scsc7211s Version of Alans DAT Biology Notes

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1: Basis of Life (1& 2 in Cliff's)

2: Reproduction (5-cell division &12-human reproduction in Cliff's)
3: Genetics (6&7 in Cliff's)
4: Embryology (12 in Cliff's)
5: Vascular System in Plants and Animals (10&11 in Cliff's)
6: Endocrinology (11 in Cliff's)
7: Neuroscience (11 in Cliff's)
8: Respiration (3 in Cliff's)
9: Autotrophic Nutrition (4 in Cliff's)
10: Muscles and Locomotion (11 in Cliff's)
11: Digestion (11 in Cliff's)
12: Excretion (11 in Cliff's)
12.5: Integumentary
13: Animal Behavior (13 in Cliff's)
14: Ecology (14 in Cliff's)
15: Classification (9 in Cliff's)
16: Evolution (8 in Cliff's)

Chapter 1 Basis of Life

Ingestion acquisition of food
Assimilation building of new tissues from digested food
Monosaccharide (carb) single sugar subunit
Disaccharide glycosidic linkage
Ex:glucose+fructose = sucrose, glucose+galactose=lactose, glucose+glucose=maltose
Polysaccharide (carb) polymer, insoluble in water;
ex: glycogen (energy storage in animals), starch (energy storage in plants), Cellulose (polymer of
beta-glucose/structural), Chitin (like cellulose, but glucose has a nitrogen/structural molecular in fungi and
exoskeleton of insects, arthropods, and mollusks)
Lipids (2:1 H/O ratio) 3 FA bonded to glycerol=triglyceride; chief means of food storage
Major component of adipose tissue
Steroids (estradiol, testosterone, cholesterol), waxes, carotenoids, porphyrins
Proteins - polymers of AA joined by peptide bond / 1* = AA sequence, 2* = folding (alpha beta)
Hormones (ACTH & insulin), Enzymes, structural pro (collagen), transport (hemoglobin),
antibodies
Enzymes lower activation E & inc. rate of rxn / do not affect overall E
Higher temp = inc enzyme action / optimal pH = 7.2 (except pepsin & pancreas)
Competitive inhibitors compete w/ substrate for binding at ACTIVE site; can be overcome
by adding more substrate; Vmax not affected
Noncompetitive inhibitors bind at allosteric site; diminishes Vmax
Holoenzyme: union of cofactor and apoenzyme
Cooperativity: enzyme more receptive to additional substrate after one substrate molecule
attaches to an active site
o Ex: Hemoglobin- binding capacity to additional oxygen increases after first oxygen
binds to active site
Prokaryotes bacteria, cell wall, NO nucleus (instead nucleoid regionnaked DNA), NO memb-bound
organelles, ribosomes smaller and no mem (70S, w/ 50S and 30S VS 80S w/60S 40S in Euk.), mesosomes
(invaginations of membrane), flagella of prokaryotes not constructed of microtubules
Eukaryotes cell wall in fungi & plants, nucleus, membrane-bound organelles
- Nucleus contains nucleolus(sometimes more than one): concentrations of DNA in the process of
manufacturing components of ribosomes
- Nucleolus: concentrations of DNA in the process of manufacturing components of ribosomes
- Chromatin: the normal (non-replicating) form of DNA, spread out in a threadlike matrix
Endomembrane system: different membranes suspended in the cytoplasm
- Includes (nuclear envelope, E.R., Golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, vesicles, peroxisomes, and cell
membrane
- Does NOT include (mitochondria and chloroplasts)
Endoplasmic reticulum: extension of nuclear envelope all of the proteins that will exit the cell are
originally delivered to the ER, then to the Golgi for export

Rough ER (ribosomes present)- creates glycoproteins by attaching polysaccharides to polypeptides

Smooth ER (ribosomes absent)- synthesis of lipids and hormones (often for export)/ in liver,
involved in breakdown of toxins, drugs, and toxic byproducts of cellular rxns
Golgi apparatus: modify (glycosylation) and package proteins and lipids into vesicles (spherical sacs
that bud out from the Golgi and often merge with the cellular membrane so contents are released to
outside of cell)
Centrioles microtubule involved in spindle organization during cell division/ NO membrane
Centromere near middle of eukaryotic chromosomes where spindle fibers attach
Lysosome membrane bound, involved in ingestion / hydrolytic enzymes. Low pH so inactive in
cytosol. NOT in plant cells.
Peroxisomes- break down H2O2, fatty acids, amino acids. Common in liver and kidney cells. In plant
cells, modify by-products of photorespiration. In germinating seeds, glyoxysomes break down stored
fatty acids
Mitochondria exhibit maternal inheritance carry out aerobic respiration
Chloroplasts- Carry out photosynthesis incorporate energy from sunlight into carbohydrates
Microtubules < intermediate filaments < microfilaments: three comprise cytoskeleton
Microtubules- made of tubulin, support for cellular activities, found in spindle apparatus, and
flagella
Int. filaments- maintain shape of cell
Microfilaments- made of actin, involved in motility, found in muscle cells and phagocytes
Flagella and cilia: 9+2 array nine pairs of microtubules surrounding pair of microtubules
Centrioles and Basal body: centrioles- give rise to microtubules for spindle. Basal body- at base of
flagella and cilium and appear to organize their development
Both made up of 9 triplets of microtubules arranged in circle
Central vacuole- occupy most of interior of certain plants. Exert turgor (pressure) on cell walls to
maintain rigidity. Store nutrients and fxns otherwise carried out by lysosomes in animal cells
Cell wall: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria. Plants=cellulose, fungi=chitin (hydroxyl group of
cellulose replaced by nitrogen)
Extracellular matrix: area between adjacent cells most common protein in region is collagen
Anchoring Junction: protein attachments between animal cells
Desmosomes = spot welds; attach cells together and give cells mechanical strength- keratin
(ex. skin cells)
Tight junctions = completely seal the spaces b/w cells and prevent cell leakage between animal cells (ex.
intestinal cells)
Communicating junctions:
Gap junctions = allow animal cells to exchange ions and small molecules without cytoplasmic
mixing and for molecular communication/ made up of connexins.
Plasmodesmata: narrow channels between plant cells. Narrow tube of ER, called desmotubule,
surrounded by cytoplasm and plasma membrane, passes through channel

Endosymbiotic Theory mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as independent unicellular organisms

living in symbiosis with larger cells
Fluid Mosaic lipids and proteins are free to move back and forth fluidly; diffuse laterally
Integral Membrane are embedded in membrane by hydrophobic interactions
o Transmembrane: integral that spans the entire membrane
Peripheral are stuck to integral membrane proteins by H bonding
Cell surface Receptors type of integral membrane protein; three types: ligand-gated (open ion
channel), catalytic, and G-protein
G-Protein use secondary messengers such as cAMP which amplify signal

Glycocalyx- carbohydrate coat that covers outer face of cell wall of some bacteria and outer face of
plasma membrane of some animal cells (adhesive capabilities, barrier to infection, or marker for cell
recognition)
Bulk flow: collective movement of substances in same direction in response to pressure (ex. Blood
moving through a blood vessel)
Passive transport: (1) Simple diffusion: high to low (2) Osmosis: diffusion of water across membrane (3):
Dialysis: diffusion of solutes (4) Plasmolysis: movement of water out of cell, resulting in collapse (5):
Facilitated diffusion: solutes or water through channel protein (6) Countercurrent exchg: diffusion of
substances between two regions in which substances are moving by bulk flow in opposite directions
Plant v animal cell:
-Plant cells have/animal cells lack: cell walls, chloroplasts, and central vacuoles
-Animal cells have/plant cells lack: lysosomes, centrioles, and cholesterol
Chapter 2 Reproduction
Marine reproduction strategies:
Oviparous internal fertilization; lay eggs egg birth
Viviparous internal fertilization; live birth
Ovoviviparous internal fertilization; egg develops inside mother egg live birth
CELL DIVISION nuclear division followed by cytokinesis

Cell cycle:
S phase replicate genome (create chromatids)
G1 & G2 phase gap phases
Mitosis 2N=>2N, occurs in all dividing cells; 10% of cell cycle
1. Interphase (90% of time) replication of genetic material resulting in sister chromatids
2. Prophase chromatids condense into xsomes; nuclear envelope breaks down; microtubule
spindles form and attach to kinetochore of centromere
3. Metaphase chromosomes align across metaphase plate
4. Anaphase sister chromatids separate; shortest phase
5. Telophase new nuclear membranes form (cleavage furrow forms); spindles disappear, and
chromosomes disperse into chromatin
6. Cytokinesis- in animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms and membrane is pinched in two by
microfilaments
a. PLANTS: vesicles from Golgi body migrate to central plane and fuse to form a cell
plate, followed by cell wall development; also, plants lack centrioles, and spindle is
synthesized by MTOCs that are not visible
Meiosis occurs in sex cells, homologous chromosomes pair at meta plate (tetrads), crossing over can
occur, 2N=>N

First Meiotic Division produces 2 daughter cells w/ N chromosomes w/ sister chrom

1. Prophase I chromatids of homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic
material (crossing over)- called synapsis. When tetrads (groups of four chromatids
line up and nonsister chromatids form close associations called chiasmata (legs of
chromosomes overlap). Tetrad with chiasmata is a synaptonemal complex
2. Metaphase I tetrads align at plate; each pair attaches to a separate spindle
***Karyotyping performed here***
3. Anaphase I homologous pairs pulled to opposite poles (disjunction) / distribution to
the two daughter cells is random w/ respect to parental origin
4. Telophase I nuclear membrane forms around each nucleus, producing two haploid
daughter cells
Second division is very similar to mitosis. No chromosomal replication. Note that only one
becomes functional gamete in females (3 polar bodies are eventually degraded, while mature
ovum is produced)

Inversion chromosomal segment turned 180o

Translocation 2 nonhomologous chromosomes interchange genes (attachment of all or part of one
chromosome to another)
***Mitochondrial DNA is an exception to the universality of the genetic code***
Nondisjunction failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during Meiosis I or sister chromatids to
separate during Meiosis II; result in trisomy or monosomy; ex Down syndrome
Turner syndrome sterile female lacking X chromosome; monosomy
Klinefelter Syndrome = 44 autosomes + XXY
Asexual Reproduction methods production of offspring w/o fertilization
Binary Fission prokaryotes (one celled amoebae, paramecia, algae, and bacteria); DNA
replicates, wall grows inward along midwall to make two equally sized cells
Budding replication of nucleus followed by unequal cytokinesis. Develops as outgrowth,
forms smaller cell that will eventually grow to adult size; ex hydra & yeast
Regeneration regrowth of lost body part; ex starfish, hydra, tadpole, salamander
***Parthenogenesis unfertilized egg to adult organism; ex male bees and ants***
Asexual reproduction in plants
1. Spore formation- ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS; diploid generation is succeeded by haploid
generation
a. Diploid sporophyte(spore-producing plant) Haploid spores haploid gametophyte (sex
cell-producing plant)
b. Angiosperms: dominant is sporophyte, Mosses(bryophyte): gametophyte dominant
Angiosperms - flowering plants; flower is reproductive structure
Stamen male organ; composed of stalk-like filament & sac-like anther (produces haploid
spores that develop into pollen)
Pistil female organ; composed of stigma (catches pollen), style, and ovary
Sepals green leaves cover and protect flower bud during early development
Fertilization 1 sperm nucleus + 1 egg nucleus => zygote => embryo
1 sperm nucleus + 2 polar nuclei => 3n endosperm
Seed formation Epicotyl (precursor of leaves), Cotyledons (seed leaves), Hypocotyl
(develops into lower stem and root), Endosperm (feeds embryo), Seed Coat (develops
from outer covering of ovule)

2. Vegetative propagation- undifferentiated tissues in plants, meristems, provide a source of cells

that can develop into an adult plant
a. Natural Vegetative propagation
i. Bulbs- split to form several bulbs (tulips and daffodils)
ii. Tubers- underground stems with buds (eyes of potatoes)
iii. Runners- stems running above and along ground that produce new roots and upright
stems (strawberry and lawn grasses)
iv. Rhizomes (stolons): woody, underground stems (ferns and iris)
b. Artificial Vegetative propagation
i. Cut piece of stem can develop new roots - auxins used to accelerate root growth
ii. Layering- stems will take room when bent to ground and covered with soil
(raspberries and blackberries)
iii. The stem of one plant called the scion can be attached to rooted stem of closely
related plant (the stock). Cambium of both stems must be in contact for water
transport
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Gonads male = testes, female = ovaries
Leydig cells interstitial cells in the testes, secrete testosterone in presence of LH
Spermatogenesis sperm production in seminiferous tubules; head = nucleus & tail = flagellum
acrosome lysosome containing enzymes used to penetrate the egg
prostatic fluid secreted by prostate; helps neutralize the acidic vaginal secretions to enhance sperms
ability to swim; also neutralizes seminal fluid (too acidic from metabolic waste of sperm)
Oogenesis oocytes produced in ovaries
Capacitation penultimate step in maturation of the spermatozoa while in the female, allows for egg
penetration
Male Reproductive path of sperm SEVEnUP
1. seminiferous tubules- production of sperm
2. epididymis- maturation and storage of sperm
3. vas deferens(2)- transfer sperm from both epididymis to urethra
4. ejaculatory duct
5. urethra
6. penis
Female Reproductive fallopian tube opens to uterus (narrow end called cervix), cervix connects with
vaginal canal
The Menstrual Cycle - divided into follicular, ovulation, luteal, menstruation

