1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Among internal combustion (IC) engines, compression ignition (CI)

engines are the most common in heavy duty and stationary applications, while
spark ignition (SI) engines are the most common in light transportation. The
worlds growing concerns on the pollution of the environment has resulted in many
efforts towards reducing the emissions of conventional diesel engine vehicle. One
of the techniques that can be used to reduce the emission is to control the amount
of air flow rate in to the combustion chamber. In conventional diesel engine, diesel
is injected into the combustion chamber at extremely high pressure shortly before
top dead centre. As the combustion efficiency is directly proportional to the degree
of homogeneous mixing, it is important to make sure that the air and fuel are
homogeneously mixed prior to the entry into the combustion chamber.

1.1 COMPRESSION RATIO

A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature
of the working mixture which reduce the initial preparation phase of combustion
and hence less ignition advance is needed. High pressure and temperature of the
compressed mixture also speed up the second phase of combustion. Increased
compression ratio reduces the clearance volume and therefore increases the
density of the cylinder gases during burning. This increases the peak pressure and
temperature and the total combustion duration is reduced. Thus engine having
high compression ratios have higher flame speeds. An increase in compression
ratio increases the thermal efficiency and increasing compression ratio also
increases the friction of the engine, particularly between piston ring and cylinder
walls.

1.2 SPECIFIC FUEL RATIO

The fuel consumption characteristic of an engine is generally
expressed in terms of specific fuel consumption in kilo grams of fuel per kilowatthour. It is important parameters that reflect how good the engine performance is. It
is inversely proportional to the thermal efficiency of the engine.
Fuel consumption per unit time
SFC =
Power
Break specific fuel consumption and indicated specific fuel
consumption, abbreviated as BSFC and ISFC are the specific fuel consumption on
the basis of BP and IP respectively.

1.3 AIR FUEL MIXTURE

An engine is generally operated at different loads and speeds. For
this, proper air fuel- mixture should be supplied to the engine cylinder. Fuel and air
are mixed to form three different types of mixtures.
i.
ii.
iii.

Chemically correct mixture

Rich mixture
Lean mixture

Chemically correct or stochiometric mixture is one in which there is

just enough air for complete combustion of fuel. For example, to burn one kg of
octane (c8h18) completely 15.12 kg of air is required. Hence chemically correct A/F
ratio for c8h18 is 15.12:1; usually approximated to 15:1. This chemically correct
mixture will vary only slightly in numerical value between different hydrocarbon
fuels.

A mixture which contains more air than the stochiometric

requirement is called a lean mixture.

1.4 TYPES OF AIR FUEL MIXTURE

The process of combustion in engines generally takes place either in

a homogeneous or a heterogeneous fuel vapour-air mixture depending on the type
of engine.
i.
ii.

Homogeneous
Heterogeneous

1.4.1. HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE

In homogeneous gas mixture, the fuel and oxygen molecules in the
gas are mixed more or less same and uniformly distributed. In a spark ignition
engine a nearly homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is formed in the carburetor
and burnt in the engine cylinder. Homogeneous mixture is formed outside the
engine and the combustion is initiated inside the cylinder at a particular instant
towards the end of the compression stroke.

Once the fuel vapour - air mixture is ignited at a point, a flame front
appears and rapidly spreads in the mixture. The flame propagation is caused by
heat transfer and diffusion of burning fuel molecules from the combustion zone to
the adjacent layer of the fresh mixture. The flame front is a narrow zone separating
the fresh mixture from the combustion products.

1.4.2. HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE

In a heterogeneous gas mixture, the rate of combustion is
determined by the velocity of mutual diffusion of fuel vapour and air and the rate of
chemical reaction is of minor importance. Self-ignition or spontaneous ignition of
fuel-air mixture, at the high temperature developed due to high compression, is of
primary importance in determining combustion characteristics.

1.5 FUEL -AIR (F/A) OR AIR-FUEL RATIO (A/F)

The relative proportion of the fuel and air in the engine are very
important from the standpoint of combustion and the efficiency of the engine. In CI
engine at a given speed the air flow does not vary with load; it is the fuel flow that
varies directly with load.
A mixture that contains enough air for complete combustion of all the
fuel in the mixture is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio. A
mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as rich
mixture and a mixture that contains less fuel (or excess air) is called a lean
mixture. The ratio of actual fuel- air ratio to chemically correct fuel-air ratio is called
equivalence ratio and is denoted by .
Actual air fuel ratio
=
stoichiometric fuel - air ratio
Accordingly, = 1 means chemically correct mixture, < 1 means
lean mixture and >1 means rich mixture.
1.6 METHODS TO CONTROL EMISSION
1) Exhaust gas recirculation for control of the oxide of Nitrogen.
2) Catalytic or non-catalytic conversion of hydrocarbons.
3) Oxidation of carbon monoxide and un-burnt hydrocarbons in the exhaust
system by low pressure air injection into the exhaust ports.
4) Engine modification to reduce the volume of contaminants released from
the cylinders
5) NOx emissions can be reduced by changing the operating parameters such
as air flow rate, speed and inlet manifold pressure and design parameter such as
compression ratio and valve timing.
1.7. EFFECT OF AIR-FUEL RATIO

