Organizedby Centro Internazionaledi Aggiornamento Sperimentale

QUALITY
Y MANAG
GEMENT
T BY MEA
ANS OF LOAD
L
TE
ESTING AND
IN
NTEGRIT
TY TESTIING OF D
DEEP FO
OUNDATIONS
Evgeenia-Anna Sellountou
u, Ph.D., an
nd Frank Rausche,
R
Ph
h.D., P.E.
Pile Dynamicss, Inc., Clevveland, Ohioo, USA
Summaary.
This paaper presennts several methods for
fo an economical assessment off the geotecchnical and
d
structurral quality oof driven annd bored pilles. Full scaale load testt methods for
fo the deterrmination off
pile cappacity include conventiional static load tests, dynamic load tests, bi--directionall static loadd
tests annd rapid loaad tests. Inn this presenntation, dynnamic loadd testing willl be emphaasized. Thiss
methodd is based onn measurem
ments of forrce and mottion taken under
u
the im
mpact of a large mass..
These so-called Case
C
Methhod measurrements arre then suubjected to a rigorouus analysiss
(CAPW
WAP) to caalculate staatic pile caapacity. Thee method accounts
a
foor both thee static andd
dynamic componennts of the soil responsse and thus determiness resistancee distributio
on, dampingg
factors and soil sstiffness. Dyynamic pilee load testiing backgroound and iits applicatiion in both
h
driven and bored piles are discussed
d
h
herein.
Pilee load testinng assures that the geotechnical
g
l
conditioons are suufficient forr a satisfaactory pile performannce. Becauuse of timee and costt
limitatio
ons, these tests
t
are normally condducted on oonly a few special
sp
test ppiles or on production
n
piles iff questions arise durinng construcction. Howeever, to asssure adequuate structural quality,,
integrity
ty testing iss another im
mportant coomponent of a compleete quality m
managemen
nt program..
While driven
d
piles can be dam
maged durinng installation, cast-in--situ deep fooundation elements
e
aree
suscepttible to flaw
ws or defeccts due to improper cconstructionn methods. High Stra
ain integrityy
testing (e.g., durinng pile drivving or in the form of dynamic load testinng sometimee after pilee
installaation), Low Strain (alsoo called Pulse-Echo) inntegrity testing and crross-hole so
onic loggingg
are the most comm
mon non-deestructive teesting (NDT
T) techniquues used woorldwide. An emerging
g
and verry promisingg NDT methhod is the so-called
s
Thhermal Integgrity Profileer (TIP). It is based onn
temperaature meassurements taken
t
durin
ng the curring of thee concrete of cast-inn-situ piles..
Temperrature signaatures proviide informattion about ppotential buulges, neckss and the reiinforcementt
cage alignment. Brrief summarries of thesee NDT methhods will be presented hherein.
329
Sellountou E.A., Rausche F - Quality Management by means of Load Testing and Integrity Testing of Deep Foundations
1. Introduction
Geotechnical capacity estimation and structural integrity confirmation are
fundamental requirements in the design of deep foundation elements. Preliminary
capacity estimates based on static analysis methods are usually confirmed on-site by full
scale load tests. The two most common methods of full scale load testing for the
determination of capacity are static load tests and dynamic load tests. Other full scale
load test methods include bi-directional static load tests and rapid load tests. This paper
will focus on the dynamic load test method. The dynamic load test is commonly
employed during the installation of driven piles for both capacity determination and
installation monitoring purposes (monitor driving stresses, hammer performance, pile
structural integrity etc.). Bored piles can be tested in a similar fashion for the purpose of
determining capacity and structural integrity.
Dynamic load test has a significantly lower cost compare to a static load test. Unlike
a static load test, dynamic testing does not require reaction piles and a reaction frame.
Usually several piles can be installed and dynamically tested in a single day unlike static
load tests which typically require several days to test a single pile (installing the test pile