1. Follicular FSH promotes development of follicle which secretes estrogen

2. Ovulation- peak in estrogen LH surge ovulation (midway through cycle) mature
follicle bursts releasing ovum
3. Luteal LH induces follicle to develop into corpus luteum which secretes estrogen and
progesterone-responsible for maintenance of endometrium (LH and FSH inhibited)
4. Menstruation
o If ovum is not fertilized, corpus luteum atrophies corpus albicans, and drop in
estrogen and progesterone cause endometrium to slough off
o If fertilized, placenta produces (Human chorionic gonadotropin) hCG (estrogen +
proges levels remain high)
Estrogen thicken endometrium

Progesterone development and maintenance of endometrial wall

Chapter 3 Genetics
-Genes on the same chromosome will stay together unless crossing over occurs
-For a Dihybrid Cross make a punnet square that is 4X4. I.E. if the genotypes are TTPP and TtPp the four on
top would be (TP TP TP TP) and on the side would be (TP Tp tP tp)
Mendels Law of Segregation- one member of each chromosome pair migrates to an opposite pole (a
gamete will receive one allele or the other)
Mendels Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes (and their chromosomes) assort
independently during gamete formation
Incomplete Dominance progeny phenotypes that are blends of parental phenotypes. Classic example
is color in snapdragons (dominant red crossed with recessive white produce PINK)
Codominance both alleles are completely expressed;
Ex. Multiple alleles: BLOOD- A and B dominant and i recessive ( o = ii, A = IAIA or IAi, B=IAIA or
IAi, AB = IAIB)
Epistasis occurs when one gene masks or modifies the expression of an other gene
Pleiotropy single gene effects several phenotypic characteristics
Ex: Gene in pea plants that expressed seed texture also influences phenotype of starch metabolism
and water uptake
Ex 2: Sickle cell anemia
Polygenic inheritance: The interaction of many genes to shape a single phenotype. Polygenic
inheritance is the opposite of pleiotropy. Ex: human height
Sex-Linked Inheritance (X-linked)much more common in MALES- gene carried on X chromosome; ex
hemophilia & color blindness
X-Inactivation- During embryonic development in female mammals, one X chromosome remains coiled
as compact body, called Barr body. This happens randomly in embryonic cells, so fully developed fetus
will have some groups with one X active and some with the other. Ex: calico cats
Nondisjunction- failure of one or more chromosome pairs or chromatids to segregate
During meiosis, failure of chromosomes (ana I) or chromatids (ana II) result in gametes with extra or
missing chromosomes
During mitosis, failure of two chromatids of a single chromosome (anaphase) to separate, results in
daughter cells with extra or missing chromosomes. Results in mosaicism (a fraction of body cells
have extra or missing chromosome)
Polyploidy, all chromosomes undergo meiotic nondisjunction and produce gametes with 2n
chromosome count. Common in plants
Human Genetic Defects
Mutations in somatic cells => tumors, in gametes => transmitted to offspring; insertion,
deletion, substitution; ex sickle-cell anemia
Aneuploidy- genome with extra or missing chromosome
o Ex: Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)
o Turner Syndrome (XO caused by nondisjunction of the sex chromosome)
o Klinefelter (XXY)
Pyrimidines CUT the PY; 1 ring
*Because G is triple bonded to C, higher G/C content more stable
*Nucleotides are H-bonded
Redundancy/ Degeneracy genetic code synonyms, multiple codons for same AA
nucleoside = sugar+base
Protein Synthesis Replication => Transcription => Translation
DNA synthesis occurs during S-phase. In G2 the cell prepares to divide. During G1, we see the
production of mitochondria, ribosomes, and much protein synthesis. Ribosomes are
assembled by the nucleolus.
Replication DNA => DNA synthesized in 5=>3; helicase unwinds double helix and an
RNA polymerase called primase begins replication
Transcription DNA => RNA (nucleus), mRNA has inverted complementary code, ex 5
TCTTT 3 mRNA would be 3 AGAAA 5 **principal site of the regulation of gene expression
Translation RNA => Protein (cytoplasm); mRNA translated to AA
exons nucleotide base sequences that are transcribed into mRNA proteins; Introns are removed
during transcription; (exons = dont exit)
mRNA carries complement of DNA from nucleus to ribosomes, least abundant RNA

tRNA brings AA to ribosomes during synthesis, recognizes AA and codons; in cytoplasm; smallest form of
RNA
rRNA ribosomal RNA; most abundant form of RNA
Ribosomes two subunits; three binding sites: 1 for mRNA, 3 for tRNA
PCR technique makes multiple DNA copies in vitro
X-Ray diffraction = most accurate way to discover molecular structures.
Polypeptide sequence initiation (AUG), elongation, termination (UGA UAG UAA)
Gene Regulation transcription enables prokaryotes to control metabolism
Inducible system require inducer for transcription
RNA polymerase binds to promoter => structural genes transcribed
Repressor binds to operator => structural genes NOT transcribed
Inducer binds to repressor => no binding to operator => genes transcribed
Repressible system constant state of transcription unless corepressor- repressor complex present to
inhibit
Bacteriophage virus that infects host bacterium; attachment/ adsorption => penetration/ eclipse=>
lytic or lysogenic
Lytic phage DNA takes control of bacterium/ makes numerous progeny; bacterial cell bursts (lyses)
releasing virons; these types of bacteriophage are called virulent; ALL HOST cells destroyed = evolutionary
disadvantage
Lysogenic becomes integrated into genome in harmless way (provirus/prophage); cleverness is that
every time the host reproduces itself the prophage is reproduced too
Techoic acids used for recognition and binding sites by bacterial viruses that cause infections
Chapter 4 Embryology
Seven Major Steps During Embryonic Development (these are for sea urchin, but generally universal)
1. Fertilization
a. Recognition: acrosome of sperm meets vitelline layer (zona pellucida in humans) that
ensure fertilization by correct species
b. Penetration- fusing of plasma membranes
c. Formation of fertilization membrane by vitelline layer that blocks additional sperm
d. Completion of meiosis II in secondary oocyte, producing ovum(egg) and polar body
e. Fusion of nuclei and replication of DNA- formation of DIPLOID ZYGOTE
2. Cleavage rapid cell divisions without cell growth each resulting cell (blastomere) contains less
cytoplasm than original zygote increased surface area improves gas exchange
a. Embryo polarity- egg has upper, animal pole (small, rapidly dividing cells that give rise to
three primary germ layers) and lower, vegetal pole (large yolky cells that divide very
slowly- differentiates into extraembryonic membranes that protect and nourish embryo

b.
c. Polar and equatorial cleavages- Early cleavages are polar, dividing egg into segments that
stretch from pole to pole (like an orange). Other cleavages are parallel with equator
d. Radial and spiral cleavages- Deuterostomes (sea cucumbers, etc), early cleavages are radial.
In Protostomes, cleavages are spiral, forming cells on top that are shifted
e. Indeterminate and determinate cleavages
i. Indeterminate: produces blastomeres tha can individually complete development
often results from radial cleavage of deuterostomes
ii. Determinate: developmental program limited often results from spiral cleavage of
protostomes
3. Morula
a. Successive cleavage results in this solid ball of cells
4. Blastula

a. Cell division continues and liquid fills the morula, producing blastula. Center cavity is called
the blastocoel
b. In humans, blastocyst implants into endometrium
5. Gastrula
a. Deuterostomes (sea cucumbers, etc), early cleavages are radial and blastopore becomes
anus. In Protostomes, cleavages are spiral, forming cells on top that are shifted and
blastopore becomes mouth.

b.
c. Endoderm epithelial lining of digestive & respiratory, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid, and
bladder lining
d. Mesoderm musculoskeletal, circulatory system, excretory system, gonads, connective
tissue, portions of digestive & respiratory, notochord
e. Ectoderm Nervous system (brain and spinal cord), integument (epidermis & hair /
epithelium of nose, mouth, anal canal), lens of eye, retina, teeth, neural tube
6. Extraembryonic membrane development in birds, reptiles, and humans, called the
amniotes, the extraembryonic membrane develops as follows
a. Chorion: outer membrane. Birds and reptiles-membrane for gas exchange. Mammals,
chorion implants into endometrium, and later, the chorion and maternal tissue form the
placenta (a blend of maternal and embryonic tissues across which gases, nutrients, and
wastes are exchanged)
b. Allantois- Sac that buds off from archenteron (cavity of gastrula forming primitive gut) that
eventually encircles the embryo, forming layer below chorion. Eventually forms umbilical
cord, transporting gases, nutrients, and wastes, and becomes urinary bladder in adults
c. Amnion- encloses amniotic cavity, cushions developing embryo, much like coelom cushions
internal organs in coelomates
d. Yolk sac- In birds and reptiles, yolk sac membrane digests enclosed yolk and blood vessels
transfer nutrients to embryo. In placental mammals, yolk sac is empty, as umbilical cord
delivers nutrients

e.
7. Organogenesis as cells continue to divide after gastrulation, they differentiate, and develop into
specific tissues and organs.
a. Notochord- cells along dorsal surface of mesoderm form notochord (stiff rod that provides
support in lower chordates. Vertebrae of higher chordates formed from nearby cells of the
mesoderm
b. Neural tube- In ectoderm layer directly above notochord, layer of cells forms neural plate.
Plate indents, forming neural groove, then rolls up into a cylinder, the neural tube. This
develops into the CNS. Additional cells roll off top and form neural crest (which form teeth,
bones, muscles of skull, pigment cells in skin, and nerve tissue)

c.
Notable exceptions to the general embryonic development patterns
1. Frog
a. Gray crescent: Each individual cell could develop into normal frog onlyif it contained a
portion of gray crescent (results upon reorg. of cytoplasm upon sperm penetration
b. Gastrulation: formation of dorsal lip
c. Yolk: yolk is much more extensive, yolk plug near dorsal lip
2. Bird
a. Blastodisc- yolk of egg is extremely large, so cleavage occurs instead in blastula that
consists of flattened disc-shaped region called blastodisc
b. Primitive streak- Upon onset of gastrulation, invagination occurs along this line (rather
than a circle). This results in an elongated blastopore (as opposed to the circular blastopore
found in sea urchins and frogs)
3. Humans and most other mammals

a.
b. Blastocyst- blastula stage (consists of outer ring, trophoblast, and inner cell mass
c. Trophoblast- outer ring of cells
i. Accomplishes implantation
ii. Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) to maintain progesterone
production of the corpus luteum
iii. Will later form the chorion
d. Embryonic disci. Within cavity created by trophoblast, bundle of cells called the inner cell mass,
clusters at one pole and flattens into embryonic disc which will undergo gastrulation
and organogenesis. Analagous to blastodisc of birds and reptiles. Gastrulation also
occurs at primitive streak.

Factors that influence cellular development

1. Influence of the egg cytoplasm- cytoplasmic material distributed unequally (think gray crescent
in frogs and yolk in bird eggs). This results in embryonic axes (animal and vegetal poles). Cleavage
will thus result in daughter cells with varying cytoplasmic material composition, and substances
unique to certain cells may influence development
2. Embryonic induction- influence of one cell or group of cells over neighboring cells. The controller
cells are called organizers. They act by secreting chemicals. EX: dorsal lip of blastopore induces
development of notochord in cells nearby
3. Homeotic genes- These genes turn on and off other genes that code for substances that directly
affect development. A gene segment called a homeobox identifies this particular class of genes
(180bp, encodes homeodomain of protein)
Labor
1.
2.
3.

(three stages)
Cervix thins out and dilates, amniotic sac ruptures and releases fluids
Rapid contractions followed by birth
Uterus contracts and expels umbilical cord and placenta

Chapter 5 Vascular Systems in Plants and Animals

Circulation in Invertebrates
Protozoans (unicellular animal-like protists- movement of gas through simple diffusion within cell
Cnidarians body walls 2 cells thick, therefore all cells in direct contact with either internal or
external environment. Ex- hydra
Arthropods- most insects and molluscs
o Open circulatory system- pump blood into internal cavity (hemocoel or sinuses), which
bathe tissues in oxygen and nutrient containing (hemolymph). This fluid returns to heart
through holes called ostia.

o
Annelids- earthworm
o Closed circulatory system- blood is confined to vessels.
Away from heart: aorta arteries arterioles capillaries
Back to heart: capillaries venules veins

Circulation in Humans
Cardiovascular system: four-chambered heart, network of blood vessels, and blood

Heart:
o Right side pumps deoxygenated blood into pulmonary circulation (toward lungs)
o Left side pumps oxygenated blood into systemic circulation (throughout body)

Fetal Heart

Cardiac cycle regulated by autorhythmic cells (initiate contractions independently of nerve

cells)

1. SA (sinoatrial) node, or pacemaker, initiates by contracting both atria and sending

delayed impulse to stimulate AV (atrioventricular) node.
2. AV node sends impulse through bundle of His, that results in contraction of ventricles
3. When the ventricles contract (systole phase), blood is forced through pulmonary arteries
and aorta When they relax (diastole phase), backflow into ventricles causes semilunar
valves to close.

Hydrostatic pressure from heart causes blood to move through arteries. Blood pressure drops as it
reaches the capillaries, and reaches near zero in the venules. Blood continues to move through
veins not because of contractions of the heart, but because of movements of adjacent skeletal
muscles. Valves in the veins prevent backflow.

