j

SD 68-869
Contract

NAS12-603

IL E

APOLLOCOMMANDAND SERVICE MODULE

STABILIZATIONAND CONTROLSYSTEM
DESIGN SURVEY
NASA/ERC
Design

Criteria

Program,

Stability,
20 December

NATIONAL

Research

Cambridge,
DIVISION
12214

oF NORTH
LAKEWOOD

"This
document
was
Space
Administration.
behalf
of
the
United
information
contained
privately-owned
rights."

and

1968

PREPARED FOR
AERONAUTICS
AND SPACE
Electronics

SPACE

Guidance,

ADMINISTRATION

Center

Massachusetts
AMERICAN

BOULEVARD

prepared
under
the
Neither
the
United
States
Government
in
this
document,

DOWNEY,

ROCKWELL
CALIFORNIA

sponsorship
of
the
National
States
Government
nor
any
assumes
any
liability
resulting
or
warrants
that
such
use

CORPORATION
90241

Aeronautics
and
person
acting
on
from
the
use
of
will
be
free
from

Control

T--

SPACE

DMSION

Francis

or NORTH

$.

Curtis

H.

Carroll,

Jr.

-603

Electronics

Research

Technology

Cambridge,

Center

Square
Massachusetts

Request

P.O.

CORPORATION

Monitors

NAS12

NASA

ROCKW]_

Spenny

Technical

575

AMF._ICAN

for

copies

Scientific
Box

33,

of

and

College

02139
this

report

Technical
Park,

should

be

Information
Maryland

referred

Facility,

Z0740.

to:

SD 68-869
APOLLO COMMAND AND SERVICE MODULE
STABILIZATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM
DESIGN SURVEY
20 December 1968

NASA/ERC

DESIGN

STABILITY,

CRITERIA

GUIDANCE,

Prepared
National

Aeronautics
Electronics

AND

NAS12-603

Prepared

Design

by

Survey

Approved

NORTH
12214

Administration
Center

Massachusetts

Contract

Project
Contract

Team

by

R.L.

uchon

Engineer
NAS12-603

Study
Contract

SPACE DIVISION
AMERICAN
ROCKWELL

Lakewood

CONTROL

for

and
Space
Research

Cambridge,

SCS

PROGRAM

Boulevard,

Peterson
Manager
NAS12-603

CORPORATION

Downey,

California

90241

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

FOREWORD

This

report

control
system
objective
of the
the development
veys

are

is

projects

design

criteria
This

survey

of the

to document
and

will

the

be used

as

H.K.

survey

The

material

for

the

direction

of the

understanding
now connected
R.G.
Epple,
assistance.
The

and

experience
in identifying

suitable

in accordance

with the Statement

aid

gained

from

for
sur-

an

was

performed

specific
topics

this

study
Program

was

"Apollo Stability, Guidance,

Electronics
Research
Center

gathered,

Manager,

F.B.
Cauchon.
Major
sections
of Messrs.
M.F.
Madden,
E.J.

Watson

stabilization

for

monographs.

design

Engineer,
the efforts

CSM

design

of Work in NASA
Contract NAS12-603,
Control Design Survey, " for the NASA
Criteria Office.

under

Apollo

and is part
of the NASA
Design
Criteria
Program.
The
program
is to provide
a unification
of design
approaches
of space
vehicles
and their
major
components.
These

intended

NASA

a design

wrote

other

sections

of the

of the system
and critical
with
the Apollo
CSM/SCS,
B.W.

contractor's

Johnston,

and

designation

M. J.

for

prepared,
R.L.

documented
and

of the report
are
the
Knobbe,
and M.W.
report

editing
such
Stiles

this

and

Peterson,

as
as

well

the

results
Kishi.

aiding

in the

of the report.
Personnel
Messrs,
W.B.
Fours,

provided

report

as

and
Design

much

is

SD 68-869.

- iiiSD

needed

68-869

Project
of

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

CONTENTS

Page

Section

1.0

INTRODUCTION
Report
Organization
Recommendations

2.0

TOTAL

SYSTEM

DESIGN

SURVEY

System

Description

Design

Requirements

9
12

Problems

and

Changes

20

Conclusions

3.0

ATTITUDE

REFERENCE

Subsystem
Design

Description

THRUST

and

25

VECTOR

Design

33

Changes

35

Subsystem

CONTROL

39

SUBSYSTEM

Description

39

42

Requlrements

Problems
and
C onc lu s ion s

5.0

23

Requirements

Problems
Conclusions

4.0

23

SUBSYSTEM

ATTITUDE

52

CONTROL

Subsystem
Design

47

Changes

53

SUBSYSTEM

Description

53

58

Requirements

Problems

and

64

Changes

7O

Concl_.l sions

6.0

ENTRY

CONTROL

Subsystem
Design

Description

CONTROLS
Subsystem
Design

71

72

Requirements

Problems
Conclusions

?.0

71

SUBSYSTEM

and

77

Changes

79

AND

DISPLAYS

81

SUBSYSTEM

81

Description

90

Requirements

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

Section

Page

Problems
Conclusions

and

HARDWARE

94
101

Changes

DESIGN

PHILOSOPHY

103
104

General
Detail

Design

Configuration
Quality
Problems

Requirements

108

Control

If9

Assurance

Requirements
.
.

Conclusions

9.0

TECHNICAL

Requirements

CONTENT

120
.

130
131

133

SUMMARY

135

BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIXES
A.

SCS

B.

ABBREVIATIONS

C.

NEW

HAND

CONTROL

DESIGN
AND

REQUIREMENTS

ACRONYMS

TECHNOLOGY

- vi

SD

68-869

137

147
151

SPACE

DIVISION

or

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Figure
Z-1
2-2

SCS

Functional

2-3

Apollo
Block
SCS
Evolution

3-1

Three

3-2

Two

3-3

Inertial

3-4

Three

Diagram
II Stabilization
.......

Single-DOF
2-DOF

Platform

4-i

Thrust

Vector

4-Z
4-3

SPS
SPS

5-1

ACS

5-2

Thruster

Engine
Gimbal

ARS

(Three

Attitude

II/GDC)

ARS

System

(Block

.
or

Four

Gyro

Mount
Mount

Functional

19
29

I/AGCU)

Gimbals)

Z9
35

ARS
35

Functional

.....
.

5-3

Arc

6-i

Entry

7-I

Displays

7-2
7-3

Controls
Functional
Translation
Control

7-4

Rotation

Control

7-5

Attitude

Set

7-6
7-7

Flight
Gimbal

7-8

Evolution

7-9

Main

8-i

Block

8-2

SCS

8-3

Electronic

8-4

Exposed

Suppression

Mechanization
Functional

Functional

Diagram

43
43

73

Diagram

82

Diagram
.

83

.
.

Panel

Controls

87

Control
Electronic

and

88
89

97
99

Displays

......

End

84
85

....

Panel

Interfaces

56
69

Director
Attitude
Indicator
Position/Fuel
Pressure
Indicator

II Contract

55

Diagram

Control

of SCS

40

Diagram

Orientation

Control

......
Control

Control

Control

Gyro

Gyro

ARS

Single-DOF

(Block

and

Attitude

Attitude

....

Items.
.

105

I13

i16

Assembly
Assembly

ll7

- vii

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

TABLES

Table

Page

l-1

Relay

3-I

Stabilization

16

Failures
and

Control

System

Performance
Z7

Requirements
3-Z

Subsystem

Tradeoff

3-3

Subsystem

Tradeoff

or

Greater

3-4

ARS

3-5

Attitude

Than

Requirements
Reference

4-I

Criteria

4-2

Block

II TVC

7-I

FDAI

Characteristics

8-1

Hardware
Environments

8-Z

for

Linear
Body

Physical

Evaluation

(No

Tabulation

(Reliability

0.999276

Through

Changes
System

30

Redundancy)
Equal

In-Flight

to

Repair)

36

.
Tradeoff

Small-Signal
Bending

(Block

46
.

49
92
106
111

Characteristics

- ix

37

If)

Stability.

Data

3O

SD

68-869

SPACE

I)IVISION

ov N()RTII

AMERICAN

i. 0

This

report

stabilization
areas

and

control

to provide,

first,

subsystems,
features
seems
which

presents

may

embody

they

tradeoffs

Thirdly,
lems

each

which

(those

areas

beyond

explored

the normal

presented
obtained

for each area which

represents
during
the course
of this program.

material

that

be

was

expected

herein

one

Apollo
able

To date,
unmanned

7 flight is so

to conservative
extensive

techniques,

use

qualification,

Honeywell,
Rockwell

what
are

researching

approxi-

25 persons

difficult at times

deficiency

or

evaluation

to

something
of any

on all flights, which

Block
II vehicle.
The

SCS

performance

data

system

can

of state-of-the-art

under

and

prob-

length
of the Apollo
program,
problems
and in some
cases

acceptance

simulation

Inc.,
Corporation.

baseline.

significant

conclusions

it was

of this

and

it

are

avail-

attributed

components,

testing,

programs.

contract

be

include

The

to the

Space

as

well

SCS

as

is

Division

of

ORGANIZATION

Each
of the
whole.

by

specific

unique

of the experience

and

successfully
one manned

success

hardware-in-the-loop

manufactured
North
American
REPORT

design

of the

basic

where

type)

from

a design

eight

its integral

at a design

more

approximately

development

II

the design
requirements
time
and the various

arriving

report,

Block

or

development

Finally,

the unusual
the development

that no

Much

developmeat,

sophisticated

normal

and

interesting

development

that indicated

in the

recent

any

obtained

for this

into

system

a synthesis

was

the SCS has operated

Block
I vehicles
and

for this report.

is divided

for the

problems.

and in interviews
with
with the SCS
program.

complex
system.
Furthermore,
seven
years,
tends to obscure
the design
problems.

four

those

the material

if a problem

should

to solve

presented

In researching
assess

and

in finally

are

were

mately
300 documents
intimately
connected

report
complete

historical

changes

The

effected

with

of the Apollo

the report
describes
or which
evolved
with

considered

eight

The

of the

together

that were

arose

(SCS);!_

summary

mechanization,

Secondly,
specified

of the

survey

overview

functions,

appropriate.
were
initially

design

system

their

CORPORATION

INTRODUCTION

a design

an

R()CKWEIA.

major

SCS.
There
Section
2.0

*See Appendix

section

of

are
two
discusses

B for abbreviations

this
additional
the

report

corresponds
sections
system

total

to
that
while

the

discuss
Section

major

and acronyms.

1
SD

subsystems

the
system
as
8.0
discusses

68- 869

SPACE

the hardware
tion of the
changes,
tions

DIVISION

design

NORTH

AMERICAN

philosophy.

subsystems

and

tradeoffs,

conclude

or

and

with

ROCKWELL

Sections

their

3.0

through

requirements,

design

problems

a discussion

CORPORATION

and

7.0

evaluate

encountered.

of hindsight

or

discuss

the opera-

the major

Finally,

these

sec-

recommendations.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Two
this

study:

sets

of recommendations

(1) future

recommendations.

program
For

Firm

I,

the

hardware

the

Apollo

design

alternate
prevent
design

Although

be

sources

of procurement

The

use

tolerance

test

limits

The

7) indicates

use

density

functions

manufacturers
characteristics
Additional

provides
should

studies

are

Development

of a failure

identification

of single-point

is not altogether

Development
present

model

in simulations,
firmed

by

any

engineers

The

and
form
101

of a rigorous

nature.

probability
of this activity,

performance

to search

has

produced

some

physically
based

Apollo

upon

areas:

to assist
present

for

systems.

model.

unreasonable
it have

not been

flights.

-2SD

is

for

complex

slosh

in the

method

diagrams

successful
propellant

previous

design

use

following

low-g

of the

preference

some

part

accurate

predictions

the

for Spacecraft
be

of an

and

slowing

personal

methodology

failures.

of rr_any

and

to

functions.

analysis

problems,

from

In support

in the

the application

approaches

in combining

component

recommended

of

possible,

examined

should

density

start

design

programs

this rigor.

provide

probability

be

experience

convolution

study

obvious,

to establish

most

design

that this method

of mathematical

design

crew

analyses

Although
the

the

for advanced

should

for

of

that:

if this is not

provided

utilized.

(2) additional

of a supplier

be

results

in this fashion.

used

However,

Firm
specifications
items.

analysis,

the

before

state-of-the-art

to.

be

on

this seems

not conducted

procurement

of rigorous

and

established

development
problems
of the total system.

(Apollo

was

adhered

of tolerance

i,

be

Generally,

be

based

it is recommended

process.

program

approaches.
should

programs

requirements

source

reached

recommendations,

future

baseline

Multiple

were

68-869

The
results
con-

SPACE

DIVISION

Reexamination

so it can

put

less

vector

together

a premium

on

CORPORATION

control

(TVC)

The
with

and
long

the

long-life

way

such

methods

operation

needs

as

times

duration

the

found

same
to

bending.
extended

for

complex

of some

of equipment.

-3SD

concept

with

to be

body

to obtain

checkout

extended

design

sensitive

a better

parameters,

of criteria

reliability.

ROCKWELL

vehicle-parameter

the vehicle

Establishment
duration

made

Furthermore,

determine

vehicles,

AMERICAN

of the thrust

be

performance.

oF NORTH

68- 869

hardware
space

missions,

SPACE

DIVISION

or

2.0

This
Details

section

of

sion

is

and

subsequent

to

SYSTEM

control

was

discussed

was

termed

system,

Block

as

reliability,
a

separate

for

the

and

includes

total

the

in

I and

June

the

system,
the

humidity

single-point

redesign

Block

system.
discus-

in

are

connectors,

termed

SCS
The

treated

requirements
the

total

such

are

problems

change

time

subjects

of

I electrical

major

that

1964was

function,

are

the

June

The

the

sections.

failures
1964;

the

redesigned

SCS

II.

DESCRIPTION

The
system

to

and

of

separate

etc.,

purpose

Block

The

prior

evolution

in

development

the

failures.
SCS

the

CORPORATION

SURVEY

and

changes.

change,

relay

and

assurance,

evolutionary

problems

original

on

reviews

the

requirement
and

design

described

quality

ROCKWELL

DESIGN

performance-oriented,

section
to

SYSTEM

are

control,

The

AMERICAN

the

subsystem

primarily

major

TOTAL

describes

each

configuration
section.

proceeds

NORTH

operation,

described

system

and

herein.

whose

primary

flight

between
thrusters.

the

in
primary

control
command

features

Individual

characteristics

system

design

sections

more

mode.

The
(CM)

The

is

SCS

to

also

the

of

detail.

purpose

module

of

back

the
SCS

up

as

report
is

the

provides

computer,

SCS

an

a
will

elaborate

analog

flight

functions

of

interfacing

astronauts,

total

the

equipment

and

the

spacecraft

Functions

The
control

SCS

capability.

navigation,
SCS

provides

service
the

module
control

the

manual

and

control

SCS

of

senses

display,

system

interface
(SPS)
visual

and

the

of

three

vehicle
and

the

the

control

also

the
SCS
automatic

rates,
three

performs
attitude

(RCS)

parameters.
the

are
body

-5SD

the

system
a

68-869

direct

PGNCS

all
of
maneuvers.

which
vehicle

The

and

provides
and

guidance,

system.

flight-control
SCS

flight

primary

signals

commands

the

backup

digital

jet

vehicle

body

uses

by

is

reaction

operation,

system,
except

analog

command

of
input

an

provided

which
between

manual

As a backup
the
PGNCS

the

is

displays

modes

generates

with

(PGNCS),

between

computer.
functions

spacecraft

primary
system

system

interface

and

Apollo

electrical

operations

The
control

control

propulsion

electrical

the
The

and

thruster
In

provides

command
the

utilized
attitudes,

flight-

for

SPACE

DIVISION

visually

displays

these

errors,

provides

direct

positions,

provides

generates

and

used

as

gains,

NORTH

AMERICAN

parameters,
control

setting

uses

display

display

and

pitch

the

and

vehicle

three

yaw

(i.e.,

complete

vehicle

consists

of three

attitude

gimbal

angular

commands,

processes

to effect

CORPORATION

displays

rotation

system,

necessary

and
of SPS

of desired

translation

flight control

all signals

ROCKWELL

generates
and

and

vehicle

the backup
etc.)

or

orientations,
and,

when

summing,

shaping,

control.

Mechanization
The
(Figure
and

stabilization

Z-l)--the

attitude

the controls

and

angles
control,

display

attitude,

signals.
control
thrust

main

engine

jets

during

pair

Control

and

display

is a photograph

an

through

body

the

Three
for sensing
gyro

coordinates

mode,

automatic

display

to Euler

i.e.,

as well

thrust

as

vector

a manual

under
command
of the flight
service
module
(SM) Z0,000-pound

control,through

and

through

sixteen

twelve

100-pound

100-pound

CM

SM
reaction

phase.

attitude

attitude

rate

indicators

vehicle

rotation

of the SPS

engine

showinK

reference

and

attitude

(FDAI's).

and

one

gimbals

the electronic

error
Two

hand
are

is provided

hand

controllers

controller
also
used

SCS

has

th_

following

later

in the report:

Euler

angle

than

rate

coupler
Euler

generation

data,

unit
angles

- The

to generate

(AGCU),
by

design

features

that are

the

of attitude

Euler

Block
gyro

use

for the

Figure

SCS.

angles

I, and

display

by

the use

coupler

discussed

changes,
the attitude
of rate

(GDC),

data
Block

-6SD

68-869

a
are

for translation.

provided.

equipment

by

Features
The

detail

vector

control,

of the vehicle

to command

has

electronics,

inertial

signals
to the electronics
for these flightreference
and the rotational
hand
controller

is accomplished
the use of the

control

provided
from

flight control

control,

for thrust

of flight director

provided

Design

entry

elements

attitude gyros
(BMAG).
are used in a rate mode

are

Each

major

the flight control

flight control

information

The input
the attitude

entry

Display

backup

Electronics

to the crew.

for attitude

the

subsystem,

The

BMAG

Motion
of the CSM
electronics
through

reaction
jets

the

and

mode
of operation.
control
modes
are

reference

rate.

to convert
for

system

by six body-mounted
information
and three

rotational

coupler,

control

displays.

capability
is provided
are used for attitude
spacecraft

and

in more

rather
gyro
to generate
II.

2.-2

SPACE

DIVISION

or NORTH

(./3
G..
(/3

AMERICAN

(_

<..)m_,J

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

m,,

_m_mmmmm

'

II

mm.m

mm

mm

mmm

mmm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mmm

mm

mm

JmLmm

mm

mm

mmm

mml

__

,c_27

\\\",.i
m
m,m

cd

O
or-

,..--4

o
u

t/3
c/)

Z
<22>
(21c12

.A
t.i.J

{..9

>-

m,i

ml

t---

L_

<.J
(./3

F--m------ t ....
I

i
(./')

Im
I,m

c._C>
<..2 t'v-

I
I

t/_>I
t/1
.9

C'M
(D

>
(.Y'3

m.J

c_)

>.
'_2

.9
Z

(/3

b--

t---

-_|
I

...J
[.aJ

I
I

7SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

-8

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

Pseudo-rate

feedback

control
hold

of
and

limit

within

passive

cycles

the

particle

is hydraulic

range

working

clutch
fluids

Manual
was
not

R()CKWEI,I,

network
well

of

C()RPORATION

that

below

the

of

the

provides

the

reaction

extensive
control

Multiple

main

two

save

rate

for

sensor

jets

the

thres-

minimum

different

Tolerance

analysis

summations

of

mathematical
limits,

actuator

is actuated

thus

doing

through

away

with

to

(MTVC)
have

flight

- Early
manned

levels

possible

showed
and

(GP/FPI)

with
the

is

program
of the

SPS

SPS.

the

can

primary

takeover.

The

use

different

the

it

astronaut

now

failure
-

at

that

MTVC

control

in the
control

of

times

display

in

the

to

mission

space.
program

piece
convolution

thereby

engine

space

environment.

system

quantities
paneI

typical

motor,

simulations
this

display

control

main

electric

acceleration

engine

function

- The

Apollo

control
feasible

high

effectively
of

an

in a vacuum

However,

method

actuator

the

and

thrust
vector
considered

because

show

clutch

whereas

a magnetic

DESIGN

AMERICAN

capability.

Magnetic

flight

- A

attitude
yet

impulse

to

oF NORTtl

providing

part

The

probability
techniques
additional

use

of

mathematically

density
to

rigorous

functions

determine

through
design

confidence

in

the

test
system

operation.

RE QUIREMENTS

Requirements
The
satisfy

are

mission
presented
Mission

performance

design

requirements

that

Phase

Abort

system

must

Requirement

Safe

trajectory

tion for

Transearth

the

below:

flight

Total

and

orienta-

reentry.

midcourse

corrections

equal to or less than 300 ft/

sec in three or less burns;
not more

than

corrections
less

than

SD

three

whose
15 ft/sec.

68-869

RCS
total is

SPACE

I)IVISION

Mission

_:

NORTtl

:\.XIEII(:AN

R()CK\\EI,I,

(:(_I<P()RATION

Phase

Transearth

Requirement

injection

Delta

accuracy

degree

No

Entry

of one

rms.

range

control

requirement.

Block

I Design

June

Philosophy

From

early

1964,

the SCS

Apollo

proposal

landing

only

be

achieved

between

form

The

would

system

backed

spares.
able
to

The
detect

necessary

made

by

had

to meet

the use

thought

the most

proposal

be

with

not
the

The

control

to

on

the

the

solution

to provide

initial
a lunar-

lunar

primary

orbital

method

figure.

could

Despite

equipment

mean

of magnitude

as

to the problem

standby

of

This

(IFM).

the

order

The

encompass

maintenance

same

at

the

was

mean

the

of main-

redundancy

during
restored

reliability

parts,

conservative
and

the
the

in the

the

for

established

for

possible
simplification.

system

reliability

to

self-check

equipment
part

and

would
make

at

30

be
the
minutes)

because

correction

could

be

operation.

allocation

into

level

trajectory

and

control

functional
module

equipment,
level

n_idcourse

system
test

of

(estimated

small
to

and

complete

form

repair

whenever

throuzh
in-flight

to

extremely

initially

astronaut

stabilization

having
in

time

_'eliability

rules

of

basic

aid
of simple
checkout
the
black
box
or module

are

Design
anaIyses,

basis

significant

system

ground
Use

be

the

redundancy

The

system

Include

As

engineers,

that

the

the

torques

reliability
2.

NASA.

feasible
was

standby

crew,
with
malfunctions

after

when

of the

indicated

designed

up

The

eliminated

in

spares.

disturbing

0.995.

also

a high-reliability

design

was

reliability

the

II change

would

of in-flight

and

(MTBF)

replacement.

attitude

was

adopted

Hence,

Apollo

system

however,

Block

of flight control.

system

was

systen_

of onboard

method

system

failures

high

until the major

control

of reliability

time.

taining

the

through

efforts

mission

was

the

blaintenance

the primary

This,

concept

the best
time

was

indicated

flight control,

In-Flight

in the program

capability.

rendezvous

by

14-day

the

mission

system

obtain

design

the
circuit

prediction

and

use

of

possible.

high-reliability

parameter
control

methods.

10SD

were:

increased

wherever

derating,

was

68-869

and

stress

SPACE

DIVISION

A variation
anticipated
No.

that

1 was

felt
or

the

to

Maximum
isolation

5.

Mean

reliability

of

0.

605.
to

in-flight
reliability
trip,

the

44.4

lieu
of
redundant

the

l.

Block

the

II

Block

detect
task.
it was

take

to

locate

increased
humidity
the
installation
and

it
and

and

was

two

for

of

reliability

spares
up

in

weight

to

0. 825.

June

1964,

the

Block

I vehicles

redesigned

to

include

reasons:

the

it

was

in the
Control
System
a trained
technician

to

failed

feasibie
module,

a defective

element.

The

fixes,
boxes

furthermore,
more
difficult.

made

the

-11SD

had

the

the
Block
I earth
orbital
for
the
Block
II lunar

for

the

change

mission

predicted
was

to

technically

replace

requirement
removal

the

the

defined,

added

fault

sleeves.

achieve

Since
that

with

suit

required

being

for

For
example,
not unusuai

of

system.

for

in shirt

the

system

test

controls

spares

not

was

cause

end

subassembly

to

deleted.
less
than

deleted

although
to

II

the

subassemblies

in-flight

reliability

were

was

not an easy
laboratory

no

was
was

and

the

Near

pressure

spares

no-spare

circuits

Practicality:

of

concept

The

the

review,

requirement
is considerably

the

and

of

With

trace

replaceable
in

to 20 minutes

design

error.

interpret
however,

help

replaceable

out

weight

pounds.

mai_tenance

hours

or

to

component.

displays

equal

and

spares.
paths.

astronaut

in

human
to

decisions;

used

three

one

SCS

of

rule

members'

added:

mode

of

of

1964

redundant

on-board
control

In-flight

70

June

maintenance
requirement
additional

made

pounds

time

a level

required

was

the

of

test

to repair

the

0.995
At

decreased

At

1963

were

level

possible

time

or

rules

the

to

use

Maintenance

early

to

isolation
te st

4.

In

module

crew

capability

make

was

Ground

the

incidence

be

it

errors.

assist

their

and
should

semi-automatic

Fault
manual

was

the
of

because

human
to

minimize

judgment,

ground

isolation

with

make

utilization

a particular

these

Fault

would

CORPORATION

effected

designed

troubleshooting

program,

would

be

exercise

automatic

R()CKWEI,I,

was

equipment

should

malfunction

IFM

members

effect,

there

AMERICAN

participation

have

indicators,

manual
the

crew
to
in

that

evaluate
of

the

which,

was

astronaut

changed

activities,
It

in

oF NORTH

68-

869

in

SPA(:E1)I\I_ION ov NOICI'HAMERICANR()CKWEI,I.CORPORATION

Z.

II: the

Block

AND

of Block

and repackaging
eliminated
the

system,
circuits,

PROBLEMS

concept

II that made

the
need

the

SCS

the backup

electronics
to include
redundant
for in-flight maintenance.

CHANGES

Problems
There
the

SCS

were

four

that affected

ments,

the

Block

failures.

major

the

problems

system

I electrical

These

problems

as

encountered

a whole.

connectors,

are

in the

These

were

single-point

discussed

in the

development
humidity

failures,

following

of

requireand

relay

paragraphs.

Humidity
In the
trical
by

summer

condensation

of 40

These

resulting

to 70 percent

5 degrees
mental

F.

Apollo,

and

ECLSS

the panels,
trol of the

i.e.,

and

cabin

and

system

high

are

cold

couhl

be

panels.

pockets
through

orientations.

could

be

section

expected

of the

command

during

After

in and

by

the

The

the

or minus
environ-

module

point

surface
could

behind

with

temperatures
be expected

to cold

regard

the

were

of all

orientation,

the

that condensed

equipment
with

windows
walls

40 percent

of such

indicated

behind

to condensation.

approximately

the

(about

the umbilical,

4 to 5 hours

even

in the

atmosphere

dew

near

Analysis
around

atmosphere

connections

orientation

F.

environment

are beyond
the direct
conthe suit circuit or with a

Areas

structural

expected

fall to 60 degrees

caused

of 75 plus

to the

falls below

to spacecraft

humidity

maintained

limited

spots.
and

elec-

shorts

(ECLSS).

of equipment

bay,

experienced

to electrical

a temperature

parameters

is effectively

near

sensitive

spacecraft

surized

these

equipment

air may

moisture

unexpectedly

an

in front

especially

Condensation
possible

from

humidity,

traced

condensation
will occur.
With low
of warm,
moving
air, condensation

forward

particularly

flight of NLA-9

were

If the teI_perature

60 degrees
F),
and the absence

in the

Mercury

in corners,
or in protected
ECLSS.
Water
is removed

cleaner.

panels

the

failures

life support
control

interior,

vacuum

relative

On

control
The

cabin

of 1963

difficulties.

located
ECLSS

in the

pres-

operating

properly.
Based
ment

relative

on

these

factors,

humidity

The

SCS

equipment

new

requirement.

it was

requirements

for

Block

The

ground

I was
rules

decided
to 100

to change
percent

subsequently
for

the

modified

the change

spacecraft

during

were

to withstand
as

follows:

-iZSD

equip-

flight operation.

68 - 869

this

SPACE

DIVISION

Existing

in

in-flight

any

AMERICAN

maintenance

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

requirements

will

be

retained

redesign.

Existing

OF NORTH

package

envelope

dimensions

will

be

retained

in

any

redesign.

The
seals

nature

to

the

in-flight

of

the

electrical

spares

was

testing

during

the

very

to

was,

remain,

difficult.

qualification

form

Although

concept

made

requirements

took

connectors.

maintenance

Block

changes

the

The

testing

however,

Block
or

of

backpotting

this

technically
of

I system
flight.

factor

in

never

rubber

fail

change

BlockII

the

changing

did

The

the

adding

allowed

practicalities

actual

a major

and

the

humidity

in

humidity

design

concept.

I Connectors

The
through

SCS

equipment

small

spacecraft
ficulty

and

was

enclosure,

the male

and

pin

the high

experienced

removal

of the

removal,

and

an

alternate

of

an

original
The
usage

of

included

connector

body

connector

damage

the

and

source
and

slippage
The

as

the

retention

the

resupply
clip

rate

This

supply

ran

and

and

pin

the

by

and

was

unable

to

part
in

meet

the

to

an

prime

of

a vendor

was

the

impractical.
led

in

acceleration

caused

the

considered

connector

was

connectors,

investment

resulted

problem
who

and

However,

the

eventually
out

prob-

insertion

with

was
of

dif-

Other

crimping

considerable

procurement

failure

supply.

the

extremely

pin burrs.

considered.

of

dif-

equipment

pins.

during

experienced

was

because

It was

during

and

to the

Mating

of the

or bending
breakage

problems

procurement

breakage

schedule
spring

of

available

possible.

breakage

numerous

alternate

high
the

length

breaking

spring

interconnected

attached

enclosure.

and

of the connector.

design,

vendor,

equipment

of the mass

without

source

advanced

on the

half was

density

enclosure,

of

electrically

female

connector

retention

Because

I were

The

half was
because

the

for Block

connectors.

encountered

ficult to mate
lems

boxes

multipin

unexpected
contractor

resupply

who

was

not

manufactured

resupply

delivery

needs.
The

connector

through

or

tinuous

development

repackaging
change
on

the

the

of
to
Block

problem

purchase

standard
II

of
until

the

SCS

for
the

brought

connectors.

BlockIwas

a different
end

not

connector.
of

the

about
No

by

Block
the

problems

solved

by

Rather,
I program.
Block
have

II

a design
was

The

redesign

decision

been

reported

system.

13

SD

break-

there

68- 8 69

conand

included
in

a
this

area

SPACE

Single-Point

search

been

and

AMERICAN

discovery,

tedious

primarily

for trouble
date

for,

a long

consists

OF NORTH

and

job.

of having

areas.

elimination

The

process

designers

Examples

SCS
logic bus:
all G&C
mode

TVC

servo

for both

Entry

of single-point

of finding

continually

of single-point

failures

failures

single-point

search

SCS

power

servo

failures

the wiring

found

and

diagram

corrected

to

The
A

mode

and

completely.

power

SCS

reaction

are

ducted
does

and

generally

or

not make

analysis

stantially
grated

when

The

failures

total

system

effects

subsystem

whole,

The

spent

so that each

of detailed

the hardware
over

required

drawings

done

must

has

been

to see

conditions
Special

as it
can

ensuing
tests

a multiple

failure

be

states

are

con-

failure,

this level

of failure

analyzed

subsystem

could
of time

mode

to form

must

be

designed
schedule

of the total concept.

committed

for manufacture,

is being

and

the

be

given

Although

these

of specification
in terms

The

result

many

redundancy.

- 1468-869

have

of

of the

constraints

built will indeed

SD

sub-

a total inte-

now

failures.

at the time

and

increases

in the problem

Consideration

been

because

analysis

combined

prin_ary

if what

modes

as complex
of course,

and

Although

consum-

its nominal

redundant

failure

sometimes

and

understanding

and

leave

time

i.e.,

is at least twice
mode.
A failure,

considerably.

have

modes,

normal

of the elements

[ailure,

should

this is seldom

a lack

after

switch

is difficult and

of two

and

would

successful.

subsystems

increase

failure,

primary

operation.

for single-point

permutations

the

failure

inoperative.

it is generally

several

of failures

to power

failure,

cause

power

the failure

system

of difficulty

system.

used

fail all

N IT'vC

by the designers.

a redundant

level

would

during

mode.

Generally,

that a single

is tedious,

The

types

mode.

would

consists

redundant

understood

to ensure

failure

switch

a single

inoperative

of single-point

subsystem

in either
known

single

to

jet drivers.

are generally
similar,
but the subsystem
would
be if it did not need
the redundant
occur

bus

failure

for MTVC:

control

its backup

in the

fail TVC

a single

the

control

identification

given

fail power

a failure

would

a single

to disable

rotational

would

of roll display.

drivers:

Rotation

ing.

switch:

amps

methods

mode

a single short to ground

and function
switches.

roll display:

three

as

CORPORATION

are"

I.

the

ROCKWEI.I,

Failures

The
has

I)IVISION

hours
the

as

well

is that
are

SPACE

The
ground

The
high

later

puts

desirable

space
on

of system

tractor

Filtors,

for use

throughout
based

Inc.

on

I and

several
size

Golden-G

factors

and

weight,

the

Golden-G

relays

of failure

caused

by

ducted

an

At

The
Block

on

of
process

it is highly
may

thoroughly.

be

Further,

of failure

system.