and reaction piles, assembling the reaction frame and test arrangement and performing
the static test which in itself may require at least several hours and sometimes a few
days). Dynamic load testing becomes particularly important on large sites with variable
soil conditions where it can address variations in capacity and driving conditions and
where the use of only static load tests would be cost prohibitive. Capacity estimate
comparisons between static and dynamic load tests are referenced below.
Untested shafts are assumed to have similar geotechnical capacity when installed in
the same manner and in similar soil conditions as the test piles. However, in-situ
elements are susceptible to imperfections and creation of defects during installation.
Construction under slurry, improper concreting procedures, heavy reinforcement that
impedes concrete flow, borehole instability and other factors during construction can
jeopardize the structural integrity of a shaft. Although the structural integrity of a shaft is
indirectly verified through load testing, it is practically impossible to load test a large
number of shafts as would be needed on large projects. Fortunately, non-destructive
methods are available to test the integrity of bored piles. The two most commonly used
methods are the low strain integrity testing and the cross-hole sonic logging (Rausche,
2004 [10]). However, a recently developed method, the Thermal Integrity Profiler (TIP)
(Likins and Mullins, 2011 [8]), which uses temperature measurements of the curing
concrete inside the shaft to assess concrete quality and shaft shape, is a very promising
emerging technology and will also be briefly described in this paper.
2. Dynamic Load Testing-Basic Principles
In the United States, dynamic load tests are performed in accordance with ASTM
D4945 [3]. To perform the test, strain transducers and accelerometers are attached near
the top of the pile (Figure 1) to measure strain and acceleration that are induced in the
330
pile top under the impact of a hammer. Wireless and smart sensors which transmit their
calibration values to the recording Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) system, shown in
Figure 2, are often remotely monitored, allowing the engineer to analyze the data in real
time from the office.
Figure 1: Wireless (left) and wired (right) stain gauges and accelerometers attached at the pile top
Figure 2: PDA with Antenna
The principles behind dynamic pile testing are based on one-dimensional wave
propagation theory (Rausche et al., 1985 [12]). Under the impact of a hammer a stress
wave is induced at the pile top that propagates down the pile at a wave speed (c), until it
reaches the tip after which, is reflected back up the pile. The wave speed depends on pile
properties only, namely on elastic modulus (E), and density () of the pile material and
is independent of the characteristics of the impact force. The time for the compression
331
stress wave to travel down to the pile tip and be reflected back up to the pile top is 2L/c
(L being the length of the pile). The type and magnitude of the wave up reflection
depends on the type of resistance encountered at the pile tip. Moreover, soil resistance
and pile section changes cause upward stress wave reflections at time prior to 2L/c. The
downward and upward traveling waves at any time, t, and at any location, x, along the
pile can be analyzed by the total measured particle force and velocity at that location. As
mentioned above, strain gauges and accelerometers, attached near the top of the pile,
generate electronic signals of strain and acceleration that are converted to force and
velocity by, respectively, multiplication with the elastic modulus, E, and cross sectional
area, A, and integration over timeFigure 3).
Referring to Timoshenko and Goodier, 1970 [14], if the force in a traveling wave is
F, the particle velocity, v, can be expressed as
(1)
(2)
This relationship expresses a proportionality between particle velocity and applied

