.g., shells and servers
(although you should be a good citizen and collect your zombies if possible)

41

Zombie
Example

void fork7() {
if (fork() == 0) {
/* Child */
printf("Terminating Child, PID = %d\n", getpid());
exit(0);
} else {
printf("Running Parent, PID = %d\n", getpid());
while (1)
; /* Infinite loop */
}
}

linux> ./forks 7 &

[1] 6639
Running Parent, PID = 6639
Terminating Child, PID = 6640
linux> ps
PID TTY
TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9
00:00:00 tcsh

6639 ttyp9
00:00:03 forks
6640 ttyp9
00:00:00 forks <defunct>
6641 ttyp9
00:00:00 ps
linux> kill 6639

[1]
Terminated
linux> ps
PID TTY
TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9
00:00:00 tcsh
6642 ttyp9
00:00:00 ps

ps shows child process as

defunct (i.e., a zombie)
Killing parent allows child to
be reaped by init

42

Non-terminating
Child Example

void fork8()
{
if (fork() == 0) {
/* Child */
printf("Running Child, PID = %d\n",
getpid());
while (1)
; /* Infinite loop */
} else {
printf("Terminating Parent, PID = %d\n",
getpid());
exit(0);
}
}

linux> ./forks 8
Terminating Parent, PID = 6675
Running Child, PID = 6676
linux> ps
PID TTY
TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9
00:00:00 tcsh
6676 ttyp9
00:00:06 forks
6677 ttyp9
00:00:00 ps
linux> kill 6676
linux> ps
PID TTY
TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9
00:00:00 tcsh
6678 ttyp9
00:00:00 ps

Child process still active even

though parent has terminated

Must kill child explicitly, or else will

keep running indefinitely
43

wait: Synchronizing with Children

Parent reaps a child by calling the wait function
int wait(int *child_status)
suspends current process until one of its children terminates
return value is the pid of the child process that terminated
if child_status != NULL, then the integer it points to will be set to a
value that indicates reason the child terminated and the exit status:
checked using macros defined in wait.h
WIFEXITED, WEXITSTATUS, WIFSIGNALED, WTERMSIG,
WIFSTOPPED, WSTOPSIG, WIFCONTINUED
see textbook for details

44

wait: Synchronizing with Children

void fork9() {
int child_status;
if (fork() == 0) {
printf("HC: hello from child\n");
exit(0);
} else {
printf("HP: hello from parent\n");
wait(&child_status);
printf("CT: child has terminated\n");
}
printf("Bye\n");

HC
printf

HP
fork printf

exit

CT
Bye
wait printf

Feasible output:
HC
HP
CT
Bye

Infeasible output:
HP
CT
Bye
HC
45

Another wait Example

If multiple children completed, will take in arbitrary order

Can use macros WIFEXITED and WEXITSTATUS to get information about exit
status
void fork10() {
pid_t pid[N];
int i, child_status;
for (i = 0; i < N; i++)
if ((pid[i] = fork()) == 0) {
exit(100+i); /* Child */
}
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) { /* Parent */
pid_t wpid = wait(&child_status);
if (WIFEXITED(child_status))
printf("Child %d terminated with exit status %d\n",
wpid, WEXITSTATUS(child_status));
else
printf("Child %d terminate abnormally\n", wpid);
}
}

46

execve: Loading and Running Programs

int execve(char *filename, char *argv[], char *envp[])

Loads and runs in the current process:

Executable file filename
Can be object file or script file beginning with #!interpreter
(e.g., #!/bin/bash )
with argument list argv
By convention argv[0]==filename
and environment variable list envp
name=value strings (e.g., USER=droh)
getenv, putenv, printenv

Overwrites code, data, and stack

Retains PID, open files and signal context
(the current process is gone, it is now running different program)

Called once and never returns

except if there is an error
47

Structure of
the stack when
a new program
starts

argv
(in %rsi)
argc
(in %rdi)

Null-terminated
environment variable strings

Bottom of stack

Null-terminated
command-line arg strings
envp[n] == NULL
envp[n-1]

...

environ
(global var)

envp[0]
argv[argc] = NULL
argv[argc-1]

envp
(in %rdx)

...
argv[0]
Stack frame for
libc_start_main

Top of stack

Future stack frame for

main
48

execve Example

Executes "/bin/ls lt /usr/include" in child process

using current environment:
myargv[argc] = NULL

(argc == 3)
myargv

environ

myargv[2]
myargv[1]
myargv[0]

envp[n] = NULL
envp[n-1]

envp[0]

"/usr/include"
"-lt"
"/bin/ls"
"PWD=/usr/droh"
"USER=droh"

if ((pid = Fork()) == 0) {
/* Child runs program */
if (execve(myargv[0], myargv, environ) < 0) {
printf("%s: Command not found.\n", myargv[0]);
exit(1);
}
}

49

Summary

Exceptions

Call fork
One call, two returns

Events that require nonstandard control

flow
Generated externally (interrupts) or
internally (traps and faults)

Process completion
Call exit
One call, no return

Processes
At any given time, system has multiple
active processes

Spawning processes

Only one can execute at a time on a

single core, though

Reaping and waiting for

processes
Call wait or waitpid

Each process appears to have total

control of
processor + private memory space

Loading and running programs

Call execve (or variant)
One call, (normally) no return

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