Blood Vessels: (arteries, veins, and capillaries)

o Arteries: thick-walled, muscular, elastic, pump oxygenated away (except for pulmonary
arteries that transport deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs)
o Veins: Larger veins often have valves to aid in transport of deoxygenated blood back to
heart due to fighting gravity (except for pulmonary veins and umbilical vein that carry
oxygenated blood)
o Capillaries: have smallest diameter- single layer of endothelial cells across which gases,
nutrients, enzymes, hormones, and waste diffuse

Lymph Vessels
o Lymphatic system is secondary circulatory system- transports excess interstitial fluids
o Transports interstitial fluid, (lymph), through the contraction of adjacent muscles.
o Valves prevent backflow- fluid returns to blood circulatory system through two ducts located
in shoulder region
o Lymph nodes contain phagocytic cells (leukocytes) that filter the lymph and serve as
immune response centers

Blood 4-6 liters in the human body

o 55% liquid (plasma) and 45% cellular components plasma is an aqueous mixture of
nutrients, salts, gases, wastes, hormones, and blood proteins (globins, albumin, fibrinogen
o Cellular components
Erythrocytes (RBCs) transport O2 (up to 4) on hemoglobin, catalyze conversion of
CO2 and H2O to H2CO3 lack nucleus to maximize hemoglobin content
Leukocytes (WBCs) larger and phagocytize foreign matter and organisms
Diapedesis the process by which WBCs become part of the interstitial fluid
(slip through the endothelial lining
Platelets- cell fragments involved in blood clotting lack nuclei
Convert fibrinogen (inactive) to fibrin (active)
Derived from megakaryocytes

Process of blood clotting

1. Platelets contact exposed collagen of damaged vessel and cause neighboring platelets to form
platelet plug
2. Both the platelets and damaged tissue release clotting factor, thromboplastin
3. Thromboplastin converts inactive plasma protein prothombrin to thrombin (active)
4. Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin
5. Fibrin thredas coat damaged area and trap blood cells to form a clot
Hemoglobin binds CO w/ much greater affinity than myoglobin
Myoglobin = single chain, stores O2 in muscle
Ductus venosus allows blood to bypass the liver
Foramen ovale allows blood to bypass pulmonary circulation by entering the left atria directly from the
right atria
Ductus arteriosus conducts some blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta (bypassing the lungs)
Cardiac Output (CO) = SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate)
Stroke volume = volume of blood discharged from the ventricles with each contraction.
Cardiac output = volume discharged from ventricle each minute.

 Stroke volume = end systolic volume end diastolic volume.

Sodium-Calcium Channel when open allow both Na+ & Ca2+ down gradient; stay open longer than fast
sodium channels; causing membrane depolarization to last longer in cardiac muscle
Intercalated disks hold together adjacent cells of cardiac muscle, allow cardiac muscles fibers to
transmit electrical impulses rapidly (disks have low resistance to impulses)

Immune system (three biological levels of defense)

1. Skin and mucous membranes non-specific first line of defense
a. Skin-oily and acidic, pH of 3-5
b. Antimicrobial proteins (lysozyme) in saliva, tears, and other mucous membranes
c. Cilia- line lungs to sweep out invaders
d. Gastric juice- in stomach, kills most microbes
e. Symbiotic bacteria- in digestive tract and vagina outcompete damaging organisms
2. Several nonspecific mechanisms- non-specific second line of defense
a. Phagocytes- leukocytes (WBCs) including neutrophils and monocytes (macrophages),
and natural killer cells
b. Complement- 20 natural proteins that complement defense. Attract phagocytes to
foreign cells
c. Interferons- substances secreted by cells that stimulate neighboring cells to produce
protective proteins
d. Inflammatory response- series of non-specific events that occur in response to
pathogens. EX: when skin is damaged and bacteria enter the body
1.
Histamine secreted by basophils (WBCs) in connective tissue
2.
Vasodilation- stimulated by histamine, increases blood supply to areaincrease in temperature that stimulates WBCs and can kill pathogens
3.
Complement- helps phagocytes engulf foreign cells, stimulate basophils to
release histamine, and help lyse foreign cells
3. Immune Response- third line of defense targeting specific antigens
a. The major histocompatibility complex, MHC allows immune system to determine self
and non-self
1.
Collection of glycoproteins(proteins with carbohydrate) that exists on
membranes of all body cells specific to individual
b. Lymphocytes (WBCs) primary agents of immune response concentrated in nodes,
thymus gland, and spleen
1.
B cells- originate and mature in Bone marrow, and respond to antigens.
Plasma membrane has specific antigen receptors called antibodies
(immunoglobins)
There are five classes: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM
When B cells encounter and bind antigens, they proliferate and produce both:
a. Plasma cells- release specific antibodies to circulate b. stream
b. Memory cells- long lived, do not release antibodies immediately,
instead respond quickly to subsequent invasion
2.
T cells- originate in bone marrow, but mature in Thymus gland. Plasma
membrane contains antigen receptors for molecules displayed by nonself cells
When T cells encounter nonself cells, they proliferate and produce:

a. Cytotoxic (killer) T cells- recognize and destroy nonself cells by

lysing them
b. Helper T cells- stimulate proliferation of B cells and killer T cells
*The process of clonal selection- occurs when an antigen binds to B cell or a nonself cell binds to a T cell.
The selected B or T cells proliferate and produce identical clones of the parent cell.*
c. Two types of Immune response
1.
Cell-mediated response uses mostly T-cells and responds to any nonself
cell, including cells invaded by pathogens by the following steps:
T cells produce killer T cells
T cells produce helper T cells
Helper T cells bind to macrophages
Helper T cells then produce interleukins- chemical communicators between
leukocytes that induce positive-feedback events resulting in proliferation of
interleukins, macrophages, helper and killer T cells, and B cells
2.
Humoral (bodily fluid) response (anti-body mediated) involves most
cells and responds to antigens or pathogens circulating in lymph or blood
B cells produce plasma cells
B cells produce memory cells
Macrophage and helper T cells stimulate B cell production
General progression: Nave Mature Plasma antibody
Ways humans have supplemented humoral defense
1. Antibiotics- chemicals derived from bacteria or fungi that are harmful to other microorganisms
2. Vaccines- substances that stimulate production of memory cells artificially active immunity
3. Passive immunity- transferred antibodies from another individual- EX: newborns from mother
a. Acquired immediately, but short-lived and non-specific
b. Gamma globulin (blood containing antibodies) can confer temporary protection against
hepatitis and other diseases
Rh factor another antigen that can be present on red blood cells / + or -/ can lead to pregnancy issues if
the mother carries anti-Rh antibodies
Vascular Transport in Plants
Transport in plants must supply plant cells with nutrients and remove waste
Translocation circulation in plants
o Plant stem is primary organ which contains vascular bundle
o Vascular bundle includes xylem, phloem, and cambium cells

Xylem- conduction of water and minerals UP stem, and mechanical support

o DEAD at maturity- essentially cell walls containing material transported
o Two types: tracheids (long and tapered, water travels through pits) and vessel elements
(shorter and wider and water travels through perforations- more efficient and more
evolutionarily advanced)
o Rise of water explained by:
Transpirational pull- as water evaporates from leaves, vacuum pulls water up
Capillary action- liquid in thin tube rises due to surface tension of water and
interactions between liquid and tube
Root Pressure- water entering root hairs exerts pressure, pushing water up stem
Phloem- conduction of sugars DOWN stem- on outside of vascular bundle
o Made up of sieve-tube elements that form sieve tubes
o LIVING at maturity, but lack nuclei and ribosomes.
o Pores form sieve plates, where cytoplasm of two cells is in contact
o Companion cells adjacent and attached by plasmodesmata, maintain support for sieve
tube members
o EX: If a strip of bark is removed around trunk, phloem connections are severed and tree will
die
Cambium two layers thick; undifferentiated cells, give rise to xylem/ phloem; type of meristem
o Between the xylem and phloem, and cells differentiate according to proximity

Gross structure of Woody Stem

o Layers occur starting from the outside:
o epidermiscortexphloemcambiumxylempith

Root- absorbs materials through root hairs and anchors plant

o Root hairs increase surface area for absorption of water and minerals from soil
o Epidermiscortexphloemxylemcambium
Regions of Growth in the Plant
o Meristem- actively dividing, undifferentiated cells
Cambium- lateral meristem (provides lateral growth for plant)
Apical- located at roots and stems and provide vertical growth
o After dividing, the new cells elongate (zone of elongation) and differentiate

Chapter 6 Endocrinology (Reference problem 90 from DESTROYER)

Hypothalamus- monitors external environment and internal conditions of the body; Contains
neurosecretory cells that link the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland. Regulation of the pituitary =
negative feedback mechanisms and by secretion of releasing and inhibiting hormones; secretes ADH
(vasopressin) and oxytocin to be stored in posterior pituitary; also secretes GnRH (gonadotropin releasing
hormone), which stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
Anterior Pituitary- mainly regulates hormone production by other glands itself regulated by hypoth.
1. Direct hormones: directly stimulate target organs
o Growth hormone (HGH)- stimulates bone and muscle growth
o Prolactin- stimulates milk production in females
o Endorphins- inhibit perception of pain
2. Tropic hormones: stimulate other endocrine glands
o Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)- stimulates adrenal cortex release glucocorticoidsinvolved in regulation of metabolism of glucose
o Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)- stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid
hormone
o Luteinizing hormone (LH): females-stimulates formation of corpus luteum / malesstimulates interstitial cells of testes to produce testosterone
o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): females- stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles
to secrete estrogen / males- stimulates maturation of seminiferous tubules and sperm prod
Posterior Pituitary- does not synthesize hormones, stores ADH and oxytocin produced by hypothalamus
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)- increases reabsorption of water by increasing
permeability of nephrons collecting duct water reabsorption and increased blood volume
- Oxytocin- secreted during childbirth- increases strength of uterine contractions and stimulates
milk production

Pineal gland- secretes melatonin- plays role in circadian rhythm

Thyroid- located on ventral surface of trachea
- Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
o Derived from tyrosine and necessary for growth and neurological development in
children and increase metabolic rate in body
o Hypothyroidism- undersecretionlow heart rate and respiratory rate
o Hyperthyroidism- oversecretion increased metabolic rate and sweating
Both lead to GOITERS
- Calcitonin (tones down Ca2+) in blood
o Decreases plasma Ca2+ by inhibiting its release from bone
Parathyroid- four pea-shaped structures on thyroid
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH)- antagonistic to calcitonin
o
Raises Ca2+ concentrations in blood by stimulating release from bone
Thymus- involved in immune response
- Secretes thymosins that stimulate lymphocytes (WBCs) to become T-cells (identification and
destroying of infected body cells)
Adrenal gland- on top of kidneys and consist of:
- Adrenal cortex
o
Glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone)- raise blood glucose levels
o
Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)- increases reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+
Causes passive reabsorption of water in nephron rise in blood volume/pressure
o
Cortical sex hormones (androgens=male sex hormones)- effect is small due to testis
- Adrenal medulla
o
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline)- fight or flight
fight or flight(sympathetic N.S.)
glycogenglucose, constricts blood vessels, increased heartbeat
Pancreas- both exocrine and endocrine
- Glucagon (secreted by active)- glycogenglucose
- Insulin (secreted by bumming)- glucose glycogen
- somatostatin
Testis- testosterone- spermatogenesis, secondary sex characteristics
Ovaries- Estrogen- menstrual cycle, secondary sex characteristics
- Progesterone- menstrual cycle, pregnancy
Gastrointestinal hormones
- Gastrin- food in stomach, stimulates secretion of HCl
- Secretin- small intestine- when acidic food enters from stomach neutralize acidity of chime by
secretion of alkaline bicarbonate
- Cholecystokinin- small intestine- presence of fats causes contraction of gall-bladder and release
of bile(involved in digestion of fats)
Endocrine synthesize and secretes hormones into bloodstream
Exocrine secrete substances into ducts (ex. gall bladder)
Apocrine gland gland that responds to stress (ex. sweat glands)
Eccrine gland gland responsible for maintenance of body temperature (ex. sweat glands)
Peptide Hormones
- synthesized into the rough ER & modified in the Golgi; cannot cross mem
- surface receptors
- typically act via secondary messengers (ex: cyclic AMP)
Steroid Hormones
- synthesized from cholesterol in smooth ER; hydrophobic = freely diffuse
- intracellular receptors
- hormone/receptor binding to DNA promotes specific transcription
- Bind to cytosolic protein, the complex enters the nucleus and binds to receptors on chromatin
Hormonal Regulation in Plants

Auxins associated with growth patterns

1. Phototropism- tendency of plants to grow toward light
a. Auxin (indoleacetic acid) supply to side receiving light reduced slowed growth
2. Geotropism- tendency of plants to grow toward or away from gravity
a. Horizontally placed plant will grow up (uneven distribution of auxin) negative
b. Horizontal roots feel opposite effect and grow down(more auxin less growth in this
case) -positive
3. Inhibition of lateral buds
a. Auxins produced at terminal bud of growing tip move downward in shoot and inhibit
development of lateral buds. At the same time, initiate formation of later roots
Gibberellins stimulate rapid stem elongation, inhibit formation of new roots, terminate dormancy of
seeds and buds
Kinins promote cell division
Ethylene stimulates fruit ripening and senescence (aging)
Inhibitors block cell division and serve role in growth regulation maintenance of dormancy in lateral
buds and seeds during autumn and winter, degraded over time or by cold (ex: abscisic acid)
Anti-auxins regulate activity of auxins

Chapter 7 Neuroscience

Neuron consists of several dendrites, single axon and cell body

Dendrites receive information and transfer it TO CELL body
Axon transfers impulses AWAY from cell body
Glial Cells produce myelin
Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in CNS
Schwann produce myelin in PNS. Schwann cells act as insulators and are separated by
nodes of Ranvier. Instead of traveling continuously down axon, action potential jumps
from node to node (salutatory conduction), speeding up impulse
Three types of neurons:
1. Sensory (Afferent)- receive initial stimulus (Ex: neurons in retina of eye) ABRAIN
2. Motor (Efferent)- stimulate effectors, target cells that elicit some response (Ex: neurons may
stimulate the muscles, sweat glands, or cells in the stomach to secrete gastrin. BRAIN M
3. Association (Interneuron)- located in spinal cord & brain- receive impulses from sensory and
send impulses to motor neurons. They are integrators, as they evaluate impulses for
appropriate response

