Chapter 2

Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale

Photovoltaic Power Plants

Abstract  This chapter presents an extensive literature survey on various different

aspects of medium-voltage (MV) converter development for step-up-transformer-
less direct grid integration of photovoltaic (PV) power plants. The main objective
was to show how power electronic converter topologies, power electronic devices,
and control complexities have affected the development of the MV converter
and how to make an excellent choice of the converter topology for step-up-trans-
former-less grid integration through the MV converter. Besides the traditional sys-
tem, which requires a step-up transformer to connect the renewable power plants
to the grids, other recently proposed converter topologies for step-up-transformer-
less direct grid interconnection are also introduced in detail with the aim of pre-
senting a complete picture of power converter topologies for small- to large-scale
PV power plants.

Keywords  Power converters  ·  Photovoltaic inverters  ·  Small to large scale  · Power

plants  ·  Remote area  ·  Medium voltage

2.1 Introduction

The world’s energy demand is growing remarkably due to the fast growth of popu-
lation and economy in the developing countries. The energy sector is facing an
accelerating amalgam crisis of the worldwide established fossil and atomic energy
systems. Natural gas, coal, and crude oil are the main fossil fuels for the current
world energy supply. Crude oil is the most important fossil fuel among the three
main fossil flues. Figure 2.1 shows the trend of world oil consumption [1]. Coal is
the second most important consumable fossil fuel. Figure 2.2 shows the world coal
consumption [1]. Due to very high oil price, coal has been becoming an attractive
fossil fuel in the recent years. Figure 2.3 shows the world consumption of natural
gas [1]. Almost a constant growth rate has been observed for the natural gas con-
sumption in the past decades.

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014 17

M.R. Islam et al., Power Converters for Medium Voltage Networks,
Green Energy and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-44529-7_2
18 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

90

Consumption (Million
80

barrels/day)
World Oil Consumption

70

60

50
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year

Fig. 2.1  World oil consumption [1]

120
Quadrillion BTU

World Coal Consumption

100

80

60
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year

Fig. 2.2  World coal consumption [1]

3000
Consumption (Million

2500 World Gas Consumption

Tons OE)

2000

1500

1000
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year

Fig. 2.3  World natural gas consumption [1]

The increasing energy demand is not only diminishing the reserve of fos-
sil fuels, but also affecting the environment. Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is gener-
ated from burning of fossil fuels, which significantly contributes to the increase
of average global temperatures, i.e., global warming. Figure 2.4 shows the world
CO2 emission from fossil fuel burning [1]. Scientists worldwide are now seeking
2.1 Introduction 19

CO2 Emissions (Milion Tons)

10000

8000 CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel

Burning
6000

4000

2000

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year

Fig. 2.4  World CO2 emission form fossil fuel burning [1]

Biodiesel
38.6 %
Solar PV Average Annual World
35.2 % Energy Growth Rates
by Source
Wind
27.9 %
Geothermal
22.1 %
Fuel
Ethanol
15.1 %

Natural Coal
Hydro Gas
Oil Nuclear 3.9 %
2.3 % 2.4 %
1.1 % 0.7 %

Fig. 2.5  Average annual world energy growth rates by source [1]

solutions to these two enormous challenges (energy and environment) from renew-
able or clean energy sources, which are richly available in almost every country.
Many countries have set targets for renewable energy use to meet the increas-
ing energy demand and also to reduce the global warming effect. For example, the
target shares of total energy from renewables by 2020 in Sweden, Finland, Austria,
and Australia are 49, 38, 34, and 20 %, respectively [2]. Therefore, average annual
growth rates of renewable sources are much higher than those of conventional
sources in recent years. Figure 2.5 shows the average annual world energy growth
rates [1]. Solar photovoltaic (PV) represents the second highest growth rate due to
its abundance source and technological development of PV cell, e.g., reduction of
PV module cost. Average module cost was USD 100/W and USD 29/W in 1975
and 1980, respectively, and reduced to less than USD 3.5/W in 2004. Figure 2.6
shows the average PV module cost [1].
20 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

100 1980 1998

Module cost per Watt (USD)

80 Less than
Less than
30 USD/Watt 5 USD/Watt
60

40
About 3.5
20 USD/Watt
5 USD/Watt
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year

Fig. 2.6  Average photovoltaic module cost [1]

Since 2007, medium- and large-scale PV power plants have attracted a high
degree of attention and the power plants of more than 10 MW in capacity have
now become a reality. These multi-megawatt PV power plants require large areas
of land, and thus, they are usually installed in remote areas, far from cities. For
power transmission, a step-up transformer is usually used in the PV inverter sys-
tem to feed in the solar energy into a medium-voltage (MV) grid (e.g., 6–36 kV).
The transformer steps up the inverter output voltage from 300 V AC to grid volt-
age level (e.g., 6–36 kV). Although these special transformers are compact com-
pared with conventional distribution transformers, they are still large and heavy for
remote area PV applications. The large-size and heavy weight step-up transformer
may increase the system weight and volume and can be expensive and complex for
installation and maintenance. The MV inverter may offer the best possible solution
to interconnect the PV array to the MV grid directly [3]. Moreover, it may also
be possible to ensure electrical isolation through the inverter, which is important
for the interconnection of MV grid and PV array [4]. Recently, advanced mag-
netic materials, such as amorphous and nanocrystalline alloys, have attracted sig-
nificant attention to develop high-frequency magnetic links for MV inverters [5].
Compared with the power frequency transformer (operated at 50/60 Hz), the high-
frequency magnetic links (in the range of a few kHz–MHz) have much smaller and
lighter magnetic cores and windings and thus much lower cost. Therefore, the MV
inverter for step-up-transformer-less direct grid interconnection of PV systems has
become a favorable choice, since the installation of large-scale PV power plants
started commercially in 2007.
This chapter incorporates PV power generation technologies, including tradi-
tional power conditioning systems, two-level low-voltage converter topologies,
the limitations of power frequency step-up transformer-based grid integration of
renewable generation systems in remote area applications, and advanced converter
topologies for MV applications. Therefore, an extensive literature survey has been
conducted focusing on many different aspects of MV converter development for
2.1 Introduction 21

step-up-transformer-less direct grid integration of PV power generation systems.