Air fuel ratio is the most important engine variable which affects not
only the concentration of NOx emissions but also the performance of the engine.
The NOx emission increases to peak the value as the mixture strength varies from
rich to near about stoichiometric and then decreases as the mixture strength
approaches leaner range. On the rich side, NO x emission is less, but at the
expenses of more fuel consumption, increased CO and un-burnt hydrocarbon
emission.

With recycling, the air-fuel ratio corresponding to the peak value of

NOx emissions shift to the rich side. The minimum brake specific fuel consumption
point shift to the rich side as the percentage recycling is increased. The maximum
power output point shifts to the rich side with increasing percentage recycling as
expected. The peak exhaust temperature also shifts to the rich side with increased
recycling.

1.8. EFFECT OF SPEED

NOx emission increases with increase in speed. This may be due to

by increase in peak combustion temperature which increases with increase in
speed. Also there is less time variable for heat transfer in the combustion chamber.

The table1.1 shows that the effect of engine speed on peak NO x

emission, minimum bsfc, maximum bhp value and maximum exhaust temperature.
The minimum bsfc vlue increases with increased speed. At high speeds, there is a
need to supply more fuel to overcome greater frictional losses and heat losses due
to increased turbulence and consequent improper combustion
Table 1.1 Effect of Speed
speed
rpm

1200

1800

2400

Max.

Peak NOx

Min.bsfc

Max.

PPM

kg/s-hr

bhp metric

1288

0.26

2.67

565

10

688

0.27

2.60

575

20

438

0.30

2.57

580

30

225

0.32

2.54

590

2181

0.26

5.70

625

10

1087

0.27

5.40

650

20

650

0.30

5.20

680

30

403

0.33

5.94

635

2735

0.34

6.60

675

10

1400

0.36

5.86

680

20

913

0.39

5.70

695

30

662

0.42

4.50

705

% cycle

exhaust
temp oC

1.9 FORMATION OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN IN IC ENGINES

On the basis of thermodynamic equilibrium data, the production of
NO from its elements begins at 800oC and its significant above 2220oC

N2 + O2

2NO

The reverse reaction is also possible and occurs in the entire range
of the temperature, useful for the production of NO and the decomposition is
almost complete around 4400

C. The condition for the formation and

decomposition are the same, because there is no pressure effect in this reaction.
In I.C. engines, due to the frozen equilibrium, the maximum temperature alone in
responsible for the formation of NO x as consider on the basis of thermodynamic
equilibrium. The data of experimental results on IC engine exhaust are given in
tables 1.2 and 1.3, which shows that NO x may increases toemarkably high
concentrations depending upon.
Type of engine.

Air-Fuel ratio.

Compression ratio.

Quality of air.

Engine rpm.

Engine load.

Engine temperature.

Quality of fuel

Table.1.2 Composition of exhaust gases from diesel engine.

Constituents
Carbon mono
oxide %
Hydrocarbon %
Oxides of
nitrogen, ppm
Aldehydes, ppm

Diesel engine
---

0.01

---

---

0.04

0.01

0.01

0.03

60

850

240

30

10

20

10

30

Table 1.3 Compression ratio and nitric oxide formation

Compression ratio
4:1
5:5:1
7:1

Max. NO formed ppm

2900
3800
4800

Air- fuel ratio

15.2
15.8
15.6

1.10 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

The main importance of the project is to reduce the emission without

any major modification in the existing engine. When the diesel fuel is injected
directly into the engine, the performance of the engine is boosts up. To have the
better efficiency, the mixture of diesel and air should be made homogenous. Thus
by creating better turbulence, the performance can be increased.

The main objective of the project is to find out the optimum flow rate
of air intake according to its load conditions in twin cylinder DI diesel engine, in
order to achieve the mixing quality of air-fuel mixture. The CFD simulation
software FLUENT is used to predict the NO x emission level for various flow rate of
air intake inside the combustion chamber. Based on the CFD results, optimum flow
rate is determined, at which the emission level is minimized. The following points
are considered as the scope of the project.

Optimization of intake air effect to improve fuel economy and emission.

Due to this project, the emission level will be reduced through the quality
mixture strength and the engine performance also will be improved.