Program
of
C

The

in two
1966.

subcontractor

Another

the

modes

failures.

encountered

during

of malfunctions

establishment
concern.

However,
level

extensive

retained

From

of Block

number
testing

were

prior

not unusual
corrective

in mid-November

testing,

investigation

including
by

the

problem

with

or

relay

merits

and

used

was

was

existing

con-

Block

total

relay

repetitive
action

were

two

subcontractor.

January

relay

their

(4542)

impact

-15SD

and

The

68-869

were

number

with

This

there

analysis

failures
test.

The

in

for Group

performed

in qualification

used

malfunctions

1966.
and

in the

the total Apollo

the vendor

II SCS

to an

relays

lots) during
by

occurred.

exclusively

for

no

failures

testing

problems

this overall

1966,
one

procedures

encountered

in the

to November

or

reliability

I relay

relays

(four

limited

module

then

4091

test purposes.

of appropriate

black-box

were

used
was

performance

double-throw

periods

relays

It was
choice

case-to-header-assembly

was

procured

subcon-

This

and

solderball

double-pole,

two-week

451

six Block

problem

a soldered

relay

SCS

its individual

research

not a serious

88 such

and

Each

on

of the

further

II.

initially

I program.

One

the

I program.

Block

were

resolved

Golden-G

sel.arate

Block

assurance

Extensive

from

are

lot acceptance
27

or

made-no

welded-header
There

Block

by

capability,

problems

evolved.

was

in the

performance

solderball.

a change

weld

II SCS.

the

that this was

that time

electron-beam

an

Thus,

selected

throughout

the quality

analyzed

modes

internal

to assure

SCS.

type

and

stress

of the design

fully conscious

was

early

Few

during

(six in all) was

pattern

SCS

and

of the vendor.

failure

relay

including

practices

were

more

subsequently

and

and

the

reliability.

in the Apollo

Block

history,

July

to be deleted.

introduced.

so that a system

quickly

made

Experience

Failures

The

this

be

state

an

minimization

requirements.

of

the

it was

with

and

eroding

so that

rule

was

together

design

developed

modes

changed

ground

present

these

be

failure

should

importance

the

of handling

an

to ground.

this

systems,

from

example,

possibilities

fail-safe

Unfortunately,

are
For

short

caused

of failure

methodology

rules

not

CORPORATION

suffers

again.

would

of modern

themselves

the

Relay

some

ground

a premium

for its possible

designers
and

class

capable

that

analyzed

generally

in the program

failures.

not appear

the

ROCKWELL

increase

switches

new

complexity

single-point
does

that

a whole

reliability,

at this point

total system

rule

the switches
a result,

AMERICAN

uncommonly,

of the

ground

OF NORTH

analysis

Not

states

original

As

failure

rules.

failed

with

DIVISION

and

and
normal

occurred

at

triggered

of those

failures

SPACE

at

this

since

time

1)IVISION

was

many

of

OF NORTtt

considered
the

SCS
subcontractors'
contractor
and

to

electronic

AMERICAN

be

of

systems

investigation

R()CKWEI,I,

major

concern

utilized
was

CORPORATION

to

these

monitored

characteristics

very

closely

are

summarized

in Table

by

the
both

the

1-1.

Relay

Mode

or

Test

Level

the types
These

of

i-i.

Failure

Number

I.

Program

Hence

distinctions
relative to the failures
were
and the test level where
they occurred.

Table

Failure

Apollo

NASA.

The two major

failures
that occurred

Failure

the

relays.

Block

of Failures

Block

II

Total

Mode

Low

normally

open

ii

21

27

contact

pressure
2.

Relay

hangup

3.

Low-insulation

4.

Miscellaneous

resistance

Totals

Test

i.

Level

Subas
a.
b.

2.

3.

sembly

Relay
Module

part test
test

14

17

Device
(pre-delivery)
a. Production
check

b.

Acceptance

Device

(post-delive

ry)

a.
b.

Qualification
Field

c.

Retrofit

cycle

Totals

21

-16SD

68- 8 69

27

SPA(:E

follows

The
:

I)IVI,SI()N

reliability

I.

relay

SCS

Program

failure

Based

on

relay

hours

The

four

rate

Block

the

hangup

128. 7 percent/1000

The

most

This
1000

relay

two

128.7

Thus,

relays

percent/1000

relay

failure

rate

14-day

missions

redundant

relays

significantly

The

i.

affect

relay

investigation

While

the

predictions,
requirements.

Design
prevent

The
and

of the SCS
mission

relay

Block

rates

of

total

rate

vector

II SCS

hours.

of 0. 1 percent/

plus

the addition

servo

failure

control

rate

is still within

critical

SCS

circuit

relay

device

to

circuits

rates.

hours,

one

predicted;

SCS

more

With

relay

the probability
is practically

rate

predictions

the original

will meet

is such

specific

based
estimated

failure

the system

that no

single

zero

and

current

failure

rate

reliability

relay

failure

will

success.

is fully acceptable

the
for

best
use

proven

state-of-the-art

in the Apollo

Program.

-17SD

68- 869

in

of failure

conclusions.

on

than

a pre-

reliability.

not met

represents

of

the

failure

led to the following

SCS

II failure-rate

hours

relay

be

failure

the

in the

for each

failure

93. 31 percent/1000

percent/1000

can

the mission

have

level

(as established

failure

which

in the

of 0.47

relay

device

requirement.

in a critical

experience

hours,

redundancy

seven

not

Block

ratio of apparent-to-desired

every
both

was

in the thrust

percent/1000-hour

dicted

Apollo

best-estimate

is specified

rigorous

a relay

the predicted

added

the

in the

hours.

of 0. 47 percent/i000

redundant

126.81

1966)

assumed

failure

relay

device-level

for the total SCS

increases

offsets

(May

prediction
hours.

as

hours.

recent

predictions

early

requirements

These

summarized

in 860, 000

the

specification)

devices.

be

hours.

percent/1000

reliability

(I()RPORATION

established

II SCS,

procurement

individual

may

failures

Block

is 0.47

II SCS

objective

SCS

0. l percent/1000

relay

on

R()CKWEI,I,

on the

rate

was

contractor
the

AMERI(b'kN

considerations

The

failure

_,F,"N()RT|I

design

of

would

SPACE

I)IVISION

<)_: NORTH

Subcontractor

screens

in-house

out low,

insulation

There

module,

or

be

relay

C()RPORATION

testing

contact

force

from

in the test criteria

the present

of relay

inherently

better

manned

and,

when

space

and

low

process

at the device,
which

will

hangup.

there are not better

relays
available
coil and contact
design
announced
by

for future

effectively

relays

relays.

change

level

the probability

Although
isolated

relay

no

and

open

(wet)

to be

R()CK'_VEIA_

module

normally

resistance

appears

reduce

AMERICAN

proven,

today,
the
the vendor
should

should

be

considered

applications.

Changes
The

Apollo

unmanned
flights

contract

flight was
and

one

completed.

was

made

manned

Significant

awarded

in November

in February

1966.

of 1961

Thus

flight have

been

highlights

of the program

far,

attempted

and

four

the first

unmanned

and

each

successfully

are

shown

in Figure

2-3.

The major
redesign
of the SCS occurred
in June 1964
vehicle
as well as the SCS.
The four initial unmanned

and affected
the entire
flights utilized the

Block

II.

I design;

flights

will

infeasible,

the Apollo

use
was

7 manned

the
Block
incorporated

II design.
into

TVC
redesigns
redesign.
because
of changes
in the

The

major

change

implementation.
vehicles
would
trips.
By the
for the various
the

summer

vehicles.
bility.
should

The
the

be

flight used

of

the

Manual
Block
I at
Block

vehicle

body

during
original
same
as

of 1964,

the

remaining

occurred

bending

first
the

thought
Block
I1

several

times

data.

SCS

program

was

the

Block

were
enough
changes
made
or planned
block of vehicles
was
considered.
In
was

the Block

divided

into Block

II vehicles

would

I and

have

Block

That

Besides

is, the

the backup

that time

i.

SCS

was

system

to be

used

designation,

when

the

other

PGNCS

changes

II

lunar-trip

The
underlying
concept
of this change
was
that the PGNCS
be considered
the prinaary
mode
of operation,
and the SCS

mode.

II

Apollo
program
concept
was
that all flight
the ones that make
the actual
lunar-landing

program

only

All

TVC,
which
was
the
same
time
as

system

the Apollo

spring
of 1964, there
systems
that another

In general,

II

Block

capa-

system
the backup

is not used.
made

to the

SCS

at

were:

In-flight

maintenance

concept

was

deleted

in

favor

of

built-in

redundancy.
The

electronics

better

humidity

were

repackaged

with

hermetic-type

protection.

-18SD

68-869

seals

for

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

CO
".O

>__l

u_
O o-_

rv

Z_oZ
r-.

_.

O
Z

>_

I-- w

//-

o_

O
1

e_

<1U
i

_o,,
4--

O.

,,.,_
I.l.I

u..,_

0
>

tY

c_
L)

rY

b9

0
0._

z_

_--D

_o_

_- Z
--

,..-..

uJ
v

_D

I-..-I
Ill
----1

0
e_

"it

C3

kl,.

_----

O
Z_
oo
o

U
_
I-Z

r_
w

"1-

_Z
U-_u_

"'

-19SD

68-869

SPACE

I)IVISION

c_F NORTH

Microminiature

I5

integrated

percent

The

4,

AMERICAN

of

mode

the

circuits

electronics

switching

R()CKWEI,I,

(IC)

are

CORPORATION

were

used.

Approximately

IC's.

concept

was

dropped

lighting

repIaced

in

favor

of

functional

switching.

5.

Electroluminescent

6.

The

7.

Manual

rotation
TVC

translation

was

9.

There

was

unwise.

Rather,

functions

but

following

studies

an

effort

less

the

SCS

more

The

Block

II

system

made

to

the

were

basic

design.

CONC

LUSIONS

The
program

primarily

of

Utilize
resort

an

and
is

by

the

to

GDC

in place

gyros.

decided

which

to these

system

has

to be

similar

changes,

(the ac

currently

in
the

the

system

and

system.

retaining

flight

time

the

(This

analog

operations.
of

nature

problems

the
and

Small

original
did

system.)
changes

definition,
not

but

invalidate

encountered

the

during

the

conclusions:

control

signal

enclosures

electrical
alternate

a digital

than

a developmental

sealed

an

ac

analog

costly

since

built-in

standard
to

used

rate

but this was

In addition

a dc to an

from

in these

hermetically

were

desirable).

experience

result

Incorporate

lo

the AGCU

replaced

from

system

development
to date

was

complex

been

these

(BMAG's)

place:

to be

Changing

redesigned.

added.

capability.

the SCS

proved

lighting.

were

spring-restrained

to remove

rate

took

controllers

gyros

three

was

the AGCU

a higher

was

and

FDAI

Changing

I,

attitude

BMAG's

redundant

hand

integral

added.

Six body-mounted
of three

have

and

the

and

utilize

in the initial design.

connectors
source

redundancy

of

or,

if

procurement

this
for

is
any

designs.

-20

SD

68-869

not

possible,

advanced

SPACE

DIVISION

Develop

OF NORTH

a failure

identification

The
as

the

Block

nectors
on

Block
on

Block

reliability
a maze
to
are
the

I system
The

problem

analyze
needed
system.

any

failure
by
to

system.
modes

the
assist

of

present
in

Similarly,

total

the

failures
of

circuits

brute-force
the

in

the

-21

process

that

it

Analysis

tools

68-869

the

reliable

standard

con-

design
limit

lends
almost

ensure

SD

as

will

systems

make
and

of

be

advanced

one

space

to

use

the
is

that

methods.
design

proven

than

complexity

subtle

assist

has

troublesome

single-point
The

and

to

redundancy

weight.
less

CORPORATION

failures.

built-in

less

been

ROCKWEI,I,

methodology

single-point

of

for

II has

of
of

design

Block

I.

analysis

of

II

AMERICAN

used
the

itself

to

impossible
and

methods

operation

of

SPACE

I)IVISION

3.0

This
This

section

subsystem

maneuvers
by

consists

generates

After
attitude

sidered

were

from

both

with

design

and
the
rate

of

the

way
is

This

section

inertiaI
drift

for control
is provided

The

(BMAG)

subsystem

that are

electronic

among

used

assembly

for

that

the

Euler

attitude

was

major

angles
change

backup

mechanizations
con-

systems.

which
The

the

mechanizations

platform
rate,

for

different

The

equipment.
use

requirements

discussed.

was

describes

subsystem.
reference

subsystem

consists

the

and

and

which

to

capability
reference

system.

gyros
an

tradeoffs

are

in

was
used.

control

(ARS).

quantities.

the

this

attitude

with

operation

subsystem

subsystem

The

principal

by

improved

solved

change
were

for

this

generated.

information,

In

whereas

in

DESCRIPTION

reference
attitude

the

subsystem

method
data

SUBSYSTEM

these

reference
reference

attitude

together

strapdown

this

was
I,
II

of

knowledge

subsystem

in

angles

this

and

body-mounted
sensing,

subsystem,

for

attitude
primary

navigation,

CORPORATION

SUBSYSTEM

attitude

backup
(The

rate

reference

probiem

the

a discussion

considered

Block
Block

and

Euler

the SCS

spacecraft.

guidance,

R()CKWEI.I.

REFERENCE

discusses

of strapdown

attitude

AMERICAN

ATTITUDE

provides

of the

the primary

both

OF NORTH

rate

mode,

the

The
capability
of
and

two

function

purpose

of

for
sets

the
of

a coupler

and
the

Apollo

three

unit

operation

of

subsystem

is

spacecraft

BMAG's,

that

Block

provide

control
one

generates

the

to

set

Euler

II

attitude

a backup

functions.

of

which

The

can

be

Angles.

Functions

As
operations,

a backup
the

attitude
functions

VehicIe

attitude

control

system

Vehicle
attitude

attitude
error

reference

subsystem

performed

errors
during
errors
needles

by

(in

body

coast
(in

the

spacecraft
are

coordinates)

and

to

thrusting

body

-23

for
subsystem

flight-control
to

provide:

the

vehicle

backup

phases

coordinates)

for

SD

68-869

dispiay

on

used

SPACE

I)IVISION

_v

NORTIt

A set of Nuler
angles,
reference
frame
with

for display

Total

roll

play

during

on

angle

quantities)
needles.

into
These

Euler
a

(about

stnall

describe
to some
attitude

the

(:()RPORATION

the orientation
of the vehicle
inertial reference
frame,
ball

command

Euler

module

angular

body
axes
angular

angles

set

R()CKWF_I,I,

stability

axis)

for

dis-

entry
of

of

which
respect

a three-axis

Resolution

to

AMERICAN

which

errors

errors
errors

which

describe

describes

the

(treated

as

for
display
on
are
the
difference
a desired

actual

attitude
error
between
a

vehicle

vehicle

vector

set

orientation

orientation.

Mechanization
The
an

attitude

reference

electromechanical

Euler

(+20 degrees)
freedom
and
a rate

or

and

scope,

original

alignment,

vertical
for

the

nongyroscopic

been

the

subsystem

gyros

not

BMAG's

are

contain

alignment
and

using

navigation

wide

any
the

and

angle
of
in either

nongyroscopic

scanning

system,

by

the

conceptual

Two

different

spacecraft
and

for

tele-

inertial

were

their

deemed

design

of this

versions

and

temperature

inclusion.

developed

of

the

on

the

referred

to

as

the

gyro

version

is

referred

to

as

the

attitude

stituted

major

The

GDC

subsequently

design
accepts
This

rate

integrated

stemmed

The
sensors

and

control

inadequate

afforded

to justify

a result,

solar

orientation

purposes.

advantages

As

from

original
subsystem
for reference
system

operation,

operational

is

mode.

mechanization

(gyrocompassing)

control

sensors

created

designed

subsystem

version

a rate

does

manual

guidance

reference

midcourse

from

The

performed
early in the program.
to also include
horizon
and sun

local

program,

plexity

The
requires

within

design
tradeoff
was
envisioned

during

generator.

of three

purposes.

The

the

mode.

therefore

contained

alignment

angle

is comprised

miniature
rate integrating
gyros
with a single degree
the electronics
necessary
to allow them
to be operated

attitude

sensors

subsystem

these

Early
by

in

these

the additional

sensors

were

com-

deleted

subsystem.
Euler

angle

Apollo

generator

program.

display

coupler

gyro

coupler

(both
The

(GDC),
unit

analog)

present
while

(AGCU).

have

(Block
the

I[)

Block

This

con-

change.
body

rate

information
into

Euler

information

from

is transformed
angles

These
stepper
motors
then physically
Attached
to these shafts are electrical

by

the

BMAG's

into Euler

electrical

stepping

rotate shafts through

resolvers
which
are

- 24

SD

68-869

operating
rates

and

motors.

Euler
angles.
used
to

in

gPACE

(1)

transmit

these

monitor
(3)

provide

(2)

the

Euler
The

maneuver
between

of

highly

dependent

is

performed,
for

Design

Features

in

resolved

through

rate

loop

commands

were

motors

to

closed
of

rotated

to

signal

RE

and

are

applied

to

null.

in

the

gyro

magnitude
which

where
but

transmission

and

the

are

were
are

after

stepper

motor

fixed

through

gyro

an

Euler-to-

amplifier,
was

an

thus

integral

resulting

gyro

part

were

coordinate

of

torquing

modulated.

resolvers

the
not

BMAG's
BMAG's

fixed

pulse-width

electrical

the

torquing

time
of

and

and,

AGCU

GDC
the

because

the

resolved

the

the

which
and

equivalent

BMAG

such,

that

from

of

performance

lengthy

command

issued,
the

As

at

transformation
to

dispIay.

and,

quite

unique

used

resoiution

for

maneuver,

accordingly

angles

and

with

The

are

entry

the

rate

multi-axis

rate

or

conjunction

Simultaneously,

rates)

for
errors

initiation.

body

are

around

a fixed

shafts

necessary

DESIGN

back

in

or

Euler

rates).

and

gyro

to

threshold,
(Euler

used

was

Small

rate

axis

written

I AGCU

(Euler

conversion

a feedback

are

Block

a body

specified

the

single

mode.

commands

torquing

the

the

body

magnitude

maneuver
specifications

ball

transformation,

required

the

the
report.

CORPORATION

attitude
rate

when

upon

system

attitude

velocities

torquing
body

of

an

sensors,

and

this

three-axes

suitable

whether

involved,
of this

design

operated

exceeding

the

alignment

variables
as part

the

body-to-Euler

into

is

many
included

angular

to

R()CKWEI,I,

transformation

errors

accuracy

specifications

AMERICAN

the

Euler-to-body

system

The

angles

provide

angular

AGCU,

c_v N()RTtt

shaft

display,

small

or

1)IVISION

The

attached

to

conversion

capabilities.

subsystem

are

inertial
can
be

and
local
measured

stepper
pro,vide

QUIREMENTS

Requirements

The
follows:

Io

requirements

The
from

provide
needles.

The

during
small

ARS

during

reference

ARS
must
provide
a reference
which
large
rotations
of the

displayed

2.

for the attitude

must
both

The

reliability

life

of

150

all
body

mission
axis

provide

thrusting
allocation

phases.

In

for

display

angles

a frame
and

(both
vehicle

addition,
on

of reference

coasting
for

the

- 25

the
attitude

for

as

vertical)
and

ARS

must

error

the SCS

autopilot

phases.
ARS

was

0.

999276

hours.

SD

68-869

for

a mission

SPACEI)IVISIf)N _wN()R'I'tl AMERI(;ANR()CKWEI,I,(;()RPORATION

The

more

general

initially

accuracy

specified,

the following

are

ARS

requirements

given

error

in Table

allocations

Body
axis error
angles
the error
needles

to

Body

to

axis

error

3-i.

were

angles

Design

Requirement

One

ence
ing

with

vehicle

Since

velocity
then

(_V)

direction
might
frame

these
has

maneuvers,

and

must

while

The

be

measuring
by

pointing

the

This
was

+0. 5 degrees/axis

satisfy
the

angles
of an

reference

that allows

one

inertially
two

of one

means

platform
singulari-

pointing

alignment

for delta

is arbitrary,

to be pointed

points.

refer-

that measures

directional

the vehicle

of

of satisfy-

stabilized

omnidirectional

singularity

generation

orientation
are

has

for

is the

subsystem

necessarily

the

mode

reference

of the

true

aligned
selection

Two

in any

possible

solutions

for

system,

above

Block

along

two

with

solutions

I; however,

vehicle

the

axes.

of platform

avoiding

Block

The

alignment

its three-gimbal
for

II coordinate

problem

was

orientations

then

prior

to

vehicle.
on these

primary

degrees/axis

cosines,
or (Z) use a coordinate
measuring
the vehicle
body
reference
frame.

second

was

a proper

Based

and

considerations;

backup

subsystems

sequence

and

selection

provided

either

the

frame

handled

reference

control

utilized

singularities.

-- +0.5

if the initial reference

made

still avoiding

primary

angles
A

angles

defines

a requirement

be to (1) use direction

that is different
from

platform,

degrees/axis

must

Euler

angles.

CSM

a provision

which

gimbal

these

with

the

numbers

+0.5

to another.
The

measure

attitude

ties.

these

three-

that the ARS

for display

respect

this requirement.

physically

the

requirements

suitable

frame

From

as

Tradeoffs

of the

a set of data

to the
ball

total SCS,

budgeted:

the autopilot

Euler
angles
axis attitude

for the

reference
which

coordinate

the primary

the

and
systems,

would

provide

measuring
capability

or backup

ARS

a desire

a tradeoff
Euler

frame

as

of displaying
on

for compatibility

a common

was

angles

attitude
display

conducted

with

the primary

between

the

between

same

system.

information
(three-axis

This
from
attitude

ball).

A
this and

preliminary
the

other

review
required

of potential
functions

mechanizations

eliminated

that

all but the

systems.

- 26

SD

68-869

could

following

provide
candidate

SPACE

DIVISION

ov

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

a_
4t

.t-i

.tt

.tt

)
)
.r,l

D-'
.)

Q)

U_

U'_

t__

t/_

f',l

t/3

xl

"_

<

r.t')

4_
O

L)
,-_

0
.r.4

N
.r-.t

if?
0

_1

:>

27

SD

68-869

SPACE

i.

DIVISION

Strapdown

attitude

a.

Two

b.

Three

2.

2-DOF

Inertial

a.

,}v NORTH

gimbal

3-I,

The

results

The

values

numerical

3-2

indicates

Table

3-3

considers

spares)
If a

decision

reliability
the

decision
size
be

not

choice.
of

be

two

of

item,

aitd

that
spare

since

in-flight

figures

for

the

basis

of

be

used

From
are

not

(Block

28

be
since

then

the

be

the

essential,

3-2

systems

to

Table

e.g.,

it

in-flight

satisfy

an

3-3,

if

first

to

the

two-

the

were
not.)

SD

are

reliability

weight

I systems
are

3-3

was

maintainable,

the

enhanced

II

if

and

Table

would

Table

to

concept

would

satisfied,

3-3.

and

eliminated.

were

required

are

table,

requirement,

Table

from

Block

first
platform

be

requirements,

subsystem.

and

redundancy

the

flexibiiity

to

platforms

maintenance

3-2

subsystems,

platform

and
first

be

of

this

four-gimbal

increases

whereas

sufficient

must

redundancy
would

so

representative.

flexibility

with

four-gimbal

results

the

and

nonredundant

satisfy

operation

inertial

strapdown

maintainable,

the

the

3-2

the
be

designed

in Tables

felt to be

the

reliability

the

weight

platforms

The

then

Table

if

be

in

allocation.

on

since

upon

to

to desirability.

reliability

made

critical,

only

tumbling)

is provided

would

operation,

subsystems
the

subsystem

ment.

in-flight

the

would

volume

result

determined
then

for

of

subsystem

The
direct

tradeoffs

be

used

vehicle

summarized
were

regard

whereas,

gyro

are

inexact,

with

a key

based

study

position

to

to be

subsystems

mechanizations

to cost,

satisfy

are

eliminated,

free

four

gimbal

uncontrolled

of these

assigned

the

subsystems

weight

(the fourth

met.

while

However,

must
and

All
were

were

were

obvious
none

to

gyros

gyros

during

of each

of the tradeoff

Table

(inciuding

platform

3-3.

a relative

attitude

platform

tabulated,

values

to establish

while

and

(:()RPORATION

subsystems

a reference

requirements

The
3-3.

of freedom)

attitude

description

3-2,

that all ARS

ROCKWEI,1,

subsystems

platform

Four-gimbal

functional

Figures

{degrees

reference

maintain

reference

single-DF

Three-

bo

AMERICAN

68-869

and

requirevolume

designed

to

be

SPACE

DIVISION

oF

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

I
AUTO PILOT
ATTITUDE
HOLD MODE
GYRO TORQUE
COMMANDS

ATTITUDE

(BODY REF)

GYROS
(BMAGS)
THREE
SINGLE-DOF

MANEUVER
MODE
ATTITUDE ERROR
DISPLAY

EULERTO
CONVERSION
BODY

I'_

EULER
EULER
CONVERSION
BODY TO

GENERATOR
ANGLE

J____

__]

EULERANGLES

Figure

3-1.

Three

Single-DOF

Attitude

Gyro

ARS

.._ THREE-AXIS
v
ATTITUDE DISPLAY

(Block

I/AGCU)

MANEUVER

I
I

AUTO PILOT ERRORS

TWO 2-DOF
ATTITUDE
GYROS

(BODY AXES)

ATTITUDE
ERRORS
SYNCHRONIZER

(EULERS
AXES)

ATTITUDE ERROR
DISPLAY (BODY)

EULER TO
BODY
CONVERSION

Two

Attitude

2-DOF

- Z9

..] ATTITUDE ERROR

I
I
I
I

I
J THREE-AXIS

ANGLES
"_1

3-2.

,"'1 AUTO PILOT

I
I

I DISPLAY

INNER EULER
ANGLE
GENERATOR

Figure

h,..J

Gyro

EULER

ARS

SD

68-869

"1

ATTITUDE DISPLAY

SPACE

1)IVISION

_,r

N()RTtt

AMERI(/AN

R()CK\VEI,I,

C()RPORATION

.,i.a
.r,4

.,.-i

,---4

t_

C3

O0

,9
O

o
"_

o,1

r'3

"O

"O

cM

O
,.-..4

r-.,I

cg

32

32

32

:..S

1>

v_
oO

q_

t'-e,, 1

t._

_
i.M

u'5

oO
_

e'3

I
t/'3

...._

,._

OO

O,,1

t13

U_
U')

O0
,'--4

I.FI
O

,---t
t/3

4-e

o_.
_,-.,

.,-_
_,_,

',.0

"_f

I'--

oo

r,q

oo

.e

m
eq

"_f
_

m
,_

t'-0"
C;'.
(Y"

'_P
0 '_
_
C_,

e,_
0".
CT'.
C_.

Ln
0"
0",
(7"

-'2

. 2

.. o.

8#

0
@
4-i

_CO

_D
0

I"_
Ln

oo

4.a

,_,.o

Ca3

0
t'.(1) rM
'-C; a',
0"o'--

?:
4-a
r/?
LE_

a'O

_d

>

_.i
v

?:

_d

rw'5
b_

.el

Cr-

_'_

_t _

' "'_
v

.,.4

ffl

>,
4.a
.r-4

,---i

0 "_
o_

xO

-.0

o
_

oo

oo

oo

oo

03
,---i
.,--i

c_

c_
r_

4.-1

>,

.4.-1
ql
0

03

_.._

30-

SD 68-869

,.-aO

SPACE

I)IVISION

being

The
reliability
turned
on and

would

yield

The

_r: N()I<Ttt

AMERI(:AN

calculations
off;
however,

reasonable

did
not
it was

number

tradeoff

parameters

tradeoff

on

for

R()CKWEI,I,

include
felt
that

(:()RPORATION

the
the

reliability

effects
150-hour

of

equipment
mission

life

purposes.

of operation

and

flexibility

are

discussed

below.

Operation

The
freedom

they

The

allow

four-gimbal

any

practical

The

three-gimbal

ties,

(gimbal

or

which

The

three

single-DOF

gyro

attitude

periods

as

opposed

to four

disadvantages
be

and

periods

with

torqued

at vehicle

below

the

angle

generation)

other

the magnitude

rates,

systems

gyro

two

rate

was

in
the

of

of the

The

above

during
existed

major

the

system

subsystem

gyro

third,

available

subsystem.

(2) the

of the

degree

singularities

fact that (i) since

and

a function

resulting
Either

rated

were

of attitude

capability

considered,

singulari-

limitations,

alignments.

gyro

lie in the

of the maneuver

rate

the highest

drift rates
areas

rates.

of attitude

practical

subsystem

the two-free

the

is not only

provide

of the

not place

or tumbling

areas

no

between

in that lower

of this subsystem

two

the system
into gimbal
lock
of the reference
information.

that only

areas

orientations
has

the basis

in that it does

has

it also

on

spacecraft.

attitude

attitude

system,

of the

the highest

inherently

longer

subsystems

second,

while

platforms

the two-free
hold

and

rates can carry

performance,

permits

the

operation

is rated

rated

regions)

four-gimbal

accuracy,

and

on the vehicle

platform,

lock

separates

design

platform

limits

arbitrary
tumbling
a loss,
or degraded
three

operation

in the

gyros

must

is limited
accuracy

drift errors

but

well

(Euler
also

of

angle.

Flexibility

Flexibility,
future

as

operational

program

used

changes

here,

reflects

and/or

more

ability

of a subsystem

to meet

requirements

as

the

progresses.

The
subsystem

gimballed
at the

subsystem

top.

While

again

rates

this study

cosines
with the four-gimbal
subsystem,
must
be considered
for future
growth.

The
subsystems
ment;

the

demanding

accuracy
were

however,

the best

basis

and
not

the

operational

expected

low

for future

change

the

freedom

to improve

drift of the
and

the highest

did not

with

consider

ability

to do

of the twosignificantly

single-DOF
was

rated

-31

gyro
as

so

and
with

was

third

SD

the

four-gimbal

the use

of direction

does

exist

three-gyrofurther

adjusted

developto provide

in flexibility.

68-869

and

SPACE

I)IVISION

Study

Conclusions

Tradeoff

The

following
An

_,_. N()RTtt

conclusions

inertially

attitude

the

unacceptable

The

three

of view

solution

of all parameters
(i) accuracy
(normal
ence

provides

- in particular

volume

and

conditions

rates

(emergency

which

could

to the
and

four-gimbal
such

as

subsystem

subsystem.

to result

provides

subsystem

Its principal
with

in an

and

operation).

problem

vehicle

to maintain

only

satisfactorily

attitude

vehicle

subsystem

under

in terms
are

maneuvers

an

uncontrolled

(The

the best

limitations

gross

(2) inability
of high

perform

the

reference

associated

operation)

under

solution

a performance

are

gyro

to the

study:

penalty.

considered.

errors

the best

from

requirements

and

(:ORPORATION

this tradeoff

problem

single-DOF-attitude

compromise

from

platform

reliability
weight

R()CKWEI,I_

drawn

subsystem

point

However,

were

stabilized

reference

operational

2.

AMERICAN

the

refer-

tumbling

considered

emergency

conditions

was
the four-gimbal
subsystem.)
In addition
to this conclusion,
it was also recommended
that a hardware
design
study be initiated
on an

in-flight

feasible,

The

two-free

system
this

as the

resulted
axis
had

in the

of

resolver

to

be

Apollo

the

then
the

was

it

was

angle

to

Also

during

the

made

the

the

reference

complex
limitations

rates,

caused

subsystem.
the

three-gyro

subsystem.

accuracy
(The

most

drift

three-gyro

if

date.

operational
high

to utilize

angles.

felt

that

would

torquers,
The
be

greater

orientation

below

attitude

of E_ller

gyro

new

to

and

to the original

regulation.

changed

considered

addition

which,

at a later

subsystem

This

requirement

magnitude

decision

of 0. 5 degree

of the

maneuver

also

study

errors,
supply

rated

backup

was

in

platform

program

singularities)

subsequently

maneuver

maneuver
at

system

generation

the

power
was

This,
attitude

was

four-gimbal
into the

subsystem

of

considered.

During
cent

gyro

in a qualification

to be

phased

areas

decision

concept

be

studied.