Transmission of a nerve impulse:

***The membrane of an unstimulated neuron is polarized, although a high concentration of Na+ is present
outside the cell and a high concentration of K+ is present inside the cell (the inside is actually negative due
to the negatively charged proteins and nucleic acids residing in the cell). Additionally, neuron membranes
are selectively permeable to K+ as opposed to Na+, which helps to maintain the polarization.***
1. Resting potential. Normal polarized state of neuron, -70 mV.
2. Action potential. Stimulus gated ion channels let Na+ into the cell, depolarizing it. If the
threshold level is reached (-50mV), it will cause an action potential that will result in opening of Na +
channels down the entire length of the neuron. All or nothing event!
3. Repolarization. In response to Na+ flow in, more gated ion channels let K+ out of the cell, restoring
polarization- but the Na+ are IN and the K+ are OUT
4. Hyperpolarization. By the time the channels close, too much K+ is released (-80 millivolts)
5. Refractory period. Neuron will NOT respond to new stimulus until Na+/K+ pumps return the ions
to their resting potential locations (outside/in, respectively)
Transmission across synapse- presynaptic cell postsynaptic cell
I. Electrical- action potential travels along membranes of gap junctions (less common)
II. Chemical- most typical in animal cells
1. Ca2+ gates open- depolarization allows Ca2+ to enter the cell
2. Synaptic vessels release neurotransmitter- influx causes release into cleft
3. Neurotransmitter binds with postsynaptic receptors. Diffusion and binding
4. Postsynaptic membrane is excited or inhibited. Two possible outcomes:
i. Na+ gates open, membrane is depolarizedexcitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP), if threshold potential is succeeded, action potential is generated
ii. K+ gates open, membrane becomes hyperpolarized inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP) it becomes more difficult to generate action potential
5. Neurotransmitter is degraded and recycled. Broken down by enzymes in cleft and
recycled
Some common neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine- secreted at neuromuscular junctions muscle contraction/relaxation
a. parasympathetic nervous system
2. Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin- secreted between neurons of CNS
a. sympathetic nervous system
3. Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)- inhibitory neurotransmitter among brain neurons
**Greater diameter & more heavily myelinated axons will propagate faster impulses
** Synaptic vesicles fuse w/ presynaptic membrane => neurotransmitter => postsynaptic
** Neurotransmitter may be taken back into nerve terminal, degraded by enzymes in synapse, or diffuse
out of the synapse
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord

Brain outer grey matter (cell bodies) and inner white matter (axons); forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
- Forebrain contains cerebral cortex (processes sensory input / important for memory and
creative thought), olfactory bulb (smell), thalamus (relay for spinal cord and cerebral cortex),
hypothalamus- visceral function (water balance, blood pressure, and temp regulation, hunger,
thirst, sex)
- Midbrain relay center for visual/ auditory impulses; motor control
- Hindbrain posterior part of brain; cerebellum (maintenance of balance, hand-eye coord, timing
of rapid movements), pons (relay center to allow communication b/w cortex and cerebellum),
medulla oblongata (breathing, heart rate, gastrointestinal activity) o These three together constitute the brain stem
Spinal cord- out white/inner gray(cell bodies). Sensory info enters through dorsal horn. All motor info
exits through the ventral horn.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Somatic responsible for VOLUNTARY movement of skeletal muscles
Autonomic involuntary movement; innervates cardiac and smooth muscle
o Sympathetic fight or flight (higher BP and HR)
o Parasympathetic rest and digest; non-emergency (lower HR, digestion, relaxation,
sexual arousal)
***A reflex arc is a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus involving two or three neurons, but brain
DOES NOT integrate the sensory and motor activities instead synapse in spinal cord***
Ex: Knee-jerk (patellar) reflex
Eye cornea (focuses light) => pupil (diameter controlled by iris {pigmented}) => lens (controlled by
cilliary muscles) => retina
- Cones: high-intensity illumination; sensitive to color
- Rods: low intensity; important in night vision
- Fovea: densely packed with cones; important for high acuity vision

Myopia nearsightedness
Hyperopia farsightedness
Astigmatism irregularly shaped cornea
Cataracts lens becomes opaquelight cannot enter
Glaucoma increase in pressure of eye due to blocking of outflow of aqueous humor
Ear outer, middle and inner ear; transduces sound energy into impulses
Outer ear auricle and auditory canal
Middle ear amplifies sound; tympanic membrane (eardrum) vibrates at same frequency as
incoming sound => ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)
Inner Ear vestibular apparatus (equilibrium) and cochlea (vibration of ossicles ecert
pressure on fluid stimulating hair cells in basilar membrane => action potential)

Chapter 8 Respiration
Glucose Catabolism oxidative breakdown of glucose; two stages are glycolysis and respiration
Glycolysis breakdown of 1 glucose => 2 pyruvate in CYTOplasm
Glucose+2ADP+2Pi+2NAD+ 2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H +2H20
Phosphofructokinase (step 3) rate determining step; ATP consumed
Step 4 where fructose splits into 2 PGAL molecules
Fermentation anaerobic conditions; NAD+ must be regenerated; produces only 2ATP per glucose
Cellular Respiration can yield 36-38 ATP; O2 is final acceptor // PDC, CAC, ETC
PDC mito MATRIX; CO2 is lost; NAD+ reduced to NADH
Citric Acid Cycle Krebs cycle
2Acetyl-CoA +6NAD++2FAD+2GDP+2Pi+ 4H2O 4CO2 + 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP + 4H
+2CoA

ETC also called OXIDATIVE phosphorylation INNER mito MEMbrane; electrons transferred
from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen; cytochromes are the carrier molecules with Fe in
functional unit (resemble hemoglobin)
Eukaryotic ATP production / glucose
*glycolysis (6 ATP)
2ATP invested
-2 ATP
4ATP generated
+4 ATP
2NADH X 2
+4 ATP
*PDC (pyruvate decarboxylation) (6 ATP)
2NADH X 3
+6 ATP
*CAC (24 ATP)
6NADH X 3
+18 ATP
2FADH2 X 2
+4 ATP
2GTP(ATP) X 1
+2 ATP
_________
TOTAL
+36 ATP

Mitochondrian:
1. Outer membrane: phospholipid bilayer

2. Intermembrane space: accumulation of H+ ions

3. Inner membrane: convolutions called cristae, where oxidative phosphorylation occurs
a. ATP synthase: phosphorylates ADP-ATP
4. Matrix: fluid filling area inside inner membrane. Krebs cycle & PYR Acetyl-CoA
**When glucose runs low, body utilizes the following in order: other carbs (glycogen in liver), fats (adipose
tissue in form of triglyceride) hydrolyzed by lipases into fatty acids and glycerol PGAL(glycolytic
intermediate), proteins (only when carbs and fats gone) each first converted to either glucose or glucose
intermediates, which are degraded in the glycolytic pathway and Citric Acid Cycle
** Fats are stored in adipose tissue as triglyceride / hydrolyzed by lipases to fatty acids / carried by blood
to tissues/ must be activated / GREATEST ATP yield, even though glycogen stored can meet short
term energy needs / synthesized in cytosol / B-oxidation in mitochondrial matrix.
Cori cycle converts lactic pyruvate glucose
Glyoxylate cycle occurs in plants & bacteria. Acetyl-CoA succinate carbohydrates
Invertebrate Respiration:
Cnidaria: Protozoa and Hydra
o Every cell in contact with water, and respiratory gases are exchanged btw cell and
environment by simple diffusion
Annelids:
o Mucus secreted by earthworm provides moist surface for gaseous exchange by diffusion
o Circulatory system bring O2 to cells and waste products (CO2) back to skin for excretion

Arthropods (80% of all living species insects, spiders, crustaceans (crabs), etc
o
Grasshopper
Series of respiratory tubules called trachae open to surface in openings called
spiracles no oxygen carrier is needed due to direct distribution and removal of
respiratory gaese between air and body cells by diffusion

Fish
o

Spider
Book lungs: stacks of flattened membranes enclosed in internal chamber
Water enters mouth, passes over gills, exits through operculum (gill cover).
Countercurrent exchange between opposing movements of water and underlying blood
maximizes diffusion of O2 into blood and CO2 into water

Plant Respiration
Photosynthesis only takes place during the day.
o Photosynthesis produces glucose and gives off oxygen
o While respiration requires oxygen to degrade glucose
Plants undergo aerobic respiration similar to animals
o Glucose 2ATP + 2 pyruvic acid

o
o

Gases diffuse into air space by entering and leaving through stomata of leaves or
lenticels in woody stems
Anaerobic respiration takes place in simple plants when molecular oxygen is lacking

Human Respiration
Alveoli where gas exchange between the circulatory system and the lungs occurs; surfactant
reduces the surface tension
1. Nose, pharynx (throat), larynx(voice box)
2. Trachea (epiglottis covers the trachea during swallowing)
3. Bronchi, Bronchioles: Two bronchi, which enter the lungs and branch into narrower
bronchioles
4. Alveoli: Each bronchiole branches ends in these small sacs, which are surrounded by
blood-carrying capillaries
5. Diffusion between alveolar chambers and blood: Gas exchange across moist, sac
membranes of alveoli. O2 diffuses through alveolar wall, through pulmonary capillary
wall, into blood, and into red blood cells. (CO2 is opposite)
6. Bulk flow of O2: O2 transported through body within hemoglobin containing red blood
cells (RBCs)
7. Diffusion between blood and cells: Oxygen diffuses out of RBCs, across blood capillary
walls, into interstitial fluids, and across cell membranes (CO 2 opposite)
8. Bulk flow of CO2: CO2 mainly transported as HCO3- ions in plasma, liquid portion of blood.
Produced by carbonic anhydrase in RBCs. CO2 can also directly mix with plasma (as CO2
gas), or bind hemoglobin inside RBCs
9. Bulk flow of air into and out of the lungs:
a. Inhalation diaphragm (under lungs) and intercostal muscles (btw ribs)
contract/ flattens; increase in volume / decrease in pressure in lungs bulk flow
of air into lungs.
b. Exhalation passive process; decrease in lung volume/ increase in air
pressureair rushes out; diaphragm relaxes and expands
Bohr
effect

hemoglobin O2 binding affinity decreases under conditions of low pH (high CO 2 &

[H+]) oxygen loads released by hemoglobin

Decrease in CO2 or increase in pH will result in hemoglobin binding more O 2

Result of: CO2 + H2O

H2CO3
H+ + HCO3

*Oxygen diffuses from alveolar air into blood, CO2 diffuses from blood into lungs
Human respiration controlled by medulla oblongata

When ppCO2 increases, medulla stimulates increase in rate of ventilation

Chapter 9 Autotrophic Nutrition

Stroma- fluid material that fills area inside inner membrane; Calvin cycle (dark reactions) occurs here
Chloroplast plastid containing chlorophyll pigment and thylakoid membranes; photosynthesis
Thylakoids the network of thylakoid membranes contains the protein complexes (including PSI and PSII)
high H+ w/i during chemiosmosis
Stack of thylakoids called granum
Lumen: H+ ions accumulate here during chemiosmosis (production of ATP during light reactions)

Photosystem light capturing unit of the thylakoid; center is single chlorophyll

Photosynthesis involves reduction of CO2 to carb and release of O2 from water; net reaction is reverse
of respiration
6CO2 + 6H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6O2

Noncyclic and Cyclic Photophosphorylation (light reactions) convert solar energy to ATP and
NADPH and occur in the grana
Noncyclic KEY pathway; high-energy electrons are transferred to electron acceptor NADP+;

net result is production of NADPH and ATP / photolysis of water:

H2O + ADP + Pi + NADP+ + light ATP + NADPH + O2 + H+
Photosystem II: Electrons trapped by P680 in PSII are energized by light.

Primary e- acceptor: Two energized e- are passed to primary electron acceptor

Electron transport chain: Involves the carriers ferrodoxin and cytochrome, which

contain iron. Analogous to oxidative phosphorylation.