1.11 PROJECT OVERVIEW

This project is divided into eight chapters. Chapter 1 is the current
chapter, which introduces the project topic to the reader and explained the basics,
objectives and scope of the project. The following chapter 2 will summarize the
details on the literature review of emission strategies to reduce the NO x levels and
approaches. Chapter 3 is about the problem definition of twin cylinder DI diesel
engine.

Next, in chapter 4 focuses on the theoretical explanation of the

method used in the computational fluid dynamic analysis such as the continuity
equations of mass momentum and energy. After the explanation on the CFD, the
following chapter 5 will focus on the experimental results which are used as the
input data for the CFD simulation. Then the chapter 6 will focus on methodology
which involves steps required for modeling and simulation from GAMBIT and
FLUENT software.

After the actual planning of chapter 6, all the simulation results will
be shown and discussed in chapter 7. Moreover, this chapter will contain all
relevant tabulation and graph for the discussion. Finally the conclusion will be
made in chapter 8 by concluding the overall results obtained as well as the
knowledge learned from the project.

CHAPTER -2
LITERATURE SURVEY

10

In this chapter a review of literature on DI diesel engine performance

and emission is presented. This chapter focuses on IC engines and techniques
that have been employed to obtain efficient operation of engine and reduced
emissions. It also covers the various methodology of reducing emission for DI
diesel engine.

Bassem Ramadan studied a computational study of a direct injection

DI diesel engine intake system using KIVI-3A. The engines considered two intake
ports designed to generate a swirling motion of the intake charge in the cylinder.
To investigate the effect of adding shrouds to intake valves on swirl, to sets of
intake valves were considered. The first set consisted of conventional valves, and
the second set of valves had back shrouds to prevent the air flow on the back side
of the valves. The effect of port diameters on air flow and swirl motion was also
investigated. In this case ports with two different diameters were modelled. In
addition the effect of using one or two intake ports on swirl generation was
determined by blocking one of the ports. The results show that higher swirl was
generated with a single port and a shrouded valve. [2]

Benajes et al (2004) had studied The effect of in-cylinder air swirl on

diesel combustion and exhaust emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine. A 1.8 L
single-cylinder, heavy duty diesel engine fitted with a device to modify the swirl air
motion in the intake had been tested with the objective of evaluating the effect of
swirl on the combustion process and pollutant emissions. Six operating conditions
representative of the 13 mode ESC had been considered here, changing the MSR
from 0 to 5.33.Swirl level had a significant influence on the combustion process
and exhaust emissions. When swirl ratio was increased up to a certain level, a
more intense pre-mixed combustion phase was observed, and the diffusioncontrolled combustion phase was also improved. When the swirl level was
increased, the faster heat release during the premixed combustion and during the
early diffusion-controlled combustion caused a quick increase in both in-cylinder
pressure and temperature, thus promoting the formation of NO x. Since swirl

11

enhances mixing and probably produces a leaning effect, soot production was
reduced and soot oxidation was increased, resulting in a reduction in soot
emissions. The overall combustion duration was also shortened, which reduced
fuel consumption. However, although an increase in swirl always improved the
premixed combustion phase, an excess of swirl damaged the diffusion controlled
combustion phase, increasing soot emissions and fuel consumption, but reducing
NOx emissions. In this study, the optimum swirl value had been found for each
engine operating mode. However, it can be concluded that there is no single
optimum value of swirl ratio for the whole engine operating range, and matching
the level of swirl with other parameters is a task that also depends on the
combustion chamber geometry and injection characteristics. Nevertheless, the
results obtained from the study can shed light on the swirl effects on diesel engine
combustion and exhaust emissions over a wide range of engine operating
conditions. [3]

Rathnaraj and Kumar (2007) had studied On variable swirl Intake

System for DI Diesel Engine Using CFD. According to that the swirl port is
designed for lesser swirl ratio to reduce NO x emissions at higher speeds. But this
condition increases the air fuel mixing time and particulate and smoke emissions
in lower speeds. The combustion system of an internal combustion engine is
usually designed for a certain working condition, if the engine load or speed
changes, then the designed parameters will not match. For example, the
combustion system of a diesel engine is designed basically on full load condition,
when it is run under partial load condition, the engines fuel economy will be
poorer. A variable swirl system can change the situation and meet the combustion
needs of swirl in broader operating conditions. If a variable swirl system is applied,
when the engine works under full load condition, the inlet swirl will be decreased
so that the charging efficiency is increased, and under the partial load condition,
the inlet swirl will be enhanced at a little expense of charge. Hence a variable swirl
system can improve engine performance.