The main objective of this general review on power electronic converter topolo-
gies is to show how topologies, power electronic devices, and control complexities
have affected the development of the MV converter and to understand which con-
verter topology would be a natural choice for step-up-transformer-less grid inte-
gration through the MV converter.

2.2 Solar Photovoltaic Arrays

The “solar photovoltaic” means “producing electricity from sunlight.” A PV cell

can be made by two semiconductor layers; one having positive charge and the
other having negative charge. When the sunlight shines on a PV cell, some of the
photons from the sunlight are absorbed by the semiconductor atoms, releasing
electrons from the cell’s negative layer. If there is an external circuit, the free elec-
trons flow to the positive layer and produce electric current in the external circuit.
Figure 2.7 shows a photograph of PV cell.
One silicon PV cell can produce about 0.5 V, which is too small to do valu-
able work. To increase the voltage, several individual PV cells are interconnected
together in package called a module. For example, a 12-V module will have 36
individual cells connected in series. In 24 V applications, two 12-V modules can
be connected in series, where the current stays unchanged. Figure 2.8 shows a pho-
tograph of 24-V PV module. Table 2.1 summarizes the electrical characteristics of
solar module SX-10. When two modules are wired in parallel, their current is dou-
bled and the voltage stays unchanged. To achieve the desired voltage and current,

Fig. 2.7  A photograph of
PV cell, which may produce
0.5 V DC

Fig. 2.8  A photograph of
24-V PV module, where 72
cells are interconnected

Cell
22 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

Table 2.1  Electrical Parameters Rating

characteristics of solar
Nominal voltage 12 V
module SX-10
Rated power 10 W
Number of PV cells 36 (connected in
series)
Voltage at Pmax (Vmp) 16.8 V
Current at Pmax (Imp) 0.59 A
Short-circuit current (Isc) 0.65 A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 21.0 V
Temperature coefficient of Isc (0.065 ± 0.015) %/°C
Temperature coefficient of Voc −(80 ± 10) mV/°C
Temperature coefficient of power −(0.5 ± 0.05) %/°C

Fig. 2.9  A photograph Cell

of PV array with six 12-V
modules, where 36 cells
are interconnected in each Module
module

a number of modules can be connected in series and parallel. The series–parallel

combination of modules is called a PV array. Figure 2.9 shows a photograph of PV
array with six 12-V modules, where 36 cells are interconnected in each module.

2.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic Array Modeling

When PV arrays are used to harvest solar energy, two important factors could limit
the implementation of PV systems, i.e., high cost and low efficiency in energy
conversion. The conversion efficiency of the current solar PV modules is typically
only about 10–17 % [6]. In PV systems, the PV array represents about 57 % of
the total cost of the system, and the battery storage system corresponds to 30 %
of the cost. Other system components such as inverters and maximum power
point tracker (MPPT) contribute to only 7 % of the total cost [7]. Due to the low
2.2  Solar Photovoltaic Arrays 23

Fig. 2.10  Equivalent circuit Icell R scell

of a PV cell

Rshcell
D Vcell
IL

conversion efficiency and high cost of solar array, it is very desirable to operate the
PV panel at the maximum power point (MPP). An ideal solar cell can be modeled
by a current source in parallel with a diode. In practice, no solar cell is ideal and
hence a shunt resistance and a series resistance are added to the model as shown
in Fig. 2.10, where Rscell is the intrinsic series resistance of usually a very small
value, and Rshcell is the equivalent shunt resistance of usually a very large value.
For a single silicon solar cell, the nonlinear I–V characteristic can be presented
as [8, 9]
  Vcell + Icell Rscell
Icell = IL − Io exp (G(Vcell + Icell Rscell )) − 1 − (2.1)
Rshcell
where
G = AiqKT ,
q is the electronic charge (=1.602 × 10−19 C),
Ai = Bi is the ideality factor (=1.92),
K is the Boltzmann’s constant (=1.38 × 10−23 J/K),
T is the PV cell temperature,
Icell is the cell output current,
Vcell is the cell output voltage,
Io is the cell saturation current which can be presented as
 3   
T qEGO 1 1
Io = Ior exp − (2.2)
Tr Bi K Tr T
IL is the light-generated current which can be presented as
  Rad
IL = ISC + KISC (TC − 28) × (2.3)
1,000
The array temperature Tc is approximately given by [9]
TC = Tair + 0.3 × Rad % (2.4)

Tr is the reference temperature (=301 K),

Ior is the reverse saturation current at Tr (=19.9693 × 10−6 A),
Ios is the cell reverse saturation current, A
Tc is the cell temperature, °C
KIsc is the short-circuit current temperature coefficient (=0.0017 A/°C)
24 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

Fig. 2.11  Simplified Icell R scell

equivalent circuit of a PV cell

D Vcell
IL

Rad is the cell illumination, W/m2 (1,000 W/m2 = 100 % illumination)

Isc is the cell short-circuit current at 28 °C and 1,000 W/m2 (=2.52 A)
EGo is the band gap for silicon (=1.11 eV)
Tair is the ambient temperature, °C
Since PV arrays are built up with series and/or parallel connected combinations
of solar PV cells, for an array with nS × nP cells, the current equation can be pre-
sented as [9, 10]
    