force, with the proportionality constant being composed of pile material properties i.e. E,
A, and c (defined above). The inverse of the proportionality constant, called pile
impedance, Z, is defined as
Force
Velocity
2L/c
Figure 3: Force-Velocity signals from PDA
The pile impedance is a term associated with the resistance that the pile offers to
impede the change in its velocity. The impedance, Z, has units of force divided by
velocity (kN/m/sec) and represents the force that is required to change the pile particle
velocity by 1 m/sec.
The total force and velocity measured at any pile location are the result of
superposition of the forces and velocities in the upward and downward traveling waves.
Based on equations 1 and 2, and remembering that compression force and downward
332
particle velocity are positive, a simple system of equations can be solved for the particle
force in the upward and downward traveling waves, and, :
(3)
(4)
This means that at any point in time we can calculate the force at wave up and force
at wave down at a certain location based on the measured force (Fm) and measured
velocity ( ) at that location (in our case near the pile top). For a pile struck by a ram,
the combination of all upward traveling waves contains the activated soil resistance and
the bottom reflected impact wave. We, therefore, can calculate the total soil resistance
(shaft and end-bearing), activated by the impact, as follows:
(5)
or
(6)
Time t1 is often chosen such that the resulting resistance values are a maximum and time
t2 is t12c. The total resistance (RTotal) is comprised of a dynamic component
(RDynamic) (dependent on the velocity of the penetrating pile) and the displacement
dependent static component (RStatic), which is of ultimate interest to us. Therefore,
(7)
(8)
The dynamic component can be calculated by introducing a viscous damping