12

The result from this study shows that, the variable swirl for a specific
valve lift, there is an increase in angular velocity for 70% opening of the intake port
and decrease in angular velocity for 50 % opening of the port is clearly predicted
by this model. Therefore the model has an application in improving the swirl
generating capacity of the port and evolution/distribution of the in-cylinder swirl
during intake process according to emission norms.
1) It can provide ways to design high swirl generation capacity intake
port which reduces both NO x and particulates the two main pollutants in diesel
engines, which is very necessary to attain Euro IV emission norm.
2) The increase in the swirl generating capacity of the port due to
variable swirl plate ensures better combustion even with less amount of oxygen.
For optimum design of the variable swirl plate, this methodology can be used.
3) The results indicate that the CFD model can be used as a tool to
understand the effect of various parts of air intake system for optimization. This
effect will reduce the number of experiments to be carried out for arriving at final
optimized system.

In this study, the numerical simulation of the helical variable swirl

intake port for 2-valve DI Diesel engines under steady state condition is discussed.
Flow calculations are performed for the port-valve-cylinder system using the
FLUENT- 6 code. The CFD curves shown are very well matched with the
experimental results conducted in the helical port. [5]
Frassoldatia, and Frigerioa, et al work was focused on a new
procedure for the determination of NO x emission from combustion processes,
which allow them using very detailed and comprehensive reaction schemes, on
the basis of the results obtained from CFD computations. This procedure was
validated in the case of high swirled confined natural gas diffusion flames. The
experimental data was refer to the work developed within the German TECFLAM
cooperation concerning a swirl burner (0.6<S<1.4) fed with natural gas
characterized by 150kW thermal load and 0.8 equivalence ratio. The high swirling
configuration makes the solution as a difficult task for commercial codes. The

13

numerical calculation was performed using the commercial code FLUENT6.0. As

NOx formation is a chemical process whose time-scale is of the same order of
mixing fluid dynamics. The comprehensive modelling of NO x reaction processes in
combustion systems required simulation of both the turbulent fluid dynamics and
chemical kinetics in the system being modelled. Hundreds of elementary reactions
were required to provide a detailed description of the formation and depletion of
oxides of nitrogen in combustion systems. The difficulties in coupling detailed
chemistry and detailed fluid dynamics force to adopt proper simplifications. The
prediction of NOx formation was then obtained by post-processing the flow and
temperature fields, as predicted by CFD, and lumping together computational cells
similar in terms of NOx formation. The resulting macro cells are assumed to be a
network of ideal reactors, which were simulated adopting a detailed kinetics. The
predictions had been tested on flames at different swirl numbers. Both the CFD
and the chemical analysis showed a satisfactory agreement with the measured
data. [6]

Fuchs and Rutland (University of Wisconsin-Madison) have long

wanted modified versions of the KIVA-II and KIVA-3 CFD codes, intake,
compression, and combustion of a Caterpillar diesel engine. And it was modeled
and seven variations on intake and two injection schemes were explored so that a
detailed understanding of the effects of intake on various flow properties and their
subsequent influence on combustion and emissions could be obtained. The results
revealed that, in many cases, one of three factors: swirl ratio, temperature, and
turbulence, was dominant in describing combustion or emission behaviour. In
addition, stratification of fuel and oxygen was found to be a result of high swirl
ratios. This had a profound impact on combustion and emissions, especially for
split injection cases. [7]

Junichi Kawashima (1999) had done a Research on a variable swirl

intake port for High-speed 4-valve DI diesel engine. According to this research a
variable swirls intake port system consisting of two independent intake ports, one

14

of which serves to control the swirl ratio by varying the flow rate. Several variations
of this type of intake port system are conceivable depending on the types and
configurations of the intake ports that are selected.

Fig .2.1 Characteristics of variable intake port.

In this study, the intake air flow characteristics of several typical
intake port combinations and configurations were examined on the basis of
steady-state flow tests and three-dimensional numerical analyses. The results
reported that reveal valuable information concerning the intake port configuration
needed to obtain the desired swirl control characteristics over a wide range of
operating parameters.
The result from the research has shown that a variable swirl intake
port for high-speed DI diesel engines with four valves per cylinder.
1. A helical port positioned on the inner side of the cylinder is needed to
obtain strong swirl.