Phosphorylation: 2 e- move down ETC and lose energy. Energy lost is used to

phosphorylate 1.5 ATP molecules

Photosystem I: ETC terminates with PS I (w/ P700). The e- pair again is energized by

sunlight and passed to a different primary electron acceptor

NADPH: The 2 e- pass through short ETC, and produce NADPH

Splitting of Water: The two e- that originated in PS II are incorporated into NADPH. These

e- lost are replaced by: H20 2H+ + O2 + 2e

The e- go to PSII, one H+ will be used to form NADPH, and the O2 contributes to
oxygen gas released
Cyclic
e
flow

series of redox reactions returns electrons to PSI (w/ P700) instead of

incorporating them into NADPH; ATP prod

1 ATP yielded

Chemiosmosis in thylakoid of chloroplasts:

1) H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ released into the lumen of thylakoid when H 2O is split, and
are carried from stroma into lumen by cytochrome btw PSII and PSI
2) pH and electrical gradient created across thylakoid membrane
a. H+ accumulate in lumen and pH decreases (pH=5), while pH increases in stroma (pH=8); this
creates a 1000 fold [H+] differential and a voltage gradient
3) ATP synthases generate ATP
a. H+ flow through ATP synthase out into stroma. 3H+ are required to generate 1ADP1ATP
4) Calvin cycle produces G3P using NADPH and CO2 and ATP
a. At end of ETC, after PSI, e- combine with NADP+ to form NADPH.
b. NADPH, ATP, and CO2 are then used to produce 2 G3P, and eventually glucose or other
carbohydrates

Dark Reactions Calvin Cycle (occurs in stroma)

Cannot occur in the absence of light, because it is dependent on ATP and NADPH from

photophosphorylation (light reactions)

use ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to carbs (CO2 fixed to RuBP )

product is three carbon PGAL; six turns of the cycle (6 CO2 and 6 RBP) = 12 PGAL; 12PGAL can be

converted to 1 glucose + 6RBP; G3P = prime end product (immediate food nutrient)
6CO2 + 18ATP + 12NADPH + H+ 18ADP + 18Pi + 12 NADP+ + C6H12O6

Key Steps of Dark Reaction (Calvin cycle): also known as C3 photosynthesis because PGA is 3
carbon
1. Carboxylation: 6CO2 + 6 RuBP 12 PGA (phosphoglycerate)

2. Reduction: 12ATP and 12 NADPH used to convert 12 PGA 12 G3P

G3P is energy rich, and ADP, Pi, and NADP+ sent back to light reactions
a.
3. Regeneration: 6ATP used to convert 10G3P to 6RuBP
Allows these regenerated 6 RuBP to combine with 6 new CO 2
a.
4. Carbohydrate synthesis:
2 remaining G3P used to build glucose (and eventually starch and/or cellulose if needed)
a.
*** Look in Cliffs for pathways***
Photorespiration: rubisco also fixes O2 in addition to CO2, a process called photorespiration;
peroxisomes in close proximity to chloroplasts are used to break down the products of O2 fixation
Leaf site of photosynthesis; several adaptations for efficiency
Waxy Cuticle reduce transpiration and conserve water
o Casparian strip waxy band in plants that aid in water control
Palisade: layer of elongated chloroplast-containing cells over large SA, under upper epid.
Spongy Layer moist surface necessary for diffusion of gases (also contain chloroplasts)
Guard Cells surround stomata and control its size; open during day because the cells
contain chloroplasts which produce glucose; high glucose content causes high turgor and
opening of stomata
Vascular bundles: bring water to leaf from roots (xylem) and carry manufactured food out of
leaf (phloem)
Nitrifying Bacteria oxidize ammonia and nitrites to nitrates and use the energy to make glucose; plants
use the nitrates to make proteins. Bacteria use the energy from the oxidation to make glucose
Chapter 10 Muscles and Locomotion
Unicellular locomotion Protozoans & primitive algae cilia or flagella by means of power stroke and recovery stroke
Amoeba extend pseudopodia; advancing cell membrane extends forward
Invertebrate locomotion
Hydrostatic skeletons
- Flatworms bi-layered muscles, longitudinal and circular, contract against hydrostatic
skeleton
o Contraction causes hydrostatic skeleton to flow longitudinally, lengthening animal
- Segmented worms (Annelids) advance by action of muscles on hydrostatic skeleton
o Bristles in lower part of each segment, setae, anchor worm in earth while muscles push
ahead
Exoskeleton
- Arthropods insect exoskeletons composed of hard chitin, necessitates molting for growth
Vertebrate Skeleton- comprised of an endoskeleton. Two major components are cartilage and bone
1. Cartilage connective tissue; softer and more flexible; (ex: ear, nose, larynx, trachea, joints)
o from mesenchyme tissue chondrocytes produce collagen (present in tissue as
triple helix with hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, ground substance, & elastin fibers
2. Bone connective tissue; hard and strong, while elastic and lightweight
o Compact bone- dense bone that does not appear to have cavities; bone matrix is
deposited in osteons (Haversian systems) with a central microscopic channel called a
Haversian canal surrounded by concentric circles of bony matrix called lamellae
o Spongy (Cancellous) bone- less dense and consists of an interconnecting lattice of
bony spicules (trabeculae); filled with red / yellow bone marrow; (yellow = adipose
inactive)
o ***Bone growth occurs at cartilaginous epiphyseal plates

3. Osteocytes
o OsteoBLASTS- build bone; do NOT carry out mitosis
o OsteoCLASTS- destroy bone bone resorption
4. Bone Formation during FETAL stage of development
o Endochondral ossification- cartilagebone (EX: long bones; limbs, fingers, toes)
o Intramembranous ossification- undifferentiated connective tissue replaced by bone
(EX: flat bones; skull, sternum, mandible, clavicles)
Growth occurs at epiphyseal plates
Organization of Vertebrate Skeleton
- Axial skeleton basic framework (skull, vertebral column, rib cage)
- Appendicular skeleton bones of appendages, pectoral and pelvic girdles
- Bone organization
o Sutures immovable joints (ex: bones of skull)
o Moveable joints bones that move relative to each other
Ligaments bone-to-bone connectors; strengthen joints
Tendons- muscle-to-bone; bend skeleton at moveable joints
o Origin point of attachment of muscle to stationary bone
o Insertion point of attachment of muscle to bone that moves
o Extension = straightening of joint
o Flexion = bending of joint

Muscular system- consists of contractile fibers held together by connective tissue

1. Skeletal muscle (striated muscle) voluntary movement, fibers are multinucleated cells
a. Myofibrils filaments divided into sarcomeres
b. Sarcomeres individual contractile units
c. Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores Ca2+; surrounds myofibrils
d. Sarcoplasm cytoplasm

e. Sarcolemma cell membrane; can propagate action potential

i. Connected to T-tubules- channels for ion flow
f. Mitochondria present in large amounts in myofibrils
Joint types
1. Fibrous connect bones without allowing any movement (Ex: skull, pelvis, spinous process and
vertebrae)
2. Cartilaginous bones attached by cartilage, allow little movement (Ex: spine and ribs)
3. Synovial allow for much more movement; most common; filled with synovial fluid (Ex: carpals,
wrist, elbow, humerus & ulna, shoulder and hip joints, knee joint)

Sarcomere is composed of thin filaments (actin) and thick filaments (myosin)

- Z line boundary of a single sarcomere; anchor thin filaments
- M line center of sarcomere
- I band region containing thin filaments (actin) only (on ends, only purple above)
- H zone region containing thick filaments (myosin) only (in middle, only green above)
- A band actin and myosin overlapping
o H and I reduce during contraction, while A does NOT
Contraction
Stimulation Process of Sliding Filament Model all-or-nothing response
1.
Action potential of neuron releases acetylcholine when meets neuromuscular jxn
2.
Action potential then generated on sarcolemma and throughout T-tubules

3.
4.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+

Myosin cross bridges form result of Ca2+ binding to troponin on actin helix

Sliding Filament Model

1. ATP binds to myosin head converted to ADP + Pi, which remain attached to head
2. Ca2+ exposes binding sites on actin binds troponintropomyosin exposes attachment sites
3. Cross bridges between myosin heads and actin filaments form
4. ADP + Pi are released sliding motion of actin bring Z lines together (contraction)
5. ATP causes cross bridges to unbind new phosphorylation breaks cross bridge
*Without new ATP, the cross bridges remain attached to myosin head this is why corpses are stiff*
**Strength of contraction of single muscle fiber cannot be increase, but strength of overall contraction can
be increased by recruiting more muscle fibers**
Types of Muscle Response
A) Simple Twitch response of a single muscle fiber to brief stimulus; latent, contraction, relax
1. Latent period time btw stimulation and onset of contraction; lag
o Action potential spreads on sarcolemma and Ca2+ ions released
2. Contraction
3. Relaxation (absolute refractory period) unresponsive to stimulus
B) Summation and Tetanus
a. Summation contractions combine and become stronger and more prolonged
b. Tetanus continuous contractions; muscle cannot relax; will release if maintained
C) Tonus state of partial contraction; muscle never completely relaxed
Smooth Muscle involuntary movement, ONE central nucleus; LACK striation; stimulated by autonomic
nervous system (EX: lining of bladder, uterus, digestive tract, blood vessel walls, etc)
Cardiac Muscle striated appearance (sarcomeres); myogenic (contraction independent of nerve cells);
one or TWO central nuclei
Chapter 11 Digestion
Digestion in Unicellular Organisms
Amoeba
o Food capture: phagocytosisfood vacuoles
o Food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes
Paramecium
o Cilia sweep food into cytopharynx
o Food vacuole forms and moves toward anterior end of cell


Digestion in Invertebrates
Physical breakdown cutting and grinding in mouth; churning in digestive tract
Chemical breakdown enzymatic hydrolysis smaller nutrients pass through semi-permeable
membrane of gut cells to be further metabolized
Cnidarians
o Hydra- intracellular and extracellular digestion

Annelids
o Earthworms one-way digestive tract
Crop food storage
Gizzard grind food
Intestine contains typholosole to increase surface area for absorption

Arthropods
o Also have jaws for chewing and salivary glands

o
Digestion in Humans
Four groups of molecules encountered
1. Starches glucose
2. Proteins amino acids
3. Fats fatty acids

4. Nucleic acids nucleotides

Digestion follows a specific series of events
***Note All digestive enzymes cleave SPECIFIC bonds
1. Mouth - salivary amylase breaks down (starchmaltose), bolus is swallowed
2. Pharynx (throat) epiglottis, flap of tissue, blocks trachea so only solid and liquid enter
3. Esophagus tube leading to stomach, food travels by contractions (peristalsis)
4. Stomach secretes gastric juice (digestive enzymes and HCl)
a. Storage accordion-like folds allow 2-4 liters of storage
b. Mixing mixes food w/ H2O and gastric juice chyme (creamy medium)
c. Physical breakdown muscles break food; HCl denatures proteins & kills bacteria
d. Chemical breakdown pepsin (secreted by Chief cells) digests proteins; (pepsinogen
activated by HCl, which is secreted by parietal cells)
i. Peptic ulcers caused by failure of mucosal lining to protect stomach
e. Controlled release chyme small intestine; controlled by pyloric sphincter
5. Small intestine first 25cm (duodenum), continues breakdown of starches and proteins as well
as remaining food types (fats and nucleotides); ileocecal valve between it and large intestine
a. Enzyme origin
i. Small intestine proteases, maltase and lactase, phosphatases (nucleotides)
ii. Pancreas trypsin & chymotrypsin (proteases), lipase, pancreatic amylase
These enzymes in alkaline solution (pancreatic duct duodenum)
iii. Liver bile (emulsifies fats) stored in gall bladder, flows through bile duct
b. Remainder of small intestine (6m) absorbs breakdown products (villi and microvilli)
i. Amino acids and sugarscapillaries ; fatty acids and glycerol lymph. system
6. Large intestine (colon) reabsorption of water and salts to form feces; 1.5m long
a. Feces stored at end of L.I. in the rectum excreted through anus
b. At beginning is appendix, which in herbivores is large cecum (cellulose digestion) with the
help of bacteria
c. Bacteria in large intestine = main source of vitamin K
Hormones involved in the digestive process
1. Gastrin produced by stomach lining when food reaches or upon sensing of food; enters blood
stream and stimulates other stomach cells to produce gastric juices secreted by G-cells
2. Secretin produced by cells lining duodenum when food enters; stimulates pancreas to produce
bicarbonate, which neutralizes the chyme
3. Cholecystokinin produced by S.I. in response to fats; stimulates gallbladder to release bile and
pancreas to release its enzymes
Digestion in plants and fungi
***Plants have no digestive system, but intracellular processes similar to animals do occur***
Intracellular digestion store primarily starch in seeds, stems, and roots; when nutrients are required,
polymers are broken down (into glucose, fatty acid, glycerol, and amino acids) by enzymatic hydrolysis
Extracellular digestion several plants must obtain nutrient from environment
Fungi rhizoids of bread mold, secrete enzymes into bread, producing simple digestive products
which are then absorbed by diffusion into rhizoid
Venus flytrap enzymes digest trapped fly (serves as nitrate source); ***still autotrophic**
START - ALANS NOTES ON DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
pharynx where food and air passages cross
Goblet Cells specialized epithelial cells that secrete mucous
Stomach churning produces acidic semi-fluid mixture called chyme; secretes pepsin and HCl (activates
certain proteins and kills bacteria)
Pepsin (pepsinogen) protein hydrolyzing enzyme; secreted by chief cells
parietal cells secrete HCL, intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)
mucous cells secrete protective mucous
G-cells secrete the hormone gastrin which stimulate the HCL production of parietal cells;
innervated by vagus nerve, found w/i gastric glands of stomach

Cholecytoskinin (CCK) = hormone made by cells of duodenum, stimulates bile release

Enterogastrone produced in the duodenum; inhibits stomach gland secretion and slows stomachs
muscular movement when fatty food is in the intestine (more time for digestion)
Small Intestine chemical digestion completed here; duodenum, jejunum, ileum; villi are used for
absorption (contain capillaries and lacteals) / active absorption (glucose, AA) and passive
Most digestion done in duodenum secretes secretin which causes pancreas to secrete
buffer (HCO3- )0 secretions of intestinal glands, pancreas, liver and gall bladder mix
Intestinal mucosa secretes lipases (fat digestion), aminopeptidases (polypeptide
digestion), and disacchiridases (breakdown of maltose, lactose, sucrose)
Portal vein directs glucose and other monosaccharides to the liver from the intestinal
tract
Liver albumin synthesis, bile production, destruction of worn-out old red blood cells, converts
nitrogenous waste into urea, glycogen storage
Bile emulsifies fat; contains no enzymes; exposes greater surface area of fat to lipases
Pancreas produces amylase (carb digestion), trypsin (protein digestion), and lipase (fat digestion);
secretes BICARBONATE juice that neutralizes chime; acts as a endocrine and exocrine gland
Endocrine pancreas glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin (suppresses the release of
gastrointestinal hormones such as gastrin, secretin and cholecystokinin decrease the rate
of gastric emptying along w/ reducing blood flow w/in intestines.
Chapter 12 Excretion
Protozoans and Cnidarians all cells in contact with external, aqueous environment
- Water soluble wastes (ammonia, CO2) exit by simple diffusion
- Paramecium possesses contractile vacuole for XS H2O excretion by active transport
Annelids CO2 excretion directly through moist skin
- Nephridia in each body segment excrete water, salts, and urea