parameter (Jv) that associates the dynamic resistance component with the velocity at the
pile toe as follows:
where,
(9)
Combining equations 5 through 9, the static resistance can be calculated from the
measured particle force and velocity (at the gauges near the top of the piles) as follows:

where, (Jc) is the non-dimensional Case damping factor, given by:
333
(10)
(11)
The Case damping factor typically varies with soil grain size from 0.4 to 1.0 for noncohesive to cohesive soils, respectively. Equation 10 is the so-called Case Method for
determining static pile capacity from a dynamic test, i.e. a test, which requires the
measurement of force (strain) and velocity (acceleration) during the impact of a hammer.
The impact from a hammer could be part of the installation process in case of a driven
pile, or, in case of cast-in-situ foundation elements, e.g. bored piles, would be provided
by a special purpose drop weight, solely for the purpose of dynamically testing the
element. The Case Method, as described above, gives a first estimate of static pile
capacity. The dynamic measurements of strain and acceleration are then subjected to a
more rigorous analysis (Rausche et al., 1985 [12]) to calculate static pile capacity with
greater accuracy. The so-called CAPWAP method is a signal matching process (or
reverse analysis procedure), in which the measured input and an assumed soil model is
used to obtain a calculated response that matches the measured input. Soil model
parameters are adjusted until a good agreement between measured and calculated signals
is obtained. More specifically, CAPWAP assumes that the soil reaction consists of
elasto-plastic and viscous components which means assigning three unknowns at each
discrete point of the soil model i.e. the ultimate static resistance, the quake of the soil
(elastic soil deformation) and the damping constant. The CAPWAP analysis is
completed when these three unknowns are determined for each point along the shaft and
the toe of the pile.
Dynamic measurements and analyses, i.e., the dynamic load test, of deep foundations
as described above not only provides information on soil resistance, but also on dynamic
compressive and tensile stresses in the pile during driving, hammer performance and pile
integrity or damage. During pile testing, stresses are monitored by the PDA to prevent
damage. Obviously, the pile top compressive stresses are simply determined from the
strain measurements. However, maximum tension stresses, occurring below sensor
location, and pile toe compression stresses have to be calculated and closed form
solutions exist for that purpose. In addition, CAPWAP signal matching can be used for
both uniform and non-uniform piles to assess stresses for any point along the pile.
While stress monitoring helps prevent pile damage of driven piles, damage or defect
assessment can be done by the so-called -Method. The quantity, , is the ratio of
damaged to undamaged cross section and can be evaluated, given an impedance
reduction caused tensile reflection, normalized by the downward traveling impact wave,
(Rausche and Goble, 1979 [11]).
(12)
The PDA formula is somewhat more elaborate and considers the effects of soil
resistance above the damage location which reduces the intensity of the impact wave.
334
Hammer performance, finally, is most easily done by calculating the energy