VPV + IPV Rs VPV + IPV Rs
IPV = np IL − np Io exp G −1 − . (2.5)
ns Rsh
where
IPV = nP Icell is the PV array output current,
VPV = nS Vcell is the PV array output voltage,
ns is the number of cells connected in series,
n p is the number of panels connected in parallel,
RS = RScell nnPS is the PV array series resistance, and
Rsh = Rshcell nnSP is the PV array shunt resistance.
The shunt resistance Rshcell is much greater than the series resistance Rscell,
which makes the last term of (2.1) much smaller than the other terms. The simpli-
fied cell equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.11.
The current–voltage relation of simplified PV cell can be expressed as
 
Icell = IL − Io exp (G(Vcell + Icell Rscell )) − 1 (2.6)
and the array current–voltage relation becomes
    
VPV + IPV Rs
IPV = np IL − np Io exp G −1 . (2.7)
ns

2.2.2 Solar Photovoltaic Array Characteristics

Solar energy sources have variable daily and seasonal patterns. For exam-
ple, monthly average global solar insolation at Dhaka City of Bangladesh var-
ies between 3.92 and 7.71 kW h/m2/day. The maximum amount of insolation
2.2  Solar Photovoltaic Arrays 25

Fig. 2.12  Monthly average

Average insolation (kWh/m2/day)

6
global solar insolation at
Dhaka City of Bangladesh; 5.5
recording period: 1988–1998
[11] 5

4.5

3.5
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month

Fig. 2.13  Daily average
Average bright sunshine hours

9
bright sunshine hour at
Dhaka City of Bangladesh; 8
recording period: 1961–1980
7
[11]
6

3
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month

is available in the months of March–May, and the minimum in December–

January. Figure 2.12 shows the monthly global solar insolation at Dhaka City of
Bangladesh [11]. Daily bright sunshine hours have also variable daily and sea-
sonal patterns. For example, the daily average bright sunshine hour at Dhaka City
of Bangladesh vary between 4.9 and 9.1 h. The maximum is in the months of
February–April, and the minimum is in the June–September. Figure 2.13 shows
the daily average bright sunshine hours at Dhaka City of Bangladesh [11]. The
output characteristics of the PV array are nonlinear and critically affected by the
solar radiation, temperature, and load conditions. The current versus voltage (I–V)
and power versus voltage (P–V) characteristics with various irradiances at 25 °C
temperature are shown in Figs. 2.14 and 2.15, respectively [12, 13]. The simulated
I–V and P–V characteristics with various temperatures at 1,000 W/m2 irradiance
are illustrated in Figs. 2.16 and 2.17, respectively [12, 13].

2.2.3 Solar Photovoltaic Array Maximum Power Point

It is also observed from the power–voltage curve of the solar PV module that on
the right hand side, when the voltage is almost constant, the slope of power versus
26 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

5
2
1000 W/m
Current, I (A)
4
800 W/m 2
3
600 W/m2
2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Voltage, V (V)

Fig. 2.14  Calculated I–V curves at different irradiance ranging from 600 to 1,000 W/m2; 25 °C
temperature was considered for the calculation [12, 13]

70

60 1000 W/m 2
800 W/m 2
50
Power, P (W)

600 W/m2
40

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Voltage, V (V)

Fig. 2.15  Calculated P–V curves at different irradiance ranging from 600 to 1,000 W/m2; 25 °C

temperature was considered for the calculation [12, 13]

voltage is negative (ΔP/ΔV < 0), whereas on the left hand side, the slope is posi-
tive (ΔP/ΔV > 0), as illustrated in Fig. 2.18 [12, 13]. Thus, the PV array has an
optimum operating point called the MPP, which varies depending on array tem-
perature and the present insolation level. The irradiance mainly affects the output
current, and the temperature mainly affects the terminal voltage of the PV array,
so that the effects of both factors have to be considered when designing a PV sys-
tem. However, the intermittent nature of PV sources, in terms of the power and
output voltage, is a major issue when connected to the grid. Therefore, solar PV
system requires a power conditioning circuit known as PV inverter that is capable
of extracting the maximum power from PV source and feeds the adjusted power to
the load and/or grid to their satisfaction.
2.2  Solar Photovoltaic Arrays 27

5
o
Current, I (A) 75 C
4
o
50 C
3 o
25 C
2

0
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage, V (V)

Fig. 2.16  Calculated I–V curves at different temperature ranging from 25 to 75 °C; irradiance

1,000 W/m2 was considered for the calculation [12, 13]

70
60
50
Power, P (W)

o
75 C
40
o
30 50 C
o
20 25 C
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage, V (V)

Fig. 2.17  Calculated P–V curves at different temperature ranging from 25 to 75 °C; irradiance

1,000 W/m2 was considered for the calculation [12, 13]

Fig. 2.18  Maximum power
point (MPP) determination: dP/dV=0
The slope is positive on the
left side of the P–V curve,
Power, P (W)

negative on the right side, and

0

dP
V>

zero at the MPP [12, 13]