15

2. An intake port layout (A1) combining this type of helical port with a
tangential port has resulted in a variable swirl intake port system capable of
varying the swirl ratio over a wide range from 3.5 to 10. [8]

Kang and Reitz had described the intake flow structure using various
port geometries in a four valve heavy duty diesel engine. Swirl ratio, LDV
measurements of bulk flow and turbulence, and flow visualization experiments
were conducted on a steady state bench rig. In addition to the standard production
port, archetypal intake port flows were created using intake valve shrouds. These
flow types are usually not found in heavy duty engines, which typically quiescent
combustion chamber designs. However recent CFD analyses have indicated that
intake flow structures can significantly influence engine pollutant emissions. Thus,
it was of interest to characterize these floes in a heavy duty engine. The measured
swirl and axial velocity components were analyzed to reveal the swirl and tumble
generation mechanisms, and the LDV data compared favorably with the swirl
meter results. The flow visualization confirmed the existence of flow recirculation
regions under the intake valves also seen in the LDV data. These flow structures
help to explain the origins of the overall swirl and tumble flow fields. The results
were compared with available CFD predictions made using the same port
configurations. The measured swirl levels were founds to agree with the CFD
trends. However, in some cases quantitative differences were found, presumably
due to the effect of piston motion in the actual engine. These differences need to
be accounted for when evaluating port designs from steady-flow measurements,
especially in cases with high tumble flow components. [9]

Li. G, Sapsford. S.M, (Ricardo Consulting Engineers Ltd) As part of

their VECTIS code validation program, CFD simulations were conducted to
investigate direct-inject (DI) diesel engine combustion with the newly implemented
Ricardo Two-Zone Flame let (RTZF) combustion model. A small HSDI research
engine was chosen as subject. The simulation program consisted of 6 cases
forming a complete injection time swing. CFD simulation results were compared

16

directly against engine tests. Encouraging agreement was found for both the in
cylinder pressure and NOx emissions. [12]

Miwa et al. (1991) had studied the effect of swirl on particulate

emissions from small DI diesel engine. Soot formation was found to be greatly
affected by the history of load change. The soot formation was also found to vary
with the swirl intensity. Figure 2 shows the effect of swirl on the emission level of
the major pollutant components. This diagram shows the results obtained with a
single-cylinder engine having a variable swirl port. It is seen from the figure that
the NOx emissions decrease with decreasing the swirl. The effect of the swirl on
both the HC emissions and fuel consumption is not pronounced. However, the
output power shows a decrease with swirl.

Figure 2.2 Effect of swirl on exhaust emissions and fuel consumption

2.1 SUMMERY FROM THE LITERATURE REVIEW

All the reviews will provide the required information related to the
project such as project methodology, analysis from FLUENT and experimental
validation. The following information was extracted from throughout the literature
survey and review that helps to identify and solve the problem.

17

The velocity distribution and fuel concentration gives us to visualize

and ensure the flow behaviour and mixture formation in inside the

combustion chamber from FLUENT.

The NOx is only emitted in high temperature.
The Nox emission is mainly depends upon the oxygen concentration.
The flow characteristics of the inlet port and chamber provide the

improvement in engine performance ad emission.

Better turbulence in the flow promotes the better mixing quality of

fuel and air.

The exhaust temperature does not affect the thermal efficiency.
At high speed condition lesser swirl ratio reduces NO x emissions.
But this condition increases the air fuel mixing time and particulate

and smoke emissions in lower speeds.

The effect of the swirl on both the HC emissions and fuel

consumption is not pronounced.

The NOx emissions decrease with decreasing the swirl.
Swirl flow and tumble are always generated during intake and
compression stroke of an IC engine due to maintaining the
acceptable level of turbulence in the inlet duct.

CHAPTER-3
PROBLEM DEFINITION

Large diesel engines are widely used for stationary power generation and
ship propulsion. But it is important to reduce their emissions to a reasonable level

18

because diesel engines are one of the major sources for air pollution. Recently,
the maximum quantities of oxides of nitrogen (NO x) are limited for marine
applications by the IMO regulation. In case of land installations for generating
electricity, there are many different regulations specific to the various countries and
regions. It has become clear that the development of diesel engines must
concentrate on reducing exhaust gas emissions. Many methods for reduction of
the emissions, especially for NOx, however have a contradictory effect on fuel oil
consumption of an engine. It is desirable to reduce both fuel oil consumption and
NOx emission at the same time for a competitive engine.

The experimental data in table 3.1 shows the various emissions of the twin
cylinder engine under various load conditions have been tabulated below.
Table.3.1 Emission levels under loading
Load/Parameter
s

CO(% by vol)
CO2(% by vol)
O2(% by vol)
HC(ppm)
NOx(ppm)

0 kw

1.5 kw

3 kw

4.5 kw

6 kw

5.442
0.08
2.7
17.4
65
93

5.521
0.08
2.6
17.3
75
80

5.579
0.08
2.5
17.3
78
66

5.612
0.09
2.5
17.4
81
61

5.620
009
2.5
17.4
78
56

It is the evident from the table values that the NO x emissions find the major
portion of the emission levels and it is also observed that at higher loads level NO x
reduces.