Platyhelminthes flame cells (protonephridia)

- Body fluids filtered across flame cells, whose cilia move fluids through tube system

Arthropods CO2 released from tissues tracheae (which are continue with ext. air thru spiracles)
- Nitrogenous wastes uric acid crystals (H2O conservation)
o Accumulate in Malphigian tubules, then are transported to intestine for excretion

o
Excretion in Humans lungs, liver, skin, and kidney
- Lungs CO2 and H2O(g) diffuse from blood and are continually exhaled
- Liver processes nitrogenous wastes, blood pigment wastes, other chemicals, UREA prod.
- Skin sweat glands in skin excrete water and dissolved salts/regulate body temp.
- Kidney Three regions: 1) outer cortex, 2) inner medulla, and 3) renal pelvis

1 million nephrons each

Nephrons composed of renal corpuscle and renal tubule; reabsorbs nutrients, salts, and water

Renal corpuscle glomerulus (sieve) surrounded by Bowmans capsule; afferent

arteriole=into glomerulus; efferent arteriole=out of glomerulus
Renal tubule
o Proximal convoluted tubule active reabsorption of glucose, ions, amino acids
begins
o Loop of Henle (majority of nephron)
DESCENDING only permeable to water
ASCENDING makes renal medulla saltyactively pumps out Na+,K+,Cl This process allows reabsorption of 99% of filtrate conc. urine
o Distal convoluted tubule more reabsorption of glucose, ions, water, etc.
o Collecting duct collects remaining waste products and unneeded water
Returns to medulla (salty part), where antidiuretic hormones (ADH /
vasopressin) can make MORE water leave from urine by increasing
permeability of collecting duct urine even more concentrated

Urine Formation filtration, secretion, and reabsorption

Filtration fluid that goes through glomerulus (afferent arteriole => glomerulus =>
efferent) to the rest of the nephron is called filtrate; particles that are too large to filter
through (blood and albumin) remain in circulatory system; passive process; driven by
hydrostatic pressure of blood
Secretion substances such as acids, bases, and ions (K+) are secreted by both passive /
active transport; secreted from peritubular capillaries
Reabsorption glucose, salts, AA, and water are reabsorbed from filtrate & return to blood;
takes place namely in PROXIMAL convoluted tubule (active)
Concentration when dehydrated volume of fluid in bloodstream is low so you need to
make small amounts of concentrated urine => ADH prevents water loss by making distal
tubule permeable to water /// when Blood Pressure is low => aldosterone increases
reabsorption of Na+ by distal nephron which increases water retention (serum [Na+]
increases BP)
** Selective permeability of the tubules establishes an osmolarity gradient in the surrounding interstitial
fluid
*** Urine is hypertonic to the blood and contains a high urea and solute concentration.
Osmolarity Gradient created by exiting / entering of solutes; increases from cortex to medulla
Counter Current Multiplier - descending loop permeable to water & ascending is permeable to salts /
ions; this makes the medulla very salty and facilitates water reabsorption
Excretion in Plants excess CO2, waste O2, and H2O (g), leave by diffusion through stomata and lenticels
- This process is called transpiration
Chapter 12.5 Integumentary System
Functions of the Integumentary system
- Guard the bodys physical and biochemical integrity
- Maintain body temp
- Sensory information
The three layers of skin

1. Epidermis superficial; epithelial tissue

a. Stratum corneum 25-30 dead layers; filled w/ keratin and surrounded by lipids
i. Lamellar granulues make it water repellent
b. Stratum lucidum only in palms and soles of feet, and finger tips; 3-5 layers, clear/dead
c. Stratum granulosum3-5 layer of dying cells; lamellar bodies release hydrophobic lipids
d. Stratum spinosum strength and flexibility; 8-10 layers held together by (desmosomeskeratin involving adhesion proteins)
e. Stratum basale (germinativum) stem cells dividing; attached by basement membrane

f.
2. Dermis primarily connective tissue; collagen and elastic fibers; contains hair follicles, glands,
nerves, and blood vessels
a. Papillary region top 20%
b. Reticular region dense connective tissue, collagen and elastic fibers; packed with oil
glands, sweat gland ducts, fat, and hair follicles; provides strength, and elasticity (stretch
marks are dermal tears)
3. Hypodermis (subcutaneous) not part of skin; areolar and adipose tissue; fat storage; pressure
sensing nerve endings; passage for blood vessels
Glands of the Skin
1. Sebaceous (oil) glands connected to hair follicles; absent in palms and soles
2. Sudiferous (sweat) glands
a. Eccrine (most of the body)- regulate temperature through perspiration; eliminate urea
b. Apocrine armpits, pubic region, and nipples; secretions are more viscous
3. Creuminous (wax) glands found in ear canal; barrier to entrance
4. Mammary (milk) glands
Chapter 13 Animal Behavior
Kinds of Animal Behavior
1. Simple and Complex Reflexes
a. Simple- automatic response to stimulus controlled @ spinal cord (lower animals)
b. Complex- automatic response to significant stimulus (controlled @ brains stem or even
cerebrum)
i. Ex: Startle response- controlled by the reticular activating system
2. Instinct- behavior that is innate, or inherited
a. Ex: In mammals, care for offspring by female parents
3. Fixed action patterns (FAP)- innate behaviors following a regular, unvarying pattern. Initiated
by a specific stimulus (releaser), and completed even if original intent of behavior cannot be
fulfilled
a. Ex: Goose methodically rolling egg back to nest even if it slips away or is removed
b. Ex: Male stickleback fish defending territory against any object with red underside
c. Ex: Swimming actions of fish/flying actions of locusts

4. Imprinting- innate program for acquiring specific behavior only if appropriate stimulus is
experienced during critical period. Once acquired, trait is irreversible
a. Ex: Gay goslings accepting any moving object as mother during first day of life
5. Associative learning- occurs when an animal recognizes (learns) that events are connected. A
form called classical conditioning occurs when animal performs behavior in response to
substitute stimulus rather than normal
i. Ex: Dogs salivate when presented with food. PAVLOV bell ringing prior to food, could
stimulate salivation with bell alone
b. Trial-and-error learning (OPERANT CONDITIONING)- another form of associative
learning that occurs when animal connects its own behavior with environmental response,
reward. If response is desirable (positive reinforcement), animal will repeat behavior. If
undesirable (painful), animal avoids behavior)
i. Learned behavior can be reversed in behavior no longer elicits the response
(extinction)
c. Spatial learning- Another form of associative learning. Animal associates attributes of
landmark with reward of identifying and returning to that location
i. Ex: Wasps able to associate pinecones with location of nest (lost upon removal)
6. Habituation- repeated stimulation results in decreased responsiveness
a. Sea anemones disregarding repeated feeding stimulation with a stick
7. Observational learning- animal copies behavior of another without having experienced any
feedback themselves
a. Ex: All monkeys followed lead by washing off potato in water
8. Insight- When animal exposed to new situation, performs a behavior that generates (+) outcome
a. Chimpanzee stacks boxes to reach bananas previously out of reach
Animal Movement
1. Kinesis- Undirected change in speed of animals movement in response to stimulus. Slow down in
favorable environment and speed up in unfavorable
a. Ex: animals scurrying when rock is lifted up
2. Taxis- Directed movement in response to stimulus. Either toward or away from stimulus.
Movement toward light is called phototaxis
a. Ex: moths moving toward light, sharks moving toward food odors
3. Migration- Long-distance, seasonal movement of animals. Usually in response to availability of
food/degradation of environmental conditions
a. Ex: migration by whales, birds, elk, insects, and bats to warmer climates.
Communication in animals
1. Chemical- chemicals used for communication are pheromones. Chemicals that trigger changes
are called releaser pheromones; those that cause physiological changes are called primer
pheromones
a. Ex: Doe in heat releaser pheromones
b. Ex: Queen bees and aunts secrete primer pheromones to prevent development of
reproductive capability
2. Visual- during displays of aggression (agonistic behavior) or during courtship
a. Ex: aggression- wolves baring teeth/ submission- laying on back
b. Ex: Male sage grouse assemble into leks to perform courtship dance
3. Auditory
a. Ex: whale sound, elephant inphrasound, frog calls, and songs of male birds
4. Tactile
a. Common in social bonding, infant care, grooming, and mating
Foraging behaviors
1. Herds, flocks, and schools
a. Provide benefit of concealment, vigilance, and defense
2. Packs
a. Allow members to corner and attack large prey

3. Search images
a. Help animals find favored or plentiful food
i. Ex: Black and white search image = police car for humans
Social Behavior
1. Agonistic behavior - (aggression and submission)- Ex: dog wagging tail
a. Originates from competition from food, mates, or territory
b. Agnostic behavior is ritualized, so injuries and time spent in contests are minimized
2. Dominance hierarchies indicate power and status relationship in a group
a. Pecking order- linear order of status used to describe dominance hierarchy in chickens
3. Territoriality- active possession and defense of territory- ensures adequate food/place to mate
4. Altruistic behavior- seemingly unselfish behavior- when an animal risks its safety in order to help
another individual rear its young
a. Actually increases inclusive fitness (fitness of individual plus relatives)
b. Kin selection- natural selection that increases inclusive fitness
c. Ex: haplodiploid reproductive system of bees- males are haploid and females and queen are
diploid. Inclusive fitness of female workers is greater if she promotes production of sisters

Chapter 14 Ecology
Environment
- Abiotic nonliving (temp, climate, light and water availability, topology)
o Sunlight
Photic zone in water = light penetrates; all aquatic photosynthesis
Aphotic zone only animal and other heterotrophs
o Oxygen air is ~ 80% nitrogen, 20% oxygen
- Biotic all living things that directly or indirectly influence the life of the organism
Levels of
1.
2.
3.

Biological Organization (from specific to general)

Organism individual unit of biological system
Population group of organisms of same species (able to reproduce) in a given location
Community populations of diff. plants and animals species (Ex: lawn, pond, forest, sea)
a. Biotic community only includes the populations
4. Ecosystem includes community and the abiotic environment (Ex: lawn, pond, forest, sea)
5. Biosphere all portions of planet that support life (Ex: atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere)

Interactions within the Ecosystem

- Niche defines the functional role of an organism in its ecosystem; what it eats, where and how it
obtains food, what climatic factors are optimal, nature of its predators, etc... every species is unique
o ***No two species can every occupy the same niche***
- Habitat physical place where organism lives
Nutritional Interactions within the Ecosystem
- Autotrophs manufacture their own food; photosynthetic plants and chemosynthetic bacteria
- Heterotrophs depend on autotrophs or other heterotrophs to obtain food and energy
- Herbivores (w/symbiotic bacteria), carnivores, and omnivores
Interspecific Interactions
1. Symbiosis intimate, often permanent association b/w two organisms; may or may not be
beneficial; some may be obligatory (one or both organisms cannot survive w/o the other)
a. Commensalism one benefits, the other is unaffected
Remora and shark remora gets food shark discards
Barnacle and Whale barnacle gets wider feeding opportunities
b. Mutualism both organisms benefit
Tick bird and Rhinoceros bird gets food (ticks) and rhino loses ticks
Lichen (fungus + algae) algae produces food for itself and fungus; fungus
provided CO2 and nitrogenous wastes
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria and Legumes legumes provides nutrients for bacteria and
bacteria fixes nitrogen

Protozoa and Termites protozoa digests cellulose for termites, termites protect
and provide food
Intestinal Bacteria and Humans bacteria utilized food and provide vitamin K
c. Parasitism benefits at the expense of the host; bacteria and fungi; live with minimum
expenditure of energy
Virus and Host cell all viruses are parasites
Disease Bacteria and Animals diphtheria is parasitic upon man; anthrax on sheep;
tuberculosis on cow or man
Disease Fungi and Animals ringworm is parasitic on man
Worms and Animals tapeworm and man (less dangerous = more survival)
Saprophytism protists and fungi that decompose dead organic externally
2. Predation carnivores and herbivores; evolve toward balance in which predator is regulatory infl.
3. Saprophytism decompose dead organic matter externally and absorb nutrients (Ex: mold, slime
molds, mushrooms, and bacteria of decay)
4. Scavengers consume dead animals (Ex: vulture, hyena, bacteria of decay)
*Intraspecific interactions between members of the same species are influenced by disruptive
(competition) and cohesive (reproduction and protection from predators and weather) forces*
Interactions between organisms and their Environment
1. Osmoregulation
a. Freshwater fish live in hypoosmotic environment which causes excess intake of water;
thus the fish seldom drink and excrete dilute urine
b. Saltwater fish live in hyperosmotic environment; constantly drinking and excreting salt
across their gills
c. Arthropods secrete solid uric acid crystals to conserve water
d. Plants possess waxy cuticles on leaf surface and stomata and have stomata on the lower
leaf surfaces only; leaves shed in winter; desert plants have extensive root systems, fleshy
stems, spiny leaves, extra thick cuticles, and few stomata
2. Thermoregulation
a. Cold-blooded (poikilothermic) vast majority of plants and animals; body temp. is close
to that of surroundings, so metabolism is radically affected by environmental temp.
b. Warm-blooded (homeothermic) make use of heat produced by respiration; physical
adaptations like fat, hair, and feathers retard heat loss (Ex: mammals and birds)
Energy flow within the Ecosystem
1. Food Chain
a. Producers autotrophic green plants; always initial step in food chain
b. Primary Consumers animals which consume green plants; herbivores
c. Secondary Consumers consume primary consumers; carnivores
d. Tertiary Consumers animals that feed on the secondary consumers
e. Decomposers saprophytic organisms and organisms of decay
2. Food Web the greater number of pathways in a community food web, the more stable the
community is***
3. Food Pyramids Second Law of Thermodynamics states that every energy transfer involves a loss
of energy
a. Pyramids of energy producer organism at base of pyramid contains greatest amount of
energy; smallest amount of available energy at the top of the pyramid
b. Pyramid of mass each level can support a successively smaller biomass
i. Ex: 300lb foliage 125 lb insects 50lb hens 25 lb of hawks
c. Pyramid of numbers consumers higher in food chain are usually larger and heavier;
lower organisms have greater total mass, so there must be more of them
Nitrogen Cycle decay, nitrifying, denitrifying, nitrogen-fixing (lighting and nitrogen-fixing bacteria)
- 4 Types of Bacteria involved in Nitrogen Cycle:
1. Decay nitrogen in the form of NH3 is released from dead tissues
2. Nitrifying convert NH3 NO2 (nitrite) NO3- (nitrate)
3. Denitrifying convert NH3 => N2 back to nitrogen-fixing
4. Nitrogen-fixing N2 NO3- by bacteria on the roots of legumes
Carbon Cycle