/dV
/d
dP

MPP
<0

Voltage, V (V)
28 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

Fig. 2.19  Fundamental Stage 1 Stage 2

circuit of two-stage PV
inverter [14] L

PV array

AC line
Cs Cd

Boost & MPPT Inverter

Fig. 2.20  Most commonly L
iL io
used DC to DC boost
converter circuit

VL
+
+

-
+ Diode

Vi Vo
Cs Cd
- Transistor -

2.3 Inverters in Small-Scale Solar PV Systems

2.3.1 Two-Stage Solar PV Inverters for Small-Scale Systems

Usually, a PV inverter has two stages to shape the PV array output power for feed-
ing into the AC load. The first stage is responsible for boosting the PV array volt-
age and tracking the MPP, and the second stage inverts available DC power into
AC power. The most fundamental circuit topology of the two-stage PV inverter
using the full-bridge as shown in Fig. 2.19 was proposed in [14].
Usually, the source-side controller tracks the maximum power and the load-
side controller controls the power factor of output current and maintains constant
DC voltage across capacitor Cd. When the transistor is turned on, the energy from
PV array is stored in the inductor L. When transistor is turned off, the inductor
stored energy is delivered to the DC-link capacitor Cd and the H-bridge inverter.
The booster circuit can have two distinct modes of operation, the continuous cur-
rent conduction and discontinuous current conduction, of significantly different
characteristics. The booster circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.20, is also known as the
step-up DC to DC converter; its typical application is to convert low input voltage
to a high output voltage. When the transistor is turned on, the source voltage Vi is
applied across the inductor and the rising rate of inductor current is dependent on
the source voltage Vi and inductance L. Figure 2.21 shows the equivalent circuit of
the DC to DC boost converter when the transistor is turned on.
When the transistor is turned off, the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.22
and the inductor voltage becomes
vL = Vi − Vo (2.8)
2.3  Inverters in Small-Scale Solar PV Systems 29

Fig. 2.21  Equivalent iL L
circuit of a DC to DC boost
converter when transistor is + + vL - +
turned on Vi Cs Co Vo

- -

Fig. 2.22  Equivalent iL L
circuit of a DC to DC boost
converter when the transistor + vL -
+ +
is turned off
Vi Cs Co Vo

- -

Fig. 2.23  Voltage across
inductor L for time period T

vi
A
toff
0
ton t
B

(vi-vo)
T

For steady-state operation, the integral of inductor voltage vL over one time period
T must be zero, i.e., the areas A and B in Fig. 2.23 must be equal.
Therefore,
Vi × ton + (Vi − Vo ) × toff = 0 (2.9)
Dividing both sides by T, and rearranging all terms, we have
Vo T 1
= = (2.10)
Vi toff 1−D
Assuming the circuit is 100 % efficient, i.e., the input power (Pi) and output power
(Po) are equal, (Pi = Po), or
Vi × Ii = Vo × Io (2.11)
one obtains
Io
= (1 − D) (2.12)
Ii
30 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

iL

IL

0
t
T
t on toff

Fig. 24  Waveform of inductor current in the continuous conduction mode

D1

L D2
PV array

AC line
Cs Cd

Boost chopper Inverter

Fig. 2.25  Time-sharing chopper-based-modified circuit of two-stage PV inverter

L
D2
PV array

T1 T3
AC line

Cs Lr Cr
C
D1 T2

Fig. 2.26  Parallel resonant DC-link-based-modified two-stage PV inverter circuit

In the continuous operation mode, the inductor current never falls to zero in one
switching cycle, i.e., either the transistor or diode is conducting. Figure 2.24
shows the inductor current in the continuous conduction mode.
Several modified topologies, such as a time-sharing dual-mode PV inverter [15]
in Fig. 2.25 and a soft-switched DC to DC boost converter-based inverter [16] in
Fig.  2.26, were proposed to improve the efficiency of the fundamental circuit. In
the time-sharing dual-mode PV inverter, when the PV array output voltage is larger
than the DC-link voltage, the transistor is always in the off state and the input cur-
rent flows through the bypass diode D1 but does not flow through the boost inductor
2.3  Inverters in Small-Scale Solar PV Systems 31

L and free-wheeling diode D2. In this way, the proposed circuit can avoid the con-
duction losses of boost inductor, L, and the free-wheeling diode D2. When the input
voltage is smaller than the DC-link voltage, the bypass diode D1 behaves as open
circuit and the circuit operates as a fundamental two-stage PV inverter circuit. In the
soft-switched DC to DC boost converter-based PV inverter, there are two stages: the
converter stage and inverter stage. All the switches in both the converter and inverter
stages can be turned on and off with zero voltage switching, which can reduce the
switching losses significantly. The operating principle of the proposed soft switch-
ing inverter was presented with a few switching modes [16] as the following:
Mode 1 When the transistor in DC-link capacitor C is turned on with zero volt-
age switching, the DC-link capacitor begins to discharge and linearly
decreases the main inductor L current.
Mode 2 When the transistors T1, T2, and T3 are turned on with zero voltage
switching, the DC-link capacitor begins to discharge.
Mode 3 When T1 and T2 are turned on with zero voltage switching, the resonance
between resonance inductor, Lr, and resonance capacitor, Cr, is started and
the main inductor current is minimized. When the resonance is finished,
the current of resonant inductor, Lr, flows through diodes, D1 and D2.
Mode 4 When T1 and T2 are turned off with zero voltage switching, resonance
is started. The resonant capacitor Cr is charged by the current flowing
through inductors, L and Lr. The resonance stops when the voltage of res-
onant capacitor, Cr, equals the output voltage. The DC-link capacitor is
charged by L and Lr through the parallel diode of T3.