3.1 EMISSION IN COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

3.1.1 NIROGENOXIDES (NOX)
NOx concentrations are lower than in spark-ignition engines; the share of
NO in the NOx emissions is slightly higher. The type of combustion process has a
significant effect on nitrogen oxide formation. In engines with a divided combustion

19

chamber, combustion initially occurs in the pre-combustion or swirl chamber under

conditions of extreme oxygen deficiency. This generates high temperatures, and
NOx levels are low due to a lack of air and oxygen. This process is reversed in the
main combustion chamber. Extreme excess air ratios and, hence, low
temperatures also result in low NOx formation. The direct-injection diesel engine
does not have the above features that keep NO x emissions low. As a result, NOx
formation is approximately twice as high as in an engine with divided combustion
chamber.

3.1.2 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

The mean A/F ratio present in the combustion chamber per cycle is far
higher in the diesel engine than in the SI engine. Due to a lack of homogeneity of
the mixture built up by stratification, however, extremely rich local zones are
present. This produces high CO concentrations that are reduced to a greater or
lesser extent by post-oxidation. When the excess air ratio increases, dropping
temperatures cause the post-oxidation rate to be reduced. The CO concentrations
of diesel engines therefore are far lower than in SI engines. The basic principles of
CO formation are same.

3.1.3 UNBURNED HYDROCARBON (HC)

Since the A/F mixture is not homogeneous throughout, extremely high
excess-air ratios are present in certain zones during the diesel combustion
process. The higher the air/fuel ratio, the lower is the local temperature. This
means that chemical reactions proceed fairly slowly or may even freeze-up, thus
leading to increased HC emissions. In general, HC concentrations of diesel
engines are lower than those of spark-ignition engines.
3.1.4 PARTICULATES

20

Basically, soot emissions are part of particulate emissions. Soot formation

occurs at extreme air deficiency. This air or oxygen deficiency is present locally
inside diesel engines. It increases as the A/F ratio decreases. Soot is produced by
oxygen deficient thermal cracking of long-chain molecules. Acetylene and other
polymerization processes lead to formation of molecules rich in carbon that form
soot particulates. Once soot has formed, it can be oxidized only to a limited extent.
Soot formation produces molecules with an increasingly low hydrogen content and
higher weight that will finally agglomerate to form soot particulates.

Particulates consist of solid (organically insoluble) and liquid (organically

soluble) phases. The solid phase consists of amorphous carbon, ash, oil additives,
corrosion products and abrasion products. The liquid phase consists of fuel and
lubricant contents which are, in most cases, combined with soot. The
hydrocarbons contained in the hot exhaust are still largely gaseous and are
converted into a liquid, organically soluble phase after cooling by turbulent
intermixing with air. Particulate composition is largely dependent on the operating
point and the combustion process. The various parts of the fuel jet and the flame
affect the formation of NO, unburned HC and soot during the pre-mixed and
mixing-controlled phases of diesel combustion in a direct-injection engine with
swirl.
3.1.5 SULPHUR COMPOUNDS
Sulphur compounds are caused exclusively by the sulphur content of the
fuel. When combined with the water produced during the combustion process, SO 2
produces sulphuric acid. Sulphur compounds cause problems with regard to acid
rain and particulate formation via sulphates.

The table5.1 shows the emissions from diesel engine at various load
conditions the effects of these emissions are discussed in this chapter. From this it

21

can be concluded that the effect of NOx plays a major role in the performance of
the engine. Thus the main objective of the project is to reduce these NO x levels.

CHAPTER-4
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the science of predicting fluid flow,

heat transfer, mass transfer, chemical reactions, and related phenomena by

22

solving mathematical equations that represent physical laws, using a numerical

process. This technique is very powerful and spans a wide range of industrial and
non-industrial applications. It leads to substantial reduction of lead times and cost
of new designs.

CFD is computed using a set of partial differential equations to predict the

flow behaviour. Besides that, it is also used for analyzing heat transfer model, mass
flow rate, phase change such as solidification, chemical reaction such as
combustion, turbulence model, mechanical movement such as rotating shaft,
deformation of solid structure and many more.

It is always a preferred method over the conventional design method

because it is cheaper and save a lot of time. Before there is such technology,
usually engineers need to build a real model for testing and redo the model again
until the optimum result is obtained. Such a long procedure would consume more
money and time. With the aid of CFD software, engineers can simulate different set
of parameters for testing to get the optimum result before working on the real
prototype without any additional cost.

The procedures for the CFD analysis in FLUENT follows the simple steps
below

The model used for the analysis is drawn, method and boundary
layers are determined. This is done using the GAMBIT software,
which is the compatible modelling software for FLUENT. All the files
for the geometry and meshing of the model are saved as mesh or

grid file.
Next, in FLUENT, saved mesh or grid file model is read, checked and
scaled for the required working unit.