transferred from the hammer to the pile. This involves an integration of the product of
force and velocity over time. The maximum value of the resulting curve is often referred
to as ENTHRU in the literature; divided by the rated hammer energy yields the so-called
transfer ratio, transfer efficiency or global efficiency. Statistical evaluations of the
transfer ratios for different hammer and pile combinations have been published (Rausche
and Klesney, 2007 [13]).
3. Dynamic Load Testing-Driven Piles
Dynamic measurements and analyses are indispensable tools, today routinely
employed during pile driving operations for the monitoring and testing of driven piles.
The PDA, field instrumentation system (Figure 1 and Figure 2) and CAPWAP software
(Figure 4 shows a typical result page) from Pile Dynamics, Inc. are used every year on
thousands of construction sites worldwide for data collection and data interpretation.
Figure 4: CAPWAP Software Screen Shot
Dynamic pile testing provides capacity estimates to a large percentage of piles both
during the load test program as well as during actual construction. Multiple piles can be
installed and economically tested within a single day. Capacity determination of an
adequate number of piles is particularly important when piles are installed on large sites
with variable soil conditions. Dynamic testing allows evaluation of potential variations
335
of capacity and driving conditions across large construction sites, where performing
sufficiently many static load tests would be cost prohibitive. Dynamic testing is also
very effective in achieving an optimal foundation where modern design and construction
codes allow for reduced overall factors of safety as a function of the number of tests
performed. For example, the Load and Resistance Factor Design approaches of the EC 7
in Europe or AASHTO in the United States specify more economical partial safety
factors or resistance factors as a function of the number of dynamic tests performed.
Apart from capacity determination dynamic pile installation monitoring provides
information about hammer performance and driving system efficiency, In general,
compressive and tensile stresses induced during driving have to be kept below an
acceptable limit to avoid cracking and/or otherwise damaging the pile. In the United
States, the highway authorities, for example, allow steel compressive stresses to reach
90% of yield, while concrete compressive stresses are limited to 85% of concrete
compressive strength minus prestress. The tensile stresses in regularly reinforced piles
should be kept to below 70% of the yield strength of the reinforcement. Tension in
prestressed piles can be taken to the prestress level plus 50% of the concrete tensile
strength.
Poor hammer-to-pile alignment can induce excessive eccentricity and therefore high
bending stresses that could be detrimental to the pile integrity. An underperforming
hammer may be unable to drive the pile in the required penetration, or can result in
unacceptable driving times and overstressing of the pile. Moreover, differences in the
transferred energy between the production piles and the test piles will alter the driving
criterion. A PDA is capable of monitoring these effects, blow by blow during driving, as
well as asses pile damage if that occurs during driving.
Dynamic pile testing during driving mainly focuses on the determination of driving
stresses, pile performance and pile integrity. The capacity determination from EOID
(end-of-initial-driving) provides a short-term pile capacity estimate, which very often
(depending on the soil conditions) is lower than the long-term pile capacity. More
specifically, piles driven into cohesive soils induce an increase in the pore water
pressures in the surrounding soil during driving that only slowly dissipate with time. As
the excess pore water pressures dissipate the pile capacity increases. This phenomenon is
commonly referred to as soil setup. For that reason restrike tests are performed for the
determination of long-term pile capacity after an adequate waiting period from the time
of installation. For comparisons of static with dynamic load test results, the waiting
period for the restrike test should be similar to that for a static load test and, ideally,
shortly after the static test has been performed. It should be mentioned that the drilling
process of cast-in-situ piles also affects the strength of the pile-soil interface material
and requires sufficient waiting times before testing will take place. Of course, the
concrete also has to be gaining enough strength before a dynamic (or static) load can be
safely applied.
Many researchers and practitioners have published correlations of long-term capacity
estimates as determined by static load tests and restrike dynamic tests for a variety of
soil conditions and pile types. These studies show the dynamic restrike tests to be very
reliable in determining long-term static pile capacity and that CAPWAP results and
336
static load tests results are in excellent agreement if waiting times for the two test types
are comparable. A recent compilation of a large database of driven and bored piles has
been presented by Likins and Rausche, 2004 [9]. In this paper two previous major
studies (performed in 1980 and in 1996) and studies individually reported in six Stress
Wave conferences are all compiled in a single document, resulting in the analysis of 303
cases. Statistical analysis of the combined database showed the average
CAPWAP/(Static Load Test) ratio to be 0.98 with a coefficient of variation of 0.169.
Since the average CAPWAP to Static Load Test ratio is less than unity, and the often
used Davisson evaluation of static load tests is less than other commonly used failure
criteria, CAPWAP is, on the average, conservative.
4. Dynamic Load Testing-Bored Piles
As mentioned, dynamic load testing is also routinely used for the capacity
determination of cast-in-situ elements. Again, the PDA system and CAPWAP software
are one of the most common systems to be utilized worldwide for that purpose. A main
difference between driven pile testing and bored pile testing is that the former is usually
tested by using a pile driving hammer (diesel, hydraulic, air-steam etc.), whereas the
latter is tested by means of large drop hammers with only a few, well controlled impacts
for better stress and energy control.
Typically, three to five hammer impacts are performed for a successful dynamic load
test on a bored pile. Recommendations on ram weight, drop height (stroke) and cushions
are given by Hussein et al., 1996 [7]. Typically a ram weight of 1% to 2% of the
required capacity is utilized. The drop height and therefore the applied energy is
increased from blow to blow until an adequate set (permanent displacement) for the
mobilization of the capacity is reached, without the stresses exceeding the allowable
limits. Around the world many different types and weights of drop hammers have been
specifically developed for dynamic pile testing. Their ram weights and maximum drop
heights vary between 2 to 80 tons and 1.5 to 3 m, respectively. They are dropped either
by mechanical or hydraulic free release devices or simply by brake release of the crane
winch. Guiding of the drop weight may be done by external frames (preferable for larger
weights) or by center guiding rods which are fixed to a plate on top of the pile. Figure 5
shows a picture of the APPLE drop hammer by GRL Engineers, Inc., used in United
States, whose drop weights can range from 1 to 40 tons and which feature an external
guiding frame with hydraulic ram release.
337
Figure 5: Apple Drop Hammer
An interesting application, out of the numerous applications worldwide, of dynamic