2.3.2 Multiple-Stages Solar PV Inverters for Small-Scale

Systems

Due to the high value of stray capacitance of PV array, a galvanic connection

between the ground of the grid and the PV array may exist. In this case, danger-
ous leakage current called common-mode current may appear through the stray
capacitance between the PV array and the ground. The capacitance between PV
cells and the ground can reach very high value under certain conditions, such as
the PV array structure, and weather there are humidity and dust covering the PV
array. This capacitance can reach up to 150 nF/kWp for crystalline-silicon cells and
1 μF/kWp for thin-film cells. The common-mode leakage current may increase the
system power loss, reduce the grid current quality, and cause personnel safety prob-
lems [17, 18]. Therefore, galvanic isolation is essential because it permits easy array
grounding, array isolation from grid in case of fault, and safety of personnel, and
can strongly reduce the leakage current between the PV array and the ground. The
connection of grid neutral and middle points of the DC link is one of the options to
reduce the ground leakage currents. In this context, Rahman and Zhong [19] pro-
posed a half-bridge topology-based PV inverter as shown in Fig. 2.27. The step-up
32 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

Fig. 2.27  Basic circuit of
half-bridge topology-based
PV inverter L D

PV array

AC line
C1
Cs C2
Q

Boost & MPPT Inverter

Fig. 2.28  Sunny Boy
5000TL model half-bridge L
D
topology-based PV inverter
PV array

Cin c

L
D
PV array

AC line
C
Cin c

Inverter
L
D
PV array

Cin c

MPPT & booster

(boost) converter raises the voltage of the PV array and also serves the operation of
MPPT. Driven by the proper reference signals generated by the control algorithm
to modulate the pulse width of the switching signal of switch Q, the half-bridge
inverter inverts the DC power to 50 or 60 Hz AC power. Figure 2.28 illustrates the
half-bridge topology-based three-string PV inverter, Sunny Boy 5000TL, commer-
cially developed by SMA [20]. The half-bridge inverter-based topology requires
less switching devices, but its DC-link voltage needs to be twice the grid voltage
peak. The inverter topologies do not have electrical isolation between the array and
the grid, which is critical in case of fault and safety of personnel.
The insulation can be achieved through a power frequency transformer at
the grid side of the PV inverter which may also serve voltage step-up operation.
2.3  Inverters in Small-Scale Solar PV Systems 33

Filter
L

PV array

AC line
Cin

HFT-L
Inverter Rectifier Inverter
with MPPT

Fig. 2.29  High-frequency transformer-link (HFT-L)-based PV inverter power circuit

This power frequency transformer is heavy and large, increasing the PV inverter
installation cost and requiring regular monitoring and maintenance. Increasing
the operating frequency will lead to a compact and lightweight magnetic com-
ponent of isolation transformers [4, 5, 21]. Several medium- and high-frequency
(HF) transformer-based inverter topologies were developed and made available
commercially. Figure 2.29 shows a high-frequency link-based inverter system
[10]. The DC PV array power is converted to 50 or 60 Hz AC line power through
an isolated high-frequency transformer link. The DC voltage of the PV array is
firstly converted to high-frequency AC by a high-frequency inverter, which is then
transformer-coupled and converted to 50 or 60 Hz AC through a high-frequency
rectifier, filter, and a full-bridge inverter. The multistage power conversion may
increase the cost of the converter and decrease the efficiency of the system, but
it can significantly reduce the weight and volume of the power conversion sys-
tem and minimize grid isolation issues. In 2010, Lu et al. [22, 23] proposed a pla-
nar high-frequency transformer-based PV inverter system as shown in Fig. 2.30.
Higher output power from multiple PV arrays can be achieved by connecting each
PV array to its own DC to AC converter and single-phase transformer. The prima-
ries of the high-frequency transformer links are connected in an open delta ener-
gized by high-frequency voltage from DC to AC converters, where the converter

DC/DC converter

DC/AC
Inverter
0o
AC output
PV modules

DC/AC DC/AC
Inverter Inverter
120o

DC/AC
Inverter
240o
HF transformer

Fig. 2.30  High-frequency (HF) transformer-based PV inverter power circuit

34 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

L
PV array

Cin c
HFT

L
PV array

AC line
C in c
HFT

Inverter
L
PV array

Cin c
HFT

HF Inverters with booster Rectifiers

Fig. 2.31  High-frequency transformer (HFT)-based PowerLynx Powerlink PV 4.5 kW inverter

output voltages are phase shifted each other by 120°. The secondaries of the high-
frequency transformer links are connected in a wye configuration, and the output
is connected to a 50 or 60 Hz DC to AC converter through a high-frequency three-
phase rectifier. The detailed design and analysis of the HF planar transformer were
reported in [24, 25]. The Original Equipment Manufacturer commercially devel-
oped the high-frequency transformer-based three-string PV inverter, PowerLynx
Powerlink PV 4.5 kW, as shown in Fig. 2.31 [26].

2.3.3 Single-Stage Solar PV Inverter for Small-Scale

Systems

Compared to the single-stage one, the multistage power conversion is somewhat

more expensive and affects the efficiency of the PV inverter. In order to reduce
the volume and weight as well as the power conversion loss and cost, a hybrid PV-
battery-powered DC bus system was proposed in 2009 [27]. The DC to AC con-
version stage-less DC bus system is very applicable to electronic equipment and
appliances with high system efficiencies. The PV-battery-powered DC bus system
2.3  Inverters in Small-Scale Solar PV Systems 35

DC bus DC bus

High step-up High step-up AC AC

Rectifier
DC/DC converter DC/DC converter adaptor adaptor

Load # 1 Load # N

Battery Battery AC mains

PV PV

Module 1 Module N

Fig. 2.32  PV-battery-powered DC bus system

Fig. 2.33  Full-bridge with
MPPT-based circuit topology
of single-stage inverter PV array

AC line
Cin

Inverter
with MPPT

is shown in Fig. 2.32. For AC systems, a single-stage PV inverter was proposed in