(four

maintainable,

could

a maneuver

be

attainable.

and

torquer

performance

commensurate,
than
and

50
prior

accuracy
This
amplifier

degrees,

the

execution

for

that

if

subsystem
of

the

to

resulted

repeatability

requirement
assuming

to

equal

error

the

from
and

this

subsystem

required

would
required

1 per-

be

realigned

control

system

function.

error
This

would

be

assumption

the

study

compensated
later

it was

assumed

in the system

led to a proposal

that the
to one

total effective

degree

for in-flight

per

drift trim

3ZSD

68-869

hour

gyro

drift

or better.

of the gyros.

SPACE

PROBLEMS

DIVISION

AND

OF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWEI,I,

CORPORATION

CHANGES

Problem

Perhaps
the

the

development

larly

of

during

higher

system

only
ment

rule

was

not

only

axis

trim

basis,

then

the

of the previous
amplifiers.

Following
determine

anization
and
which

this
if

the

was
arrived
resulted

All

An
and

test

at
the

to trim
because

for
was

data

gyro

review

for

of

on

switch

was

torquer

to the torquer

final

only

the

placed

Block

between

the actual

the

above

individual
the

of the

undertaken
A

this

mech-

problem,

however,
at

that

astronaut,

deleted.
to

gyros
recently

align-

an

was

be

I program.

Cape
deleted

a
Kennedy
based

the torquing

so that the torquing

during

problem

deleted;
the
was

for

invalidate

resolution

trim

the
on

stability

could

trimwere

established
to
(This
requirement

gathered

drift

trim

A
utilize

indicated

upon

would

limited

the

in-flight

in-flight

tasks
axis

the

could

with

studies

performed

of the

1 degree/

on

trim

(compatible

one

required

of these

were

degrees/hr,

computer.

in-flight

consuming

that
provided
the
foilowing
changes:

launch.

additional
the

time

conclusion,

in

trim

had

automatically,
digital

normally

results

if the trim

trim

requirement

that

30

upon

reliance

and

was

in-flight

required

axis

and
based

accomplished

required

The

impose

requirements

requirement
prior
to
upon

the

In fact,

time

be

particu-

amplifiers

unacceptable

sextant

which

studied.

ineffective.

to

which

telescope

then

did in-flight

also

results
torquing

were

and

in

problem,

torquing

7 degrees/hr

navigation

imposed

encountered

drift

and

capability
was
was
proposed.

were

and

problem

reference

gyros

expected,

trimming

then

the

a heavy

for performing

rule)

it was

the

design

The

imposed

scanning

Methods

was

performance
gyro
trimming

guidance

the
PGNCS
purposes.

ground

ARS

than
the

if

the

ground

backup

however,

using

system

maneuvers.

Since
in-flight

This,

e.g.,

the

characteristics

rate,

primary

significant

rotational

drift

respectively.
hr drift

to

most

amplifier

amplifier
was

connected

maneuver.

Time

constraints

a maneuver
initiation

of

were
and
the

the
time
maneuver.

established
interval

on

the

time

between

the

allocated
alignment

-33
SD

68- 8 69

to

perform

and

the

gP.\CE

1)IVISI()N

The

torquing

yaw.

amplifier

(This

larger

The

range

was

for the

Block

were

imposed

changes

cw N()R'I'It

error

budget

reference

I,_()CKWEIA,

(:()I_,PORATION

maximum

range

reduced

again

on

was

increased

II system.)

for

system

AMERI(:AN

and,

Certain

system

the ARS

in pitch

in fact,

other

and

became

even

specification

components.

was

increased

to allow

for

larger

the

Block

errors.

Changes
A

major

definition
number

design

study

of operational

PGNCS/SCS
ated.

In terms

from
and

attitude
the

deletion

An

of in-flight

additional

These

is given

and

should

concluded

be

made

could

be

most

driven

inertial

significant

addition
by

to the

were

either

combined

also

enumer-

equipment

of a simple

measurement

II

that a

change

set of single-

integrated

rate

unit (IMU)

outputs

gimbal

angles,

maintenance.

desired

changes

MIT,

the
AGCU,

equipment

replacement
of the three Block
tional set
of three
BMAG_s.

NASA,

following

study

to this equipment

of the

or

initiated
This

changes

changes

perhaps

which

BMAG's

was

MSC.

functional

deletion

displays

"caged"

NASA

Specific

of the ARS,
were

to the AI%S
by

and

system.

requirements
axis

change

performed

were

NR.

then

change

related

I spring-restrained

studied

sumnaary

in more

of these

to the

rate

detail

by

decisions,

AKS

gyros

was

the

an

addi-

by

representatives

related

to the

of

ARS,

below:

backup

ARS

in the

Block

rather

than

ment

was

with

an

all-attitude

II system,
the three

based

upon

i.e.,

capability

three-axis

single-axis
a strong

attitude

attitude
astronaut

would

be

maintained

ball display

displays.

This

preference

for

requirethis type

of display.

Tile design
computer
angle

problems

set,

and

to discourage

An
over

analog

associated

in conjunction
driving

and

schedule

tem

is given

angle

version

as

using

a possible

generator
for

the

considerations.
in Figure

with

the BMAG's

the ball display,

this method

Euler

a digital

with

(GDC)

Block
A

the Apollo

were

of such

the

a nature

Euler
as

solution.

mechanization

II backup

functional

ARS

was
based

description

3-4.

- 34

guidance

for generating

SD

68-869

selected

upon

cost

of this sys-

SPACE

DIVISION

oF

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

I
,_ AUTOPILOT

ATTITUDE HOLD
MODE

THREE SINGLE-DOF
ATTITUDE GYROS

_1 ATTITUDE ERROR

RATE
MODE

(BMAGS)

I DISPI_AY

I
J
v I AUTOPILOT

I
THREE SINGLE-DOF

ATTITUDE GYROS
(BMAGS)

BACKUP
RATE

_! BODY RATE
NORMAL
J DISPLAY

I
I

ATTITUDE
HOLD

FU_,I_ '_'_
ANGLE

MANEUVER

Ir THREE-AXIS

...lJ
ATT,TUDE
,SPLAY

EULER ANGLES

-I/ENTRY
MONITOR
'|
ROLL ANGLE

3-ENERATOR/

I L DISPLAY

Figure

3-3.

Inertial Platform

ARS

(Three

or Four

Gimbals)

MANEUVER

INERTIAL
SYNCHRONIZER

PLATFORM

ATTITUDE
ERRORS

EULERTO
BODY
(EULER AXES)_v
CONVERSION

ATT,TUOE
AUTOPILOT

ERRORS
(BODY)

ATTITUDE ERROR

DISPLAY

I
I
I
I
EULER

,...I
THREE-AXIS

ANGLES

v I

ATTITUDE DISPLAY

Figure

3-4.

Three

Single-DOF

Attitude Gyro

ARS

(Block II/GDC)

- 35 SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

The

six-BMAG

ence

to the

Block

operated

in which
The

in Table

System

displays

The

system

backup

is an

All

in the
to be

were

angles

for

rate

BMAG's

mode

II in prefer-

and

three

BMAG's

and

had

requirement

identified

all-analog

not meet

except

with

Block

System

- This

display

the

ing pulse

on

BMAG's

rate

of the

Euler

changes

systems

in Table

system

on three

3-5

which

are

indicated
are

tabu-

described

integrates

separate

the all-attitude

are

studied

below:

body

rates

attitude-display

capability

needles

required

of the

are

greater

is an

all-analog

a three-axis
of the

torquing

ball.

Block

- This

system

The

I type

capability.

is the

same

is mechanized

- This

system

rebalance

is an

loops

Table

which

generates

electronic

(BMAG's

This

in rate

is the

Euler

feedback

system

sensor

selected

3-4.

all-digital

around

ARS

except

version

Requirements

Block

TVC

that the

of system

B,

Changes

Block

II

30 /sec

50 /sec

Z5/sec

50/sec

5/sec

50/sec

rate

Roll

and

yaw

roll attitude

accuracy

Euler

includ-

the gyros.

requirements

manual

as System

requirements:

Pitch

loops

mode)

digitally.

Requirement

and

system

If.

generator

System

Entry

the

providing

in the generation

the various

this information

(GDC)

around

Entry

Block

ARS.

System

Rate

for

six of these

used

ARS

between

systems

does

selected
of three

gyros.

CORPORATION

the GDC.

there

The

- This

and

by

tradeoffs

3-5.

was

accuracy

information

areas

angle

of being

of sufficient

3-4.

ROCKWELL

I configuration

capability

The

for

configuration

rate

angle

lated

AMERICAN

spring-restrained
data

in Table

OF NORTH

display
No

r equirenaents

36SD

68-869

SPACE

I)IVISION

)F NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

CO

,5

._

c;

',1

,--i

,--4

,--4

,--4

,-_

,,I

,,1

o
u'3

o,1

"_

O',

c;

.-,

_4

c;

u'_

',D

CO
o

u
O

"w

_a

c;

t/3
c_

O
O'-

L_

',1

D'-

c;

c;

,.D

CO

c;

q-i
0

(3",

c;

19
4.a
m

>,

09

cO
u'3

oO
g,,

p,..

c;

,.-t

,.D

19
19a)

r_

19

19
_z

<

19

g-,
O',

,,D

c;

c;
u_

c;

19

,,D

.r-t

<
0
U

19
!
19

r_

19

19
19
19

N
19

+-'
rn

O
m

or)

,-_
0
-_

19

,.(3
v

_-_
_,---I
<+

4,.a

on

a_
.,-4
19

z
_

37

SD

68-869

SPACE

I)IVISION

System

- This

generator

- This

generator

motivated
The
the

result
sor
rate)

in changes
was

signal

was

ing upon

to provide

resolved

the

the Euler

design

and

The

the

secant

lunar
function

or

were

and

sensors

around
for
the

the
the

deletion
gyros.

torquing
error

these

The

the
Euler
contribution

of the horizon

torquing

signal

to the local

net

sen-

(orbit

mode.

appropriate

This

gyros,

vertical.

dependThe
and
the

of the
electronics

contained
from
angles

effect

in

was

that

motors.
this
change

the

the

transformation

AGCU
mechanization.
were
generated
in

effect
of

in

changed
varying

the
the

For
reasonable
in threshold

the

Block

feedback

gain

threshold

levels

inner-gimbal
level
was
found

angles,
to be

acceptable.
CONC

LUSIONS

Since
satisfactory
not

suggest

the

operation

during
any

the

cha_Iges,

and

not

(ORDEAL).

functions

stepper
due
to

from
did

was
later felt to be unjustifiable
this capability
was
deleted
from

mechanization

of

made,

and

local-vertical

to the

respect

of operation
to provide

sun

in the program

gyro

open-loop

from
body
to Euler
rates
was
deleted
Because
of the
manner
in which
these
system,

angle

changes

the deletion

a fixed

currents

module

angle

computer.

system.
In 1967, this function
was
again added
at the request
astronauts.
The NASA
provided
as GFE
the orbital rate drive
for Apollo

Euler

computer.

guidance

early

With

with

except

the

of the horizon

mode,

orientation

that the

guidance

system.

hardware.

this mode
required

other

C()RPORATION

except

the

as

occurred

a pseudo

within

the

into torquing

vehicle

requirement
for
the mechanization

same

the deletion

vertical

as

within

certain

however,

to actual
local

used

was

This,

gyrocompass

is the

to simplify

ROCKWEI,I,

same

is contained

of the ARS,

a desire

ARS.

is the

system

first of these

backup

AMERICAN

is contained

capability

evolution

by

system

capability

System

In the

_V NORTH

performance

spacacraft
there

are

of this

flights
no

and

subsystem

developmental

hindsight

suggestions.

38SD

68-869

has

been

problems

do

SPACE

I)IVISI()N

4. 0

This
the

section

SCS.

The

,,v

N()RTII

THRUST

VECTOR

discusses

TVC

subsystem

lunar

(LM

The
and

on

function

ground

lems

and

rules

and

the

the

subsystem

of the Apollo

propulsion
and manual

module

off (LM

of the present

the development

(TVC)

flight control

lunar

in establishing

with

control

module
service
both automatic

operation

used

associated

SUBSYSTEM

ON)

(',()RPORATION

SUBSYSTEM

vector

provides

of the service
provides
for

R()CK'_VEI,I_

CONTROL

the thrust

during
thrusting
The
present
TVC
module

AMERI(:AN

system
control

spacecraft
(SPS).
with the

OFF).

subsystem,

subsystem

of

the

requirements

design,

of this subsystem

and

are

the prob-

presented.

DESCRIPTION

Functions

The

Apollo

control--the
guidance

primary

and
the

backup

system,

backup

stabilization

has

modes

the backup
the

The

the

maneuvers.

delta V's, lunar

and high-altitude

SCS.

As

is to provide

These

orbit insertion,
abort.

uses

the

commands

of the

TVC

flight

mode

control

electronics

by

propulsion

primary

to generate

analog

performed

thrusting

of service

mode.

computer

uses

function

during

two

digital

mode

the

include
midcourse
earth
orbit retro,

and

and

navigation

whereas

and

spacecraft

thrusting

pointing
maneuvers

transearth

The
second
function
of the TVC
subsystem
is to provide
backup
control
for the engine
position
system.

injection,

both

primary

Mechanization

gimba[

The
TVC
commands

service

subsystem
consists
of analog
electronics
to generate
engine
and analog
electronics
to control
the positioning
of the

module

The
engine
ope ration:

i,

main

servo

Primary
compute

2.

Backup

engine.

system

mode

functional

accepts

commands

commands

from

diagram
from

is shown

in Figure

the following

the guidance

and

navigation

automatic

(SCS)

mode

commands

39SD

modes

68-869

4-i.
of

SPACE

DIVISION

_ li

or

NORTH

m m mi n

lim i

AMERICAN

me all m m i

in i

minim

ROCKWELL

ill Ili mi ill il

CORPORATION

Im Ill a

m nl i

il li

Im ii

mi _

'_l_F

_o

i__

L.._..-..................
.._1_

_,__ ,

:',
....I. .........
...

.,:

o :_
OI

i_

_-_
_Z

_o_ _

_1

I _

I
C_

0
,...i

_-.-q
0

C}

8
0

g
,2

o
0

!i

>
--

e._

__0

z_-

..==Jm

DO
O

OE

7
Z

_2
.q
Z

'I
_0_0

o,-_

_L

plNNRIIINI_NIUN

lammnnmm|mmm_

_u
I
!

I ....

II

!,

i
I
!

_z

I_ _

_ I

!
I

o_. _

,
I
!

40SD

68-869

SPACE

4.

The

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

Rotation
hand
compensation.

controller

commands

with

Rotation

controller

commands

directly.

backup

feedback

the

the

These

exact

form

integral

sensor

used

with

output

The
system,

major
which

assembly,
and

yaw

loop

spacecraft,

clutch,

the

transducer
velocity,
the

signals
pilot's

supplies
and

linear

rotary
an

The

engine

subsystem

the

sensing

angular

by

motor

containing
The
the

engine
mounts,

the

pitch

through
near
the

the

element

is geared

motion

signal

proportional

four

mounts
in turn,
inner-races
the
gimbal
throat
of

gimbal
are

the

and

the

or

and

4.5

ac

engine

ring
so that
the
combustion

the

or

to the

amplifier.

lead

screw,
A

velocity

angular

proportional
output

These

indicator

snubbers

in pitch.

to

shaft.

on

within
The

yaw

the

the
actuator

these values
to l degree
in
gimbal
travel is dictated
center

is

along

injector

-41

extension

center,
is 0 degrees
in yaw
and
centerline;
distortion
of the thrust

two

of

head.
of

the

the

of gravity

circular

orthogonal

the
inner-race
to the
spacecraft.

plane
chamber.

by pitch

travel.

position

spring

assembly
set

to

gimba[

respect

output

and

degrees

of the vehicle

gimbal

ball

signal

frame

by

servo

the

servo

actuator

to the gimbal

is limited,

bearings

to the

to clutch
an

the actuator

attached
are
mounted
to

the

to a magnetic-particle

to linear

supplies

position

with

to a recirculating

clutch

in yaw

of

forms

system

is controlled

input

structure
during
the firing of the engine
brings
yaw
and 2 degrees
in pitch.
This unsymmetrical

main

the

gimbal

of actuator

geared

electrical
null, which
is at the mechanical
I-I/2
degrees
in pitch from
the spacecraft

The

servo

position,

electrical

of a dc

travel

by variations
in the lateral
propellant
is consumed.

attitude

of which

actuator,

Engine

amplifier,

degrees

rate

of (i) using

is the SPS

elements--the

employing

between

angular

to 4.5

output

gimbal

actuator

transducer

displacement

go to the servo
display
panel.

actuator,

ac

a position

vehicle

networks;

consists

The

position.

of which

the

TVC

basic

electronics.

consists

output

converts

in the

be commanded

actuator

attitude

attached.

of three

systems

and

may

The

which

servo

rate

into the

and

and

the

of control

directly

module

the servo

position

compensation

and

rate information,
and (2) passing
it through
o the gimbal
servo.
The
rate feedback
mode

subsystem
consists

and

retraction

lunar

damping

attitude

configuration,
mode

CORPORATION

rate

of vehicle

of gimbal

vehicle

either

ROCKWELL

through

manual

the vehicle
and then

the

sum

pass

on the
The

controller

consists

of the

outputs

command.

combining
it with
some
compensation
is not

autopilot

depending

engine

rotation

hand

automatic

and

error.

DIVISION

gimbal

ring

coplanar

axes.

the
yaw
bearing,
and
Two
"thrust
struts"

The
ring

as

engine

intersects

SD

68- 869

itself

fits

the

engine

tie

SPACE

The
gimbal

yaw

ring

spacecraft
drives

engine

yaw

Design

Features
Three

Electromagnetic

2.

SCS

3.

Manual

An

TVC

main

been

The

module

the
are

gimbal

tracked

by
The

thrust)

the

In

during

program
attitude

indicated
control

of

astronaut

for

The

are

as

actuator
between

rotating

engine

and

the
gimbal

follows:

actuator

was

actuator

the

first time

thrust

engine

system

fed

is used

the traditional

in

of

fashion

rather

the

this

center-of-gravity

manner,

nozzle
form

to

the

particle

two

sets

of

oxidizer

than

in

a parallel

spacecraft's

The

The

environment.

consists

of

positioning

actuator.

that a magnetic

in a space

serial

excursions

to apply

hydraulic

of the
mission.
and
then
integrated

to

simple
is

be

possible
too

thrusting.

rate
heavy

and

center

and
attitude
a bias
signal

of
position
for
the

motion

is

large

to

with
allow

Simulation

damped
vehicles

attitude
were

control

studies

control
definitely

system

essentially

the

of

capable

redundant

to

SPS

manual

of
the

(Zl,

000

control
midway

light
feasible.

the

through

vehicles
Manual

satisfying
other

pounds

of

crew
modes

of

the

and

direct
TVC
offers

survival
thrusting.

REQUIREMENTS
This

the

section

Apollo

requirements
program

describes

TVC

by the
customer
used
to establish

the

than

accelerations

thought

attitude

for

large

angular

first

requirements

used

pitch
half-way

engine.

high

DESIGN

in

course
summed

vehicle

the

is

servo.

was

system

clutch

propellant

engine

results

during

engine

arm

The

about

to the

4-3.

clutch

rather

for a large

The

which

gravity
information

lever

TVC

particle

for Apollo

used

tanks.

manner,

ring,

at the

and

mode

engine

service

fuel

l web.

gimbal

mounted

bearings

integrator

of this actuator
had

the

are

yaw

I foot long.

and

particle

electromagnetic

on the

clutch

of

f:ORPORATION

swivel,
and

of the No.
the

actuator

4-2

features

I.

forces

The

which

is approximately

in Figures

design

and

ROCKWEI,I.

pitch

edge

head

bearings.

shown

the

at the inner

on its bearings
are

fittings,

between

the injector

and

AMERICAN

rod-end

half-way

structure

mounts

and

_v NORTH

actuator

about

between

the pitch

use

I)IVISION

and
the
relate
has

had

the

subsystem.
those
internal

design
The

requirements
requirements

internally
generated.
requirements.

to

body-bending

in

developing

parameters
good

data.

42

and
consist

of

The
ground
substantial
and

ground

rules
amountof

reflect

SD

those

68-869

the

rules

used

supplied
are

those
the

difficulty

SPACE

DIVISION

or NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

THRUST STRUT

PITCH
ACTUATOR

PITCH AXIS\

Figure

4-2.

SPS

Engine

Mount

YAW
ACTUATOR

PITCH AXIS

YAW

AX IS

+Z

Figure

4-3.

SPS

Gimbal

Mount

- 43SD

68-869

SPACE

1)IVISION

_,v NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWEI,I,

(:ORPORATION

Requirements

Customer

Requirements

The

basic

design

requirements

for the backup

TVC

subsystem

are

as

follows:
1.

Maintenance

Z.

Satisfy

pointing

and

accuracy

Translunar

midcourse

b.

Transearth

c.

Transearth

The

following
apply

stability

of:
5.7

degrees

(30-)

injection:

1. 54

degrees

(30-)

midcourse:

5.7

degrees

(30-)

internally
to

nonlinear

corrections:

generated

satisfaction

of

requirements

stability

and

ground

rules

requirements.

Requirements
In

design

an

attempt

to

requirements

ment

the

linear

a.

generally
Internal

of

of

these

Angular
desired

illustrated

further
were

define
generated.

requirements

Control.
vector

AV

the

are

and

The

given

Pointing
that

basic

in

error
achieved

requirements,
ground

the

rules

next

(_@) is
at the

that the magnitude

pointing

error

These

as defined

and
pointing

vehicle
of

ing

an

thrust
These

thrusting

the

internal
establish-

defined
termination

as

the
of

angle
between
thrusting,
as

ERROR

SCS

DESIRED

of the delta

achieved

vector

is independent

of the

here.

requirements

independently
Values
for

end

in

of

below:

AV

(SCS,

used

set

section.

/xV_

Note

apply

will
be
error

dynamics,

to

each

autopilot

channel

met
in the
requirements

presence
include

of

etc.)

initiation

of

from

(pitch

the
expected
all
control
the

ullage

and

error
system

yaw)
sources.
effects

maneuver

to

the

tailoff.
requirements
AV
attitude;

burn,

such
only

the

do

not

as

those

TVC

apply

to

other

involved
portion

in
of

the

errors

incurred

aligning
total

the
AV

budget

above.
- 44

SD

in

perform-

spacecraft

68 - 8 69

is

to
tabulated

the

SPACE1)IVISION_vNORTII AMERICANR()CKWEI,I,CORPORATION

Magnitude
burn

is

0.7
tainti

Control.

fps
(three
e s.

saturation)

for

phase

margin

range

of

These

not

Abort.

angular

rate

of autopilot
system

show

pitch
or

This

tude

listed

will

when
or

propulsion

have

over

the

uncer-

a minimum

the

in

angular

limit

linear

of

(non-

will

activity

detection

will
for

buildup.

from

any

com-

attitude

because
with

introduce

regard

to proper

attitude

did not

frequency

to an

the initial condi-

as to interfere

with

sigma
stability.

converge

that would

if vehicle

at any

one

affect

tolerance

of vehicle

magnitude

met

of

which

converge

cycling

display

be

presence

rates

of such

failure

the

I0 seconds

motion

or

would

met

a three-sigma

within

(peak-peak)

Angular

(p-p)

at a frequency

Ground

of

V,
percent

below

l cps,

an
system

exceed
and

l cps.

not produce

of a degree

for

less

any

or

criterion

of a degree

Engine
should

delta
1.3

parameters

yaw

will not be

in monitoring

be

system

vehicle

or to cause

operation.

above

the

within

margin

and

Hunting

uncertainty

0 degree

to

instability

deg/sec

dynamics

one-fourth

of
be

system

gain

must

respect

Attitude.

accuracy

TVC

6. 0 db

tions specified.
In addition,
bination
of initial conditions.

Vehicle

will
exclusive

The

Vehicle

of 2.0

magnitude

maneuvers,

and

with

must

SM

all

the

mode,

requirements

conditions

system

of

backup

operation.

margin

tolerance

the

Requirements.

degrees

The

in

sigma)

Stability
30

Control

accomplished

Position.
a position

at any

The
limit

frequency

above

2 cps

SPS

cycle

engine

positioning

amplitude

below

2 cps.

servo

in excess
Limit

subsystem

of one-tenth

cycling

of any

ampli-

is unacceptable.

Rules

The ground
as follows:

rules

1.

System

stability

2.

Phase

3.

Maximum

4.

Roll-off

used

to establish

as

stabilization

gain

filter

shown

of

Table

bending

consistent

natural

in

these

internal

4-1.

modes

with

frequency

requirements

18

system

as

rad/sec

or

stability.

low

as

possible.

45SD

68-869

less.

are

SPACE

DIVISION

oF

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

O9

<

o
o

..-..-4

>,

b_

,-_

_a

Z_

*-I
,--I

4.a

o
b/)

O9

...._

!
,...-I

o9
..-.
>.,
4;'

-H
o9

D_
o
_
o
_

u
"_

(3 _

.r..i

,--1
O

_.._

o9
.4.a
t.-i

o
o

,t.i
O

0
Lr_

O9

._

,,.-,I

,.a

._

_.

C,
,-_

"I:J

O9 ,-._

_._
!

_,

;>

._

>
o

"O

.o

_._

,r--_

"_

O0

_ 46

0
Z

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

Bending

oF NORTH

data

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

tolerances:
Frequencies
20%

50%

LM

OFF

25%

25%

data
the

will
least

which

Circumlunar-free
with
the
LM

SM

always
stability.

be

used

performance

injection

Shapes

ON

Time-critical

Mode

LM

Bending
yielding

CORPORATION

abort

at

the

extremes

of

exist

during

requirements

require

failure

return

takeover

without

mission

is

abort

ranges

transearth

shutdown

always

of

the

carried

out

modes,

not

SPS.

ON.

from

booster

failures

to

be

in

automatic

MTVC.

10.

MTVC

will be

control
ii.

1Z.

There

is

mode,

during

LM

Lunar

orbit

in

primary

affected

series

but
ON

TVC

occur

for

LM

is

injection(LOI)
mode

ON

for

LOI
SPS.

to

only

LOI

require

the

in

warrant

MTVC

with

V's

in the

LM

initiated

in

of

failures

the

automatic

primary

mode.

aborting

LOI.

takeover

OFF

are

guidance

and

flight.

takeover

initiated

is done

all CSM

power

delta

required

prior

for

during

V maneuvers

requirements

to

for

damp

the

the
modes.
Failures

transients

rate-damped

CHANGES
discusses

the

subsystem.

electromagnetic
propellant

mode

only.

section
the

that

MTVC

delta

MTVC

AND

the takeover

requirement

14.

This

the

no

Failures
during
and
shutdown
of

PROBLEMS

as

failures

13.

mode

of

{G&C)

MTVC

the

used

The

clutch
feed

evolution,

problems,

problems

actuator,

and

discussed
body

bending

changes

are
data

that

development
variations,

and

system.

Problems

Magnetic

Particle
The

difficulties

Clutch

Development

electromechanical
encountered

actuator
in

the

was

a problem

development
- 47

of

the

primarily
electromagnetic

SD

68-869

caused
clutch.

by

the

SPACE

The
characteristics.
cycle

principal
making

overheating

is

caused

but

subsequent

for

the

percent.

had

than
to

allow
There

clutch

gain

the

of

motor

speed,

lower

actuator

nonlinear
to

of

experienced

susceptible

new

design.

Bending

Data

the
upon

testing

latest

for

the

+15

mode

shape

were

of

I and

did

In
analysis

the

assuming
a first-mode
is

considerably

considered

and
to

attempt

primarily

changing
the

less

and

change

the

gear-

rotating

input

the

is

subsequent

that,

of

some

large

for

initial

requirements
that

Block
on

II

would

system

engine

condition

were
be

stability
has

excursion

because
SCS

the

of

changes

then

outside

the

problem

was

a lower

loop

and

have

these

for

actuator

there

thus

is

less

development

the

variation

performance

been

no

in

was

flight

body

factored

failures

outside

LM.

sensitive

The

the

As

the

or

problems.

to

the

body
set

design

deleted

was
At

510

II is

that

percent
a

was

modal

autopilot

and
No.

Table

original

bending.

frequency

bending

problem.

NASA

a result,

bending
body

a major
The

1965,

less
the

been

available.

April

plus
it

the

1965,

has

data
In

for

structure

frequency

bending

CSM

affect

of

data

data.

assumed.
not

the

an

by

then

nonlinear

changed
of

of

make

separated

that

of
design

changes.

bending

of

percent

spring

that

body
sets

CSM

of

loss

The

required

set

1965

tolerances
set

in

first

September

done

transient

rate

far,

gain

Variation.

various
the

limits

been

as

system

in

design

mission
The

estimate
Thus

variation

lists

based

not

during

the

in

I system.

has

great

a clutch

control

between
is

the

starting

low

burn

as

slower.

recover.

actuator

was

clutches

The

smaller

have

actuator

speed

for

resulted

or

has

however,

The
4-2

the

data
the

Body

Block

autopilot

problems;
bending

moves

to

I and

to

The

into

the

Block

the

engine

system

in

than

of
penalty

that

be

of

over-

percent.

the

slip

did
cause

The

for

could

the

This

The

a failure

the

50

another,

burns.

only

couId

to

The

capability.

prevent

capability

of

changes

rate

stability

changed

gain

the

not

nonlinear
limit

primary

SPS

decrease

a result,

overheating.

less.

the

actuator

variations

clutches.

The

decrease,

As

members

is

motor
A

the

output

generation

a new

and
vehicle

from

operation.

gain

nominal.

from

to

to
This

design

clutch

stationary

or

in

three

overheating
affecting

during

clutch

C()RPORATION

different

system

well.

hand,

for

prevent

given

other

of

ing
heat

the
as

percent

were

the

of

50

to

and

the

slightly

the

misalignment

burns

On

greater

thrust

ROCKWEI,I,

clutch
were
although

appear
with

gain

AMERICAN

with
the
effects,

actuator

interfere

heating
50

one

substantially

clutch

{)P NORTH

problems
nonlinear

The

and

not

I)IVISION

changed
time
for

the

reanalysis

design.

the

Boeing

structure
was

50

percent

the

15

Aircraft
into

a beam.
less
percent

Corr_pany

its
These
than

tolerance;

performed

component
the

parts

data

(set

1963

data.

No.

however,

48SD

III)
This
the

preliminary.

68-869

a modal

rather

than
indicate

variation
data

were

SPACE

DIVISION

oF

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

p_

O0

O0
"_

t_
O_,

.2

_
_

u'_

.._
_

o,1
"_

_
O

r2

.2

C_"

u'3
O',

S
4-_
O
O
O9

oO

"l:J

cl

r-.-

e,_

u-_

o_

u_

F_

o',

(_

ca

ca

E_

,D

,,_

,4:)

-,O

,,D

,,.O

'q3

o0

o0

'_h

00

(3"

t__

_0

O
r/l

ca

_:_
,-_

o3

_l

oo

o',

ca
(i.)

>

.)

i.-i
U
0

&
0

O
I

L)

c_

0
_D
,-_

,4_

,..-i

,.Q

00

_._
0
0

12--

_
_

_
_

_
_

,'_

o
a_

_
L)

_d
"

p...
O
O
I
P.-

"_

-.0
_

,,.0

_
_,_

N
O

O
O

0
,-_

2;

ca

bJ[_

>

c_
2:

0
O0

49SD

68

- 8 69

'_

e
m

_
H

SPACE

DIVISION

In January
a TVC

1966

system

Evaluation

data

was

modified

introduced
vehicles

and

signal

at about

Block

I flight.

Thompson
the

No.

sets

cps

of

bending
have

be

of

the

sent

at that time.

value

formance

was

necessary
SCS

modal

and

Grumman
to

and

cps.

Z.90

Also

2.4

range.

autopilot
LM-

of

design
ON

2.76,

common
configurations

of

reassigned

this

at

time,

to

of

and

3.87

were

these

data

<_ere

to the

sets
pre-

per-

extent

data

used.

dominate

it

was

upon

was

the

for

decided

to

1968

the

articles

Thus
before

flight.

50SD

68-869

15,

2. 60,

CSM+LM
were

several

1.75

decided
103.

1966)

modes

indicated

thus

2.

modify

in the

module

CSM+LM

were

bending

to

lunar
December

for

two

of

flight

the

available

bending

summer
It

for
revised

data

first

subsequent

customer

system

frequencies

The

as

the

to their

of bending

revised

data

fabricated

met.

all existing

because

data

three

cps.

spacecraft

they
be

cps.

first

the

for

reduced

stiffness

1968,

with

changed

range

(Grumn_an

based
of

were

time,
it
the
unofficial

to

to accomn)odate

to 1.6

TRW

end

3.01,

n?argins

required

gains

data
of

were

\vere

for the

condition.

a design
the

all

was

Company

summer
to

were

in conjunction

designed

The

bending

required,

made

using

of

frequency

schedules

stability

of 1.0

1967.

the

to

set

a first-mode

modifications

system

were

determined

testing

another

of every

was

if

was

stability

loading
In

was
Block

components

traces
task

hardware

NASA/MSC

April

boxes

Modal

frequencies
new

cps.

electronic

that

Aircraft

at

although

rate-gyro

requirenlents

the

tron_

propellant

1 and

spare

in

however,
first two

that
of

relaxation

when

were

condition

quarter-full

This

NR

could be indicaI TVC

system

the
Boeing
data.
At
unstable
when
certain

adequate

fabricated

Revised

with
was

performance

in the range

forwarded

The

analysis

produced

existing

adequate

electronics

modal

indicated

a decision

degraded

frequencies

NR

and

if

to provide

The

to provide

half-full

2.