testing of drilled shafts, is the Lee Roy Selmon Crosstown Expressway in West-Central
Florida, described by Hussein et al. , 2008 [6]. The dramatic failure of one of the drilled
shafts during the construction of the aforementioned expressway in Florida in 2004,
which resulted in structural collapse of two bridge spans, severely shook confidence and
mandated a thorough investigation of the entire project. Twelve completed bridge piers
were dynamically tested with a very large scale testing configuration as can be seen in
Figure 6. The forensic foundation study resulted in remediation action of 154 out of the
218 pier shafts (Anderson and McGillivray, 2006 [2]). Additional drilled shafts and
micro-piles were added at several pier locations. About two years after the dramatic
failure incident and after all remediation work was completed the project opened to the
public without any incident since then.
338
Figure 6: Hammer on Pier, Lee Roy Selmon Crosstown Expressway
5. Integrity Testing of Bored Piles

Cast-in-situ deep foundation elements are particularly susceptible to structural defects
and imperfections. They are not easily inspected, usually are designed to carry large
loads, and often have little or no redundancy. In other words, often single piles are used
to support columns with high loads. Confirming the structural integrity of bored piles is,
therefore, of utmost importance. While dynamic tests can be used to verify structural
integrity of bored piles as described above, untested shafts are assumed to have a
geotechnical capacity similar to the tested ones if they are of the same size, are installed
in the same soil conditions and with the same construction procedures. However, this
assumption is not valid for structurally defective shafts. It is therefore important to
confirm the structural integrity of bored piles. Several NDT methods have been
developed and successfully utilized for the evaluation of the structural integrity of deep
foundations. The most commonly used methods are Crosshole Sonic Logging and the
Low Strain Integrity Testing. A recently developed and very promising technology is the
Thermal Integrity Profiler.
In the United States, Crosshole Sonic Logging (CSL) is performed in accordance
with ASTM D6760 [5]. In Europe, other standards exist, e.g. AFNOR, 2000 [1]. To
339
execute this test, access tubes made of PVC or steel, having internal diameters of
typically 50 mm are attached to the reinforcing cage prior to concreting. Several days
after casting, the CSL test is performed by lowering in parallel tubes an ultrasonic pulse
transmitter and a receiver probe, respectively. Based on the signals first arrival time
(FAT) at the receiver tube and on the energy of the received signal, defects in the
concrete located in the paths of the wave pulses can be detected. Both FAT and signal
energy can be automatically determined; tube distance divided by FAT yields a measure
of concrete quality. Figure 7 shows a typical record of one scan in the form of a socalled water fall diagram and the derived wave speed and signal energy curves. In the
example, a loss of the signal near the bottom is attributed to a so-call soft toe condition.
Figure 7: CSL Test Results revealing a soft toe situation (Water Fall Diagram, FAT and Energy
Curves)
Because of this finding, a core hole was drilled in the shaft and with a video camera
the photo shown in Figure 8 was taken. It clearly shows the defective condition at the
pile bottom.
Figure 8: Defect seen from a core hole
340
Using a mathematical procedure called tomography the wave speeds measured