1. Gaseous CO2 glucose (by plants through photosynthesis)

2. Glucose CO2 (by animals that eat plants and use as fuel)
3. CO2 released to air and other organic carbon locked within organism until death; upon death,
decay process by bacteria returns CO2 to air

Climax Community stable, living (biotic) part of ecosystem; populations & ecosystem exist in balance
- Depends on all abiotic factors: rainfall, soil conditions, temp, shade, etc.
- Persists until major climatic or geological change affects populations
Ecological Succession orderly process by which one biotic community replaces another until a climax
community is established
- A community stage is identified by a dominant species; Ex: grass in grassland community
- Ecological succession in a Pond
1. Pond: Plants such as algae, pondweed. Animals such as protozoa, insects, fish
2. Shallow water-pond fills in: Reeds, cattails, water lilies
3. Moist land: grass, herbs, shrubs, willow trees. Frogs, snakes
4. Woodland: climax tree perhaps pine or oak
World Biomes
Terrestrial Biomes
1. Desert minimal concentrated rain, growing season = days after rain, small plants and animals
2. Grassland low rainfall, no shelter for herbivores, animals have long legs/hooved
3. Tropical Rain Forest high temps, torrential rains; vegetation does not shed leaves; epiphytes
(plants growing on other plants) and saprophytes (decomposers)
4. Temperate Deciduous Forest cold winters, warm summers, moderate rainfall; trees shed
leaves
5. Temperate Coniferous Forest cold, dry (fir, pine, spruce); needles for H2O conservation
6. Taiga less rainfall, long winters inhabited by spruce; floors contain moss, lichen
7. Tundra treeless, frozen; short summer, very short growing season when round becomes wet and
marshy. Lichens, moss, polar bears, oxen
8. Polar frozen, no vegetation, terrestrial animals
Aquatic Biomes
1. Marine contain relatively constant amount of nutrient materials and dissolved salts

2.
3. Freshwater hypotonic to organisms; affected by variations in climate and weather (temp. varies)

rain shadows represent a reduction in rainfall on the leeward side of a high mountain

Chapter 15 Classification Kings Play Chess On Finely Ground Sand

FIVE KINGDOMS: (1)Monera (2)Protista (3) Fungi (4) Plantae (5) Animalia
Kingdom Monera (bacteria) prokaryotes that reproduce Asexually; lack nucleus; circular DNA
(transcription and translation occur in same place at same time); cell wall made of peptidoglycan which
contains D-alanine (animal AA have L-configuration**) ; Gram-positive have thick peptidoglycan; Gramnegative have thin peptidoglycan but have additional outer layer; three mechanisms for acquiring new
genetic material : Transduction (fragments of bacterial chromosome accidentally packaged into lysogenic
phage). Transformation, Conjugation (once cell copies DNA => transferred through bridge/ F+ is male)
A. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) *NOT same algae from protista)*; cell wall, have
photosynthetic pigments; NO flagella, NO true nucleus, NO true mito, NO true chloroplasts
B. Other Bacteria single double-stranded loop of DNA (no nucleus); can be round (cocci),
rods (bacilli), or spiral (spirilla), almost all have cell walls
C. Archaea
Kingdom Protista unicellular eukaryotes; membrane bound nucleus and organelles
A. Protozoa (little animals) heterotrophic, rhizopods (amoebas) move w/ pseudopods;
cilliophors move w/ cilia; ex: Paramecium
B. Algae photosynthetic; ex: phytoplankton and euglena (move w/ flagellum)
C. Slime molds often placed in Fungi, but more directly related to protists
Kingdom Fungi eukaryotes; multicellular; heterotrophs (differentiates them from plants); may be
saprophytic or parasitic; Ex: yeast, lichen, mushrooms; reproduce sexually (haploid adults) or asexually
(spore formation, budding, fragmentation)
hyphae branching filament of fungi, most are divided by septa (perforated w/ holes large
enough for organelles), collectively known as mycelium
Classes: zygomycetes (ex. bread mold), basidiomycetes (ex. mushrooms), ascomycetes
(ex. sac fungi)
Kingdom Plantae multicellular; non-motile, photosynthetic autotrophs; differentiation of tissues
(photosynthetic, supportive, vascular, absorptive (rhizoids=complex roots); alternation of generations
(reproduction)
1. Division Bryophyta simple plants; must live in moist places; gametophyte is dominant;
sporophyte develops into archegonium; NO xylem (so lack support)

i.
ii.

Mosses primitive; gametophyte and sporophyte grow together

Liverworts leaf-like plant; consists of lower part (rhizoids), middle part (food
storage), upper part (photosynthetic)
2. Division Tracheophyta (vascular plants) radial symmetry; grow to great heights; sporophyte
dominant; contain xylem and phloem; anchored by roots instead of rhizoids; sporophyte dominant

i.

Psilophytes (fern-like) most primitive; rhizoids instead of roots, one vascular

bundle
ii.
Lycophyta (club mosses) roots, non-woody
iii.
Sphenophytes ( horsetail) roots, hollow-jointed stems
iv.
Pterophyta (ferns) evolved from psilopsids, many vascular bundles; sperm are
flagellated; grow from rhizome; sporangium is under leaves
3. Division Coniferophyta gymnosperms (naked-seeded plants); megaspores (large female cones)
and microspores (small male cones); specialized cambium tissue allows for secondary growth;
gymnospoerms can grow in diameter as well as length; sporophyte is dominant

a. Cycads, pines, spruce, firs (most are evergreens / non-deciduous)

4. Division Anthophyta angiosperms; covered seeds; most abundant of all plants; flowers as their
principle reproductive structure.
a. Male: Anther of male stamen produces microspores
b. Female: Ovary of female pistil produces megaspores; stigma receives pollen

a. Monocotyledons (leaves w/ parallel veins)

i.
Scattered vascular bundles
ii.
Seeds with single cotyledons (seed leaves)
iii.
Most non-woody lack cambium
iv.
Flower parts in multiples of 3
v.
Ex: grasses (wheat, corn, rye, rice), sugar cane, pineapple, irises, bananas, orchids,
palms (woody monocots)
b. Dicotyledons (net veined leaves)
i.
Vascular bundles about rind within central cylinder
ii.
Two seed leaves
iii.
Can be woody
iv.
Flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5
v.
Ex: maple, apple, potatoes, carrots, goldenrods, buttercups
Kingdom Animalia multicellular, motile, heterotrophic organisms w/ differentiated tissues; most have
bilateral symmetry; all employ some form of locomotion
1. Porifera (sponges) two layers of cells; have pores; sessile (fixed)
2. Cnidarians (jellyfish, coral, hydra) digestive sac sealed at one end; net nerves; two layers of cells
(ectoderm/ endoderm); RADIALLY symmetrical
a. cnidoblasts specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of coloenterates;
interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging cells (nematocysts)
3. Platyhelminthes (flat worms) bilateral symmetry; 3 layers of cells (solid mesoderm); NO
circulatory system; nervous system consists of eyes, anterior brain ganglion & longitudinal nerve
cords
4. Nematoda (round worms) long digestive tubes & anus; solid mesoderm; NO circulartory system;
nerve cords and nerve ring
5. Annelida (earthworms) possess coelom (true body cavity in mesoderm); well defined systems
including nervous, circulatory, and excretory
6. Mollusca (clams and octopi) softbodied & possess mantles which secrete calcareous (calcium
carbonate); breathe by gills; chambered hearts; blood sinuses; nerve chords
a. Class Gastropoda largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs & snails; characterized by single
shell
b. Class Cephalopoda octopus and squid
7. Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crustaceans) jointed appendages, chitinous exoskeleton, and open
circulatory systems (sinuses)
a. Insects three pairs of legs, spiracles, tracheal tubes for breathing
b. Arachnids four pair of legs and book lungs
c. Crustaceans segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills
8. Echinoderms (starfish and sea urchin) RADIALLY symmetrical; regeneration; evolutionary
evidence suggesting a link b/w echinoderms and chordates
9. Chordates (most simple: lancelets most complex: vertebrates) notochord present at some
stage in development
a. Invertebrates

i.

Lancelets and tunicates (like amphioxus below); retains notochord, but no

backbone

ii.
b. Vertebrates
i.
Fish possess 2 chambered heart; gills; external fertilization
a) Jawless sucking mouth; retain notochord; primitive (Agnatha)
a. Ex: lamprey and hagfish
b) Cartilaginous jaws and teeth; reduced notochord; Ex: shark
(chondrichthys)
c) Bony most prevalent; lack notochord; ex trout (Osteichthys)
ii.
Amphibia Larval stage (tadpole) has gills, tail, and no legs; Adult has lungs; 3
chambered heart; external fertilization; eggs are laid in water w/ jelly-like secretion
iii.
Reptiles lungs; internal fertilization; leathery eggs; cold blooded; 3 chambered
heart
iv.
Birds warm blooded; 4 chambered heart
a) long Loop of Henle = concentrated urine = uric crystals
v.
Mammals warm blooded; feed offspring w/ milk from mammary glands
a) Monotremes leathery eggs, horny bills, milk glands but no nipples
a. Ex: duckbill platypus and spiny anteater
b) Marsupials pouched animals. Embryo begins development in uterus and
completes while attached to nipples in pouch
a. Ex: kangaroo, opossum
c) Placental mammals- embryos develop fully in uterus; placenta attaches
embryo directly to uterine wall and provides for food, oxygen, and waste
exchange
a. Ex: bat, whale, mouse, and man
Viruses non-living
- Reproduction
1. Lytic cycle results in destruction of infected cell; viral DNA exists and replicated separate
from the host bacterial DNA
2. Lysogenic cycle integration of the bacteriophage DNA into bacterial genome

Chapter 16 Evolution
Microevolution how populations of organisms change from generation to generation and how new
species originate
Macroevolution describes patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad period of
geologic time; the patterns determine phylogeny(the evolutionary relationship among species and groups
of species)
Evolutionary order: bryophytes gymnosperms angiosperms
Evidence for Evolution
1. Paleontology
a. Types of fossils:
1. Actual remains
2. Petrification minerals replace the cells of an organism
3. Imprints impressions left by an organism (Ex: footprints)
4. Molds form in hollow spaces of rocks, as organism within decays

5. Casts minerals deposited in molds

2.
3.
4.

5.

Significant Fossil remains found

1. Trilobite primitive crustacean (relative of lobster); dominant during Paleozoic
2. Dinosaurs dominant during Mesozoic era
3. Eohippus primitive horse (four toes, short, pointed teeth); gradual change to modern
horse (one toe, flat teeth)
4. Woolly mammoth hairy elephant
5. Saber-tooth tigers preserved in asphalt tar pits
6. Insects preserved in amber (fossilized resin oozed from trees)
7. Archaeopteryx missing link between reptiles (has teeth and scales) and birds (has
feathers)
Biogeography unrelated species in different regions of the world look alike when found in similar
environments (North American rabbits (placental) and Australian wallaby (marsupial)
Embryology similar stages In development (ontogeny) among related species
i. Ex: gill slits and tails found in fish, chicken, pig, and human embryos
Comparative anatomy
i. Homologous Structures COMMON ANCESTOR; same basic anatomical feature; Ex wings
of bat, flipper of whale, forelegs of horses, arms of man
ii. Analogous Structures DIFFERENT origins; have similar functions w/ different patterns of
development; (Ex: wings of fly and wings of bird)
Molecular Biology closely related species share higher % of sequence than distantly related
species (Ex: more than 98% of nucleotide sequence in humans and chimpanzees is identical)

Natural selection differences in survival and reproduction among individuals in population as a result of
their interaction with the environment
Darwins
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Theory for Evolution by Natural Selection

Populations possess enormous reproductive potential.
Population sizes remain stable.
Resources are limited.
Individuals compete for survival.
There is variation among individuals in a population.
Mach variation is heritable.
Only the most fit individuals survive.
Evolution occurs as favorable traits accumulate in the population.