SCS

frequencies

were

used

thereafter,

data.

in the

the

1966,

soon

of bending

at KSC.

a body-bending

doubt,

data.

instability,

evident

analysis

were

to redesign

stack

probably

Considerable
bending

TVC

in agreement
Block
II SCS

made

on the

was

(TRW).

ON

was
the

data

to

Shortly

The

been

thereafter,

LM

which
that

I flight spacecraft),

it was felt that 17 cps

interface.
The
Block

cured.

in-flight

have

summer
The

checkout
cause

generated

any

Shortly

late

7 rad/sec,
was
indicated

would

17

IV).

during

instability

analytically
exhibit

CORPORATION

17 cps.
The
bending
analysis
at that time
had
mode
would
be in excess
of 30 cps.
Although
the

Ramo-Wooldridge

In
(set

the

ROCKWELL

(the first Block

that the

on the S-IB
stack,
mode
at the CM/SM

in the
did not

009

occurred

indicated

at approximately
that the free-free

test was
performed
tive of a free-free

AMERICAN

on Spacecraft

instability

of the

resonance
indicated

oF NORTH

to

Z. 86

bending
to

n_ake

three
the

the
separate
first

cps

SPACEDIVISION ov NORTH AMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

Series

Propellant

The
for

service

oxidizer

rather

not

keep

about

pointing

engine

through

nozzle

tor.

the
the

position

The

addition

would

be

the case

cause

less

vehicle

requires

it.

the vehicle

space

An

spacecraft

attempt

spacecraft

was

design

four

with

provide

during

of the

engine

hardover

means

the

engine
I) to

signal
the

called

SCS

the

autopilot

engine

space-

in Block

generates

lower

travel

each

fashion

propellant

a bias

a stage

two

of the

during

degrees

autopilot

a slightly

Reduced

engine
deflection
limiting
has
and smaller
engine
deflections
on the

attitude

of gravity

of gravity

To
the

tanks,

in a serial

as well

center

of gravity.

of four

engine

center

II (nearly

of gravity,

of this loop

on

of the

center

and

the

laterally

in Block

center

without

effect

Thus,
but

motion

degrees

consists

is fed to the

at once.

lateral

two

for tracking

of the

storage

propellant

longitudinally

This

move

propellant

The

tanks

moves

consumption.
must

fuel.

all four

only

System

module

and

than

craft

Feed

to the
integral
integra-

gain

would,

than

furthermore,

failure.

That

is,

a stabilizing
effect on the vehicle
control
system,
produce
smaller
lateral loads and moments

structure.

made

was

to change

too

far

to a parallel

along

to warrant

feed

the

system

but the

change.

Tradeoff

tradeoff

that

affected

the

TVC

was

the

the electromagnetic

particle

clutch

actuator.

the

electromagnetic

particle

clutch

actuator

and

the

hydraulic

problems
tradeoff
sent

results,

results

results

Power

time,

result,

total power
higher

Space
ible with
which

has

have

power
than

than

requirements

The

environment

to be

contained

system

would

to maintain

in a reservoir
have

following

to be

the working

of the

electrohydraulic

vector

pressure.

are

is more

+300

SD

about

compatfluid

68- 869

control
1p.

time.

Furthermore,

and

are
As

of a working

a temperature
-65

system

operating

system

with

condi-

control

system

TVC

under

because

operating

system.

e[ectrohydrau[ic

absence

certain

today.

electrohydraulic

of the

repre-

system

of the thrust

500-second

The

and

performed

the normal

fluid between

-51

were

These

percent.

started,

electromechanical

provided

it

paragraphs,

electromechanica[

eIectromechanical
because

of 50

requirements

of the

with

between

considerations.

the program

During

versus

associated

tradeoff

system

tradeoff

for the
of the

the

variations

80 percent

that of the

for the duration

space

the

requirements
than

Compatibility.

the

hydraulic
would

higher

if the

capability.

of more

the power

i00 percent

75 percent

higher

after

actuator

problems

make

in the

just

The

low-power

consists

gain

summarized

be modified

considerably

which

about

are

performed

The

for future

of clutch

Requirements.

are

operating

which

perhaps

of its inefficient
tion,

relevant

primarily

of a study

would

system

actuator

consisted

hydraulic

a
which

SPACE

DIVISION

Reliability.
the

hydraulic

ov NORTH

The

study

systems

over

AMERICAN

indicated
the

ROCKWELL

a slight

CORPORATION

reliability

electromechanica[

superiority

system.

reliability
growth
lies with the electromechanical
smaller
number
of subassemblies
in the system

of

Capability

of

system
because
of the
and its better
space

compatibility.
Growth
system

Potential.

is higher

missions

and

growth

the

would

of the

of a hydraulic

have

environment

growth

to be

than

potential

of the possibility

severity

potential

control

The

in view

environment
system

provided

is presently

of the

electromechanical

of extending

the duration

without

is less

to cover

major

favorable,

a more

of

changes.
since

severe

The

temperature

temperature

specified.

Changes
The

basic

design.
and

The

was

or

navigation

I system
The

primary

was

control

function

was

three

times

changed

with

and

was

for

of the

time

capability

ON

systelrl as

the

Block

II system

gains

the

Block

I system

once.

by

LM

welh
and

ON

capability

thrusting.

guidance

Block
only

its initial

LM

during

a backup

and

since

to have

of the

solely

LM

changed

stabilization

OFF
made

not

required

accomplished

At the

a system

a part

has

was

to LM

II system

made

problems,

vehicle

commands.

Block

TVC

initially

of vehicle

of the

computer

Block

was

method

steering

added.

of the

I system

the primary

guidance

data

configuration

Block

The

and

II redesign,

and

MTVC

mode

OFF.
Because

was

to the

The

manual

of the

con_pensation

the

body

TVC
bending

were

changed

TVC

subsystem

CONCLUSIONS

The
was
the

the

major
continual

summer

analysis
warranted

development

of 1968,
method

problem

variation

needs

were

in body

developed.

These

derived.
At the

of a less

with

data.

all analytically

to be

in the developFnent

encountered
bending

sensitive,

the

data,

Clearly

same
yet

time,

until late in
a more

more

hiKh-performing

subsystem.

- 52

SD

68-869

accurate

effort

is
TVC

SPACE

DIVISION

or

5. 0

This

section

subsystem
craft

during

or

on-off
rate

most

small

thrust

the

The

from
jets

subsystem

thrusting
be

Propulsive

low-limit

cycle

(ACS).

capability
of the

operated
force

rates

space-

service

in either

is provided

are

This

for the

the
by

maintained

16

by

rates

for navigation
to satisfy.

from

the

maintenance
with

thrusters

requirements

problem

without

of thermal

a minimum

sighting
The

has

damaging

control

the

of the

have

been

been

that of obtaining

engine.

spacecraft

Another

through

of fuel.

DESCRIPTION

ACS

is composed
the
the

is contained
of the

rotation

from

and
may

requirement

rotation

SUBSYSTEM

the

cycle

pulses

was

continuous

entry

mode.

and

control

flight control

subsystem

the manual

engines,

difficult

problem

except

The

SUBSYSTEM

attitude

phases

CORPORATION

feedback.

Low-limit
the

SCS

attitude

engine.

mode

hypergolic

the

ROCKWELL

CONTROL

backup

all mission
system

automatic

pseudo

the

AMERICAN

ATTITUDE

discusses

provides

propulsion

NORTH

and

translation

attitude
main

within

electronics
hand

reference

control

to fire in such

the

stabilization

necessary
controls,

subsystem,

panel.

a manner

The
as

rate
and

ACS

and

to accept
and

the

vehicle

system.
signals

attitude

configuration

causes

to control

control

command

error

signals

switching

service

module

It
from

signals
reaction

motion.

Functions

The
of failure
desired

ACS

_o

the

of the primary
to shut

i.

provides

Hold

down

following

control

the primary

spacecraft

attitude

signals

from

the

Provide

for

manual

general

system

or

functions
in those

as

a backup

instances

when

in case
it is

system:

within

a selectabte

deadband

using

error

ARS.

control

of spacecraft

attitude

in the following

configurations:

- 53SD

68- 869

SPACE

DIVISION

a.

Proportional

bo

On-off

ov NORTH

rate

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

commands

acceleration

commands

to the

RCS

solenoid

automatic

coils

Minimum

Co

d,

impulse

(R/C)

to the RCS

On-off

acceleration

to the RCS

Provide

for manual

Provide

hand

for automatic

Provide

override

manual
and

commands

cause

the

R/C

direct

switches

coils

c_mmands

in six

stabilization

ullage
coils

commands

for

directions

from

of the vehicle

to either

compatibility

(astronaut

appropriate

control

(T/C)

rate

logic

operation

hand

coils

from

direct

control

the rotation

automatic

translation

Provide
for manual
direct RCS
solenoid

from

solenoid

solenoid

the translation

4.

commands

direct

automatic

the automatic

between

commands

automatic

take

functions

or

and

precedence

to be inhibited)

Mechanization

simplified

in Figure

5-i.

reference
as follows:

to Figure

A
rate

rate

or

error

total

error

signal

signal

to the

exceeds

from

operation

of the pseudo

put

of the

switching

and

amplification

matic

coils

of the

amp,
by

the

RCS

with

amplifier.

threshold,
rate

the

switching

proper

driver

solenoids

routing
amplifiers,

in an

on-off

- 54

may

be

by

the proportional
the ARS.

signal

the magnitude
amp

With

a selected

error

is given

described

from

through

later

ACS

between

signal

rate

When

the

of the

arrangement.

difference
gyro

lag is described

after
RCS

ACS

is processed

summed

switching

the

rate

diagram

thruster

of the

as
the

the ARS

and

a fixed

operation

and

block

the ACS

is formed

the R /C

deadband

functional

depicts

the

signal

from

maximum

5-Z

5-1,

error

command

attitude

single-axis

Figure

The
minimum

to form

of this error

output

is turned

on

in this section).
the driver

is used
fashion.

The

The

selection

to actuate
output

SD

the

68-869

(the
out-

matrix

the autoof the

SPACE

DIVISION

ov

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

_I.H
I
_1
_z_

\-.
7"
m

___o
_

z
O

----_w--+

zJ

t,o

.<

<

g
D_

-0

QO
+

iI

t_4
+

- 55 SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

ov

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

ZO
m

.....a t--

\
\

,x2

U'5

oo
o

- 56

SD

68-869

SPACE

switching

amp

logical

"or"

This

DIVISION

one

also

used

function

shot

switches

to

may

of

driver
direct

is

oF NORTH

the

from

selection

the

matrix

also
T/C

and

priority

is

given

taneous

occurrence

of

a one-shot

triggered

by

impulse

also

to

Z8-volt

to
from

command

these

whose

from
are

these
astronaut.

the

breakout
The

breakout
signals
Translation

appropriate

by

RCS

the

jets.

commands
cause

in

required.

processed

can

used

commands.

signals

translation

commands

is

RCS

commands
accept
the

the
or

output

of

simultaneously

rotation

CORPORATION

duration

minimum

are

either

ROCKWELL

minimum

be enabled
commands

used

to

the

be

when

amplifiers
may
on-off
acceleration

commands

trigger

limit

also

R/C

to

AMERICAN

driver
(No

and

opposing

as

the

RCS

simul-

engines

to

fire. }
All
coils.

the

above

There

coil.

"

This

direct
the

to

be

another
is

are

the

reaction

jets
arid

of

lational
associated

operate
vehicle

in

each

direct

the

RCS

solenoid

solenoid

designated

commands

from

ullage

and

panel

cause

the

automatic
the"direct
either

switch.

the

(Commands

automatic

by

are

coil

commands

instability

to

stood
by
performance

in

and

destructive

feature
pulsing

initimately
of the

analysis

many
tradeoff
as its
name

and

It

short

in
and

axes.
and
one
of

durations,

far

of

the

ACS

and

of

the

ACS

is

one

Each
for

engine
oxidizer

transhas
-

very
at

the

which

the

might

engines,

biggest

that

of
and

while

of

the

groups

ratio

detonation
by

as

yaw,

obtaining

mixture
is

(non-

tetroxide
thrust.

module

problem

nature

on-off

nitrogen

pitch,

the

has

technical

has

not

been

"pseudo

com-

day.

the

not
analysis

fuel-to-oxidizer

is

steady-state

roll,

for

of

design

interesting

modulate

persons

design

this

of

The

first

hypergolic
arid

y,
and
z spacecraft
valves
- one
for
fuel

problem.

the

are

service

in

engines

considered
The

a fuel

the

considerable

therefore

pounds

thrust.

these

continuing
in

on

received

here.

as

torques

provide

firing

encountered

feedback

mounted
x,

are

engines
100

a mismatch

combustion

and

hydrazine

rotational

have

separately

approximately

to

second

system

These
use

together

and

ACSwhich

out

along
the
two
solenoid

to

the

the

it

avoiding

solved

of

which

provide

a difficult

heavily
basically,

the

themselves.

rates

time

pletely

the

by

pointed

engines

to

acceleration
with

problem

in

direct

priority

of

be

attain

these

(quads)

result

28-volt

or

design
to

engines

Sixteen

been

on

by

features

the

enough

oxidizer

same

two

during

throttleable)

low

given

co-wound

of

Features

interesting

which

R/C

are

actuation

inhibited.)

attention

four

coil

the

coils

There

an

cause

actuated

of

direct

Design

of

is
coil

switches

to

commands

of

of

the

RCS

the

engines.

ACS,

familiar
it has

with
the
received

the

system

and

studies.
implies,

to

its

The
operation
derive
some

57

use

of

Although
functional
a great

operation

deal
has

of the
pseudo
sort
of rate

SD

68-869

often
design
of

rate"
misunder-

and
attention

weighed
rate
feedback
information
for

is

SPACE

use

when

may

be

power

the
the

or

_V N(-IRTIt

conventional

rate

case

when

increase

operation

below

tion

is not

rate

loop

to shut

I)IVISION

rate

the

is not

are

of the

available

made

rate

gyros.

the transport

lag

n_inimum

impulses,

off the

switching

amplifier

command

to the

DESIGN

down

by

pseudo

reaction

to provide

been

suitable.

Conventional

of the

In order

has

or

shut

possible

lag.

thrust

C()I{PORATION

intentionally

(a feature

threshold
during

R()CK\VEI,I_

information
gyros

reliability

suitable

detectable

to conserve
rate)
rate

jets or

pseudo

reaction

This

or

This

section

used

to define

cases

the present

ments

and

informathe ACS

rate

is used

jets before

any

produced.

describes

the

have
are

constraints,

the performance

requirements

many

constraints

evolved
still being

differ
with

requirements,

of the present
considerably

system

and

Block
from

design.

Some

ground

II ACS.
the

In most

original

of the

require-

requirements

changed.

Requirements
The

following

data

summarize

the

ACS

parameters

and

their

defining

requirements.
Parameter

Value

Requirement

atti-

0.

0. 2

Maximum
attitude
deadband

4.

4. 2

Minimum
tude

Remarks
0. 5 accuracy
for
AV orientation

deadband

Roll control
and attitude

required

during
hold.

AV

Propellant

minimization

minimization

Rate

deadband

0.2/sec

0. 2/sec

Rate

to attitude

I/sec

l/sec

Propellant

O. l/sec

Mechanization

gain

Automatic
cycle

0.05/sec

limit

same

rate

Manual

miniimpul

0.04/sec

0. 05/sec

pulse

in

alleviate

width

to

to
the

these
RCS

requirements,
engines

is

the
constrained

- 58

minimum
by

change
process
the

value

a _'safe

of

operation"

SD

as

rate

notice

se

addition

rate

Specification

rate
i
In

allows

auton_atic

manual

mum

for

REQUIREMENTS

rules

and

the

AMERICAN

68-869

to
requirement

the

electrical
value.

SPACE

This
pulse

requires
width

DIVISION

an
(PW)

oF NORTH

electrical
defined

AMERICAN

pulse

to

the

ROCKWEI.I.

RCS

CORPORATION

engines

to be

greater

than

the

by
1

pw

= 25.5-_v

where
PW

= pulse

width

supply

valve

in milliseconds

volts

Tradeoffs

The
nonthrusting

ACS
was
initially
and
nonatmospheric

(i.e.,

all

lunar

orbit,

free-fall

allow

the

rates.
thrusting

In

The

flexibility
firm.

ground

devices
as

chosen

given

For

the

ing

other

to

the

Rate
(such
able

It

all

may

The
rate

devices

and

The

primary

of
and
as
for

of
the

modulating

SCS

by

desirable

attitude
sensor
information.

on-off

low

angular

during

with

mission

were

hold

require-

chosen

to

allow

requirements

to

use

only

become

state-of-the-art

(nonthrottleable)

reaction

was

configured

necessarily
consideration

control

of

assumptions

was
the

were

there-

reaction
made

jets.
regard-

namely:

sensors
the

ACS

to
to

concerned

specific

tradeoff

certain

system,

vector

the
the

tradeoffs,

attitude
thrust
use

be

on-off

to

control

mission

was

reason

system.
these

vehicle

considered
as

AGSwas
axes,

primarily

before

control

method
of

were

decisions

this

the

all.three
the

for

midcourse,
of

roll-attitude

values

initial
For

as

elements

Z.

for

control

purposes

parameter

system
mission

translunar

stabilize

configurations

possible.

on-off

fore

studies
performed

control
Apollo

purpose
about

provide

were

The
of

to

to

tradeoff
and

rule

where
were

an

design

change

orbit,

vehicle

and
was

primary
of the

The

the

ACS

defined.
for

earth

reference,
the

initial

as the
phases

midcourse).
maneuver

a given

addition,
maneuvers.

were

jets

to

configuration

ments

including

transearth

astronaut
about

system

phases

and

attitude

conceived
entry

will
control}

be

provided

and

these

for

other

sensors

functions
will

be

avail-

ACS.

to

will

shut

off

the

provide

59

rate

signal

sensors

that

to

is

usable

SD

conserve

68-869

power.

for

deriving

SPACEDIVISION oFNORTHAMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

The

smallest

duced

by

rate

Translation

which

chan_e

the _aainimum

commands

require

The

primary

and

good

no

required

imp,llse

will

signal

function

will be

be man,_ally

processing

during

than

than

on-off

signals

jet selection.

is to provide

attit_ide hold

that pro-

jets.

commanded

other

of the ACS

fuel economy

greater

bit of the reaction

low

limit

residual

cycle

rates

and

rn a ne uve r s.

The
cycle

most

rates.

known,

difficult requirement
The

but

it was

cycle

was

limit

switching

limit

cycle;

assun_ed

required.

following

simplest

system,

cycle

rate

that of achieving
si_htin_s

a sin_zle n_inimunq
systen_,

of producin_
of such

not

impulse

the normal
a minimum

a system

low-limit

was

limit

on-off
in,pulse

is a function

of the

parameters:

I.

Reaction

2.

Rate

sensor

threshold

3.

Rate

sensor

la_ dtxe to filter and

4.

Reaction

5.

Switching

6.

Ratio

7.

Vehicle

are

jet i_inimurn

device

of rate

conceptually

rate

chan_ze

other

time

constants

lags

of on-off

to attitude

switch

gain

inertia

this sil-nple system

sort

is not stable

of derived

rate

in the absence

must

be

used

of rate

when

the

rate

off.
necessary

to mini_ize

tradeoff

modulation

hysteresis

so that some
shut

impulse

jet transport

It is therefore

was

navigation

possible

is not capable

the final limit

information

other

for

that obtaining

The

In addition,

_yros

to meet

actulal requirement

study

systems
quite

I.

Pseudo

2.

Error

or

was

to use
eliminate

conducted

to provide
similar

some
the

sort
effect

which

considered

this function.

but mechanized

of pulse

Two

modulation

of parameters

four

of these

differently.

The

SD

68-869

rate

pulsing

mechanization

60-

or

2 throuah

separate
systems
four

7.

pulse
are

systenas

are:

SPACEDIVISION oFNORTH AMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

3.

Error

4.

Pulse

width

The

basic

concept

which,

as an

amplifier
pseudo

pulsing mechanization

acceleration

and

frequency

modulation

of pseudo
on-off

signal

rate

is to take

command

and

the output

to the jets,

integrate

may

it to obtain

of the

be

considered

pseudo

rate

In practice,
a first-order
lag is used rather
than an integrator
of mechanization,
and this is quite usable
over
a limited
range.
rate

will

provide

stability

minimum-impulse
hysteresis

limit

and

The

error

pulsing

error

so

control

that the

alone,

and

completely

are

for a limited

loop

and

is stable

convergence

eliminating

the

for sinlplicity
Pseudo

to a sin_zle

the effects

levels

widths

are

to produce
region.

a limited

to a single

error

the pulse

designed
pulsing

within

will converge
A,

and

concepts

signal

In mechanization
intervals,

cycle,

this range

of

The

region

pulses

as

pulses

are

using

pulses

functions

limit

occur

of the error

widths

The
whose

are

pulse

width

duration

simple

a function

and

to the error

achieve

angular

systems,

but

and

low

the

produced

stability

since

inherent

without

pulse

rate

rate

had

are
at the

This

by
an

start

(rather

multiple)

mini_num

gain

attitude

and

vehicle

torque-to-inertia
gain

was

and

the necessity

was

considered

required.
for

derived

to the
end

long

discovered
impulse

when

as

In view
rate,

signal

This
function

cycle
ratio

considered,
of the unknown

it

lags

that the

a function
that for

noise

lag

to

some
high

of rateof the
rate-to-

characteristics
gain

SD

the

sensing

a handicap.

-61

to

which

to a single

a moderately

this rate-to-attitude

cycle

not considered

such

rate

was
and

in linear

Thus,

to eliminate

for the

to

acceleration
limit

was

propor-

pulses

that convergence
limit

as

of high

did the others.

rate

enough

cycle

generate

designed

signal.

the desire

approaching

did not

torque-to-inertia
ratios

error

are at
and the

pulses

error

duty

on

conditions

the pulse

off time

pulse

at all times.
was

making

it was

parametric

rate

the

of the

termination.

generates
of the

not based

system

system

However,

to-attitude

made

information

derived

system

infor-

cycle.

at fixed

of pulse

functions

was

acceleration

disappear.
than

design

the two

rate

the pulsing

in derived

slowest

or

both

proportional

achieve

of lags.

gyro

are
which

This

average

effects

a rate

a handicap

chosen

at the moment

modulation

rate

acceleration

eliminate

required

was
signal.

to sinaply

needed

frequency

repetition

mechanization

tional

when

and

of the error

sized

attitude

minimum-impulse

at which

a func-

pulse.
In mechanization
B, the error
levels at which
pulses
occur
fixed intervals
above
the error
when
the previous
pulse terminated;
pulse

information.

lags.

tion of the

mation

within

switchin_

68-869

requirement

SPACEDIVISION oFNORTI{ AMERICANROCKWEI,

I, CORPORATION

For
simulations
was

the tradeoff
were

constructed

give

and

the tradeoff

Weighting

study,

performed

pencil
and

and

paper

tied into the analog

criteria

used

studies

a single-axis

and

the

simulation.
relative

analog

computer

of each

system

following

data

factors.

Criteria
Performance:

Ability

to provide

lowest

Ability

to provide

best

Ability

to provide

rapid

Good

control

turbance

under

limit

cycle

attitude

rate

accuracy

convergence

steady

and

varying

dis-

torques

Propellant

consumption

Authority
130

The

weighting

Points
I00

and

breadboard

for

large

errors

Adaptability:
Ability

to

outputs

and

Ability

to

sensors

compensate
jet

compensate
oi:

Ability

for

to

changes

in

sensor

perforn_ance
for

partial

failures

jets
accept

changes

in

control

parameters
Compatibility
2OO

with

mission

Reliability:
Parts

count

Number
3O

different

of

solenoid

actuation

Mechanization:

Weight
Power
V o him

62

SD

68-869

cycles

modes

of

SPACEDIVISION ov NORTHAMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

Since the weighting factors used in these data are arbitrary,

deal of care must be used in their interpretation.
Reliability
was
of

major

importance

ability

was

specified
since

also
or

that

those

which

system

quite

The

high

known,
since

these

radically

in

evaulation

the

poor

and

in

least

mum

and

pulsing

were

least

breadboards,

and

been

requireessentially

emphasis

concepts

was

the

placed

prototype

in the following

413

points

350

points

300

points

220

points

frequency

A
pulsing

reliability

and

concept

A was

adaptability.

refinements

pulse-width

was

and

discarded

in performance
with

yet

on

system

to

the

order:

discarded

This

on

the

basis

mechanization,

breadboard,

was

the

even
most

complex

adaptable.

The
third,

not

Adapt-

performance

performance

criteria

error

possible

basic

The

the four

pulsing

fourth-ranked
rating

the

on

considered

path.

had

placed

rate

Error

requirements

meeting

only

control

mechanization.

Pulse
width
modulation

considering

primary

was

performance

were

ranked

Error

of

most

requirements.

Pseudo

The

the

emphasis
of

and
the

was

since

capable

exceeded

differ

system

Lesser
was

were

mechanization
could

rated

the

determined.

each

ments

since

a great

a high-rate
pulse

gain

rate

conditions,

for

resulted

was

frequency-modulation
poor

the

convergence

with

found

that to achieve

would

impose

gain,

etc.

would

prove

and

fuel economy

an

increased

were
good

design

restrictions

difficult

innposed

difficult to accept;

on

rating

low

mini-

With

these

that rapid

following
pulse

deadband,

was

very

showed

areas,

the concept

low

together

effects.

to a single

in these

thus,

filter.

to achieve

restriction

The
rate

simulations

convergence

ranked

derived

the time-lag

computer

which

adaptability.
for

for a noise

to eliminate

studies

It was

and

requirement

the necessity

required

analytical

With

performance

from

and

system,

a maneuver.

limit

cycle

rate-to-attitude

any

further

graded

changes

low

in

adaptability.
The
former

because

Comparison
acceptable.
achieved

final choice

between

the circuit

in performance
Thus,
the highest

with

pseudo

simplicity
and

and

was

and

provided

adaptability

reliability

score

rate

a heavy
selected

- 63

error

pulsing

a higher
showed

weighting

favored

predicted

that each

was

factor,

pseudo

for mechanization.

SD

68-869

the

reliability.
equally
rate

SPACE

The
always
be

I)IVISION

attitude

_v NOR'FH

sensors

available

to

proportional

considered

the

ACS

the
but

platform
and
the
with
a sun
sensor

and

however,

requirement

from
of

the

also

be

on dual

thrust

discussion

control.

These

inertial-type

instruments.

was

to

designed
gyros

control

vertical

as
These

assumed
In

not

with

sensors,
arose

reference

to

the

sun

requirements

were

deleted

to

the

only

attitude
sensors

These

sensors

were

were

operate

with

hold.

noninertial

noted

for purposes

here

reaction

system.

over

corrections

would

jet select

translation
be

were

early

AND

mechanization

a 100-pound

logic

was

in

the

autolnatic

and

translation

system,

incorporated
coi_nnands

because

in nature

considerations

thrust

also

economy--rotation

commands

of astronaut-produced

PROBLEMS

that early

jet systems,

of propellant

precedence

periods

preceding

of

attitude

local

C()RPORATION

ACS.

based

5-pound
ACS

for
all

the

rate
integrating
a horizon
scanner.

thermal

and

It should
were

ACS

SCS
and

for

however,

design

the

a requirement

changed,

in

ROCK\VEI,I,

purposes

generally

concept,

from

for

sensors--

original
G&N
also

AMERICAN

and

were

it was

thought

of short

duration

into the
given

that rotation
during

commands.

CHANGES

Problems

This
the

section

attitude

mum

impulse,

Final

solution

although
last

passive

to

thrust

were

include

the

suppression,

still

awaits

corresponding

those

and
further

flight

development

are

of

of

mini-

switching.

development,

problems,

whereas

the

resolved.

were

thrust

created

by

to

than
within

sets

of

and

5-pound

the

was
deg/sec

originally
surface

navigation

this

--

deg/sec

minimum

rates

that
required.

was

actually

rain/see).

impulse

capability

64

5-pound

convergence
an

the

first

order

rates
written

of

magnitude

requirements
5-pound

SD

sighting
to

The

of

jets
operation

navigation

these

roll

disturbance
cycle

the

Both

engines.

adequate

rolI
The

Before
be

gas

provide

large

low-rate-limit

estimated

(2

cold
to

con-

jets--100-pound-

system.
for

would

sighting

0. 033

sized

sightings.
was

lunar-landing

reaction

propulsion

_ln/sec)

the

compressed

when

control
it

(in

module
thrust

lunar
ascent

known,

for

known

service

navigation
(0.2

designed

were

vernier

during

the

the

provide

requirement

originally

engines
from

stability
0.0033

two

boost

designed
for

was

engines

during

requirement
greater

vehicle

100-pound

torques

about

no

in

described

arc

problems

successfully

hypergolic

control

rate

control,

two

been

been

Apollo

figuration)

and

first

encountered

problems

Impulse

The

were

problems
The

thermal

the

have

have

the

subsystem.

to

there

two

Minimum

The

discusses

control

68-869

jets.

of

SPACE

With
vehicle

the

was

redesign
(1)

advent

no

(2)

be

place.
the

thrust

adequate

accepted

and

the

cost

for

since

ducing

impulses

with

less

the

the

time

pulse

tion,
which

wound

system,
automatic

the

direct

actually
a

from

same

engine

small

that

cursory
meet

- roll,

a rate

change

were

available

was

voltage

it

an

of

parameter

variations

(which

was

from

taken

was

pointed

pulse

be

was

deternaine

that
be

the

sighting

single

could

made

using

engine}.

This

65

mechanization
The

it
on

could

the

lack

not

data,
at

obtained.

The

decision

closed-loop
which
under
only

for

available

investigation

SD

less
an

effects
test
revealed

68-869

least

mechanization
was

the

of

be

available

tolerance

the

subse-

maintained

the

required

was

be

designed

requirement

first.
impulse
etc.

closed-loop

based

was

occurred

temperature,

approach

cir-

valve

a minimum

while

in

poppet
This

the

reliability.

and

required

system

was
a

out

data

however,

the

affected

closed-loop

the

_nechanization

that

When

circuit.
until

produce

two

a voltage

when

special

valve

of
control

control.

whichever

would

the

induced

coil

elapsed,

decided

was

impulse

adversely

navigation

mated

by

consisted

hand

automatic

of

device

by

occurred

voltage,

and

scarcity

valve

action

the

extrapola-

operated

astronaut's

coil

supply

open-loop
to

coil

sensed
the
had

was

the
sensing

solenoid

voltage

minimum

the

meeting
study

the

this
on

system
small

jet
the

automatic

the

of

that

sea-level-to-altitude
a closed-loop

by

change

indicated

Because
the

transformer
in

data

that
the

and

of pro-

axis

a one-pound-

data

tests

automatic

of

time

pulse

from

to

the

of

definitive

deleted

problems

capable
case

test

sea-level

reaction

milliseconds
to

a closed-loop

resulting

(2)

increased

100-pound

produce

chamber

of

change

complex

recommended

pulse

20

which

that

plex.

the

review
at

more

which
was

felt that the

with

feet squared,

satisfactory.

operated

independent

it

be

this

pulse

shown
until

be

energized,

latch

unnecessarily

was

an

the engines

slug

of

each

sharp

or

short

adequate

pounds
(1)

(in the worst

altitude

uncertainty

coil

and
to

held

50

It was

of 7 feet would

core--an

was
A

A design
quently

redesign
complexity,

of development

satisfied

believed

incorporated

follows:

coil

the

was

would

as

opened

Thus,

be

12, 500

pulse

the

a direct

used

to

engines.

second

extrapolation

the

moved,
was

small

and

coil.

actually
cuit

on

and

the

this

reduce

Recommendation

possibility

thrust

arm

at

and

engines

could

of about

a vehicle

eliminated.

the

pound

mechanization

operated

coils

one

Apollo

and

a slip in schedule,

manufacturer

but

operation
ACS

was

lower

the

surface;

Recommendation

mean

requirement

concept,

made

weight

hypergolic

and

of the

no

data

the

the

save

requirements.

a moment

jets

small-pulse

lunar

C()I{PORATION

deg/sec).

reaction

small

the

were
to

it would

than

with

0.033

on

jet system

of inertia

this

of

all

engine
less

impulse
than

At
for

meet

rate

rendezvous

land

system

redevelopment,

a moment

second

to

ROCKWEI,I.

recommendations

5-pound

sighting

engines

lunar

jet

in the design

navigation

orbit

because

engine

occurring

the

level

to

not accepted

AMERICAN

Two

5-pound

was

(,F NORTH

required

the

lower

would

of

longer

took

eliminate

and

I)IVISION

comopen-loop
of

esti-

data
that

,_P.\CE1)IVISION_,_,N()RTI! AMERI(:ANR()CK\VEI,I,C()RPORATION

a pulsewidth
always
be

was

used.

than

At

was,

this

chamber

this was

of

the

manufacturer

was

problem

cause

mixture

ratio

the

more

which

times
an

of

a precision

were

(4

percent)

rejected

because
chosen
"on"

capable

of

the

the

variation

that

is

had

the

lunar

a different

with

Thermal

It
the

spacecraft

tions.

of

plane

and

the

time.

requirement

that

and

test

the

This

data.