23

The model is defined for the type of solve and boundary conditions to
be used. The model is defined according to the type of analysis

required in the research in the research project.

The model is solved by setting the requires parameters in the solution

panel and then iterated for convergence.

Results can be obtained from the graphic display and report in
FLUENT. Results can be displayed in terms of contour, velocity vector
and particle track and path line. Any calculation required can be

performed in FLUENT also.

Finally, the results and all the data can be saved for future reference
by writing the files.

Next, the following section will discuss on the governing equations used in
FUENT when computing and analyzing the fluid flow behaviour. All the equations
will give the details on how the CFD works in order to simulate the result for certain
problems.
4.1 CAPABILITIES OF FLENT SOLVER
This software has various modeling capabilities that can be used in
numerous

Flows in 2d and 3d geometries are using unstructured solutionacaptive triangular/tetrahedral, quadrilateral/hexahedral, or mixed

(hybrid) grids that include prisms (wedges) or pyramids.

Incompressible or compressible flows.
Inviscid, laminar, turbulent flows.
Newtonian or non-Newtonian flow.
Convective heat transfer, including natural or forced convection.
Coupled convection/convective transfer
Radiation heat transfer.
Inertial (stationary) or non-inertial (rotating) reference frame models.
Multiple moving reference frames, including sliding mesh interfaces

and mixing planes for rotor/stator interaction modelling.

Chemical species mixing and reaction including combustion sub-

models and surface deposition reaction models.

Lagrangian trajectory calculations for a dispersed phase of

particles/droplets/bubbles including coupling with continuous phase.

Flow through porous media.

24

One dimensional fan/heat-exchanger performance model.

Two-phase flows, including cavitations.
Free-surface flows, with complex surface shapes.
Arbitrary volumetric sources of heat, mass, momentum, turbulence,
and chemical species.

All the capabilities mentioned above are in providing a better approach for
the analysis in applications such as process equipment, aerospace and turbo
machinery automobile, heat exchanger power generation in oil/gas industry and
material processing. Therefore, with the availability of such capabilities, the
analysis for the purpose of this object can be carried out in a more accurate and
user friendly way.
4.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The CFD methodology in Fluent is used partial differential
equations of

flow variables so as to calculate and to simulate numerous kinds of

analysis concerning the fluid flow. Among flow the variables that are commonly used in
analysis are mass, momentum, energy, species concentrations, quantities of turbulence
and mixture fractions. Therefore, the governing equations to be used in this analysis all
the conservation of mass, momentum, energy, equations.
4.2.1 MASS CONSERVATION EQUATION

The continuity equation or the mass conservation equation for any fluid flow
is expressed as in equation (4.1)

Where,

Fluid density

Ui

the ith Cartesian component of the instantaneous

velocity

the rate of mass of the object generated in the system

25

4.2.2 MOMENTUM CONSERVATION EQUATION

The conservation of momentum in i direction for an inertial reference frame
can be explained as in equation (4.2)

Where

-Fluid density

Ui & Uj

the ith and jth Cartesian component of the instantaneous

velocity
P

-Static Pressure

tij

-stress tensor

gi

-Gravitational body force

Fi

-External body force from interaction with the dispersed phase

in i direction.

4.2.3 ENERGY CONSERVATION EQUATION

The partial differential equation for energy conservation is expressed as in
equation (4.3)

Where
keff

-effective conductivity

keff

-k+kt (where kt = turbulent thermal conductivity)

Sh

-additional volumetric heat sources i.e heat of chemical

reaction

26

4.3 TURBULENT EQUATION

Turbulent flow is characterized by its fluctuating velocity fields. They
mix the transported quantities such as momentum, energy and species
concentration to fluctuate as well. For FLUENT, the turbulent flow can be modeled
in several ways depending on the problems encountered. Following are the types
of turbulent model available in FLUENT.

Spalart-allmaras model
Standard k- model
Renormalization-group(RNG)k- model
Realizable stress model(RSM)
Large eddy simulation(les) model

For this project, the simulation is using the standard k- model as the
preferred turbulent model. Basically, this is using two transport equations in partial
differential form to govern the transport of turbulent kinetic energy, k and its
dissipation rate, . It is assuming that the flow in the system is fully turbulent and
the effects of molecular viscosity are negligible. Therefore, the standard k
model is only valid for fully turbulent flows.

4.4 FLUENT SOLVER

There are two numerical methods to be chosen in the FLUENT solver
to solve the governing integral equations such as conservation of mass,
momentum, energy and other scalars like turbulence and chemical species. They
are the segregated solver and coupled solver.