[28], and the circuit topology of single-stage inverter is shown in Fig. 2.33.
The proposed inverter performs a dual function: MPPT and outputting a sinu-
soidal current, which makes the control circuit complex. In [29], an alternative
control technique was developed to reduce the complexity of the control circuit.
However, the common-mode issue was not considered in the proposed single-
stage inverter systems. The neutral point clamped (NPC) converter topology has
the opportunity to connect the grid neutral point to middle point of the DC link,
reducing the ground leakage currents. In this context, an NPC topology-based
single-phase PV inverter as shown in Fig. 2.34 was presented in [30] and a three-
phase PV inverter system in Fig. 2.35 was implemented in [31]. Since the pre-
sented circuits are run as buck converters, the PV array voltages should be greater
than the peak values of the output AC voltages. If Vrms is the inverter output AC
voltage and R is the reservation factor, the minimum array voltage can be calcu-
lated as
√
VA = 2Vrms R. (2.13)
Therefore, a few PV arrays in series connection are necessary to obtain the desired
voltage. From the available literature, several single-stage topologies have been
proposed based on either boost or buck–boost configurations. An integrated
36 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

Inverter

PV array
C1

AC line
PV array

C2

Fig. 2.34  Circuit topology of single-stage inverter: NPC with grid neutral connected to the mid-
dle point of DC link

CPV
PV array

RG

C
PV array

CPV

RG

AC lines

Fig. 2.35  NPC topology-based three-phase PV inverter

(boost converter and full-bridge inverter) PV inverter circuit topology shown in

Fig. 2.36 was presented in [32]. The output power quality and the efficiency of the
inverter are limited by the fact that the boost converter cannot generate the output
voltage lower than the input voltage. A universal single-stage PV inverter shown in
Fig.  2.37 was presented in [33] that can operate as a buck, boost, or buck–boost
converter. This inverter can operate with a wide range of input voltage, improving
the power quality and the efficiency. Using the integrated buck–boost and inver-
sion functions, several modified configurations have been presented in [34, 35].
However, these topologies are only suitable for small-scale (e.g., <100 kW) PV sys-
tems, where the PV array normally interconnects with a low-voltage public network.
2.3  Inverters in Small-Scale Solar PV Systems 37

Fig. 2.36  Single-stage
power circuit with boost
converter Lb

PV array

AC line
Cd

Inverter with
boost converter

Fig. 2.37  Single-stage
power circuit with universal
converter L
D1
PV array

AC line
Cd D2

Inverter with universal

converter

2.3.4 ABB and Siemens Solar PV Inverters for Small-Scale

Systems

Although the galvanic isolation is not a requirement in Germany in the low-voltage

public network, a residual current monitoring unit needs to be installed for the grid
connection of transformer-less PV inverters. Most standards (e.g., IEEE 1547,
EN 61000-3-2, and IEC 61727) allow the DC current injection to vary between
0.5 and 1 % of the rated current [36]. Therefore, the transformer-less inverter sys-
tem should have some extra protective devices to ensure the safety issues. ABB is
one of the leading manufacturers of PV inverters. In order to interconnect the PV
array to the public electricity network, ABB developed the transformer-less single-
phase string PV inverter model PVS300, suitable for small-scale PV systems (i.e.,
3.3–8.0 kW). The PVS300 inverter converts the DC generated by PV arrays at a
voltage ranging 335–800 V into single-phase 230 V AC that can be fed into the
public network through protective devices as shown in Fig. 2.38 [37]. Due to the
high content of harmonics in the output power and the use of high switching fre-
quency of switching devices, the system consists of a heavy filter circuit and elec-
tromagnetic interference (EMI) filter, which may increase the losses and cost of
the system.
The SINVERT PVM inverters are transformer-less, 3-phase PV inverters devel-
oped by Siemens, to convert solar DC energy at a voltage ranging in 380–850 V into
3-phase 400 V AC voltage for feeding into public electricity network. SINVERT
PVM inverters are available with power outputs from 10 to 20 kW. The PV array
38 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

Surge Inverter
protection
Solar panels L

Public network
=

DC switch

EMI filter

LCL filter

AC switch

EMI filter
~ N

Control and monitoring

Fig. 2.38  ABB PVS300 string inverter design and grid connection

Solar panels

Public network
= L1

~ L2
L3
SINVERT PVM
inverter N
PE
Overvoltage
protection

M8

Fig. 2.39  Siemens SINVERT PVM string inverter design and grid connection

interconnection to utility grid through SINVERT inverter with safety devices is

shown in Fig. 2.39 [38].

2.4 Medium- and Large-Scale Solar PV Systems

For medium- and large-scale solar PV electricity generation, there are two well-
established inverter technologies: the centralized and string technologies as shown
in Figs. 2.40 and 2.41, respectively.
In the centralized PV inverter technology, each string consists of a series of PV
modules to reach the voltage requirement without amplification and then a few
strings are parallel connected to a common inverter circuit. The number of strings
mainly depends on the power levels. This technology eliminates the amplifica-
tion stage, but possesses some major limitations, such as voltage mismatch loss
2.4  Medium- and Large-Scale Solar PV Systems 39

AC output
PV modules DC/AC
Inverter

PV modules
String diodes

PV modules

Fig. 2.40  Centralized PV inverter topology DC

DC

PV modules
DC

AC output
DC

DC/AC
Inverter
DC
DC

Fig. 2.41  String PV inverter topology

between PV modules and power losses due to common MPPT [26]. In order to
control every string individually, the string technology uses a DC to DC converter
for each string, which improves the system efficiency. In order to minimize the
voltage mismatch in the strings, a battery-integrated boost converter was pro-
posed to eliminate the voltage regulation stage [39]. The block diagram of battery-­
integrated boost converter is shown in Fig. 2.42, and the proposed converter-based
PV inverter system is shown in Fig. 2.43. The detailed analysis of the proposed
converter is presented in [40].
The ABB central inverters are especially designed for medium-scale PV power
plants. The PVS800 version is a 3-phase inverter with a power capacity in the
40 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