The

automatic
voltage:
in

of
first,

was

the

design

coil
for
a
lower
the

mechanization

variations

engine

redesign

the

explosion

are

identical

the
and

obtaining

an

effectively

supply

to

different
tests

had

voltage

cured

problem
the

now

the

and

is

explosion

reappeared
Apollo

propellant

are

and

in

engines,

will

under

to

testing

but

prevent

way

sun

line

is

not

and

maintain

may

be

Spin

stabilization

longitudinal

(roll) axis

several

reasons

why

pointing

requirements.

exceed

the
as

as

20

verify

then

angle

use

similar

this.

rotating

for
in

all further

is

the

spacecraft
part

to

duration

satisfy
of

mission).
about

control.

There

exceed

SD

68-869

of
this

thermal

spacecraft

- 66-

the

communica-

lunar-landing

might

to

required

appreciable

planned

the
the

the

stabilization

any
is

input

earth

between
for

days

disabling
of spin

flight

mode

attitude

by

thermal

uninterrupted

degrees

several

is achieved

this type

the

cycling

desired

long

and

for

that

thermal

solar

midcourse

attitude

requirement

the

even

transearth

desired

spin-stabilized

(which

approximately

translunar

thermal

YZ

control

felt
engines

maintaining

The

the

"latch"
of supply

to

and,
The

Problem

during
still

the

which

is

SM

Control

A means

while

that
however,

engines

fuel.

problem

of

widths.
pulse

investigated

performance,

duration.
due

pulse
safe

requirements.

inadequacy

pulse

small

involve

tolerances

mechanization.

were

marginal
to

to
by

a "minimum

rate

test

explosion

seemed

caused
at

the

incorporated.

assumed
year,

module

the

impulse

presently

been
This

designs

the

The

impulse

system

a one-shot
is a function

the
in

minimum

gave

for

and

an
explo-

and

it

valves

place

meeting

one-shot

longer

the

It

of

concern

eliminated
design

the

testing,

effects

oxidizer

took

on

incorporated
duration
which

voltage,

and

pulsing

two

that
was
minimum

problem.

placed

open-loop

only

fuel

However,

investigated.

cooling

rate
basis.

destructive

although

to

altitude

pulse

was

were

sighting

available.
of

and

width

on a tentative

nature

determined,

redesign

was

Several

problem

pulse

small-pulse

small

evaporative

the

engine

constraint

supply

and

become
the

during

clearly

mismatch

to
in

12 milliseconds

navigation

deg/sec

began

began

this

never

than
precise

The

to 0.04

appeared

while

was

operation

these,

data

occurred

delayed

Nevertheless,
width"

engine

problem

engine

program

not possible.

the
and

greater

if a single

relaxed

development

sion

always

milliseconds

therefore,

point

testing,

engine

that was

11.8

Obviously,

requirement

in

required

shorter

its
are

the angular

SPACEI)IVISION OFNORT}I AMERICANROCKWEI,LCORPORATION

First,

it may

is influenced
pitch

and

yaw

(5) other
crew

by

achieve

an

about

the

even

mum

two

wobble
inertia

of greater

axis

motion

(roll),

and

sloshing
wobble

mass,

Recent
excess

low

using

is the

body,

sink

The

and

effects
and

mini-

cause

of

is not

stable

the propellant
is the

cause

of a

of initial vehicle

initial position

all contribute

presence

moment

vehicle,

energy

and

indicate

achieve

by

been

found

trol

system

would

that

to the

growth

sonable

duty

cycle.

to be

of the

results

for

any

of the
of the

simulations,

(Apollo

This

alternate

some
be

consumption

found
and

as

produced

slosh model
demonstrate,
solution

low

rede-

in

the

on

special

of

unrea-

it have

not

test is

the characteristics

of

the characteris-

and the feasibility

of spin
however,
that spin stabiliza(presently
the

system

duty

- 67

such

physically

to determine

fits within

control

structure
No

based

flights.

con-

to the problem

some

to

has

and

confidence

applied

predictions

7) to determine

which

spacecraft

discussion.

test is designed

results

control

consumption

is a very

and

with

these

of thermal

of the

Apollo

in

spin-up

Clearly,

propellant

model

has

of the previous
101

must

of

starting

angles

difficult if not impossible

method

there

model

tion is not feasible,

problem

very

other

g slosh

level
should

propellant

will be

since

This

slosh.

after

digital

wobble

deg/sec.

redesign

tics of a higher
confidence
stabilization.
If this test

thermal

0. 009

no

thermal

low

in digital
by

shown

in light of the above

energy,

spacecraft

g propellant

and

however,

low

as

in terms

have

20 minutes

low

control

required

stabilization.

confirmed

planned

thermal

six degree-of-freedom

sloshing

than

as

stabilization,

is anticipated,

roll-spin

rates

that is acceptable

seem

validity

in less

yaw

spin

a closed-loop,

g propellant

of 20 degrees

would

RCS

a rigid

jets.

of one
would

problem

parameters,

torques

which

one-half

smallest

Apollo

angle.

mode

disturbance

studies
with

initial pitch

low

and

for

largest

in the wobble
slosh

the

In the

the

spacecraft

deg/sec)

second

stable

the

to

the roll reaction

0. 007

about

dissipation.

errors,

from

to only

motion

regarding

In order

degree/second,

of about

10 degrees.
spin

problem

to spin

and

venting,

angle.

simulation

been

rate

torques,

steam

greatest

This

(Z) residual

spin motion.

impulses

is normally

growth

attitude

The
the

corresponding

is considered

anticipated

rate

sign

which

of energy

in the tank

large

than
The

machinery,

one-fourth

minimum

smoothly.

products,

it is necessary

a pitch

dissipation.

in the presence

etc.

in pitch

(producing

angle

of energy

field,

of about

to three

a disturbance

impulse

rotating

cycling,

roll motion

(4) aerodynamic

as

is maintaining

at a rate

the
cross

sloshing,

such

magnetic

thermal

about

However,

to start

(i) inertia

(3) propellant

constraints

roll axis

requires

as

torques

earth's

attigude

possible

factors

rates,

disturbing

motion,

vehicle

not be

such

unknown)
allowable
cycle.

SD

68-869

to the
budget

for

SPACE

Arc

Suppression

and

one

I)IVISION

of

Associated
load

for

arc

with

across

the

thereby
circuitry

will,

that

this

with

attendant

drop-out

Arc
be

this

against

The

arcing

than

20 volts.

The

the automatic

was

to place

direct

system

was

enabled

direct

system

was

not

solution

switch.

from
the arc

enable

because

at all times
available

(except

formulated

required.

was

incorporated
time

These

was

redesign

that

they

rather
the

be

in

wired

parallel

mechanization

tion,
impulse

the

induced
was

effects

the

standpoint

no

in

used

actuation
and

the
series.

such

Figure

cancelled,

coil arc

that

on

the

the

a manner
was

that

be

minimum

deterioration

on

suppression
after

were

direct

coils

the

undergoing
designed

in

phases
With

control

reliability.

were

SD

were

command.

series

were
this

opposing,
mechaniza-

minimum

negligible.

68

immediately

removed

solenoids

of

enabled

that arc

effect

possible.

and

the

impulse

coil and

the

coil when

designs

of the direct

the

the

system

characteristics

wiring

when

not an acceptable

direct

so

It was

of the

coil only

several

R.CS

coil,

coil

impulse.

the automatic

adverse

the

not be

up-stream

across

when

coil

the

direct

so that it would

an

on

of the

of minimum

removal

5-3

used

direct

direct

By

than

to

protection

that the

switching

direct

did prove

could

of the
had

impulse.

voItage

relay

following

the

lag in the automatic

a result,

suppression

problems

need

operation

to leave

As

version

minimum

out that this was

decided

arc

in
in

be

and

highest

voltage,

hand,

circuitry

effect

circumstance
and
and

shown

resulting

It turned

all complex

time

for

valve

the

No

control

lower

this was
only

The

have

design

upon

to be

n_alfunctioned)

elapsed

fortunate
this

could
than

had

with
not

emergency.

such

were

at

and

direct

only

delay

designs

It
a

One

had

therefore,

enabled.

if it had

of an

to remove

was
fixed

It would,

to

simplified

the

of

suppression

the other

suppression

the astronauts

in case

on

rotation

that the limiting

coil.

direct

of

the

spike

5-3.

coils,

storage

unacceptable

at first decided

of
arc

part

which
coil

placed

The

in the

voltage

spike

time

limiting

fuel

required

limiting

Figure

for

automatic

engine.

required

considered

problem

energy

voltage

voltage

in

the

direct

voltage
the

amplifier.

shown

switches

the

drop-out

the
the

one
inductive

amplifiers

when

the

limit

driver

limit
or

driver

determined

but

drop-out

be

the limiting

It was

allowed

for

to

of the

suppression
also

given

direct

and

coil.

greater

is

and,
has

suppression

automatic

circuitry
circuit

to

of

to
the

valves-a highly

the

amplifier

increase

by

deIay

a problem.

the

impulse

tolerated

solenoid

of

suppression

course,

suppression

occurred

arc

designed

be

CORPORATION

represents

provided
of

minimum

therefore

could

arc

Any

of

the

was

value
of

coil

increase

be
stage

off.

two

valves

Protection

output

turned

ROCKWEI,I,

are

these

amperes.

the

is

engine

of

circuitry

across

valve

RCS

Each

several

AMERICAN

Solenoids
each

suppression

appears
the

RCS

oxidizer.

drawing

that

(,_: NORTH

68-869

so

SPACE

DIVISION

oF

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

-O
_t..)

ol

0
.,4

t..)
I-kl..

55
.<u

0
,-4

|Jr

_q

z
O

_0

t/1

(J

<
,(
!
t_

5_
O:_

>

_>
+
i,.
IP

-69SD

68-869

SPACE

I)IVISION

{}v NORTH

AMERICAN

R()CKWF,

IA_ (X)lZP{)RATION

Switching
Early
side"
switching
between
in

tradeoff

switching

service

jets

the

fact

that

transistors

would

have

considered
switching
such

a failure
(group

more
to

chosen.

to
No

flights.

Change

s
The

commands

of

logic

was

translation,

primary

Translation
vehicle
given

complete

the

type

rotational

errors
to stop

this conflict

by

redesign

was

run

was

saved

was

desirable.

The

sensed
rotation.

thereby

inhibiting

by

insignificant
jet select

logic

was

and

would

the opposing

jets.

During

therefore

the

translation
both

and

rota-

rotation;

commands
have

resulted

jet select

logic

the Block

mission

It was

of

location.

The

logic.

the

coulct occur.

fuel.

that simplification

of

purpose

and

translation

for a particular

any

was

to provide

action

four)

in

The

the autopilot
This

the jet select

and

(of
far

wasting

to determine

to

center-of-gravity

by

that

system

commands

both

fact

The

rotation

used

was

propellant

to the ACS

between

cause

the

the

quad
so

II redesign.

offset

were

jets,

resolved

propellant

the

the

one

simultaneous

It

valve.

occurred

jets were

transistors

ground-side

by

off

with

valve

supply.

isolation

made

for
NPN

and

shutting

Block

the astronaut

to opposing

propellant

acceptable

has

same

was

power

mission

the

between

by

made

conflicts

the

of conflict

directly

change

with

to resolve

cause

study

its

functionai

Since

power

hot

ground
however,

silicon

with

separate

by

if
to

required

switching

propellant

whereas

reliability

described

logic

conflict

to the jets

cause

(a short
switching,

high

dc

disabled

would

used

safe

currents

side

was

of

commands

in commands

much

be

to

significant

to the jets.

tion and

were

able

and

decision

means

hot

ground-side

ground
is

only

the

use

This
could

the

handle

To
spacecraft

of the jet select

the jet select

the

could

to

switching

design

switches

by

failure

only

removal

be

the

"ground

to

length
of wire
exists
and
the
jet
solenoids

shorting
side

and

objection

is relatively
fail
favor
of ground-side

use

jet

4 jets)

designed

of

which

the

wires

ground

devices.

required

of

Apollo

time

desirable

of

disabled.

The

the

NPN

was

quad
was

at

were

these
if

side"

basic

A considerable
command
module

the
system
of a jet).
In

available

operation

of

fail"on"

used,
loss

between'_hot
The

criterion.
in the

any

to

made

solenoids.

fail-safe
amplifiers

switching
is
only
cause

was

were

RCS

module;

reaction

side
would

the

was
the
the
driver

the

the

studies

of

II

just how

felt that the extra

of the electronics

was

removed.

CONCLUSIONS

Since
entirely
do

not

the operation

satisfactory
suggest

any

and

during
changes,

performance
the

spacecraft

there

are

no

- 70

of this

subsystem

flights

and

significant

has

developmental
hindsight

SD

68-869

been
problems

suggestions.

SP.\(:E

I)IVISION

_.: NORTlt

6.0

This
The

section

purpose

to the

primary

ENTRY

discusses

of this

the

The

control
except

system

Module

(CM)

reaction

jets

rather

contains

coupling

from

the

jet firings

when

The
major

controlling

development

problems.

procedures

The

to prevent

SUBSYSTEM

than

about

the

and

operation

only

problem

a runaway

(ECS)

is similar

that it uses
service

roll stability

to the

jets.

axis

reaction

The

so as

system

to reduce

yaw

axis.

of this subsystem

jet from

capability

the Command

module

into the yaw

discussed

of the SCS.

flight-control

system

the

roll axis

subsystem

backup

here

has
has

depleting

been

free

to do with

the

of any

operational

propellant

supply.

DESCRIPTION

The

entry

control

subsystem

control
command

system.
signals

It is
from

signals

from

the

attitude

signals

from

the

main

on-off
rotational

control

discussed

control

also

entry

CORPORATION

SUBSYSTEM

is to provide

of entry.

previously

I<OCKWEI.I_

CONTROL

subsystem

mode

AMEllI(:AN

commands
motion.

to

is

composed
of
the
rotation

the

within

the
electronics
hand
controls,

reference
control

contained

command

and

The

entry

module

stabilization

necessary
rate
and

subsystem,
panel.

the

and

to accept
attitude
error

configuration

control

reaction

switching

subsystem

jets

to

provides

control

vehicle

Functions

The

entry

normal

mission:

service

module

ation

(0.05

control

g), and

the aerodynamic

backup

torques

the

large

maintain

only

in roll for

rate

during

system

command

angles
damping

controlling

entry

on

by

and

in these
the

to 0.05
During

control

restoring

of attack

are

while

and

the
entry

control

to the CM

68-869

commands
the

second

module
system

rotation

direction

SD

prior

of providing

command

still accepting

and

the first phase,

control

the

deceler-

g drag

During

cause

lift vector

-71

hand

of a

to command-

relative

axes.

phases

drag

is capable

rotation

moments

axes

small

systen_

all three

sideslip

aerodynamic

subsequent

atnaospheric

subsequent

the vehicle

about

distinct

(parachutes).

accepting

module

two

portion

to sensible

system

the entry

aerodynamic

trim

prior

acting

and

to the primary

phase,

vides

recovery

torques,

to maneuver

and

(2) atmospheric

of the

control

operates

(I) the extra-atmospheric

separation

to deployment

RCS

subsystem

to
pro-

commands

SPACE

I)IVISION

_,V NORTH

AMERICAN

subsystem

provides

R()CK\VEI,I,

(:()RPORATION

Mechanization

The

entry

override

as

report

and

control

uses

block

the

driver

is functionally

The

the

system

same

options

described

amplifiers

operation

The

rate

signal

as

After

0.05

angle

of attack.

which

would

be

This

does

forcing

for manual

elsewhere
the ACS

in this

and

yaw

rates.

the

primary

Attitude

error

selectable

signals

deadband

attitude

When

error

turned

on

to fire and
switching

posed

reduce

using

are

DESIGN

the error

redundant
or

as

This

rate

reaction

sets

the
type

and

a fuel and

nitrogen

describes

the constraints,

yaw

firings,

and

roll motion.
through

a total error.

the driver

reaction

is a typical

jets

limit

hold.

control

of six engines

are

each.

hypergolic

as an

amplifiers

module

for vehicle

tetroxide

the

thereby

to 0. 05 g switching.

attitude

cooled

to zero

axes,

to form

of control

B)

ablatively

trim

jet firings
since

body

comnaand

and

to it the

motion

processed

threshold,

damping

yaw

these

signal

a rate-error

coupled

commanded

are

jets used

(systems

pound-thrust

by

with

is the design

yaw

than

subsequent

to cause

signal.

has

body

other

error

a fixed

as

term

minin_izing

removed

provides

module

on-off

hydrazine

are

exceeds

paragraph.

of roll commands

produced
rate

g positions.

to form

- the o used

g switching

to the

a manner

which

command

of two

engines

to 0.05

added

signal

in such

system

The

prior

0.5

is

coupling

is summed

control

error

rate

roll-yaw

subsystem

to reduce

by

be

and

is to minimize

axes

is saved
would

signals

the total error

about

which

and

rate

6-I.

that pseudo

in the post

hand

a gain

attempt

in Figure

in the following

in the presence

Propellant
rates

shown

rotation

the yaw

is achieved

except

reference

a tangent

in an

is shown

changed,

of this coupling

desirable

stability
the yaw

These

purpose

are

are

the

g switching,
by

the ACS

is described

from

commanded

allowing

as

systen_

the gains

the attitude

multiplied

is not

aerodynamic

same

system

from

The

control

configurations

signals

roll rate

rates.

the

of the

rate-command

sensed

entry

switching),

switch

The

signal.

comThese

reaction

jets

oxidizer.

REQUIREMENTS

This
used

control

of the

(by manual

is included.

are

same

diagram

system

removed

the

the attitude

system.

A
This

control

does

section

to define

system.

the performance

In most

the original

cases

requirements

of the present

the present

requirements,
Block

performance

in magnitude

- 72

- but

and

I! entry

control

requirements
in no

case

are

differ
they

SD

ground

68-869

rules

subfrom

restrictive.

SPACE

DIVISION

or

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

f-,

+[

E_

._/
v%

"x
J
+ ,

_o

L)

-73SD

68-869

SPACE

I)IVISION

_,F NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCK\VEI,I,

CORPORATION

Requirements
The
(prior

entry

to 0. 05

commands

entry

without

phase

and

and

out

be

capable

must

be

providing

of the mission

using

of holding

capable

rate

of accepting

damping

a single

RCS

data

summarize

rotation

at all times

system

the

entry

control

through-

(six jets)

system

Value

parameters

and

Requirement

2 deg/sec

Propellant

Maximum

8 deg

Propellant

Minimuna

4 deg

attitude

0. 5 deg/sec

Propellant

2Z. 5/sec

Lift-vector

deadband

Attitude

attitude

requirements.

Parameter

Rate

vehicle

of propellant.

following

defining

must

axes

the astronaut

running

The

subsystem

g) in all three

from

out the

their

control

minimization

deadband

Rate-to-aLtitude
Maximum

gain

commanded

minimization
hold

and

for preentry

minimization
orientation

roll rate

Design

Requirement
The

control

entry

control

system

for

of the mission

the

trajectory
landing

The

capability
so

initial

a safe

entry

could

the

separation

control

and

be

primary

that portion
and

the atmospheric

of the entry

module

as

(i.e.,

module

including

function

command

design

system

configuration.

service

module

reason,

An

switching

the
For
regarding

initial

on

the
the

ground

were
as

tradeoffs

jets

and

purposes
SCS

were

to adequately

landed

prior

entry

subsystem

phase

was

to

control

the

at a preselected

on-off

were
off,

the
of

system

as

thrust

and

utilize

sizing

of

the

with
ACS
for

devices
system

the

the

possible;

and
this

requiring

that

the

(nonthrottleable).

concerned

studies,
entry

to

control

control

therefore

these

was

concerned

wherever

chosen

an

primarily

rule

components

jets

configured

primary

studies

systena

reaction
be

location.

tradeoff

control

on-off
system

The

made

system)

prime

conceived
mission

to command-service

of executing

that the

initially

of the Apollo

site.

The

entry

was

phase

of the recovery

aborts.

provide

subsystem

the entry

subsequent

to deployment
following

Tradeoffs

with
jets,

following

the
and

their

assumptions

requirements.

74SD

methods

68-869

of

physical
were

SPACE

I)IVISION

,_v NORTH

Three-axis

control

dynamic
2..

Roll

control

from

is

prior

to

be

throughout

reaction

service

(:OI_,PORATiON

development

of

aero-

entry

jets

will

be

used

only

after

separation

module

independent,

will

required

required

module

the

Two

is

ROCK\VEI.I.

moments

Command

AMERICAN

redundant

available

systems

capable

of

of

meeting

reaction

jets

torque

and

being

isolated

and

propellant

propellant

storage

requirements
Each

RCS

means
be

system

and

by

Rate

and

attitude

(ACS

and

TVC),

of
and

and

will

these

be

will

of

aerodynamic

capability

The

sensors

operation

the

failure

by

electrical

detection

provided

be

the

for

available

jets

forces

requirement

module

of

capable
valves,

will

have

to

use

for

by

use

other

by

systems

the

entry

system

Limit-cycle
once

that

be

considered

control

will

propellant

is

in

build

pitch
up.

greatly

and

yaw

Thus,

reduced

essentially

the

stops

minimum-impulse

compared

to

service

requirements.

earliest

tradeoff

determining

the

conducted
reaction

after

jet

choosing

thrust

an

magnitude.

on-off
The

system

was

effects

considered

were:
Trajectory
control

Effects:
vehicle

the

effects

were
controlled
be

able

to

rolling

provide

the
rapid

the

response

maneuver

roll

a function
fixed.

of

reaction

Damping

Effects:

should

in

the

of

and

must
Failures:
certain

provide

rate

is

jet

angle

suitable
the

failures.

desired,

the

thrust

thrust

reaction
Thus,

jet

to
thrust

single

if

maneuver

may

angle

effecsystem
and
a low

becomes

strictly

roll

rate

is

produce
of

sideslip,

vehicle

rates.

be

critical

in

thrust

75SD

minimum

skipout

the

system

Two

Because

disturbances
the

be

prevent

ranging.
the

(2)

only
control

time

damp

RCS

entry

response

level

attack

can
to

adequate

adequately
site.
and

vector

vehicle,
roll

provide

and
to
landing

sensitivity

lift

deviations

and

angle
the

excessive

Aerodynamic

roll

Since

by
loads

a safe
entry
a preselected

(1)

consumption.

tively

provide
achieve

considered,

propellant
must

to
to

68-869

the
levels

the

event
must

jets

of
be

SPACE

1)IVISION

adequate

in the

system

of

50

with

meeting

the
used

formance
higher

was
values.

to

the

thrust

was

almost

It

was

of

100

optimum

be necessary
etc.
).
The

with

a view

economy.

major

required
environment.
levels
the

factor

turning

studied

was

was

not

methods
this
this

turnaround
problem,

The

Apollo

accommodate

the
the

necessity
to

(if

avoid

During
pose
to

end

of

deploying
on)

imposing
entry

removed
command
system

were

the

jettisoned

out"

mission,

li_is
before

situation

vehicle

by

dynamic

stable
wlnile

trim
the

the
is

the

launch

pressure
point
vehicle

was

of

designed

on

for

pressure

builds

stable

flight

- 76
SD

with
Since

the

68-869

crew.
not

the

crew
up.

command

if

and
ti_e
does

mission

forward

the

protective
design

system

to

from

requirement

escape

handling

for

boost

The

in

for)

stems

environment.
apex

Other

loads

dynamic

that

earth's

structural

normal

once

necessity

requirement
the

different.

require-

and

been

acceleration

in

axes

pressure
thrust

the

the

entry

their

the

means
in order.

is

enter

orientation

time

module
the

with

as
all

jets.

therefore
The

perform-

moments

the

during

this

requirement

the

jettisoning

"eyeballs

s,lfficient

to

that

attitude

sizing

expected.
and

was
This

forward

has

and

that

sizing

of

per-

(such
for

aerodynamic

forward

compatible

is

high

be
end

parachutes

normal

boost
has

to
aft

manner

abort,

possibly

module

loads

the
a

command

boost

from
in

shield

laeat

There

the
a

designed

module

in

from

reorient

Following

was
heat

values

fact

changes
was
chosen

the
various
capture

module
aft

the

eliminating

describing
apex
forward

capable

consumption
the

a high-dynamic
that
none
of

in
(or

the

were

possibility

apex

considered

The

undesirable

a problem.

forward

high

command

an

Under

optimum

3).

the
in

aborts.

economy

on

shield

perfor-

3).

with

the

thrust

around
in
obvious

performing

Before
of the

first.

still

be

the

future
thrust

overcome

to

for

command

aft

module
became
to

at

(condition

captured

factor

maneuver.
a discussion

atmosphere
orienting

soon

abort

pounds

based
of

any
of

their

investigated

level

in this

an

and

propellant

chosen

offset
value

considered

been

considered

was

to
same

enough
had

primary

were

cover

high

module

thrust

sub-

to

following

a propellant
70

that

consideration

following

the
command
However,
it

command

this

not

performance

to

and

margin
might
increases,

The

found

pounds

ance
inertia

for

From
about

and

to aft heat

(except

levels

control

rates

considered

thrust

also

entry

forward

conditions

was

insensitive

level

apex

were
above

level

The

tumbling

environments

requirements.

study.

toward

from

all

thrust

relatively

The

the

CORPORATION

failure.
large

pressure

performed,

optimum

in

system

ZOO pounds

performance

the

inertia

to

R()CKWEI,I,

to dannp
module

respect

simulations

standpoint,

ment

of a

in high-dynamic

levels

AMERICAN

required

forward

evaluated

value

event

be

the command

worst-case
of

may

reorient

Thrust
mance

_,v N()RTH

module
the

is

apex

the

launch
following

escape
an

SPACEI)IVISION OFNORTHAMERIGANR()(:KWEI,I,(:()RPORATION

abort,
would

the command
module
could
be unable
to turn the vehicle

Consideration
system

so

that,

made

unstable,

make

the apex

was
in the

forward

stabilizing

converge

that this type

ability.

the turnaround
aft heat

the

respect

Because

of the

tain condition

of the

mechanizations

on

the

command

The

final

launch

was

system

escape

feasible

following

abort,

over
utilizes

is to establish

a pitch

a weak

rate

launch

trim point that exists for high roach numbers.

vided by astronaut
command
since tumbling
reference.

Another
error
be

early

signals

left in body

entry

axis

control

body

present

axes

by

result

was

or

of trim

axes

PROBLEMS

AND

for

of these

of aborts.
of the

the necessary
control
per

sub-

second

apex

for

forward

errors

whether

entry

for use

by

the

to fail in

which

would

felt that the use

in the guidance

system
decided

should

jet were

in instability
it was

attitude

steering

axes

if a yaw

result

However,

roll angle

none

the apex

vehicle

to trim

since the entry

control
system
was
the primary
achieving
the desired
range
capability,
it was

strakes

This function
is easily pronot cause
a loss of rate

that,

would

used.

on

entry

to determine

transformed

but

of 5 degrees

system

indicated
axes

were

in large

made

guidance

Studies

the use

if body

could

study
the

coordinates

subsystem.

the off condition,

not be

tradeoff

generated

does

or

range

imparts

escape

to

the uncer-

rejected.

wings

point,

following
attitude

reference

was

only

jet cap-

secondary

and

canards

The

force"

showed

tumbling
vehicle

visual

dynamic

effectively

system

of
and,

and responsible
for
to use the trim axes.

CHANGES

Problems

The
system

only

were

problems

minor

encountered

in nature

and

had

to

would

reaction
and

including

deployable

module.

to eliminate

with

this approach

mechanization

command

the

of this maneuver

stable

as

a "brute

and

of vehicle
to determine

the

be

a manner

Simulations

within

the entire

sub-

could

oscillations
which
feedback
would
be

the primary

investigated

to eliminate

upon
This

aborts

well

the windows

criticality

were

to the

requirement

high-altitude

through

apex

decided

rates

and

control

not be

attitude.

that both

time

satisfactory

motor.

reorientation
system

crew

module

mechanizations

in such

would

engines

system

accomplished

likely be lost because

the crew
would
have

Several

other

been

forward

discovered

to the flight path

ground.

had

shield

was

it was

attitude
references
would
a high-altitude
abort; and
with

This

entry

the

introduced

unstable.

the RCS

of the

capture,

feedback

condition

of operation

However,

forward

and

would
require
several
diverging
the command
module
around;
the

when

to a stable

forward

to a mechanization

of apex

that is, positive

approach
but, rather,
would
eventually
turn
made

given

case

turn apex
around.

in the design

of the entry

little impact

on

the

- 77SD

control

specific

68- 8 69

design

subof

SPACE

the

system.

runaway

Among

supply.

systems

completely

of propellant

use

be

able

redundant

exists

two

system

operating

able

propellant

to detect

runaway

jet in pitch

environment.

automatic
runaway
jet detection
or
It had been
determined,
however,

the presence

system
however,
data

from
not

tradeoff

was

drawn

consumption

rate

is absent,

there

preentry

during
since

on

also

result

astronaut

the high-dynamic

under

for

these

derivatives

authority

loss

avoided.
an

the need

and,

damping
control

of a

either
system
could be

conditions,
could

single

not be

to determine

cause

RCS

to 0. 05

or leave

the

it to the

at a time.

whether

pseudo

rate

it was

operation.

point

of view

highly

question
than

a lockout

for

in the

whether

to lock

sure

switching

not to provide

equally

con-

of propellant

to make

n_ode

decided

combinations

(as

The

undersirable
was

astronaut

rather

to provide

system

g), but
The

switching

switch

practical

from

derivatives

a single

for entry

moments.

However,

numerous

damping

to use

desirable

(prior

entry

II.

run

desirable

function

Block

decided

was

aerodynamic

were

it would

was

section)

during

implemented

and

be

or not

during

that the aerodynamic

it was

that it was

of large

out pseudo

and

study

in the ACS

presence

since

the

The

probably

for using only a single

that severe
wind
gusts

of entry

aerodynamic

this flight indicated

destabilizing,

described

rate

phase

to exceed

systems.

must

dictate

on

jet, if undetected,

would

yaw

used

and cause
tumbling.
While
these problems
were
being considered,
Spacecraft
009 (Apollo
i) was
flown.
Evaluation
of the telemetry

were

clusion

effects

or

considerations

the terminal

of destabilizing

the aerodynamic

in both

of a

propellant

a runaway

to whether

pressure

during

jet systems

therefore

as

providing
at a time.
encountered

These

and

doubt

the problem

independent

the parachutes

of the vehicle

considerable

was

reaction
its own

in parallel,

to deploy

(:()RPORATION

significant

has

the available

tumbling

there

are
each

being

ROCKWEI,I,

the most

are

up

before

in unrecoverable
However,

and

AMERICAN

perhaps

There

module,

If both

would

_v NOI,UFH

these,

jet failure.

the command

could

I)IVISION

as

pseudo

had

been

a lockout

catastrophic,

every

one

of them.

Changes
The
The

cross-coupling

to-drag

ratio

propellant

Block

first major

gain

from

second

II.

Since

was

in the

entry

changed

due

0. 5 to 0. 34.

consumption

The

requirements

change

would

major
the

were

used
instead
of mode
was
eliminated.

SCS

change
was

imposed

Without

have

occurred

on the
and

system

to a decrease
the

gain

was
in the

change,

the

in early

1964.

spacecraft
expected

liftentry

doubled.

redesigned

switching,

control

at the
as

subsystem.
the

time

a backup

interface

of the redesign
mode,

no

Functional
\vith the

switching
guidance

- 78
SD

68-869

for

ranging
was
system

SPACE

I)IVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWEI,I.

CORPORATION

CONCLUSIONS

Because
requirements
problems

of the
and

or

looseness

of the

the conservative

changes

which

occurred

entry

design
during

- 79

control

system

employed,

there

its development.

SD

68-869

performance
were

no

major

SPACE

DIVISION

7.0

This
ures

7-I

and

control
ment
the

This

and

the

spacecraft

the hand

and

flammability

SUBSYSTEM

have
may

be

outputs

and

display

and

The

design

the final

of the

The

displays

solution

spacecraft

principal
has

been

that an
and

and

developfractures

between

in the

represent

one

program.

DESCRIPTION

Functions

The
spacecraft

Control

Apollo

SCS

control

control

and

and

display

display

subsystem

provides

the following

functions:

Functions
Translation

Controller

Provides

i.

ation

manual

only)

principal

Initiates
sequencer

4.

tional
from

via

CCW

(CSM

along

Figure

proportional
via

combin-

the

three

switch

actuation

manual
yaw

spacecraft

mission

handle.

the

CMC

to the

actuation.