Types of Selection
1. Stabilizing eliminates individuals that have extreme or unusual traits
2. Directional favors traits that are at one extreme of a range; opposite extreme selected against
a. Ex: Insecticide resistance few individuals survive and proliferate
b. Ex: industrial melanism selection of dark-colored varieties in various species
3. Disruptive (diversifying) environment favors extreme or unusual traits, select against common
a. Ex: On lawns, short weeds predominate; in fields; tall weeds predominate
4. Sexual differential mating of males (sometimes females) in a population; traits that allow males
to increase mating frequency have selective advantage, females can increase fitness by increasing
quality of offspring by choosing superior males
a. Sexual selection often leads to sexual dimorphism a kind of disruptive selection
5. Artificial carried out by humans when they sow seeds or breed animals that possess desirable
traits

Sources of Variation
1. Mutations raw material for new variation; can invent new alleles
2. Sexual Reproduction creates individuals with new combination of alleles
a. Crossing over occurs during prophase I
b. Independent assortment of alleles during metaphase I
c. Random joining of gametes during fertilization
3. Diploidy presence of two copies of each chromosome in cell
a. Recessive alleles can be hidden from natural selection
4. Outbreeding mating with unrelated partners
5. Balanced polymorphism maintenance of difference phenotypes in a population
a. Heterozygote advantage ex: sickle cell heterozygote = selective advantage in Africa
b. Hybrid vigor (heterosis) superior quality of offspring set resulting from crosses between
two different inbred strains
i. Ex: Cross two inbred corn strains hybrid more disease resistant, higher yield
c. Frequency-dependent selection (minority advantage) least common phenotypes
have a selective advantage
i. Ex: Predator forming a search image of their prey; this results in phenotypes
alternating between low and high frequencies (maintains polymorphism)
Neutral variation variation without selective value (Ex: fingerprints in humans)
Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies
1. Natural selection increase/decrease of allele frequency due to impact of environment
2. Mutations introduce new alleles that rarely produce a selective advantage
3. Gene Flow introduction/removal of alleles from population through emigration or immigration
4. Genetic Drift random increase/decrease in alleles; effect can be strong in small populations; (Ex:
flipping coin 1000 times versus 5 times probability of getting much higher in former)
a. Founder effect allele frequencies in group of migrating individuals are, by chance, not the
same as that of their population of origin (Ex: polydactylism in Amish community; after 200
years, trait among 8000 person Amish community was higher than occurrence in remaining
world population
b. Bottleneck occurs when population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size; small
population becomes severely vulnerable to genetic drift
i. Ex floods, volcano eruption, and ice ages
5. Nonrandom mating individuals choose mates based upon their particular traits
a. Inbreeding individuals mate w/ relatives
b. Sexual selection females choose males based upon appearance, behavior, or ability to
defeat males in other contests

Genetic (Hardy Weinberg) Equilibrium when allele frequencies in a population remain constant from
generation to generation NO EVOLUTION (p2+2pq+q2=1)
1. All traits are selectively neutral (no natural selection)
2. No mutations
3. Population isolated from other populations (no gene flow)
4. Population is large (no genetic drift)
5. No net migration
6. Mating is random
Speciation the formation of new species

1. Allopatric speciation population is divided by geographic barrier (no interbreeding btw pops.)
a. If gene pools sufficiently diverge, interbreeding will not occur now different species
2. Sympatric speciation speciation without geographic barrier
a. Balanced polymorphism subpopulations with similar characteristics as reproductively
isolated from other subpopulations
i. Polyploidy possession of more than the normal 2 sets of chromosomes; often occurs
in plants; results in meiosis of a tetraploid individual continuing to produce diploid
gametes reproductive isolation
ii. Hybridization two distinctly different forms of a species mate and produce progeny
along a geographic boundary called a hybrid zone; genetic variation of hybrids is
greater than that of either parent, permits population of hybrids to evolve
adaptations to environmental conditions in hybrid zone
b. Adaptive radiation relatively rapid evolution of many species from a single ancestor;
occurs when ancestral species is introduced to an area where diverse geographic or
ecological conditions are available for colonization
i. Ex: marsupials of Australia began with colonization and adaptive radiation of a single
ancestral species
ii. Ex: 14 species of Darwins finches evolved from single ancestral South American
mainland species
Maintaining Reproductive Isolation
Prezygotic isolating mechanisms
1. Habitat isolation species do not encounter each other
2. Temporal isolation species mate or flower during different seasons/time of day
3. Behavioral isolation species does not recognize another species as mating partner because
it does not perform the correct courtship rituals, display proper visual signals, sing correct
songs, or release proper chemicals
4. Mechanical isolation male and female genitalia are structurally incompatible/flower
structures select for different pollinators
5. Gametic isolation male gametes do not survive in environment of female gamete; or when
female gametes do not recognize male gametes
Postzygotic isolating mechanisms
1. Hybrid inviability zygote fails to develop properly, dies before maturity
2. Hybrid sterility hybrids become functional adults, but are sterile

3. Hybrid breakdown hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability

Patterns of Evolution
1. Divergent evolution two or more species that originate from common ancestor
2. Convergent evolution two unrelated species that share similar traits (due to similar ecological
conditions or lifestyles); they share analogous traits
a. Ex: eyes of squids and vertebrates functionally similar, but originate from different tissues
during embryological development evolved independently
3. Parallel evolution two related species that have made similar evolutionary changes after
divergence from a common ancestor
4. Coevolution tit-for-tat evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in
another species
a. Occurs between: predator and prey, pollinators and flowering plants, pathogens and immune
system
Macroevolution patterns of evolution for groups of species over extended periods of time
1. Phyletic gradualism evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes
2. Punctuated equilibrium evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of stasis with
little or no evolution, interrupted by geologically short periods of rapid evolution; in this theory,
absence of fossils revealing intermediate stages of evolution is considered to confirm this theory

The Origin of Life (chemical evolution)

Heterotroph theory first cells were heterotrophs; incapable of making their own food
The earth and its atmosphere formed atmosphere consisted of CO, CO2, H2, N2, H2O, S, HCL,
1.
HCN, but NO O2
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

The primordial seas formed earth cooled gases condensed to produce primordial soup
Complex molecules were synthesized inorganic organic, acetic acid, formaldehyde, amino
acids (These would serve as building blocks for polymers) only possible because NO OXYGEN
Polymers and self-replicating molecules synthesized dehydration condensation;
proteinoids are abiotically produced polypeptides
Organic molecules concentrated and isolated into protobionts (precursors of cells)
Primitive heterotrophic prokaryotes formed living organisms that obtain energy by
consuming organic substances (sourced from organic soup)
Primitive autotrophic prokaryotes formed heterotrophautotroph as a result of mutation
Oxygen and ozone layer formed; abiotic chemical evolution ended oxygen produced as a
byproduct of photosynthetic activity of autotrophs; interaction of UV light and O 2 produced ozone
layer
Eukaryotes formed (endosymbiotic theory) eukaryotic cells originated from a mutually
beneficial association among various prokaryotes; proposes that mitochondria and chloroplast were
once prokaryotic cells, living inside larger host cells.
a. Mitochondria and chloroplasts possess their own (circular) DNA
b. Ribosomes of mitoc. and chloroplasts resemble those of bacteria and cyano (size/seq.)
c. Mitoc. and chlor. reproduce independently of eukaryotic host cell by process similar to binary
fission

d. Mitoc. and chlor. have two membranes (the second of which could have been acquired
during the endocytosis of the original prokaryote)
e. Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble the photosynthetic memb. of cyano
adaptive radiation = divergent evolution
allopatric speciation forming of a new species through the geographic isolation of groups from the
parent population (alla-geo)
Comparative Embryology stages of development of embryo resemble stages in an organisms
evolutionary history; human embryo passes through stages that demonstrate common ancestry 2 layer
gastrula of hydra (cnidaria) and 3 layer gastrula similar to flatworm
Vestigial Structures structures that appear to be useless but had ancestral function; ex humans
(appendix and tail), horses (splints), python (legs reduced to bones)
Mullerian mimicry - two or more harmful species that are not closely related, and share one or more
common predators, have come to mimic each other's warning signals
Batesian mimicry deceptive; harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful
species directed at a common predator
Lamarckian Evolution he was wrong; amount of change based on use and disuse of the organ;
inheritance of acquired characteristics (useful characteristic of one generation was transmitted to the
next)
Darwins Theory of Natural Selection pressures in the environment select for the organism most fit
to survive and reproduce
Chance variations occur b/c of mutation and recombination
If the variation is selected for by the environment, that individual will be more fit and
more likely to survive and reproduce
Survival of the Fittest leads to an increase of favorable genes in the gene pool
Gene Pool all the alleles for any given trait in the population
Hardy Weinberg Principal evolution can be viewed as changing gene frequencies within a population;
when gene frequency NOT changing => gene pool stable => NO evolution; this only happens under the
FOLLOWING IDEAL situation:
1. Population is very LARGE (no change in allele frequency random drift)
2. NO mutations that affect gene pool
3. Random mating
4. NO net migration in/ out of population
5. NO natural selection - Genes in population are all equally successful in reproducing
** Certain equilibrium exists so we can use Hardy-Weinberg equation:
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p2 = frequency of TT // 2pq = frequency of Tt // q2 = frequency of tt
K-selected population members have low reproductive rates and are roughly constant in size (ex.
human population)
R selected population rapid growth, numerous offspring, fast maturation, little postnatal care (ex.
bacteria)
Stanley L. Miller demonstrated that the application of uv, heat, or a combination of these to a mix of
methane, hydrogen, ammonia, and water could result in complex organic compounds; primordial soup
early atmosphere = CONHS (NH3, H2S, CH4)
Misc.

stem cells produce lymphocytes by mitosis.

Glycine is the only optically inactive amino acid, since it has no chiral carbons.
pKa = half-equivalence pH. Amino acid deprotonates @ higher pH & becomes protonated @ lower
pH.
gout uric acid crystals deposit in tissues (ex. big toe)
Diabetes insipidus caused by insufficient vasopressin production
PKU diseases high amt. of the amino acid, phenylalanine, in blood; can cause mental retardation
Hashimotos disease involves thyroid
Tay Sachs disease lysosomal defect
In a warmer environment, the organism will want to increase its % of unsaturated fatty acids,
so that fatty acids will be more fluid and the melting point will decrease.
Prokaryotes lack cholesterol in their membranes, unlike eukaryotes.
hemizygous only having one copy of a chromosome

Barr body inactivated X chromosome

activity of sweat glands decrease as we age
as body temperature increases, blood vessels dilate
fertilization membrane tough protective envelope developed by the sea urchin as a block to
polyspermy
Arterioles offer the greatest resistance to blood flow in the circulation.
If the phenotype skips generations be suspicious of an autosomal recessive disorder. However if
there is no skip, it is most likely an autosomal dominant disorder. Be suspicious for X-linked
recessive, if a father doesnt have the phenotype, none of his daughters display it.
Early earth consisted of a reducing atmosphere of CH4, NH3, H2, H2S, H2O.
t-RNA, m-RNA, r-RNA are produced in transcription. T-RNA will have cloverleaf structure
Cephalopods have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers, & a closed circulatory system.
Sporazoans = division of Protozoan; diverse group of parasites (ex. plasmodium), cause malaria in
humans
5 quarts of blood in an average sized adult.
In a typical antibody, the heavy and light chains are linked by disulfide bonds.
Erythroblastosis fetalis Rh- mother (no Rh antigen, makes Rh antibodies), Rh+ fetus
Founder effects and bottlenecks occur when a population is originated or rebuilt from very few
individuals = ex. of genetic drift, amt. of genetic variation is very limited.
o Genetic/Population bottleneck result of a disaster nearly wiping out a large population
Endocytosis uses ATP AKA pinocytosis
plasmolysis shrinkage of a cell due to water loss
Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny refers to embryonic stages of development of an organism
repeat the evolutionary history of the species
Streptococci can be virulent, form chains; staphylococci form clusters
For each subsequent level in the energy pyramid, the energy increases by 10 1.
Purple/green bacteria, in the anaerobic sediments of lakes/ponds, carry out photosynthesis with H 2,
H2S, or D as the electron donor, oxygen is not a byproduct.
pH of lysosome is 5, pH of cytosol is 7
Starch and glucose are polymers of alpha glucose. Polysaccharides are branched/linear. Peptides
can only be linear. Polysaccharides can have alpha or beta linkages.
Nerve gas inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase, and cause death respiratory paralysis
Tay Sachs disease autosomal recessive disease; lipid buildup in brain cells from lysosomal
enzyme defect
Cells of PCT & DCT are very rich in mitochondria because of active transport. Ammonia = waste
product of aquatic animals; uric acid = birds, reptiles, & insects
Dynein = motor protein; used for movement in 9+2 flagella & cilia; may also be used in
chromosomal movement
Cytoskeleton = microtubules (ex. flagella & cilia), microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
Myoglobin curve = hyperbolic, Hemoglobin curve = sigmoidal. Myoglobin has higher affinity for O 2
than hemoglobin. Myoglobin has no change in O2 binding over a pH range.
Epidermis has no blood supply, and depends on dermis for oxygen and nutrients.
Higher metabolic rate = higher oxygen demand = hemoglobin not as saturated with O 2
o Lower metabolic rate = lower O2demand = more saturated
A genetic map includes crossover frequencies.
homologues = homologous chromosomes and/or sister chromatids
ex. of autosomal recessive disorders = PKU disease, sickle-cell anemia, and galactosemia
parasite & host population densities mimic each other
decrease in telomere = aging
recombinant DNA modifying plasmid DNA for use as a vector to inject specific DNA into an cell
Episome chromosome integrated with plasma DNA
apoptosis = planned cell death (ex. diabetes)
Necrosis = traumatic cell death
protobionts metabolically active protein clusters; precursor to the prokaryote
People with Down Syndrome are prone to leukemia and Alzheimers disease.
ruminants animals w/ stomachs of alkaline pH; usually 4 chambers capable of digesting cellulose

Prostaglandins: Modified fatty acids which help induce fever, pain sensitization, and inflammation