Battery
D
L

Vout

S _
PV

Fig. 2.42  Battery-integrated boost converter

Battery 1

+
D
L1
Vout_1
C

S _
PV 1

+
Battery 2

AC output
L2
DC/AC
Vout_2 Inverter
C

S _
PV 2

+
Battery n

D
Ln
Vout_n
C

S _
PV n

Fig. 2.43  Battery-integrated boost converter-based PV inverter system

range of 100–500 kW. The PVS800 inverter topology allows a parallel connection

directly on the AC side, for grid connection through a step-up power frequency
transformer [41]. The transformer steps up the inverter output voltage from 300 V
AC to grid voltage level (e.g., 6–36 kV). The central inverter design and grid con-
nection are depicted in Fig. 2.44. ABB has been delivering worldwide vacuum cast
coil dry-type transformers for PV applications. The cast coil dry-type transform-
ers are non-flammable and moisture proof. They feature a solid isolation system
which is discharge-free. However, the volume and weight of a 0.4/36 kVA, 1 MVA
vacuum cast coil transformer are about 4.3 m3 and 3,250 kg, respectively, and no-
load and full-load losses are 3.1 and 11.5 kW, respectively [42]. Moreover, dry-
type transformers can be sensitive to water, microcracks, temperature variations,
2.4  Medium- and Large-Scale Solar PV Systems 41

PVS800 Inverter 1

Switch

DC

EMC filter
DC switch

EMC filter

LCL filter
AC

PV array

Medium-voltage
Controller

network
transformer

Medium
step-up
voltage
PVS800 Inverter 2

Switch

DC

EMC filter
DC switch

EMC filter

LCL filter

AC

PV array

Controller

Fig. 2.44  ABB central inverter design and medium-voltage (MV) grid connection

and pollution which can block cooling ducts. Due to the use of traditional two-
level inverter, the harmonic content in the output power is high. Usually, high-
frequency pulse-width-modulated (PWM) gate signals are used to drive switching
devices to reduce the harmonic content. Due to high-harmonic content and high-
frequency stitching, the system requires a heavy LCL filter circuit and an electro-
magnetic compatibility (EMC) filter, which may increase the losses and cost of the
system.
Besides its low-voltage system, Siemens also developed the SINVERT
PVS inverter-based system for medium-scale PV plants. The AC output voltage
and power capacity of PVS version inverters are in the range of 288–370 V and
500–630 kW, respectively, as summarized in Table 2.2. The 1–2.52 MW central
inverters were designed by paralleling 2–4 PVS inverters through transformer and
switchgear at the grid side. The design and grid connection of 2-inverters-based
system is illustrated in Fig. 2.45 [43]. Siemens developed GEAFOL cast–resin
transformers for grid connection of PV arrays. With GEAFOL, it is possible to
avoid the limitations associated with liquid-filled transformers while retaining the

Table 2.2  Capacity of PVS version inverters

Versions PVS500 PVS585 PVS600 PVS630
AC output voltage (V) 288 340 370 370
Power capacity (kW) 500 585 600 630
Min. input voltage (V) 450 530 570 570
42 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

SINVERT PVS 1
Medium voltage
Switch
Input 1
step-up
transformer
DC

EMC filter
EMC filter
Input 2

Filter
Input 3
AC

PV array

Medium-voltage
Controller

network
SINVERT PVS 2
Medium voltage
Switch
step-up
Input 1
transformer
DC

EMC filter
EMC filter

Input 2 Filter

Input 3
AC

PV array

Controller

Fig. 2.45  Siemens central inverter design and medium-voltage grid connection

properties such as operational safety, resistance to humidity, mechanical strength,

and compact design. However, no-load and full-load losses of a 0.4/30 kV, 1 MVA
GEAFOL transformer are about 3.1 and 10 kW, respectively, and the volume and
weight are about 3.5 m3 and 2,990 kg, respectively [44].
Although these special transformers are compact compared with conventional
distribution transformers, they are still large and heavy for PV applications. The
large-size and heavy-step-up transformer may increase the system weight and
volume and can be expensive and complex for installation and maintenance. The
medium-voltage inverter may be the best possible solution to interconnect the PV
array to the medium-voltage grid directly. Moreover, electrical isolation is impor-
tant for the interconnection of the medium-voltage grid and PV array. Since the
installation of large-scale PV power plants started commercially in 2007, the
medium-voltage inverter for interconnection of PV systems has been attracting
great attention.
In 2011, different MV multilevel inverter topologies were compared for the pos-
sible medium-voltage grid connection of wind turbine and PV systems [45, 46].
The modular multilevel cascaded (MMC) topology was considered as a possible
candidate for medium-voltage inverter systems. The MMC inverter requires multi-
ple isolated and balanced DC sources. In [47], a medium or HF link was proposed
to generate multiple isolated and balanced DC sources for the MMC from a single
source and in [48], a medium-frequency transformer link was developed to ver-
ify the feasibility of the new concept of voltage step-up using the MMC inverters.
Compared with the conventional transformers operated at the power frequency (50
2.4  Medium- and Large-Scale Solar PV Systems 43

Fig. 2.46  Quasi-Z source
C2
converter-based medium-
L1 L2
voltage PV inverter (one of 3 D
phases)
C3 C1