7-4)
body

switch

directions

soft stops

controller

multi-axis

in both

breakout

and

of the

to the

thrust vector
control
from
of the controller
handle.

acceleration,

in pitch

of spacecraft
directions

command

rotation

(See

manual

Provides

in both

abort

of simultaneous

motion

to the

control

motion

a CSM/S-IVB

Controller

angular

7-3)

axes.

Is capable

Provides

Figure

acceleration

rectilinear

Transfers
spacecraft
SCS
via CW
rotation

Rotational

Ii

(See

rate

commands

selection,
about

for

the three

(I. 5 degrees

or

direct

spacecraft
principal

travel

from

rotaaxes
neutral)

(10 degrees).

proportional
during

manual

- 81

SPS

engine

thrust

gimbal

vector

position

control.

SD

68-869

in

durability,

advance

could

Fig-

flight

to monitor

tradeoffs

so difficult

(see

controllers,

the astronaut

flight modes.

been

subsystem

the hand

for

controls

controllers.

cabling

significant

the

CORPORATION

SUBSYSTEM

provides

various

with

for

of flexible

control

necessary

during

associated

ROCKWELL

DISPLAYS

subsystem

cabling

the more

the

dial settings

flexibility,
design

AMERICAN

AND

discusses

7-2).

problem

NORTH

CONTROLS

section

instruments,

or

control

of

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

LI..I

Z
O
W

I--

e_

k.)
_u_

I____

<

',g22

_EE
<<

_0

c3

Z,,,

_P
0
U
i

U
>-Z

>...I

<0

_,

L,U

P_
oO

g]

p.-.

l I
o

._.1

"'0
DZ
0

8Z

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

ov

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

(.3

t'xi

I
..J
O
L)
_t
m
173

i
i

fi

oZi
i
0

OZ

Oo_
U

t,.J
U
Z
<

z_N

o_

z-H.
oo_

zo

O0

_u

_U

83

o__

SD

68-869

_J

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

Figure

7-3.

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

Translation

- 84

CORPORATION

Control

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

or

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

o
I.i
o

t)
o
oF,,I
,i,,a

4
!

t'_
t!2

la0
F,I

O',
tl3
,,,-i

CO
O

-85

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

Provides

the

or

NORTH

emergency

RCS

AMERICAN

angular

jet solenoids

via

ROCKWELL

acceleration

controller

CORPORATION

commands

emergency

directly

direct

to

switches

(ll degrees).

4.

Is capable

Attitude

Set

of simultaneous

Control

Provides

Panel

multi-axis

(AS/CP

selectable,

three

(See

axls,

actuation.

Figure

7-5)

spacecraft

inertial

pointing

signals
via thumbwheel
controls
and dial readouts.
are summed
with either the PGNCS
IMU
or SCS
CDC
attitude

signals

displayed
manual

Display

on

to produce

the FDAI

rotation

total attitude

attitude

maneuvers

error

to the

error

signals

needles

selected

These
signals
inertial
which

to allow
inertial

are

precision

angles.

Functions

Flight

Director

Provides

Attitude
an

Indicator

inside-out

display

to a selected

inertial

axis

appropriate

ball and

(FDAI)

frame

(See

of spacecraft

of reference
reference

Provides

a fly-to

the

mutually

0.05

three

g level

angular
yaw
Gimbal

entry

meter

S-IVB

redundant

Displays

and

Fuel

S-II fuel and

Displays

entry.
the

After

Pressure

Provides
signals
means

angular

rate

body

g, the displays

body

pitch

axis

relative to
needles.

about

axes

0. 05

Indicator

oxidizer

movements

fuel and

meter

movements

angular

position

a means

for

oxidizer

each

prior

of

tothe

provide

and

the

roll and

of the

yaw

on

of the

sets

the other

module
axes,

inserting

into the actuator

servo
of thumbwheel
controls.

one

7-7)

of

set of

boost.

service

and

manually

on

Figure

boost.

pressure

during

- 86

(See

pressure
during

engine
gimbal
about the pitch
dual sets of meter
movenlents.

respect
three-

angular
position
via attitude-error

spacecraft

spacecraft

with

axes.

Position

redundant

_o

during

attitude

via a graduated

of spacecraft

perpendicular

rate about

Displays

i.

display

7-6)

indices.

Provides
a fly-to display
of spacecraft
an inertial reference
in all three axes

Figure

systems

one

main
on

propulsion
each

initial condition
for

both

pitch

SD

68-869

and

of the

command
yaw

by

SPACE DIVISION

Figure

oF NORTH

7-5.

AMERICAN

Attitude

Set

ROCKWELL

Control

CORPORATION

Panel

- 87 SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

ov

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

t2

I...,I

..I.,a
q.a

,<
O

t)
r-I

4_

et0
r-I

.d
!
t"-

lao
wl

88

SD

68-869

SPACE DIVISION

Figure

7-7.

OF NORTH

Gimbal

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

Position/Fuel

CORPORATION

Pressure

Indicator

- 89 SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

ov

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

Mechanization
The

translation

specific

and

requirements

tion hand

rotation

listed

controllers

were

hand

controllers

in Appendix

imposed

A.

on

the

were

The

mechanized

requirements

contractor

by

to the

for the

NASA

at the

rota-

request

of the astronauts.
In particular,
the shape
of the hand
grip and the "feel"
characteristics
of the device
were
considered
to be significant
enough
to
warrant

this approach.

Design

Features

During
panel

the period

displays

separate

were

to separate

attitude

the

Since
and

the

this

from

the new
yaw

and

meter

the
type,

requirement

and

The

third

movements

flexi-

requirement

display

was

into an

established

to

fuel and

oxidizer

to display

of the Saturn
scales

were
with

to

more

indicator.

redundant

this interface

established

of this

position

a means

stages

instrument

provided

requirement

as

to provide

was

result

position

another

main

which

set gimbal

indicator

SCS

changed

the

booster

rules

imposed

boost

for both
from

vehicle.

the

SPS

pitch

a galvanometric

pressure

transducers

not difficult to achieve.

DESIGN

RE

The
and

second

the

instruments

a gimbal

period,

was

axis,

a new

I attitude

position

II design,

instruments.

and

display

to a servometric
was

Block
panel

the

and

separate

panel

same

gimbal

pressures

into

the

set control

During
utilize

Block

reviewed

the displays

bility in arranging
was

of the

QUIREMENTS

major

displays

requirement

by

the

customer

single

failure

or

ground

for Block

II are

on

summarized

the SCS

controls

in the

following

paragraphs.

Attitude

I.

Display
No

in the total G&C

system

will

result

in a loss

of

the following:

Z.

a.

Gross

b.

Attitude

errors

c.

Attitude

rates

No

single

a rate

attitude

failure

command

thrusting

information

displayed

displayed

displayed

on the

on the

in the total O&C

or

attitude

hold

on the

FDAI

FDAI

attitude-error

FDAI

rate

needles.

system

will

require

mode

sphere

to a]ign

the

maneuvers.

- 90SD

68- 8 69

needles

the

use

spacecraft

of
for

SPACE

No

_o

DIVISION

two

failures

attitude

will be

accessible

IMU

FDAI

ball will be
body

FDAI
SCS

be

Performance

The
maneuver
will be

desired

slowly

Direct

to be

Provides
computer)
readouts

will be

body

axes

axes,

aligned

the

monitoring
hence

ability

failure

capability
condition
with visual

information

the

with

the

directly

from

on an

FDAI.

displayed

and

the crew

given

closely

accurate

attitudes

and

crew

catastrophic

are

available.

angular

rates

is monitoring
manual

in Table

related

In most

will
auto-

attitude

of the

in holding

of IMU

FDAI

a minimum

to monitor

launch

necessitating

to monitor

vehicle

control
inputs
in relation to
is such

as

or minimum

can

during

gimbal

lock

and

be

AV

in

constraint

program

to

fuel

for Apollo

attitude

precludes

of

is desirable.

design

time

imposes

on vehicle

in detecting

abort

IMU-CMC

by comparing
information

91

readout

display

type

the Apollo

a basis
for manual
vehicle
motions

The

selection

7-1.

to the

cases

all-attitude

in minimum

pilot performance
maneuvers

Improves

(i. e.,

performing

are

emphasized.

for

visual

FDAI

spacecraft

errors,

where
when

the FDAI

and

of precise

maneuvering
maneuver
s

Either

roll will be

use of rate indication

to provide
fuel and to control
the undamped

Improved
thrusting

of roll

entry.

system

The
considerations
itemized
as follows.

during

or

for the ball

was

in a loss

phase.

at all times.

the

ball

attitude

requirements

attitude

angles,

for

reference

status.

attitude

when

and

allow
acquisition
conditions.

accept

functions

except

very

axis

result

entry

system

with

in all situations

requirements

moving

The
known
to minimize

a straight

attitude

functions

SCS

aligned

in entry,

attitude

the

of equal
or

ball will not

displayed

matic

will

during

CORPORATION

axes).

except

All three

FDAI's

is to be

ROCKWELL

systems

use

prime

the

The

for

two

Since

the

AMERICAN

in the G&C

to the

spacecraft

NORTH

information

There

or

(command

precision
and
on a one-to-one

module
general
basis

SD

68-869

attitude

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

The

controller

will be

locking
on

it to a null.

the

rotary

provide
PROBLEMS

ROCKWELL

provided

The

motions

a visual

AND

AMERICAN

with

locking

of the

indication

CORPORATION

a means

of mechanically

mechanism

grip.

The

will have

locking

no

effect

mechanism

of its locked-unlocked

will

condition.

CHANGES

Problems

Listed
occurred

below

during

are

the major

the design

design

and

of the Block

development

II SCS

problems

controls

and

which

displays.

FDAI

Spacecraft
FDAI

with

thermal
arose

with

the

holes,
was

modify
the

FDAI

and

levered
of

design
FDAI

secondary

loss

of

ready

of

the

type

from
These
E/L
better
the

E/L

lamp
nominal

interfere

coldplate

with

pins,

obvious

and

impact

purposes

of
for

and

operation
spacecraft

Control.

in line-voltage

When

with

power
was

the

this

both

were

uniformity

factor

obtained

but
the

and

the

Display

electrolumi-

to

aerospacewith

reflections

of

light

NR

was

intensity
was

voltage

the

and

aberations

and

forced
It

supply

subcontractor

requirements.
when

as

withstand

control

integra[

encountered
the

canti-

required
to

vendors

with

resolved

tI

of
SCS

commercial

the

was

Block
use

with,

and

ruggedized

the
the

begin

length,

redesign
were

problems

ultimately

wiring
so that display
resulting
from
on-off
resulting

needles,

characteristics,
and

were

Lighting

a
the

not

supporting
The

needles

orienting

addition,

lamp

surfaces,
power

To

in
In

lighting

receive

face,
yet

the

II

support
suscepti-

front
and

redesign

slenderness,

implemented

lighting.

problems

its
face

maintainability

the

error
These

NR

requirements.

nearby

of

attitude

difficulties
of

to

for

Lighting.

(E/L)-type

consistency

to

structure.

access

testing.

instituted,

experienced

backplate

Because

Electroluminescent
nescent

was

rear

Block

to

vibration

from
its

new

need

coldplate.

Vibration.

was

at

the

the

a major

cantilevered

solution

the

of

feature,

support

the

vibration
environment.

redesign

development

presented

was

to

support

result
vibration

FDAI

pins
the

Needle

face

structural
The

the

backmounting

rear

the

provide

supporting

design

the

Since
to

coldplate.

through
add

panel

from

probIem.

need

During

instrument

coldplate

bility

the

Installation.

its

to
found
is

color.

change

the

that

higher

than

voltage.

variac

transformer

is part

lighting intensity
can be
operation
of this control
variations.

These

-94

of the

spacecraft

varied.
The current
surge
loads down
the ac inverter

voltage

variations

SD

68-869

cause

the

SPACEDIVISION or NORTH AMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

No

two

failures

attitude

There

will be

accessible

the IMU

FDAI

ball will be

The

be

ball

functions

Performance

The

The

known

desired

of rate

attitude

was

allow
acquisition
conditions.

Direct
maneuver

where

computer)
readouts

will be

body

axes

axes,

aligned

FDAI

are

the

the

with

crew

on

angular

the

from

an

FDAI.

rates

is monitoring
manual

in Table

related

available.
In most
accurate
all-attitude
to provide

will
auto-

attitude

attitudes

for the

selection

monitoring

of the

in holding

of IMU

motions

display

in minimum

design

time

FDAI

or

type

of

is such

as

minimum

during

gimbal

a minimum

control

inputs

in relation

for Apollo

attitude

precludes

imposes

to the

for manual

vehicle

The

7-i.

cases
the Apollo
vehicle
readout
is desirable.

a basis

the undamped

hence

directly

displayed

and

given

closely

emphasized.

and

information

performing

to

to

fuel

can

be

AV

lock

constraint

in
on

vehicle

Improves
crew
ability to monitor
catastrophic
failure necessitating

Provides

FDAI

spacecraft

errors,

when

pilot performance
maneuvers

visual

the

roll will be

ball are

indication

to be

maneuvering

of roll

entry.

for the

of precise

Improved
thrusting

i.

or

during

to control

The
considerations
itemized
as follows:

Either

ball (i.e.,

attitude

functions

for the

fuel and

in a loss

phase.

at all times.

attitude

when

angles,

reference
system
very
slowly
and

use

to minimize

in entry,

except

requirements

status.

with
axis

result

entry

system

aligned

will not accept

requirements

maneuver
and
will be moving

SCS

in all situations

attitude

the

of equal
or

a straight

attitude

displayed

matic

will

during

axes).

except

All three

is to be

body

FDAI

the SCS

FDAI's
prime

Since

systems

for use

two

to the

spacecraft

in the G&C

information

capability
condition
with visual

to monitor

launch
abort

IMU-CMC

by comparing
information

-91

program

and

(command

precision
and
on a one-to-one

module
general
basis

SD

in detecting

68-869

attitude

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

O
...-i

r_

L_

I
DO

r'_

- 92
SD

68-869

SPACEDIVISION oFNORTH AMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

5.

Provides

a convenient

commands,
with
6.

7.

via

angular

the

Provides

a means

Provides

a check

Provides

for

9.

Provides

a gross

Display

Attitude

command

performance

needles,

in direct

to PGNCS
cross-check

of executing

on

nonprogrammed

reaction

maneuvers

jet performance

via

rate

response

jet firings.

8.

and

of SCS

information.

to commanded

10.

monitor

recovery

concept

from

tumbling

indication

of entry

provides

a familiar

via

rate

information

flight path

angle

link to previous

pilot training

conditioning.

Controller

Two

identical

three-axis

command

pilot (right-arm

(left-arm

rest

An
devices

of the

rest

controllers

of left-hand

right-hand

MSC-irnposed
by

hand

specification

controlled

forces

2.

Controller

deflection

3.

Controller

axes

orientations

4.

Controller

axes

relative

Translation

Hand

factor.

one

for the

for the

pilot

the

design

details

of these

grip

form

versus

deflection

to soft stops

locations

actuation

and

curves)

hard

stops

to pilot axes

points

within

controller

Controller

The
for

limits

mode

translation

built-in

2.

(via torque

Control
system
deflections

One

and

one

specifying:
Controller

6.

seat)

supplied,

seat).

I.

are

The

hand

redundancy

controller
switching

for

will be
out

controller

of securing

controller

was

supplied

with

the

necessary

reliability.

connected

to the

system

without

provisions

its signals.

will be

it to a place

provided

with

of usage
- 93

or

a dovetail

to provide

storage.

SD

68- 8 69

a means

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

The
controller
will be provided
with a means
locking
it to a null.
The locking
mechanism
on the

rotary

provide
PROBLEMS

n_otions

a visual

AND

of the

indication

grip.

The

of mechanically
will have
no effect

locking

mechanism

of its locked-unlocked

will

condition.

CHANGES

Problems

Listed
occurred

below

during

are

the major

the design

design

and

of the Block

development

II SCS

problems

controls

and

which

displays.

FDAI

Spacecraft
FDAI

with

thermal

Installation.

its instrument

coldplate

bility problem.
need

arose

the coldplate.

through
add
the

holes,
was

FDAI

result
vibration

of

the

loss

of ready

nescent

access

Vibration.
of

of E/L

nearby

attitude

testing.

of

Lighting

interfere
with

pins,

and

impact

purposes

were

When

the

implemented
To

begin

lamp

surfaces,

of this

for both

with,

with

the

Block

with

operation
spacecraft

Control.

in line-voltage

was
obtained
voltage.

variac

when

-94

II control

as

withstand

and

the

Display

electrolumi-

subcontractor

vendors
to aerospaceencountered
with the
the

reflections

was

supply

and

aberations

and

color.

forced
to change
It was
found that

voltage

is part

can be
control

These

to

of light intensity

transformer

lighting intensity
operation
of this
variations.

the

canti-

required

of integral

the SCS

uniformity

and

was

ruggedized

the use

characteristics,
and

length,

redesign

needles

Lighting.

lighting.

wiring
so that display
resulting
from
on-off
resulting

obvious

slenderness,

needles,

These

NR

tile

error

These
problems
were
ultin_ately
resolved
but NR
E/L
lighting power
and power
factor
requirements.
better
lamp
the nominal

the

yet not

supporting

The

experienced
difficulties in orienting
commercial
type requirements.
In addition,
problems
were

from

and

suscepti-

the coldplate

for maintainability

Because
the

instituted,

(E/L)-type

consistency

face

II

to support

its front face,

to redesign

to receive

Block

vibration

from

structure.

new

the need

a major

at its rear
was

backplate

secondary

Electroluminescent
was

feature,

cantilevered

support

of the

coldplate.

vibration
environment.

redesign

development

presented

solution

FDAI

to the

support

was

design

pins
the

face

structural
The

the

backmounting

rear

the FDAI

modify

the
and

Needle
levered

the

to provide

supporting

design

panel

from
Since

with

During

is higher

of the

the

than

spacecraft

varied.
The
current
surge
loads down
the ac inverter

voltage

variations

SD

68-869

cause

the

SPACEDIVISION ov NORTH AMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

rate

sensors

minimize

to oscillate,

the

spacecraft
dimmed

effect

of this,

operational
and

resulting
a

in inadvertant

resistor

procedures

not turned

was

reaction

put across

changed

jet firings.

the

variac

so that the display

and

To
the

lights

are

off.

AS/CP
Drift.

During

thumbwheels

would

discs

were

Hand

Controllers

from

both

slowly

incorporated

Cabling.

have

cable
covering
resistance.
were

flexed

cables,
where
the
excessive

flexibility

from
actually

problem,

covering
phase.

to

Also,
Handle
and

development
cabling.
the

use

alternate

Shape

the

the

and

force

versus

time
period
commitments
customer

of the program.
had been
made.
of the

Strain

a major
originally

extremely

outer

relief

of

problem
in
envisioned

the

that

durability,
difficult.

may

prove

present

be

this

The

characteristics

a long and tedious

went
on for several

is
during

during

a
to

design

of

significant
use

the

time

are

and

Solution

to

solution

controller

used

the

puncture
cables,

requirements.

Characteristics.

deflection

requirement,
and experienced
tinual iteration
of the design

be

is

of
to

their
subjected
and

or
the

flammability,

hand

controller
Force

design

stage,
the

have
been
movement

flexed.
not

material

emanating
of

Deletion

was

The
of

they
Constant

were

to

cables

Because

when

initial

proven

exposed

restrict

an

the

friction-type

had
no abrasion
when
applied

cracked

among
has

in

for

and

in

the

appear.

the
enclosures,
encountered

tradeoff

still

advance

cracks

set

mechanism.

with

cabin,

attitude

problem,

controls.

braid
which
materials,

specified

characteristics

design

shape

exit

subsequent

this

occurred

until

or

that the

support

module
checkout.

enough

not

found

preclude

transiational

cables

flexible

consequently

this

the

they
strains

it was

have

and

in the
command
and
tear
during

not

The

To

exposed
a Teflon
Other
nonflammable

either

and

drift.

problems

rotational

exposed
positions
to excessive
wear

testing,

into the thumbwheel

Major

the

stowage

vibration

speciai

ground

test

period.
of the handle

a subjective

process
of evolution.
years
during
the middle

Con-

These
iterations
occurred
even after hardware
A belated
solution
was
the generation
by the

specifications

presented

in Appendix

A.

Changes
The
cycle,
the

SCS

from
Block

control

a
II

and

control

and

functional

system
display

display

subsystem

had

which

occurred

standpoint,
was

conceived

subsystena

(see
was

Figure

comprised

95

one

evolutionary

during

7-8).
of

major
The

eight

mid-1964
original

devices:

SD

68-869

when
Block

SPACE

Two

rotational

Two

translational

One

flight director

One

attitude

set/gimbal

One

velocity

change

devices
or

locations

within

features

reflected

This
from

the

Block

rotational

Two

flight director

One

gimbal

One

attitude

survival
II devices

system

I system,
to
and

module,
control

system

display
control

subsystem
panels

concept.
seven

The
devices:

final

the

autoits

vehicle

system

established
utilized,

their

either

display
for

i.e.,

meet
the
controls
and

effect

visually

and,

as

whose
crew

their

built-in

reactions

safety
relative

redundancy

concept.

was
(see
Block

generally
Figure
7-9)

II control

and

revamped
as a result
display

sub-

controller

attitude

position/fuel

set control

complement

each
was

device.

pressure

assigned

allowable
failure
rates which
before.
As a backup
system
were
permitted
to increase.

indicator

panel

as

was
well

as

Whereas

established

of 99. 99 percent
were

indicators

of hardware

I counterpart

for

control

to

to

controllers

translational

for the total SCS

Block

of

capability
and

primary

primary

G&C

the

criticality

I control
and
the
spacecraft

on

its Block

the
a

with
spacecraft

was
required
of displays

One

new

crew
the

command

new
Block
II
was
comprised

established

crew

was

this

indicator

indicator

of
as

indicator

position

the

It

performance
The
number

Two

attitude

control

continued
criterion.

of the
system

CORPORATION

controllers

provided

classified

The
relocated

ROCKWELL

controllers

inputs.

was

AMERICAN

panel

manuaI

control

and

NORTH

control

These

such,

or

One

matic
to

DIVISION

as
and

both

different

in the
the

Block

providing
mission

apportioned

in quantity

reliability

I reliability

a probability
success
reliability

and

function

requirements
requirement
of achieving

of 99. 5 percent,
values

in terms

the
of

would
maintain
the overall
G&C
reliability as
now,
the individual
SCS
device
failure
rates

- 96

SD

68-869

SPACE

CONTROL

TRANSL

PANEL

CONIROL

FLT DIR Art

[I}

BLOCK

S',V

3B,,O
SOFI

0 05 g B,U S'.'
DEADBAND
5EL

CONFIGURATIN

sv_ FOR X,
T HANDLE

s_'_ tl PE_ AXIS}

STOP
_OLL

Y,

Cw

S._-ENG

NO

2_ WIRES CA_L_

COOUNG

RES

(2)
CONTROL

IND
BALL

FRONt

16 WIRES 'CABLE

SET THUMBWHEELS

ATTITUDE

SET READOUTS

FDAh'AGCU
AUGN
2 GALVANOMEIER

_OUNTED

COLDpLATE

I
ADD
$ IICHING
ADD FUNCTIONAL
]

DIRECT
ADD

DE
SIICHING
L_TE MODE

MODE

IFINA

NO-

SWlICHING

M$C

ADD

FLINCTiO

ADD

NAL

SWITCHING

REQUIREMENTS)

H] I

ADD

ADD

MTVC

P,T,T

C_C

I T/C

DELETE

SeN

PT"T

O_LETE

P40 IHUt_BWHEEL

i3:1

THRUST

(3)

IA_LOFF

BUTTON
METERS

NO
I

RE_D
REMAIN

ROLL

g vs v SCROLL
GYRC

ON-OFF
CCRR

ACCE

COOLING
VEL

0 O_ _ s,,.,
{2) CORRIDOR

CHANGE

INTERFACE

ONLY

REDESIGN

ADD TO
Sos
DELETE EM _.

AND

I,

REPACICAGE

3 SINGLE-

AXIS

ATT D_SP

GDC,_IALL

IN_T._RF

REN_,I'qlNG

AND

9 VS V !.CROL_

RANGE-TO-GO
IND

CONTROL

GRIn ENCtlN_O

CCw

SY_TRICAL

103

20" F,_D
OmP

'.'.
IRES,'CAB L__
ADD
12 DIRECT S',',

CONFIGU_IION

ADD

y,

3 AXIS

BALL

ENABLE

3raTE
IND
St AXIS ALI.

ISOL,_TION

RESIST

EL LIGHTING

r, 7'T S_CONTROL

I ADD
ROTATION
_E_
AND
ELEC LOCK

XYZ

SERvO_TRIc
rear
MOUNTED
NO

COOLING

cYLINO_IcAt
cAS_
cHNGE_
RATE _ANGE
FoR

0 05 g s_',
ses TH_USI
ACCEt
{2 CORR DOR

i
I
I

3 ERRO_ NEEDLES

S','_ ABORI

C_'. S'6'-SC5

36 ','.'_r ES/CA_ LE
mECH LOCK ON

_TVC

AV REMAINING

(z)
X,

I_

I_[
l

AS',Cp

IND

H)
12 SW_OR
T HANBLE

I
I

ENTRY _OLL

NoTE

NU,MBERS
DENOTE

IN PARENTHESES
QUANTITY

COMPO,NfNTS

I_Mps

INO

1
I FDA_

ADD

ELT DIR ATT

6 B'O P,',12 Pe_ AXlS_
SOFt STOPS-ALL
AXE_

INO

LOCKS

SCS DiSPLAyS

TO S/C
INTERF

_NTEEFACE

T_ANSL

_5 E UHCIT IO'_A

_R "_ I ION

3 SINGLE-

DELETE

s_

ADD

SPACECRAFT

! ( _]_yr

_MU SOU_Ct

ALIGN
NV,U AXES
DELETE AGCU/BALL

................
/I..........
I .............
II [
MEETING

(2)

LIGHTING
Arl SET'GIMB
NO COOLING

AXIS ATTITUDE
DISPLAys

FUNCTION

4EL CHANGE
VEL CHANGE

NO

COOLEO

AND

ADD

MTVC

ANGI_
READOUT (P&y)
POSLTION
THUMBWHEI'LS

ATTITUDE

AGCU

1N

R_ }( :KV*

M)

wtDO_
LIGHTING
GALVANOmETErS

AGCU

IMPLEMENIATqC
REQUIREMENTS

AMERI(:AN

E_S

GIMBAL
GIN_AL

RECT CASE

;|

qND

3 ERRO_ NEEDLE5
TILT AXiS

OFF

ISOLATION

P,,'L,'T SW
ROTATION

MELTING
NO,
IINITIAL MSC

NOR'I

SAUL

3 ratE

CCV SW-ABORT

GRI_ INCtlNED
I0 F,'_O
NON-Sy_
GRIP

B,U RATE S,
C"ANNEL
DISABLe
NO

or

[I}
3 AXIS

e MODE

DIVISION

OR

IN SCS

Figure

7-8.

Evolution

of

97,98

SOS

Controls

and

Displays

SD

68-869

LAMp

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

_--i

1",,,,,-

_-I

- 99 SD

68-869

SPACE

The
may

be

DIVISION

functions

assumed

summarized

as

Functional

I.

oF NORTH

Block

switching

this panel,

66

Rotational
effected

(four per

axis)

type

to the

reaction

was

were

and

with

was

added.

soft stops

which

CMC

of the

direct

functions
vide

from

the

short-circuit

was

permits

spacecraft,

the SCS

axis

Attitude

display

However,

two

PGNCS.

three-axis
IMU

ball was

roll axis

Servometric
nometric

of the

manual

was
meter

meter

now

aligned
now

the

is now

angular
roll-rate
needles

rate

ranges

capability
were

were

and

and

the

the

on the

added

increased
during

and

the

axis.

galva-

reliability

panel.

The

68-869

The

for t}_e higher

attitude

vibration

SD

since
body

was utilized to
device.
The instru-

in roll to account

to eliminate

FDAI.
of the

for the

instrument

entry.

communica-

case
+x

to pro-

electronics

in the

spacecraft

control

CMC

accuracy

main

was
another

roll axis

substituted

to improve

- i00

were
the

the instrument's

with
were

required

foreshortened

to

per axis was

now
actuates

is still retained

utilized

movements

rear-mounted

means,

spacecraft

and reduce
weight.
Electroluminescentlighting
better
illuminate
all readable
features
of the
ment

interface

commands

Also,
the push-to-talk
this device.

with

aligned

movements

to

trigger-

An

However,

resistors

for the SCS

spacecraft
are

rotation

via

Isolation

protection

FDAI's

control

inclined

added.

controller.

to assume

during
translation
commands.
tion switch
was
removed
from

RCS

control.

the translational

enables

were

_' switches

a nonsymmetrical

10 degrees.

switch

still

stops

"direct

or yaw

the original

added

"Soft"

for

from

was

another

IZ additional

the longitudinal

from

was

control

which

on

means,

set of two redundant

control
actuation
switches
added.
The
clockwise
rotation of the tee-handle
switch

the

In lieu of

mounted

However,

modified

communications

CMC

still effected

eliminated

via manual

and

at the

grip

jets through

Translation

devices

switching.

switches

axis

axes

added

form

push-to-talk

per

yaw

to 20 degrees

signal
the

display

elements

controller.

switch
and

hand

a symmetrical
forward

and

mode

spacecraft,

rotational

were

The

system

utilized

functional

of the

the

pitch

purposes.

II control

CORPORATION

panels.

breakout

in the

which

separate

control
with

redundant

Block

of control

panel

spacecraft

added

the

ROCKWELL

follows:

I control

various

by

AMERICAN

error

susceptibility.

SPACE

DIVISION

Gimbal

or

position

NORTH

AMERICAN

of the

now a separate
movements
are

service

ROCKWELL

module

instrument.
utilized--two

main

electroluminescent

maneuvers,

manual

Desired
gimbal
thumbwheels--these

The

attitude

spacecraft
now

a separate

output
input

signals

were
are

inertial

sine
the

Euler

of either

angles

and

between
angles

of the

to select

controls

II, these

incorporate
error

between

the

attitude

difference

Euler

through

is

attitude

Euler

commanded

the GDC

resolved

trim

this device

(Euler)

(I) the

the

S-II

and yaw
lock.

difference

In Block

result

Euler

inertial

functions

meter
axes.

is provided.

a means

However,

the thumbwheel

I, the

the AGCU.

(2) the difference

commanded

still provides

is

delta-velocity

capability

set in with the pitch

have
a mechanical

and

In Block

SCS

trim

directions.

instrument

and

signals

the IMU

panel

pointing

For

gimbal

angles
are
thumbwheels

locks.

command

error

engine

set/control
inertial

mechanical

or

trim

system

movements
display
Scale illumination

lighting.

SPS

propulsion

]Four separate
servometric
each for the pitch and yaw

During
the boost phase,
the four meter
and S-IVB
fuel and oxidizer
pressures.
utilizes

CORPORATION

between

Euler

angles

angles

and

the

a Euler-to-body

rate

transformation.

Ball

Markings
The

indices

markings

used

Two

markers

the

miniature

indicated
+x

axis

and

the ball were

suspended

in front

aircraft

the

symbols

of the 4-1/2-inch-dian,

to read

symbol

spacecraft

the

were

When

the ball was

were

merged

and

syn_bol

no

longer

then

In addition,

the horizon

increments

per

astronaut

the

during

and
pitch

reentry

the

for entry

The

entry

the

circles

((_))and

to the body

+x

axis.

the

These

flight modes.
two

reference

were

of the

symbol

appropriate

roll control,

some

symbol

relative

a lubber-line-type
great

and

development.

former

spacecraft

the ball during

used

deleted
and

axis

sphere

system

deleted.

indicated

to interpret

during

of the ball,

(_2f), were

stability

aircraft
used

eter FDAI

changed

graduated

symbols
utilized.
in one

degree

request.

CONCLUSIONS

Based
three

upon

conclusions

I.

are

Provide

Design
part

the experience

firm

hand

offered,

with

all concerned

specifications

controllers

of spacecraft

the Apollo

as

for

SCS

with

crew

plug-in

controls

the hand

personal

units

preference

so that

cabling

SD

displays,

controllers:

wiring.

- i01

and

68-869

items.

can

be

The
during
way

SPACE

DIVISION

Treat

hand

in the

spacecraft.

the middle

best

of the

provided

time

The
with

second

the hand

dures.
earlier

This
flights

the
and

period

items

of the hand

by

CORPORATION

minimizing

controller

of the program.