between all available combinations of tubes can be further analyzed to yield two- and
three-dimensional images. For a shaft installed with planned defects for research
purposes in the yard of Pile Dynamics, Figure 9 shows both a vertical section and a 3-D
result. The blue color represents unacceptably low wave speeds.
Figure 9: Tomography display of CSL records showing defects
Obviously, the test provides clear results for even very great depths (CSL has no
depth limitations). However, it only indicates concrete quality variations which are
located between inspections tubes. Thus, while the CSL method yields generally very
clear and detailed results about the concrete quality between the transmitter and receiver
probes, it does not provide any information about the concrete outside of the
reinforcement cage and, therefore, cannot be used to assess the size or quality of the
concrete cover. Another limitation of CSL testing is that the access tubes have to be preplanned. So if during construction a shaft is considered potentially defective it cannot be
tested with CSL if access tubes were not installed during reinforcement cage placement.
The latter limitation of CSL is overcome by another commonly used NDT method, the
so-called Low Strain Integrity Testing or Pulse Echo Test (ASTM D5882 [4]). Unlike
CSL test, Low Strain Integrity Testing does not need any pre-planning in order to be
utilized for pile integrity evaluation. Therefore, is particularly helpful in cases where
integrity testing of finished shafts is required but CSL access tubes have not been preinstalled. The Low Strain Integrity testing or Pulse Echo Test, incorporated in the PIT
equipment, requires that a light hand-held hammer tap is applied to the pile top. The
impact creates a compressive stress wave of low intensity. An accelerometer is
temporarily attached to the pile top to measure the pile top motion due to impact and
reflection waves. Figure 10 shows a test being conducted with a wireless accelerometer
and a very small receiving, PIT-X, unit which displays and stores the received signals.
341
Figure 10: PIT Testing Configuration
The low strains generated by the light hammer impact and the associated low
displacements generated by the traveling wave cause only a minimal resistance reaction
in the soil and it is for that reason possible to receive at the pile top reflections from the
pile toe when the soil embedded pile length is up to about 45 times the diameter of the
pile. In very competent soils it may only be possible to see a toe reflection from a depth
of 20 diameters. Apart from the length limitation, this method is very quick and
relatively inexpensive and can be applied to any concrete pile (maybe also timber piles
of limited length) since it does not require any preparations (such as inspection tubes).
Often all piles in a project are tested by this method due to its cost effectiveness. Figure
11 shows the velocity vs. time records of two piles, the first having no defect and the
second one with a clear reflection prior to the toe signal which indicates that there was
an impedance reduction.
342
800mmdrilledshafts
L=25m(L/D=31)
GoodPile
BadPile
Figure 11: PIT testing Output
A new and very promising NDT method for pile integrity evaluation is the Thermal
Integrity Profiler (TIP). TIP, a rapidly emerging technology, presents many advantages
over the current-state-of-practice methods i.e. CSL and PIT described above. More
specifically, TIP does not present length limitations, it can evaluate pile integrity within
few hours of shaft construction, it offers 100% testing coverage of the pile cross
sectional area (including the area outside the cage), and it provides extra information e.g.
cage misalignment and therefore concrete cover. The theoretical soundness of the
method and the ease in performing the test and interpreting the results makes it attractive
and increasingly popular within the engineering community. The TIP approach is based
on concrete temperature measurements during hydration of the concrete, i.e., within a
short time period after the concrete has been poured. The basic principle behind TIP is
that a perfect, uniform concrete cylinder with a reinforcing cage placed symmetrically
within the cylinder will provide uniform temperature profiles with depth, in locations
equidistant from the center of the cylinder. The presence of defects or cage
misalignments will alter the temperature signatures. Defects and misalignment can be
quantified based on the temperature profiles and concrete volumes information.
Temperatures can either be measured with infrared probes in inspection tubes, the same
that also could be used for CSL testing. Alternatively, Thermal Wire brand cables
could be installed along the reinforcement cage and they can continuously monitor the
concrete temperature. A simple evaluation procedure can produce a 3-dimensional
image of the pile, given the installed volume of the concrete. Figure 12 shows both the
derived profile of the shaft (including the location of the reinforcement cage) and the
temperature vs. depth of a 2.13m diameter shaft, instrumented with six (6) Thermal Wire
cables. A photo of the actual shaft after excavation is also shown in the same figure.
343
This result shows rather clearly that the higher temperatures near the top and thus the
depiction of the bulge have their origin in the actual pile shaft geometry which also
includes an eccentricity of the reinforcement cage.
Figure 12: Profile as derived by TIP including location of the reinforcement cage (top left),
temperature vs. depth profiles as measured by Thermal Wire cables (top right), and a photo of the
actual shaft (bottom).
344
6. Summary
This paper described a number of methods, which with the exception of the Thermal
Method are based on measurements of stress wave propagation. The most important one,
the high strain test (dynamic test), is useful for both the monitoring of driven piles
during installation and dynamic load testing of driven and bored piles. Monitoring the
pile installation by measuring pile top force and velocity with a PDA is a construction
control procedure; it helps to avoid pile damage by maintaining safe driving stresses
and, should damage happen anyhow, does not only detect it, but does also quantity its
magnitude. Dynamic monitoring also provides information about the Static Resistance to
Driving (SRD). While for certain soils the SRD at the end of installation is identical to
the long term pile capacity, in soils which are sensitive to dynamic loading, a restrike is
necessary to perform a meaningful Dynamic Load Test. Evaluated by CAPWAP both
long term soil resistance and its distribution along the pile and a simulated load-set curve
are obtained. Primarily for drilled shafts but also for other concrete piles, assessment of
the structural integrity of the shaft is part of a complete Quality Assurance program.
Two traditional methods, Cross Hole Sonic Logging and Pulse Echo have now been
joined by the Thermal Integrity Profiler. While all methods have benefits and
limitations, TIP is a promising new technology which overcomes many shortcomings of
the more traditional methods.
REFERENCES
1. AFNOR, -XP P94-152 Sols: reconnaissance et essais Auscultation dun
lment de fondation Partie 1: mthode par transparence-, Association
Franaise de Normalisation, 2000, France (in French)
2. Anderson, S. and McGillivray, R. -Under the Crosstown: Remediating the
Drilled Shaft Foundations for Tampa, Floridas Lee Roy Selmon Crosstown
Expressway- Foundation Drilling Magazine, June/July 2006, pages 1014.
3. ASTM D4945, -Standard Test Method for high-strain dynamic testing of deep
foundations- American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA,
Construction Vol. 4:08
4. ASTM D5882, -Standard Test Method for low-strain impact integrity testing of
deep foundations- American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA,
Construction Vol. 4:08
5. ASTM D6760, -Standard Test Method for integrity testing of concrete deep
foundations by ultrasonic crosshole testing- American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA, Construction Vol. 4:08
345
6. Hussein, M.H., Bullock, P.J., Rausche, F., and McGillivray, R. -Large-scale