PV array 1 H-bridge 1

C2
L1 L2
D

Medium-voltage
network
C3 C1

PV array 2 H-bridge 2

C2
L1 L2
D

C3 C1

PV array n H-bridge n

or 60 Hz), the medium-frequency transformer link has much smaller and lighter
magnetic cores and windings and thus much lower costs.
In 2012, by combining a quasi-Z source inverter into an MMC as shown in
Fig. 2.46, a medium-voltage PV inverter was proposed in [49].
The proposed inverter does not have isolation between PV array and medium-
voltage grid. Multiphase isolated DC to DC converter-based MMC inverter topol-
ogy as shown in Fig. 2.47 was proposed in [50, 51]. In the proposed configuration,
the voltage balancing is the challenging issue, since each H-bridge cell is con-
nected to a PV array through a DC to DC converter. A common DC link may be
one of the possible solutions to minimize the voltage imbalance problem, and a
single DC-link-based inverter in Fig. 2.48 was presented in [52, 53]. Although this
design may reduce the voltage balancing problem in the grid side, the generation
of common DC-link voltage from different PV arrays makes the inverter operation
complex and limits the range of MPPT operation.
As an alternative approach to minimize the voltage imbalance problem with a
wide range of MPPT operation, a common magnetic link was proposed [3]. The
boost converter is considered for the MPPT operation. The array DC power is con-
verted to a high-frequency AC through a high-frequency inverter. The inverter also
44 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

DC

C2 C1

DC

PV array 1 H-bridge 1

DC

Medium-voltage
network
C2 C1

DC

PV array 2 H-bridge 2

DC

C2 C1

DC

PV array n H-bridge n

Fig. 2.47  Multiphase isolated converter-based medium-voltage PV inverter (one of 3 phases)

Common DC-link
DC
DC

DC
DC
DC

PV array 1
AC
DC

H-bridge 1
DC

Medium-voltage
DC
DC

PV array 2
DC

AC

network
DC
DC

H-bridge 2

PV array 3
DC
DC
DC

AC
DC
DC

H-bridge k

PV array n

Fig. 2.48  Common DC-link-based medium-voltage PV inverter (one of 3 phases)

2.4  Medium- and Large-Scale Solar PV Systems 45

Module A-1
MPPT

L D

Cdc
Cdc Cin
Q

Module A-2
Phase-A
Cdc
PV array-1 High-frequency
inverter

MPPT

Cdc
L D

Module A-N
Cdc Cin
Q
Module B-1

Medium voltage ac (e.g., 6–36 kV)

PV array-2 High-frequency
inverter

Cdc
A

Module B-2
Phase-B
MPPT B
Cdc

C
L D

Cdc Cin
Q
Cdc

PV array-3 High-frequency
n
inverter
Common magnetic-link

Module B-N

Module C-1
Cdc

Module C-2

MPPT
Phase-C
Cdc

L D

Cdc Cin
Q
Cdc

PV array-N High-frequency
inverter
Module C-N

Fig. 2.49  Common magnetic-link-based 3-phase medium-voltage PV inverter

46 2  Power Converters for Small- to Large-Scale Photovoltaic …

ensures constant output voltage. The inverter is connected to a primary winding

of a multiwinding high-frequency magnetic link. Each secondary winding works
as an isolated source and is connected to an H-bridge cell through a bridge recti-
fier. The number of primary windings depends on the number of PV arrays, and
the number of secondary windings depends on number of levels of the inverter.
The detailed power circuit of common magnetic-link-based PV inverter system is
shown in Fig. 2.49 [3]. In medium- or large-scale PV power plants, several PV
arrays are operated in parallel. The multiple-input multiple-output magnetic link
can incorporate the parallel operation of multiple PV arrays, where each PV array
is connected to a primary winding through a booster and high-frequency inverter
[54]. The magnetic link also provides electrical isolation between the PV array
and the grid, which can thus inherently overcome the common-mode and voltage
imbalance problems and ensure a wide range of MPPT operation and safety of
operating personnel.

2.5 Summary

Besides the traditional systems, which require a step-up transformer to connect

the renewable generation systems to the grid, many other recently proposed con-
verter topologies for step-up-transformer-less direct grid interconnection are also
reviewed in detail with the aim of presenting a complete picture of power con-
verter systems. In order to develop a common converter for both the wind and PV
power generation systems, appropriate converter topologies should be investi-
gated. In this chapter, most of the existing power converters are reviewed. In order
to reduce the system volume and weight as well as to improve the efficiency, a
number of transformer-less single-stage inverter topologies have been proposed in
the past decades for small-scale PV power generation systems. The common-mode
or leakage current and personal safety are really critical issues with these inverter
systems. Most of the commercially available system uses the traditional two-level
inverter in which the switching devices are driven by high-frequency PWM gate
signals. Due to high-harmonic contents and high-frequency switching, the sys-
tem requires a heavy LCL filter circuit and an EMC filter, which may increase the
losses and cost of the system.
Today, the industrial trend is to move away from these heavy and large-size
passive components to compact and lightweight systems that use more and more
semiconductor devices in modular construction. It is found that multilevel con-
verters with medium-frequency links would be a feasible option to develop a MV
converter for the direct grid integration of PV power plants. Although different
multilevel converter topologies have been developed in the last few decades, most
of them are not suitable for medium-voltage applications. Because of some spe-
cial features, such as the number of components scaling linearly with the number
of levels, and the identical individual modules of completely modular construc-
tion enabling high-level number attainability, the MMC converter topology is
2.5 Summary 47

considered as a highly feasible candidate for medium-voltage applications. The

MMC converter requires multiple isolated and balanced DC sources. The medium-
frequency magnetic link may be the best option to generate multiple isolated and
balanced DC sources for the MMC inverter from a single power source. Compared
with the power frequency transformers, the medium-frequency links have much
smaller and lighter magnetic cores and windings and thus much lower costs.

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