Since

requirements

nature

third

for

ground

design

personal

the

use

difficulties

subcontractors

crew

of this equipment,

conclusions

during

a problem

were

fragile

ROCKWELL

have

no

items,

specifications

are

customer.

controllers
was

as

is a result

the design

subjective
by

AMERICAN

controllers

first conclusion

of determining

because

oF NORTH

unmanned

the

that

are
extensive

emerged

and

thus

result

of difficulties

spacecraft

101

late in the program

lacking

in controller

experience.

- I02
SD

68- 8 69

encountered

checkout
because
operational

procethe

SPACE

DIVISION

or

8.0

This
embodied
SCS

section
in

those

hardware.

NORTH

HARDWARE

discusses

basic

which

includes

ROCKWELL

DESIGN

the

disciplines
This

AMERICAN

the

PHILOSOPHY

hardware
cut

across

following

CORPORATION

design
the

entire

philosophies
complement

areas:

Reliability
Environments

Safety

Access

and

maintainability

Interfaces
Electrical

Thermal
Mechanical

Packaging

philosophy

Enclosures

Displays
Materials

and

finishes

Weight
Growth

Electromagnetic
Configuration

interference
control

- 103

SD

68-869

of

SPACE

Quality

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

assurance

Design

quality

Procurement

Control

controls
control

of fabricated

Training

and

articles

certification

of personnel

Testing

Development

testing

Qualification

testing

Acceptance

testing

Installation

checkout

Test

tolerances

GENERAL
The
control

general

system
1.

hardware
for

the

design

Apollo

features

spacecraft

system

may

The

physical

(See

Figure

One

control,

One

electronic

control

assembly

One

electronic

display

assembly

One

coupler,

One

servo

amplifier,

Two

gyro

assemblies

8-1

is

and

gyro

comprised

Table

reaction

of

jet,

the
be

of

Block

II

characterized
14

contract

engine

on-off

display
thrust

vector

- 104

position

SD

as
end-items

8-1).
and

stabilization

68-869

and
follows:
(CEI):

SPACEDIVISION ov NORTHAMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

,-g

z
o
,-..a

Figure

8-i.

Block

II Contract
- 105

End

Items

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

t.)
. ,..,i
4-_
o,..i

4.a
.)

t_

z
O_
m

I"--

_o

oo

,0

,-..4

al
t)

..I

_.

_-

_..

,_

._.0

_o

g
N

0
>

--

u_

o0

0
0

xl
_
,---

0
0
I'_

o,_

O,

0
I'_

..Q

[--t

,T,v

__ _

__

ii,

_--

o_

_:

6_

U
U

m
F,
i,

O
I--

FI

- 106

I-

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

Two

indicators,

One

indicator,

One

control

One

control,

Two

The

are

packaging

The

structures
for the

components

functional

stacked

of system
and

cordwood-type

CEI's

is

elements

and

troubleshooting.
aluminum

modules

parts.

The

parts

wire

which

also

of buss

no

Assemblies

electron-beam-welded

piece

sections

Gyro

sealed,
containing

into individual

grouping
isolation

are

electronic

welded

except

malfunction

housing

hermetically

mounted

provisions

assemblies

high-reliability

continuous,

individually

of system

by

_:-"

;:-_

of hardware

electronic

nected

fuel pressure

set-':
-_

electrically

for a logical

structures,

and

rotation*

isolation

ease

CORPORATION

flight director

attitude

cooled,

arranged

ROCKWELL

position,

translation

CEI's

vibration

for

gimbal

controls,

These

AMERICAN

attitude,

panel

conduction

ov NORTH

containing
are

intercon-

connect

to

module
exit headers.
The modules
are interconnected
by welded
exit connections
to buss
wires
sandwiched
between
thin film
Mylar

matrix

nectors

are

lead

Approximately
integrated
weight,

sheets.
by

15 percent
circuit

volume,

power

The
display
panels
and
aluminum
structures.

piece

parts,

lighting.
resolvers.

The

meter
and

matrix

of the

flatpacks
and

servometric-type

*No coldplate

The

connections

to external

con-

wires.

electronics

significantly

reduce

are
system

requirements.

indicators
are electron-beam-welded
The
indicator
enclosures
house
movements,

incorporate

control

total system

which

panel

high- reliability

electroluminescent-type
houses

high-reliability

cooling

107SD

68-869

electronic
dial face

electronic

SPACE

DIVISION

The

hand

or

controllers

tapered-wedge
hand

NORTH

grip

are

type

form

System
the

DETAIL

functions

addition

DESIGN

The
bility,

are

of switchable

feature.

and

travel

in the

to crew

redundant

The

controller

provisions

performance

critical

incorporating

are

human

space

safety

are

assured

by

circuitry.

REQUIREMENTS

major

design

environments,

thermal,

force

control

CORPORATION

structures

mounting

and

which

ROCKWELL

aluminum

lock/stow

factors

factored
for optimum
environment.

AMERICAN

categories
safety,

mechanical,

brief summary
follows.

access

EMI,

of the

in the
and

system

design

fabrication

of the SCS

maintainability,

interfaces,

relia-

electrical,

and

quality

adopted

for

each

established

as

philosophy

included

assurance.

of these

areas

Reliability

The
bility

SCS

reliability

of achieving

goals

a lunar

were

landing

and

probability

of achieving

crew

survival

"goal"

stated

there

was

was

since

test program--the

"demonstration"

solely

means.

by

analytical

diagram

wherein

reliability
values

yielded

iterated
be

each

value

the

attainable

The
elements

NPC

200-2

control

or

tests,

overall

or

NPC

As

were

and

completed

subsystem

were

parts

application

bility

engineer,

tests

prior

breadboard

subjected

to parameter

review
design

of confidence

designs

could

be

engineer,
that the

these

hardware
part

as

and

handling

part

and/or

processing
substantia-

verification.

All

of

utilization.

were

variation

and

to

result.

lot configuration

percent

rate

was

thought

requirements

assurance,

completed,
and

conducted.

given

process

that was

packaging

failure

assigned

high-reliability

100

logic

of these

the desired

such

special

to part

was

product

to construct

special

and

a reliability

This

value

yielded

for quality

qualification

the

requirements,

serialization,
rates,

with
element

controlled

control

failure

lot sampling

parts

measure

part

specified

special

tests

quality

was

number.

included

term

reliability

necessary

rigidly

percent
The

accomplished

a reliability

parts

a 99.99
abort.

for a separate

path,

reliability

proba-

reliability

system

total path

piece

and
of an

modeled

control

specifications

200-3

individual

the

through

These

tion of lot integrity

these

and

procured

requirements,

given

contained
and

was

hardware

for any

element

components
were

system

identifiable

in practice

specifications.

of system

required

until each

mission

in the event

no provision

The

so that,

return

a 99. 5 percent

production

108

stress

This

design

could

the

analyses

review

engineer
meet

the

provided

the

68-869

piece

so that a

between

SD

selected

reliability

relia-

SPACE

requirements

DIVISION

as well

performance

personnel

Manufacturing
bility was

on

redundancy

were

of undesirable

failure

structured
this

came

and

materials,

ject

by

designed

the

specifically

out at this stage

conducted

on

standards

to demonstrate

components

requirements

tests.
limits
were

design

prelaunch
(400

on

and

hours)

mission

on

were

and

vibration

to be

mode

and

and

loss

effects

of

of failure
The

and

elimina-

of the design

could

testing

used

for

concerned

Allowable

with
materials

materials

and

reliabil-

phases:

specification

parts,

not

specif-

were

sub-

subsystems

to rigorous

laboratory

process

into two

was

materials

subjected

be

divided

systems.

piece

that were

functional

conditions.

performance

were

tests were
individual

Design

and

problems

The

type

design-proof

in two

tests

One

system
and

and

was

all applicable
selected

to

mission-life

tests at specification
Mission-life
tests
ground

two

tests

production

meets

of tests

phases:

prelaunch

environmental
under

equipment

single-environment
contract
end item.

system

and

and

manufactured

performance.

performance.

checkout

subjected
cycles

and

to one

(672

hours)

cycle
of

During
this test the system
was
exposed
to vibration
atmosphere.
Off-limits
tests were
to have been
con-

subjected

and

relia-

probability

part

which

or

subsystems

checkout

a full complement

and

role

of development.

a complete

of ground

and

identified.

all subcontractor

were

compliance

mission
performance.
and then to a salt-fog
ducted

and

for all

into the design.

basically

that the production

The design-proof
conducted
on each
conducted

and

as

integral

data

tests were
or

of design

demonstrate

an

was

standard

qualification

the

to failure

were

Development

for Apollo

were

Formal

such

contractors'

tests

with

failures

factored

Components,

under

subjected

subsystems

performance
worked

was

contractor

approval.

and

provided

Procurement,

personnel

effect

empirical

in the prime

was

Assurance,

modes

was

qualification.

contained

to prior

modes

and

functional

training

single-point

consequent

only

specified

these

were
as

test program

components,

controlled

ically

the
The

CORPORATION

program.

test program

ity verification.
development

motivate

failure

and

and

Quality

such

identified;

ROCKWELL

reliability

designs

failures

of failures

from

and

the Apollo

prototype

Critical

propagation

were

producibility
Special

to acquaint

Completed

and

the

AMERICAN

in Engineering,

to play

analyses.

as

requirements.

cognizant

tion

oF NORTH

of end
to both

an overvoltage

items

from

a combined
test in which

increased
until a failure occurred.
NASA
deleted
this requirement.

the mission-life

environment
these

In the interest

of high

parameters
of cost

68-869

system

temperature
were

savings,

109SD

test

however,

SPACE

DIVISION

or

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

Environments
The

natural

and

induced

physical

SCS
equipment
was
designed
tions skilled in these fields.
design

criteria

were

tion,

ozone,

humidity,

extremes

fully developed--later

process
of the subcontractor.
pressure,
humidity,
corrosive

vibration,

acceleration,

temperature,

and

to which

were
specified
by individual
in-house
Early
in the Block
I program,
many

late in being

to support
the design
ments-temperature,

environmental

shock,

vibration

and

than

organizaof these

was

required

Of the specified
contaminants,

acoustic

noise--only

specific

problems

presented

the

environradia-

to the

SCS.
In the
with
and

open

Block

sides,

maintenance

humid

and

salt-laden

environment

were
was

the

was

and

construction

original

specified
increased

brief

summary

beyond

the

of this

safety

the

condition

electronic

test

be
effort

space

still retaining

the

was

assemblies.

for panels

rise time;
rise time.
A

could

led to a crash

II, this

requirements

environments.

cabin

withstand

while

sealed

Z5 milliseconds
II milliseconds

design

situation

In Block

enclosures

for the in-flight

that the

would

connections

design.

I crash

at 78 g's,
to 78 g's,

scope

This

assembly

cards

NASA

which

of hermetically

Block

of the

plug-in

by

techniques

of the

electronic

and

discovery

electrical

features

by

utilized

catastrophic.

sealing

for exposed

maintainability

The

which
connectors,

concept,

to find sealants

alleviated

I design,
exposed

and

displays

later this requirement

Table
8-2 presents

more

detailed

listing

is

report.

Safety
Because
cess

and

imposed
that

the SCS

is particularly

safety,

many

crew
on

the design.

is, a failure

was

The

SCS

of failure

Redundancy

monitor

was

circuits

allowed

the crew.

Analyzing

conditions

is inherently

were

required

well

only

complex

relating

was

not permitted

prevent
the proper
performance
ble failure mode
should
cause
use

sensitive

conditions

specified
to propagate

or

critical

to these
to be
or

designed
cause

of a redundant
path.
signals
to go to a zero
required
where

into the program

specific

single-point

circuitry

a tedious

the

and

were

to fail safe;

other

approval

failures

effort.

suc-

failures

or

Also,
the most
probaor null condition.
The

to demonstrate

long-term

to mission

considerations

could

of the
cause

compliance
As

will undoubtedly

such,

continue.

- ii0SD

design

68-869

contractor.
loss

of

to these
changes

SPACE

DIVISION

ov

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

7,

I
O0
i,.-=1

,.Q
a3

c0
q..a

4-a

.,-._

o_

I:L
D-,

,-I

L_

oo

iii

SD

68-869

SPACE

Access

and

in

SCS

was

nance
that

the

of

or

the

as

and

the

ROCKWELL

1400

test

CORPORATION

results
removed.

of

the

system,

The

the

based

BMAG's
trim
life

limited

trim

of

SCS

on

would

be

would

not

amount

be

of
as

of

items

successful

originally

analyses

the

decision

astronauts

indicating

required

of

mainte-

probability

only

required

and

calibra-

a prudent

the
the

or

test

probably

inexperience

capability.

this

in-flight

was

precluded

service

showed

adjustment,

The

This

relative

drift
of

repair,

life.
II.

engineers

were

hours

field

nature

requirements

the

performance
tation
was

Block

test

life

no

specified
in

in-flight

limited

accuracy

than

AMERICAN

that

electronic

equipment,

designers

meet

the

deleted

complex

classified

so

within
was

test

attainment

less

designed

required

electronic

to

was

concept

on-board

oF NORTH

Maintainability

The
tion

DIVISION

at

that

intervals

system.

Subsequently,

necessary

and

the

limi-

with

the

Interfaces

The

SCS

had

guidance

and

reaction

control,

sion

navigation,

and

and

electrically

and

prelaunch

physical

other

would

be

systems

and

after

MIT)
the

and

the

design
means

and

and

and

controI
through

initialing

structure

support
The

equipment

number

of

systems

the

SCS

phases

of the

program.

errors

were

these

both

liaison

was

the

contractor

use

and

of

(viz. ,

specifications

in-house

other's

As

involved

interfaces

procurement

normal

with

process.

associate

between

each

spacecraft

integrate

design

the program

mis-

a significant

definition

drawings

ground

module

it interfaced

module

equipment.

adequately

to control

interface

command

presented

and

and

In addition,

area

checkout

early

with

effected

of reviewing

power,

8-2).

of the hardware

control

was

electrical

involved

employed

The

groups

the

drawing

specification

monitor,

incompatibilities

initiation

method

control

service

entry

spacecraft

to properly

during

subcontractor.

tem
by

basic

interface

interfaces

many

control,

maintenance

automatic

of effort

expected,

The
an

the bench

reaction

Figure

the

interface

propulsion,

panel,

(see
with

launch

electrical
type

these

before

with
and

and

engineering

mechanically

electrical

service

control

systems

and

module

module

spacecraft

fuel pressure

physically

functional

command

service

sequencer,

booster

a direct

with

spacecraft

sys-

coordination

and

procurement

documents.

was

basically

conventional

sealed,

which

Electrical

The
concept.
lems

electrical
The

associated

design

enclosures
with

of the Block
were

humidity

II SCS

hermetically
and

arcing,

112

explosion-proofing,

SD

68-869

precluded
and

in

probdielectric

SPACE

DIVISION

or

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

p.1

..A

_u
Z

O_

_
_0

I
_

IX,

I
I
I
I
I

I
a_

I-.- V_
(J

I
I

NOIIIN-'OI

SdS

I
I

z_
u

1NOD
SN _1.1.
SOd WIO
SdS

kl

LI
r',

U')

_o__o_
((]?sn iON)

_,,_,,,oo_
_o_

I
IS 3_l17"llVd
IDV WI I

u
>
CO

I
J

d3_ SdD O08

I
I

I
[

- 113

14

13-

[
I

I
_J

'i

u
O

I
I
I
I
I
I
I

u_

SD

68-869

SPACE

strength.

The

enclosure
stray

DIVISION

o_, NORTH

electronic

and

the

conventional

controlled
blies

by

NASA

utilized

emanating
modules

leads

thus

improving

Soldering

up

piece

through

spotwelded

its associated

were

and

The

parts

holes

against

of a fully developed
of wire

Block

contained

in the

''vibration

to protect

crimping

technique.

to the matrix

dress,

from

connectors

packaging

CORPORATION

continuous

specifications.

internal

electronic

_lead

isolated

The

brought
were

was

ROCKWELL

electrically

fields.

process

the

were

These

was

design.

a unique

from

circuitry

enclosure

electromagnetic

qualified

AMERICAN

were

II electronic
The

electrical

within

stacked

sandwiched

Mylar

conductors

on the

susceptibility,

and

and

rigidly
assemleads
cordwood

strips.

Mylar

sheets,

volumetric

efficiency.
Thermal

The
tion as

temperature

coldplates

with

improve
plate

heat

grease

per

the thermal
rise

ation

the

a linear

an

for

per

was

such

limit

electronic

rise

base-

generated
average,

tolerated

to limit

of the hot

the
spot

temperato 5 F

over

conduction

of the flight

+127

and

provided

Entry

required

minutes

from

To

assembly

inch

were

that equipment

conducthermal

high-conductivity

maximum

as

F.

of 15 minutes.

the last 2-1/Z

temperature

to +127

square

loads

upon

provided

a special

heat

a time

specified

coldplate

+55

in the locality

within

predicated

The

at I watt

baseplate

satisfactorily

and

surfaces.

of the equipment

value

was

contractor

flatness,

Transient

requirements

to operate

two

SCS
The
from

coldplate

established

steady-state

with

the

peak.

capacitance

control

cooling

inch

range

in surface

of the equipment

nominal

thermal

between

were

square

of the

transfer.

temperature

between

flux limits

2 watts

the

a coolant

utilized

design

of heat

of variations

was

thermal

mode

transfer

because

ture

control

the primary

F to +160

oper-

F.

Mechanical

The

basic

mechanical

in the following

Packaging

because

type

of the new
of the

philosophy
tronic

was

axis

role

Block

and
by

in Block

I were

each

item

end

control-axis

II SCS

physically

are

configured

to individually

to designs

wherein

and

subassemblies,

control

each

function.

this permitted

the

item

Because
larger

described

114

there

system

packaging
the

for a

system

rack

units

were

and

were

68-869

functionally
a complete

in-flight

assemblies,

SD

panel-

were

contained
no

and

elec-

to essentially

II assemblies

essentially

modular

II SCS

configured

Block

bolted-down
end

a backup

Whereas

configured

functionally

arrangement,

as

the Block

in mid-1964.

was

configured
stabilization

for the SCS

problem,

redefined

physically

ble

of the Block

established

I humidity

completely

assemblies
mounting

control

features

Philosophy

Because
and

design

paragraphs.

remova-

allowing

more

SPACE

efficient

DIVISION

packaging

significant

and

weight

system

oF NORTH

the

use

savings.

checkout

functions--each

AMERICAN

of

In

and

troubleshooting

end

item

was

fewer

ROCKWELL

soldered

addition,

this

connections
concept

because

CORPORATION

of

self-contained

with

permitted

the

simplified

logical

separation

functional

entity

of

in

itself.

Enclosures

The
cated

structural

of milled

aluminum

baseplate

components.
seal provided
with

coverings

aluminum

an

which

gas

content

the

within

enclosure

Electrical

standard,

hermetically
was

access

dictated

by

the

the heat

path
top
The

was
enclosed

philosophy

that

analog/discrete
signals,
and telemetry/test
separate
connectors
(see Figures
8-3 and

and

controlled

electronics

required

provided

via

of connectors

electrical

points
8-4).

the

to prevent

was

number

electronic
a gasket
was
filled

requirement

The

fabriflat

internal

cover
utilizing
internal
volume

carefully

connectors.

were

machined

for the

explosion-proofing

to the

sealed

electronics

to a carefully

aluminum
feature.

to provide

oxidation.

utilized

as

machined
seal-type

the

for the

attached

served

A cast and
a hermetic

inert

moisture

or housings

castings

to be

power,

routed

through

Displays

The
castings

SCS
and

illumination

FDAI's

filled with
were

were
an

rigidly

sealed

inert

nated

by

electroluminescent

Materials

and

In an
struction

effort

tors

own

testing

Several

problems

lighting

to standardize

materials

fungus-proofing,
when
unapproved

North

were
Gorton
and certain

American

Nioderne
internal

operating

machined

markings,
Rockwell

and Gorton
mechanisms

from

single

aluminum

colors,

and

specificaNormal,
were
illumi-

phase,

400

cps

_.nd color

Finishes

Rockwell

outside

by

from

dial-face

features
were
provided
to control
light intensity
assured
by use of certification
laboratories.

American
their

fabricated

All

controlled

tions.
Numerals
and letters
respectively.
The dial faces

power.
Dimming
standards
were

units

gas.

and

and

methods

established,

materials
was

controlled

by

failure to measure
flammability
environment
at pressures
above

the many

or protecting

controlled,

and

the

All

imposed

materials

contractor

and
used

encountered

control

of finishing

specification.

fire resistance,
materials
were
were

thereby

for

in this area,

characteristics
atmospheric.

such

and/or

all

parameters

notable

in a 100 percent
Another
problem
materials

SD

North

as

only exceptions
enclosures.

the most

around
the inability of the contractor
to evaluate
new
the subcontractor
and notify him
in a timely
manner.

- 115

them,

con-

on all subcontrac-

testing

outgassing.
The
in hermetic-sealed

available

68-869

were

the
oxygen
centered

submitted

by

SPACE

DIVISION

OF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

co
,-'4

O
k
O

L_
U
.el

O
U

co

,.._

116SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

c_J

NORTH

AMERICAN

RO(.KWt.LI,I_

CORPORATION

,.a

ul

.<
u
r4

O
.4J
u
ID

4
!

i1)
_o

if,

117SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

W ei ght
A

noted

weight

(approximately
Most

improvement

239

of this

pounds)

saving

maintenance

can

concept

was

and

be

the

attributed

which

effected

Block

between

II SCS

to the deletion

required

more

the

Block

(approximately
of the

modules

and

I SCS

195

pounds).

in-flight

internal

test and

connectors.

Growth

As

in most

potential

systems,

of i0 percent

assemblies

only.

already

been

allocate

at least

that advances
made

during

As

utilized

the

in making

provided

case,

much

of the

other

of the

minor

volume

programs

to preclude
system

growth

electronic

of this growth

Future

potential

or

for a volumetric

volume

late changes.

growth

evolution

SCS

estimated

the

in the technology

has

should

major

redesigns

improvements

so
can

be

system.

Interference

basic

criteria

SCSto
suppress
follows:

Apollo

is normally

this much

Electromagnetic

The

the

of the initial

EMI

Wire

or

of each

from

in the

generation

routing

design

utilized

and

and

"lead

CEI.

electromagnetic

susceptibility

dress"
Power

at right

angles

signal

ground

(EMI)

may

was

carefully

circuits

were

to sensitive

be

design

summarized

considered

as

in the

purposely

signal

of the

routed

circuits

away

wherever

possible

Power

and

from

the chassis.

in the

Sensitive
as

4.

6.

SCS

circuits

Signal

and

brought

signal

circuits

grounds

out to the

utilized

were

separated

were

and

isolated

accumulated

vehicle

V'holy

twisted

pair

at one

ground"

wiring

point

point.

and

shielding

necessary.

Power

circuits

Where

possible,

pins

for

signals

Use

was

made

utilized

twisted

lead

an

attempt

was

and

signal

returns.

of electrostatic

wiring.

made

shields

to

use

adjacent

around

power

118
SD

68-869

connector

transformers.

SPACE

7.

Diode

arc

of

9.

These

line

CEI

from

both

facility

the

most

problem

as

than

The
North

case

Block

performance
document

(PDR)

and

control

500-I

all Class

Again,
control

drawing

with

the

any

Class

a first-article
fied that the
ments

that

either

agreed

configuration
system

wherein

ground

rules,

would

to or
control

This

was

subcontractor's
phases

of the program.

design

permit.

the hardware
permits

to the

predicated

on
and

system

rigors

were

were

were

(CDR),
design

Deviations,
fixed

in the

and

design

where

occurs

reviewed

procurement
via the

for com-

formal

change

This

for

held.

met

all specification
were

know

management

This

work
when
has

- 119
SD

review

68-869

flight,
veri-

require-

reviewed

evolution

process

concept,

change
at the

system

retested.

con-

specification.

was

ordered

of

review

a formal

which

if any,

and

system

by

control

under

design

was

that
detail

elements

brought

first deliverable

(FACI)

the

configuration

controlled

hardware

would
affect their efforts occur,
and
and visibility to control
the effort.

specify

to the normal

handled

of the

was

require-

a subcontrac-

the philosophy

of NASA

changes

detail

a logical

same

with

to a program's

the

of the contractor's

tested"

the basic

to these

important

review

the

of a program
with

dealing

at the preliminary

inspection
as

more

thereafter

required

element

hardware

When

accounting,

point,

one

is perhaps

concerned

In addition

baselined

all participants
design

to it.

rela-

organizations.

of the

completion

built and

testing

inclusion

that was

program

the

building
thereto.

was

critical

I changes
the

to the

and

concept

and

was

configuration
"as

the

continuous.

susceptibility

It is a subject

imposed.

release

At

for

the initial design

Some

were

the

any

program

would

requirements

system.

utilized.

in a system

expert

in-house

I changes

At

and

procurement

concept

system.

allocated

resulted

it is even

with

identification

system

90 percent
pliance

dealing

requirements.

configuration
trol.

of any

Rockwell

NPC

was

electrically

EMI

violated.

all changes

II SCS

American

an

during

of the SCS,

when

was

made

requirements,

controlling

in the

success

coil circuits

for a hardware-oriented

aspect

consistently

and

CORPORATION

REQUIREMENTS

of establishing

ments,
tor,

basis

control

important

space

noise

assigning

CONTROL

that is most

and

criteria

generated

on a temporary

Configuration

relay

were

design

II by

CONFIGURATION

on

ROCKWELL

filters.

EMI

in Block

AMERICAN

made

enclosures

basic

free

achieved

were

power

The

oF NORTH

suppression

Provisions

tively

DIVISION

and

system

of

of a subto the

same

changes
the

that

leverage

SPACE

QUALITY

DIVISION

ASSURANCE

The
aegis

Apollo

of NASA

together

with

SCS

the

finally

quality

assurance

NPC

controls

process

acceptance

installation

contractor's
assurance

Design

Quality

control

participation

of specific

at an

stage

control

and

that these

Procurement

an

were

system.
could

quality

not be
safety,

bly,

control

for

engineers
was

control

reflected

thus

requirements

in the

and

quality-

procedures
Defect

specify

all applicable

report,

included

source

early

all items

and

continuous

and

and

on

or

and

failures

a vendor

an

or where

of the

a vendor
and

quality

where

receipt

service
and

coordination

test equipment

requirearticle

inspection

inspected

purchased;

services,

to meet
and

Apollo

a procure-

quality

capability

interchangeability,

and

included

a survey

also

of the

supplies,
This

economically

on

final

correla-

correlation

procedure

problems

of purchased

components.

Articles

of fabricated

and

requirements

materials,

and/or

discrepancies,

through

component,

checkpoint.

a means

time.

reliability

and

system

inspection,

of Fabricated

Inspection

be

on a supplier's

history,

to assure

effected

based

inspection

malfunctions,

The

would

and

performance,

of manufacturing,

was

and

major

design

Engineering

\vas established.

adequately

receiving

Control

Design

all purchased

procurement

tion program
as

The

provided

to the

of the design

possible

to identify

selections

The

it affected

well

on

system

review

vendor

product;

spacecraft.

activities

aware

earliest

that the quality

achieved

specifications,
item

were

requirements

procurement

document

ments,

shipping,

Control

Apollo

ment

packaging,

requirements

development.

at the

assure

program

the begin-

manufacture,

were
design
quality controls,
proarticles,
training
and certification

in design

quality

personnel

procedures

To

Apollo

of product

that quality

specified

provided

from

Controls

Quality

early

plans,

of materials,

in the

the

requirements,

testing.

transmittal

assured

quality

testing,

system

under

These

techniques

procurement

of the

conducted

200-3.

and

qualification

checkout

and

CORPORATION

was

NPC

and

through

and

and

areas
of quality control
and assurance
curement
control,
control
of fabricated
of personnel,

ROCKWELL

program

200-2

subcontractor's

of quality

of the design

assembly,

AMERICAN

REQUIREMENTS

documents

the application
ning

oF NORTH

the

use

system
were
analysis

articles

during

of production
wherein
written
and

flow

inspection
to document

corrective

- Ig0

the manufacturing
diagrams

for

test points
the

action

process
each

were

subassemdetermined.

requirements

were

accomplished

SD

68-869

at each

as

SPACE

through

a failure

parts

were
articles

the

SCS,

cleanroom

temperature,

procedures,

Training

Certification

formal

training

tion,

test

manufacturing
special
tems

utilized

quality

the

periodic

nature

need

contamina-

inspection

containers,

of

for

for

cleaning

an
for

quality

work

such

on the

SCS

program.

familiariza-

training

control

in the basic

manufacturing

would

into the processing

Program,

of quality

who

as product

introduction
the Apollo

training

in special

personnel

methods

elements

and
in

and

sys-

of statistical

processes,

and

testing

of

in the above.

Certification
required

critical
the

for dust

to selected

of product

a review

employer,

training

given

to course

conceived

techniques,

by

control,

proficiency

was

familiarization,

techniques

inspection

also

product

of

of Personnel

subjected

equipment

was

control

of materials

etc.

program

were

of the

dictated

inspected

apparel,

for the determination

personnel

serialization

Because

There

CORPORATION

traceability

cleanliness

supplies,

and

and

and

periodically

personnel

permissible

responsible

These

were

humidity.

to specified

control

stage.

controlled

which
and

Lot

ROCKWELL

identification

fabrication

for

facilities

adherence

be

the

necessity

AMERICAN

system.

to maintain

through

the

oF NORTH

analysis

utilized

and

tion,

DIVISION

of personnel

of all personnel

in welding,

involved

soldering,

in these

activities.

culmination

of the

and

wiring

were

Testing

Testing

of the

was

gram.

It was

merged

into the final product

testing

effort

tests,

here

SCS

can

that concepts,

be broken

qualification

Development

Testing

The

development

engineering
to determine
determine
designs.

I.

tests,

their
These

down

tests

a series

conducted

and

such

of part,

installation

and

activities

component,

pro-

materials
The

total

development
checkout

tests.

environmental,

parts,

incorporation

characteristics

and

categories:

of functional,

for

assurance

demonstrated.

on inaterials,

of the items

included

be

distinct

tests,

quality

design,

then

into four

were

performance

Determination

would

acceptance

suitability

tests

requirements,

which

tests

evaluation
the

the

and
in the

to evaluate

and

and

components
SCS

to

improve

as:

and

subassembly

characteristics

2.

Comparative

tests

to aid

in the

121

selection

of materials

SD

68-869

and

parts

SPACE

Evaluation

or

unknown

5.

Evaluation

6.

Design

7.

Parameter

The

subcontractor

Block

helpful

standpoint.

On
instead,

with

Testing

design

were

specification
were

This

both

application

repeatability

or

concept
even

abandoned

orderly

as

that the items

practical

was

tests were
a series
on production
piece

not

from

method

these

to the

a design
to develop

a design

base-

instituted.

of performance
part,
end item,

met

In

on

useful

of establishing

reviews

systems

hardware.
control

was

a viable

approach

design

engineering

configuration

configuration

subcontractor,

which

selected,

test

results

Electronic
controlled
a section

included

io

or

complete

to enforce

qualified

materials

of ridigly
contained

five

this

formal

materials

approval.

particular

and environand system

all applicable

requirements

of

performance.

Materials

mitted

anticipated

designs

flyable

In retrospect,

to demonstrate
and

to the

stability

authorized

II it was

The
qualification
tests conducted

hardware

due

including

tests.

attempted

the more

Qualification

factors

II to develop

to the

up

mental

was

Block

line followed

CORPORATION

environment

or improved

variation

Block

ROCKWELL

tests

systems.

program,

system;

of changed

contractor

development

of critical

of performance

margin

I and

AMERICAN

amplification

Determination

I the

oF NORTH

in terms

4.

in both
Block

DIVISION

piece

i00

leak

Group

Percent

tests,

were

listed

procured

to the

from

Tests

acceleration,

particle

Tests

mechanical

Group

low-temperature

sample

- Visual

gain,

inspection,

vendors

122

by

subfor

means

Each
specification
for these parts.

cycle,
and

I00

and

included

offset

and

contractor

inspection,

burn-in,

- Group

tests

new

tests

of tests:

temperature

detection,

approved

Where

these

material

series

in an

utilized.
conducted

of the

sequential

Acceptance

inspection,
ters.

samples
parts

and

subcontractor

subcontractor

Processing

constant

the contractor

high-reliability
part specifications.
that delineated
the testing
requirements

the following

ture,

the

the
and

by

voltage,

high
gross

basic

tests,

electrical

high-temperature
dynamic

SD

fine

X-ray.

percent

and

temperaand

68-869

visual
parameleakage,

resistance.

SPACE

DIVISION

Group

ov NORTH

Lot

Integrity

inspection,

design

proof
of an

sion

life tests
(or

these

tests

were

data

and

design

then

the

Performance

demonstrate

that the SCS

performance

and

Acceptance

Testing

Acceptance

within
these

the

specified

tolerance

contractor

the test,

for

which

to be

made
and

Installation

As

envisioned
subcontractor

contractor's

of the

into

the

The

the

data

end-item

throughout

high

as

which

data

of

that

successfully
was

defined

measured

were

The

perform
and

early

was

spacecraft.

in

the

would

which

specified
of

test equipment

each

to be

reading,

these

which

required

ATP's

in the conduct

any

which

of

data

used

made,
and

were

accompanied

instrucrecorded

each

life.