Dynamic High-Strain Load Testing of a Bridge Pier Foundations- Proceedings
of the Eighth International Conference on the Application of Stress Wave Theory
to Piles, Lisbon, Portugal, 2008, pages 371-377.
7. Hussein, M.H., Likins, G. E., and Rausche, F. -Selection of a Hammer for HighStrain Dynamic Testing of Cast-in-Place Shafts- Proceedings of the Fifth
International Conference on the Application of Stress-wave Theory to Piles,
Orlando, FL, 1996, pages 759-772.
8. Likins, G.E., Mullins, G., -Structural Integrity of Drilled Shaft Foundations by
Thermal Measurements- Structural Engineer, November 2011, pages 46-48.
9. Likins, G.E. and Rausche, F. -Correlation of CAPWAP with Static Load TestsProc. of the 7th Int. Conf. on the Application of Stress Wave Theory to Piles,
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, 2004, pages 153-165.
10. Rausche, F. -Non-Destructive Evaluation of Deep Foundations- Proceedings of
the 5th International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering,
NY, 2004, CD-ROM.
11. Rausche, F., and Goble, G.G. -Determination of Pile Damage by Top
Measurements- American Society for Testing and Material, Philadelphia, PA,
1979, pages 500-506.
12. Rausche, F., Goble, G.G., and Likins, G.E. -Dynamic determination of pile
capacity- Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 111, No. 3, 1985, page 367
383.
13. Rausche, F., and Klesney, A. -Hammer Types, Efficiencies and Models in
GRLWEAP- PDCA 11th Annual International Conference and Exposition,
Nashville, TN, 2007, pages 97-118.
14. Timoshenko S.P., and Goodier J.N. -Theory of Elasticity- McGrow-Hill Book
Company, 3rd edition, NY, 1970.
346

Organizedby Centro Internazionaledi Aggiornamento Sperimentale

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Organizedby Centro Internazionaledi Aggiornamento Sperimentale

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Organizedby Centro Internazionaledi Aggiornamento Sperimentale

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

QUALITY

Figure 2: PDA with Antenna

This relationship expresses a proportionality between particle velocity and applied

Figure 3: Force-Velocity signals from PDA

The dynamic component can be calculated by introducing a viscous damping

where, (Jc) is the non-dimensional Case damping factor, given by:

Hammer performance, finally, is most easily done by calculating the energy

Figure 4: CAPWAP Software Screen Shot

Figure 5: Apple Drop Hammer

An interesting application, out of the numerous applications worldwide, of dynamic

public without any incident since then.

Figure 6: Hammer on Pier, Lee Roy Selmon Crosstown Expressway

5. Integrity Testing of Bored Piles

Figure 8: Defect seen from a core hole

Using a mathematical procedure called tomography the wave speeds measured

Figure 9: Tomography display of CSL records showing defects

Figure 10: PIT Testing Configuration

Figure 11: PIT testing Output

6. Hussein, M.H., Bullock, P.J., Rausche, F., and McGillivray, R. -Large-scale

You might also like