Prior

to

abandoned
The

Apollo

undergo
the

and
role

Program,

of

the

all

a receiving
receipt

arriving

of

- 123

hardware

inspection
the

initial

hardware
contractor

as

fell

outside

settings

for

package

its service

that

required

be

request

step-by-step

on

and

exist

a contractor-approved

must

sheets

of design

contractor

levels,

a waiver

limits

facilities

probability

accomplishment

test articles,

detailed

the

with

and

te:;ts to

weaknesses

of the hardware.

the acceptable

data.

facility.

concept

They

by

Parameters

submitted

of the

time
these

of

perform-

Checkout

the

this

limits.

end
All

baseline

after

or

one

or mis-

of operating

all test parameters

the test operator

taken,

a part
system

wherein

be

and

system

conducted

on

syste_

requirements

hardware

to shipment

configuration

recording

item

could

prior

the test.

readings

were

from

limits

steps

the

to perform

tions

tolerance

approval

the detailed

the

test

imposed

The

design

Successful

(ATP)

was
The

to optimize

during

and

system

a salt fog atmosphere.

serious

end-item

to shipment.

test procedure

then

performance

SCS

at the

and

life tests.

complement

applicable

marginal

Control-witnessed

acceptance

all the

the

test to establish

taken

that no

or

both

prior

and

and

system

limits.

sequenced

was

of completed

tests,

a Quality

met

life,

environments

complete

a checkout

to ascertain

inconsistent

accomplished

by

items

tests,

dynamic

of one

data

could
cause
failure.

acceptance

and

environments

utilization.

end

proof

to first vibration

preceded

shock,

acceleration,

high-temperature

to specification

exposures

a system)
were

of completed

climatic

thermal

constant

test.

testing

end-item

mechanical

cycling,

atmosphere,

life

CORPORATION

inspection,

vibration,

areas:

were

operating

items
ance

major

tests

each

salt

operating

qualification

into two

- Visual

shock,

strength,

lO00-hour

ROCKWELL

temperature

resistance,

terminal

The

Tests

solderability,

moisture

divided

AMERICAN

was
was

to

hardware,
installed
demonstrate

SD

received
test

68-869

at

the
however,

directly
through

end

SPACE

test the
mated

DIVISION

continued

The

that the

and

basic

system

within

allowable

was

demonstrated.
scaling,

inject

tolerance

gain

and

niques
vehicle

of past programs
and its own test

Test

system

interfacing

was,

first,

spacecraft

to the

This

ACE

wherein
consoles

test points

each
with

(ACE)

hardware

had

readouts

precluded

functional
systems

phasing,

the normal

suspected

was
the

utilized

capability

for a large

trouble

for
to

number

troubleshooting

system
had its own
their capability
for

for probing

and

polarity,

with

/\}J_llo _equirements.

equipment

signal-conditioned

and

harness.
require-

the interfacin_

demonstrated

checkout

This

and

sys-

to verify

structure

electrical

system

when

of

tech-

time on
stimuli,

the
readout,

areas.

Tolerances

Test
finished

tolerances

hardware

generally
are

tests

Second,

given

tests

systems.

accept

simultaneously.

numerous

of the

spacecraft

in the

compliance

automatic

systems

and

the

These

all spacecraft
stimuli

actual

limits.

between

and

NASA-supplied
testing

capability

for these

properly

CORPORATION

applied
via the spacecraft
interconnecting
wire
modes
were
exercised
to established
performance

compatibility

to be

with

adopted

itself operated

ROCKWELL

performance

electrically

interface

switching,

AMERICAN

and

philosophy

spacecraft
power
All functions
and
ments

NORTH

functional

physically

tems.

or

been

normally

buyer

utilized

given
the

the

sole

on

it.

will perform
exposed

to stated

parameters

attention

given

the only
will,

deserves.

in fact,

environmental

over

on

the

rationale

to generate

Traditionally,

have

been

has

to a

requirements

that the

hardware

service

life, and

acceptance-test
life and

aspects

by

demonstra-

conducting
values
and what

generated

in one

of several

values.

with

regard

to stochastic

penalties
popular

associated
method,

rigorous

than

probable

range

associated

quantities.
with

is the
the worst

with

is more

of error

rigorous
Few

but overly

designs

this concept.

RSS
case
are

this error

method

This

afford

system

and

However,

is assumed

- 124

the

the

sources
amount

to be associated

SD

weight

currently

is more

in that all error

identified.

range

can

conservative

Still another,

technique.

or

unknown.

above
case

technique

when

environmental

ways.
One
method
merely
utilizes a fixed or variable
percentage
and below
the nominal
value.
Another
method
is the use of worst
This

not

tolerances

offered

a set of _o-no-go
are <_stablished

is _enerally

test tolerances

the

servi_e

the performance

results
that are adjudged
by
How
these tolerance
limits
them

Those

a specified

tests which
yield
tolerance
limits.
is used

meet

The

omits

which

evidence

specify

extremes.

usually

to accept

process

tangible

requirements

manner,

concentrates

documents

of the design

it properly

and

equipment

requirements
and

area

hardware

Most

in some

tion of these

an

criteria

that the accepted

imposed

in acceptance-test

represents

68-869

and

cost

more

statistically
and

their

of probability
with

a normal

SPACE

DIVISION

distribution.

One

tested,

are

there

unknown

error

summation

test.

or

is supported

by

a mathematically

and

analysis

by

and

traced

each

The
piece

To

each

ment

to determine

used

marizes

salient

part

until the

test

and

on

was

then

requirement,

prediction
was

piece
and

the

effect

The

parts

SCS

were

environment
on

the

system

with

the

require-

be

expected

was

tighter
the

performthe

could

of 0.997

met.

all

and

within

age,

(narrow

for

environment,

system

part

compared

the

sub-

tolerance

age,

performance

requirement

functions

(PDF)

were

manufacturer's

was

to obtain
made

of the

cycle

of each

deemed

test tolerances
selection

following

a digital

computer

obtained

data,

of
sum-

convolution

specification
using

the

test tolerances

guaranteed
requirements

- 125

for each

in-house

performance

convolution.
The PDF's
were
accurately
and the errors
from
the various
sources

extreme-environment
of 0. 997.

each

obtained

those

predict

the

performed

service-life

piece

tolerances,

requirement

from

use

it was

with

end-of-life

SCS
account

of this program:

density

equations

resultant

lower

end-of-life

tolerances,

of each

effect

not meet

features

were

simulated

under

a set of end-item

tolerances,

to statistically

statistical

in the SCS

of how

associated

within

the

Analyses

The

and

In addition,

the various

system

If it could

Probability

lo

used

This

systems)
the

net

toward

accurately

Apollo

that the

at all times.

of manufacturing

the

determined

derivation

if satisfactory

to modify

acceptable

that the
tends

that would

guarantee

performance

of performance

satisfactory).
were

met

determine

were

process,

(TAP)

would

"sensitivities"

source.

(probability

then

perhaps

path

the upper

program

for manufacturing

to the

effects
part

from

were

made

back

the appropriate

obtained.

program

a mathematical

the allowances

was

but

together

cannot

being

with

total signal

between

analysis

which

the SCS

test equipment.

ance

on

on

that one

rigorous

a tolerance
factors.

test tolerances

supported

except

working

for the

contained

parts

this is precisely
what
is required
frown a test program.
omissions
and to establish
a set of tolerance
limits
that

tolerance

requirements

showed

true

of hardware

piece
functions),

when

of error

of probability

contractor
developed
of the aforementioned

acceptance

density

CORPORATION

item

uncorrelated

quantities

distribution

ROCKWELL

in the average

and

(probability

is approximately

limits.
However,
To eliminate
these

was

that,

stochastic

the amount

This

argue

AMERICAN

individual

distributions

Guassian

This

specify

could
many

of these

a normal

oF NORTH

data,

and

piece
etc.

sensitivity

process.
requirement

sensitivity

was
equations

and

combined
(convolved)
were
iterated
until the

that the mission-timewould

be

met

SD

68-869

with

a probability

SPACE

The
obtain

sensitivity

circuit

second,

piece

and

The

equations,

values)

can

a system

form

series

or

obtained

equation

for the

This sensitivity
as follows:

using

path)

a computer

analysis

node

or

process

perform-

the

an

in

explicit

hardware

described

is quite

described

with

at nominal

having

equations)

is best

which

exact

too difficult to deal

evaluated

of

(first-order

equations

without

loop

of build-

in terms

analysis

to

and

in terms

is that the

are

coefficients

first,

parts;

performance

parameters--having

(e.g.,

steps:

of piece

sensitivity

in theory,

with

in two

of performance

performance

(Taylor's

easily

CORPORATION

performance

(system)

for

attainable

of equations

performed

path)

expansion

block

ROCKWELL

in terms

path

reason

sensitivities

be

performance
by

performance

although

The

was

performance

(performance

primary

the building

practice.

AMERICAN

effort

block)

system

of a Taylor's

describe

analysis

hence

parts.

terms

oF NORTH

(building

to obtain

ing blocks

ance

DIVISION

enough.

in mathematical

Let

f (XI'

circuit

XZ,

'" ' X n ) be

a performance

equation

(1)

where

or performance

path

output

th
i

component

contributing

to

performance

of the

circuit

or

performance

path

and
i

f l
[ nominal

:
o

be

the

function

evaluated

at

its

nominal

value

(z)

where

subscript

denotes

nominal

value.

Hence

dZ

<<)
Of

dX I

dX g

'"

dXn

(3)
i
i=l

dX.

8<--_i1

- 126SD

68-869

SPACEDIVISION oFNORTH AMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

and

1.

Xl

X Z

(4)
01-8-Xn" Xnlo

dxnxn

or

(5)

o
where

dZ
-Z

relative

error

of Z

sensitivity

relative

or

the PDF

of Z

of Z

to X.1 evaluated

at nominal

conditions

(dXi-_

error

of X.

or the

PDF

of X..

ldXi__
The
ministic}
or

terms
and

\-_i
as

such

a probability

are
the

let

are

must

be

of

random

variables

Y be

two

f(x)

x and

and

the
is

y,

It

will

mathematical
known

random

g{y),

(i.

by

(PDF}.

and

independent

by

are

quantities

represented

function
{5))

represented

functions

stochastic

(Equation

sum
and

are

density

summed

of

be

and
Form

noted

that

these

of

finding

deter-

terms
the

PDF

example,

individual
probability

the

not

distribution

For

whose
whose

are

frequency

convolution.

variables

respectively,

either

they

process

as

respectively.

e.,

values
density

stochastic

sum

Z=X+Y

is also

and

whose

a random
probability

variable
density

whose

individual

function

can

- 127

be

values
denoted

can
by

be

h(z).

SD

denoted

68-869

by

It is desired

SPACE

DIVISION

to find the PDF

h(z)

h(z) is called

h(z)
For

ov NORTH

from

convolution

AMERICAN

the

PDF's

and

is normally

ROCKWELL

f(x) and

g(y).

CORPORATION

The

symbolized

process

for

finding

by

= fix) , g(y).

continuous

variables

this

is

written

in

integral

form

as

2
A

computer

culations
tolerances
meet

to make

tolerances)

yield

the

attained

of
by

based

on

confidence
a means
assist

those

who

this

"Acceptance

test

this

to

and

From

these

hardware

is,

the

out

rejected

in

can

masking
the

the

be

confidence
system

effect

of

which
been

of
one

bad

may

good--this

is

test

good

flight

ever

ready
instill

technique
would,

perhaps,

the

the

combined
equipment
the
uncertainty

equipment.

hardware

From
being

hardware

being

ascertain

the

a measure

of

offers

coined

represents

of the

predicted).
level

is

will

tested
and
the
test
this
PDF
eliminates

probabilities

fact,

was

items

convolution

and

In addition,

end

has

nec-

(manufacturing

(i.e. , the

generated

probabilities

quantities,

it was

errors.

measure

quantity

the cal-

predicted

the

that
the

being
effect,

In

is

judgment

Function"

hardware

of
read

program

quantitative

value

tester

was

completed

calculated

execute

accepted

probability

that

confidence

in

the

results.

An
shown

example

below,

tively.
U

can

and

However,

Density

of the
hardware.

any

and

was to establish
test
that the system
would

this guarantee,

tests

from

the
no

This

because

rejected.

accepted

make

a quantitative

one
and

in

percent.

process.

results

accepted

test

100

density
test
the

PDF,

and

must

Probability

probability
utilized

expect

Perhaps

of

whereby
in

data

of [nterchangeability

end-item

concerns

results.

make

effects

environment,

of the

could

major

level

aging,

for each

the

test

to store

To

for the

items,

rate

manufacturer

One

prepared

requirements.

allowances

of end

the rejection

was

above.
The goal of this program
end items
which
would
guarantee

all specification

essary

in

program

indicated
for the

Further,
0.04

(upper

may
to

be

better

uniform

assume
limit)

illustrate
PDF's

the
and

this
of

the

specification
L

-0.

05

point.

Assume

hardware
limits

(lower

and
for

the
good

limit)

- 128SD

68-869

f(x)

and

g(e),

as

tester,

respec-

hardware

to

be

SPACEDIVISION oF NORTHAMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

g (e)

r (x)
1
0.14
A=I.O
I
1

-0.08

When

convolved

Function

these

a(x)

shown

PDF's

yield

the

0.06"-x

-0.02

Acceptance

Probability

Density

below:

a (x)

A = 0" 107 __'_r_

-0.08
BAD LOWER _

_A_/_=_0//4_9/_5/4

corresponding
Items

Good

LJ=

/_

-0.05

,le_---A=

0.04

-lu

GOOD

CROSS HATCHED

The

0.05

0.122

0.06Wx
BAD UPPER

'-

AREA = ACCEPTED

NONCROSS

HATCHED

acceptance

and

AREA = REJECTED

rejection

probabilities

are

tabulated

Accepted

Rejected

Total

0.495

0.148

0.643

Bad

(upper)

0.020

0.122

0.143

Bad

(lower)

0.107

0.107

0.214

0.622

0.378

1.000

Totals

129

SD

68-

869

below:

SPACEDIVISION oFNORTH AMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

measure

of confidence

level

unit

{accepted

may

is

be

calculated

good)

P{

as:

good
units
P {accepted

0. 495

accepted}
units}

0.769

0. 643

This

states

accepted

that there

are,

is a 76.9

in fact,

good

percent

probability

that

all of the

units

units.

PROBLEMS

Materials

Flammability

Initially there
teristics

in a

pheric.

The

and

The

flatness

materials

flammability

at pressures

testing
which

and

smear

more

under

did

above

ground

not meet

assembly

with

definitive
grease.

the two

during

electronic

conduction

grease-application

characatmos-

checkout

these

conditions

requirements.

of

was
the

was

The

and

had

was

been

to

to pro-

a better

application
clamped

that provided

clamp-down

sufficient

develop

of grease

the assembly

developed

not

solution

requirement

initial method

after

procedure

baseplate

coldplate.

flatness

The

surfaces

application

the

left
down.

for the

grease

pressures.

Life

The
1000

hours

based

on

original
the best
a typical

However,
small.

the

The
end-item
each

service

of ground

represent

contractor

materials
materials

of the

of thermal

between

Service

and

environment

was

thermal

a tighter

spaces

to

to measure

oxygen

spacecraft

good

application

to

a failure

Conduction

provide
vide

was

percent

solution

to change

Thermal

i00

estimates

subcontractor

lunar
ground

400

higher
proceeds

at the

checkout

conduct

for

the SCS

were

for

flight.

These

time.

which

has

between

power

is

and

values

hours

to

end

combined

400
item

systems

68-869

too

hours

level

SD

for flight

to be

lower

as
were

estimate.

proven

to

through

system

400

300

applied

subassembly

- 130

The

specified

is still a good

estimate

consumes
that

level
to

hours

mission

normally
considering

subsequent
then

and

available

14-day

1000-hour

selloff

life requirements

checkout

prior
assemblies

selloff.
tests

The
both

SPACE

DIVISION

or

NORTH

at the manufacturing

facility

that the

be

This
the

system

must

requalification
testing

formance

and

at the

qualified

process

is about

AMERICAN

one-half

degradations

ROCKWELL

launch

facility.

to a higher

has

begun

completed

CORPORATION

It became

than

specified

with

a goal

of 9500

with

no

evident

service

significant

life.

hours.

To

failures

or per-

date,

apparent.

CONCLUSIONS

The
occurring

following
during

conclusions

the

Establish
before

SCS

hardware

firm

baseline

the start

clude

many

system

This

provides

point

has

expect

reduce

provide
design

a house

configuration

surprises

usage,
during

and

hardware

current

and
design

better

and

vehicle

important

development

process.

what

requirements
This

configuration

life testing

fallouts

process:

performance

development

of confidence

passed

Provide

formance

functional

qualification

the

and

hardware

a measure

been

from

the more

design

of the

changes,

materially

Extend

summarize

will

control,

preand

costs.

to hardware

wearout.

that the infant

reasonable

service

mortality

life one

can

as designed.
which

is at all times

to investigate

and

operational

the

initial operational

- 131

maintained

interface,
problems.

This

phases

68-869

per-

will minimize

of a program.

SD

in a

functional,

SPACE

DIVISION

or

9. 0

This
page

section

numbers

NORTH

TECHNICAL

provides

after

AMERICAN

each

CONTENT

a summary
item

ROCKWEI.I.

SUMMARY

listing

refers

to the

CORPORATION

of the

item's

report

location

highlights.

The

in the body

of the

report.

Environmental

and

hardware

performance

requirements

as

related

to

design:
Page

Total

system

Attitude

reference

Thrust

vector

Attitude
Entry

reference

Controls

Tradeoffs

and

jet

tradeoffs

clutch
data

of low-g

Magnetic
Tolerance

near-miss

incidents:
13

14

and

gain

how

solved

or

circumvented:
47

variations

48

variation

propellant

and

Pseudo-rate

Voltage

and

encountered,

bending

Attitude
Manual

51

actuator

failures

percent

concepts

26

decisions

75

connector

problems

Effect

and

electromechanical

size

Single-point

New

10

malfunction,

Body

90

subsystem

subsystem

Electric

50

74

decisions:

versus

Reaction

Unique

display

design

Reference

58

subsystem

maintenance

Hydraulic

Failure,

42

subsystem

subsystem

and

In-flight

subsystem

control

control

9, Ii0
25

hardware

66

slosh

that evolved:
57

feedback

gyro
TVC

coupling

clutch

25

unit

42
41

actuator

124

analysis
sensitive

one-

66

shot
- 133

SD

68-869

SPACE

Major

DIVISION

oF NORTH

design

changes

AMERICAN

and

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

evolution:
Page

Block

I - Block

18

II

48

TVC
redesigns
Manual
TVC

Major

design

changes

Establish

_'if

baseline

Incorporate
seals
Utilize

42

Obtain

firm

TVC

Qualify

systenn

Fflod

hermetic

analysis

methodology

20
52

vehicle
for

crew

52

data
personal-

i00
131

spacecraft
for longer

constraints
Block

with

design

perforn_ance

Deleted

again":

iten_s

house

Time

over

20

failure

specification

Provide

Unforseen

do

131

redundancy

of obtaining

preference

to

connectors

Less-sensitive
method

it

20

single-point

Better

had

requirements

built-in

initially
standard

Develop

one

service

131

life

restrictions:
on alignn_ent

I boost

abort

and

n_aneuver

requirement

times

33

in SCS
48

- 134

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

C_FNORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWEI,I_

CORPORATION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.

Preliminary

study:

Module

2.

Linear
SD

4.

Propulsion

Stability

66-342

Attitude

(13

Thrust

Vector

System.

NR

Analysis

April

Reference

Study

Honeywell,

Stabilization

and

901-0594E

5.

CSM

Technical

6.

CSM

Master

(Feb.

SD

Block

for

62-1220

Apollo

(21 Sept.

II Backup

Apollo

TVC

Service
1962).

Autopilot.

NR

SD,

and
(2 July

Subsystem.

NR

SD,

Control

System

Sub-

196Z).

Procurement

Specification

1967).

Specification,

Item

Stabilization

A62-777A9(1)

Control
(25 May

End

SD,

System

1966).

contractor.

MC

of the

Control

Block

If.

Specification,

NR

Block

SD,

If.

SD
NR

64-1344B(May
SD,

1965).

135

SD

68-869

SD

64-1345

1968).

SPACE

DIVISION

o_, NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

APPENDIX

SCS

CONTROL,

CONTROL

TRANSLATION

The
I

HAND

Locking

control

device

equipped
locking

Actuation

shall

Figure

translation

nominal

A-I.
from

The

shall

require
be

a torque

6.0

An

position,

and

displacement

of the

control

At

The

the point

the handle
shall drive the
position.
The
switches

when

the handle

torque

be

as

handle,

handle
shall

in
measand

breakout

of switch

torque
actuation

toward
the,
be in an

is in the full rotary

of 15 i 5 inch-pounds

out of the full rotary

characshown

17 i Z degrees

5 inch-pounds.

is

spacecraft
wiring
end of a control

shall

shall be

lock

which

condition.
The
handle
motion.

points

displacement

nominal.

applied

ROTATION

displacement

shall be

displacement

required

position

to

(R/C)

control

control
motion
analogous
controller
shall satisfy

Controller

mechanical

commands,

locked
or CCW

force

actuation

of 15 i

inch-pounds

condition

rotation

in its design:

actuated

of translation

control

(center)

to rotate the handle

return
it to center.

Figures

following

index-finger

switch

rotary

the null

shall

position.

l,

the

cable - Provide
an interface
with the
of a connector
installed
at the terminal

and

actuated

The

an

actuation

the internal
torque
on
full rotary
displacement

CONTROL,

REQUIREMENTS

incorporate

- Provide

inadvertant

- The

teristics

ured

DESIGN

with a visual
indication
denoting
mechanism
shall not lock out CW

Connecting
by means
cable.

(T/C)

translation

to prevent

CORPORATION

shall be

a center-pivot

operated

to the desired
vehicle
rotation
the following
requirements:

forces
A-2,

istics

in pitch,

istics

include

A-3,

- The
and

roll,

and

breakout,

torque
A-4

versus

represent

yaw

axes,

gradient,

grip

as

degrees
the

goal.

The

deflection

shown

in

required

and

- 137
SD

with

a design

respectively.
soft stops,

control

68-869

force
These
maximum

charactercharacterforces.

SPACE

I)IVISION

(}E.-N()RTtl

When

measured

in an

meet

the

force

A-3,

and

A-4

deflections

shall

as

at 10

Controller
are

to pitch

pivot

Controller

a.

axes

shown

Controller

axes

this axis

degrees

switch

Emergency

soft and

Hand

grip

Drawing
This

- The

resistive
finger

actuation

for

as

shall be

vehicle

axes

aligned

so that

at the control
hand

grip

- This
switch

switch
capable

press-to-talk
the forward

138

shall be

actuated

There

shall be

one

of each

control

switches
shall

be

travel

given

in Figure

shape

shall be
C

SK

(Apollo

as

provided

actuated

shown

Control

between
A-5.
on

Handle).

87987.

shall be

a hermetically

of switching

28 vdc

switch

be

centerline

axis.

shall be

They

Revision

to Honeywell

of the hand.

switches

polarity

axis.

angle

is ii0

positioning

- These

switches

normal

of the armrest

A-5.

in each

- The

that the vertical

normal

- These

control

desired

on

axes,

position,

of armrest
such

in Figure

for

stops

The

They

perpendicular

controller

installed

shall be

switches

is identical

load.

- The

the centerline

given

switch

A-6.

hand

pivot.

pilot labeled

to allow

mode

contact

yaw

encountered

in all axes.

in Figure

through

pitch

centerline

SD.-AE-000681,

Press-to-talk
momentary

at their

and

of each

hard

MSC

number

pilot axes

axis

provided

direct

shown

belo_

roll, and

shall be

obvious.

mode

travel

polarity

the

inch

pitch,

5 degrees

pivot

A-5.

the force
shall
in the increasing

soft stops

as

yaw

A-Z,

of Figure

location

de_rees

pulse

closure

in each

shall be

versus

between

at the control

are

of the yaw

and

at 11.

4.0

A-6,

position

Direct

stops

to the corresponding
axes

for

The

shall

of Figures

tolerances

A-5.

of hand,

versus

in Figure

the input

axes

relative

axes

relative

bo

- The

roll pivot

Controller

the force

requirements

total deflection

the hard

at palm

pivot,

direction,

displacement

in Figure

and

axes

pitch

displacement
the

- The

shown

degrees

force

{:{}RPORA'I]ON

in a decreasing
force direction,
55 percent
of the force measured

Control
be

I<{){'KWI%I.I,

increasing

versus
within

When
measured
not be less than
force
direction.

AMERI{'AN

shall

located

of the grip

SD

68-869

sealed,

into a 250

as

for
viewed

ma

index
by

SPACEDIVISION o_,NORTHAMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

the astronaut.
characteristics

I0.

The

press-to-talk

switch

actuating

force

and

a.

Travel

prior

b.

Travel

past

c.

Travel

to hard

d.

Torque

at

Torque

to reach

to switch

switch

actuation

actuation

stop

5 degrees

minimum

8 degrees

minimum

25 degrees

breakout

maximum

0. 2 pound-inch
minimum

hard

stop

I. 0 pound-inches
maximum

Locking
device
- A quick
release
locking
device,
which
with a visual indication
denoting
locked
condition,
shah
to prevent
accidental
activation
of the rotation
control.

Connecting
a connector

travel

shall be as follows:

cable
- Interface
installed
at the

is equipped
be provided

with the spacecraft

wiring
by means
terminal
end of a control
cable shall

of

be provided.
li.

Mechanical
strength
- The control
shall withstand
without
significant effects,
the indicated
forces
applied
in the manner
and under
the conditions
stated below:

a,

Normally

(I)

(2)

(3)

or inadvertently

force

of 200

the pitch

of 150 pounds

an

of
axis

torque

Unlocked

of 200

the pitch

in any

and

yaw

yaw

pound-inches
axis

and

in either
and

the

direction

through

the

axis.

applied

about

through

axes.

forearm

and

forearm.

direction

applied

to the

of the pitch

to the

applied

the

in either

yaw

direction

axis.

configuration:

The

same

a(4)

should

inches

applied

parallel

direction,

parallel

130 pound-inches

about

applied

and

intersection

b.

axis

of the pitch

torque

configuration:

in either

intersection

about

(4)

pounds,

through

force

locked

forces
in

be

and

either

applied

torques

changed

to

read,

direction
in

either

about
direction

- 139

applied

as

"A

torque

the

in

pitch

about

{a)
of
axis

the

yaw

SD

above

300

68- 869

except

pound-inches

and
axis.

250

pound"

that

SPACE

DIVISION

ov NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

J.ALI

!
!

!
I
!

FULL STOP
PO61TION

SWITCH

--_

3
i

ACTUATION\

0
BREAKOUT
1

J
r_

.'1

NOMINAL
BIq.F_,AK
SNITCH
OUT
ACTUATION

1
i

It
3

'"

SWITCH

1.5

! ACTUATION
,__FULL STOP
POSITION

-X,-Y, AND-Z

! ,

, ,
o._o._O,3

DISPLACD_T

Figure

FULL
STOP

A-I.

0.2

_r
_O

a_ z

l
_L
o._ o

2.0

_+o.o

_.375

I I I
o._o._03

_-,0.5

I I
o._0.5

DISPLACEMENTINCHF_, IN-OUT
- APC IIICHF2(/_.31 IN.RADIUS), VERTICAL AND LATERAL

Translation
Vertical,

Control,
Lateral,

- 140

Displacement
and

In-Out

Versus
Motion

SI) 68-869

Forces--

SPACE

DIVISION

or

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

[_4ERGENCY
DIRECT
35

MODE

ACTUATI

ON

30.5

SOFT

STOP

I
I
I
I

.J
I0

DI SPLA
12

10

C EMENT8

11.0

NOMINAL

DEGREES
4

2
2

&

PULSE

DEADBAND
MODE

ACTUATION

10

12

17.5l_._r

195
22y

ELECTRICAL

DIRECT

20
)

25
pI

35.0

35
4O

Figure

A-Z.

Rotation

Control

Torque

141

Versus

Displacement

SD

68-869

(Roll

Axis)

POINT.

SPACE

DIVISION

oF

NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

70.

60

10
DI SPLACEMENT12
I

10
1

8
I

DEGREES
6
I

4
I

2
I

10
17
I
I

I
29.4
I
I
I
I
I

34.5
I
J
I

i5.5

Figure

A-3.

Rotation

Control

Displacement

(Pitch

14Z

Torque

Versus

Axis)

SD

68-869

SPACEDIVISION oFNORTHAMERICANROCKWELLCORPORATION

3O
ENERG
DIRECT

ENCY
MODE

=__

O3

24 6 .-..._ _"-

ACTUATION

25
O
I

20-

0
H
I

16.4

150

10

S'

D_ SPLA
12
I

CEMENT-

<d___ No_AL EnECTRICAL

DmDBAND
3.3J
DIRECT_ PULSEMODE_ATION POI_

DEGREES

10

0
3.3

10

12

-lO

25_

-15

2O

25

-3O

Figure

A-4.

Rotation

Control

Displacement

(Yaw

- 143

Torque

Versus

Axis)

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

ICgtrrR_

DIRECT /40DE

STOP

DIRET_ AND PULSE

_DE ACTUATION
POINT

All5

Figure

A-5.

Rotation

Controller

- 144

Roll

Pitch

and

Yaw

SD

68-869

Movements

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

CONTROLLER
ROLL AXIS

Figure

A-6.

Rotation

Control

- 145

Axis

Orientation

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

OF NORTH

AMERICAN

APPENDIX

ABBREVIATIONS

Automatic

ACS

Attitude

Control

AGCU

Attitude

Gyro

ARS

Attitude

Reference

AS/CP

Attitude

Set

AS/GPD

Attitude

Set/Gimbal

ATP

Acceptance

BMAGS

Body-Mounted

B/O

Breakout

B/U

Backup

CCW

Counterclockwise

CDR

Critical

CDU

Coupling

Display

CEI

Contract

End

CM

Command

Module

CMC

Command

Module

Computer

CSM

Command

Service

Module

CW

Clockwise

DECA

Display

Checkout

CORPORATION

AND

ACE

ROCKWELL

ACRONYMS

Equipment

Subsystem
Coupler

Unit
Subsystem

Control

Test

Panel

Position
Procedure

Attitude

Design

Display

Gyros

Review

Unit

Item

Electronic

Control

Assembly

147SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

OF NORTH

AMERICAN

DOF

Degree

ECA

Electronic

ECLSS

Environment

ECS

Entry

EDA

Electronic

E/L

Electroluminescence

EMI

Electromagnetic

EMS

Entry

Monitor

FACI

First

Article

FDAI

Flight

GA

Gyro

G&C

Guidance

and

Control

G&N

Guidance

and

Navigation

GDC

Gyro

OP/FPI

Gimbal

Position/Fuel

GSE

Ground

Support

IFM

In-Flight

IMU

Inertial

LM

Lunar

Module

LOI

Lunar

Orbit

MA

Mercury

MIT

Massachusetts

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

of Freedom
Control

Assembly

Control

Control

and

Life

Support

System

Subsystem

Display

Assembly

Interference

System
Configuration

Director

Attitude

Inspection

Indicator

Assembly

Display

Coupler
Pressure

Indicator

Equipment

Maintenance
Measurement

Unit

Insertion

Atlas
Institute

of Technology

148

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

MTBF

Mean

MTVC

Manual

NR

oF NORTH

Time

Between

Thrust

North

American
To

p-p

Peak

to peak

Pitch

PDF

Probability

Density

PDR

Preliminary

Design

Primary

Guidance,

Roll

R/C

Rotation

Controller

Reaction

Control

RJC

Reaction

Jet

Control

RJD

Reaction

Jet

Driver

S-II

Saturn

Second-Stage

S-IVB

Saturn

Third-Stage

SC

Spacecraft

SCS

Stabilization

SM

Service

Module

SPS

Service

Propulsion

SW

Switch

Tolerance

Review

and

Control

System

Rate

Gyro

Function

Navigation,

RGP

TAP

Corporation

Talk

RCS

CORPORATION

Control

Rockwell

Push

ROCKWELL

Failure

Vector

P/T/T

PGNCS

AMERICAN

Package

and

Analysis

Boost

Vehicle

Boost

Control

Vehicle

System

System

Program

- 149

SD

68-869

System

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

r/c

Translation

TM

Telemetry

TVC

Thrust

Vector

Control

TVSA

Thrust

Vector

Servo

Yaw

AV

Delta

AMERICAN

ROCKWELL

CORPORATION

Controller

Amplifier

Velocity

- 150

SD

68-869

SPACE

DIVISION

oF NORTH

AMERICAN

ROCKWELI_

APPENDIX

NEW

After
no

new

a diligent

innovation,

review

discovery,

CORPORATION

TECHNOLOGY

of the work

performed

improvement,

151

or

under
invention

this contract,
was

SD

68-869

made.