The segregated solver is chosen as the most appropriate solver for this
project because it operates by solving the governing equations sequentially until

27

the solution converged. The solver will iterate the solution loop according to the
user specification of the number of iterations to be performed in order to get the
final solution, which will converge at end of the iteration.
As for the coupled solver, this method solves all the continuity
equations simultaneously are coupled together. The procedure is similar to the
segregated method, where several iterations are solved for the coupled governing
equations before a converged solution is obtained. As mentioned earlier,
segregated solution method is chosen for the simulation task in this project,
therefore next section will discuss on the discretization method used for this solver.

4.5 DISCRETIZATION METHOD

FLUENT uses a control-volume-based technique as the discretization
method to convert the governing equations to algebraic equations so that the
solution can be solved numerically in the segregated solver. This control volume
technique consists of integrating the governing equations about each control
volume basis. The discrete quantities are usually the mass, momentum, energy,
turbulence and other scalars.

The discretization of the governing equations is applied to each

control volume of cell in the computational domain. It can be illustrated most easily
by considering the steady state conservation equation for transport of a scalar
quantity, which is written in integral form for an arbitrary control volume V as
follows

28

4.6 SOLUTION METHOD

There are three methods use for to solve he problems modeled in
FLUENT, which are SIMPLE, SIMPLEC, COUPLED and PISO methods. The
solution for the problem in this project is based on the SIMPLE method.

The SIMPLE and SIMPLEC algorithms use a relationship between

velocity and pressure correction to enforce mass conservation in order to obtain
the pressure field. For PISO algorithm used with neighbour correction, it is highly
recommended for all transient flow calculations. Let allows us to use a larger time
step, as well as an under relaxation factor of 1.0 for both momentum and pressure.

SIMPLEC and SIMPLE consistent is preferred over the SIMPLE

method because it can accelerate convergence in problems where pressurevelocity coupling is the main deterrent to obtaining a solution. Besides that, it can
use a higher value for under-relaxation factor to get a faster convergence for
solution, which the SIMPLE method is not able to do.

It is especially useful for complicated flows involving turbulence

and/or additional physical models because the SIMPLE method can improve
convergence when it is being limited by the pressure-velocity coupling. Therefore,
the turbulent model used for this project should be solved by using the SIMPLE
method.

29

CHAPTER-5
EXPERIMENTAL READINGS

This chapter comprises of engine specification of twin cylinder DI diesel

engine, specification of emission test analyzer and experimental data, such as
emission levels, experimental readings, which are to be used as input data for the
computational analysis.

5.1ENGINE CONFIGURATION

30

Twin cylinder of electrically loded, direct injection, four stroke Kirlosker

heavy-duty diesel engine is simulated in this work. Table 5.1 provides important
specifications of the engine model.
Table.5.1 Twin cylinder diesel engine Specifications
Engine Parameters
Bore (mm)

Value
85.0

Stroke (mm)

155.0

Displacement (cc)

1759

Number of cylinder

Connecting rod length (mm)

118.1

Engine speed (rpm)

1500

Fuel nozzle diameter (mm)

0.25

Fuel nozzle hole number (pc)

Power

13.8kw (18.7Hp)

Fuel type

Diesel

5.2 EMISSION TEST ANALYZER

The emissions from the twin cylinder DI diesel engine has to be measured
experimentally by using AVL DI gas analyzer. The results of the emission have to
be considered as a problem definition and the emission results are shown in the
table 5.1.

The specific application of the AVL analyzer is as follows:

i.

Periodic measurement of the opacity of exhaust gases from diesel

engines of passenger cars, trucks, buses, agricultural and

ii.

construction plant etc. in accordance with the legal requirements.

For checking exhaust gas opacity in diesel vehicles and for approval

iii.

by the authorities.
Measurement of peak opacity during free acceleration

Measurement principle -

CO, HC, CO2

Infrared measurement

31

Fig 5.1: AVL DI Gas Analyzer

Table 5.2. Specifications of AVL DI GAS ANALYZER

Measurement

Measurement

parameters

parameters

Engine speed
Oil temperature
CO
CO2
HC
O2

250.800 rpm
0.120C
0.10% by vol.
0.20% by vol.
0.20000 ppm vol.
0.4% by vol.

10rpm
1C
0.01% by vol
0.01% by vol
1 ppm vol.
0.001% by vol.

NO

4.22% by vol.
0.4000 ppm vol.

0.1% by vol.
1 ppm vol.

Measurement principle
4/5- Gas Measuring Instruments -

-O2, NO -

Resolution

Electrical measurement

Calibration interval
-12 months
Rated flow rate
- 360 1/h
Minimum flow rate
- 180 1/h
Total flow rate
- 180.5001/h
Calibration gas flow rate
- 90.180 1/h

32

5.3 PERFORMANCE TEST

Performance test has been carried out on twin cylinder DI diesel engine
under varying electrical load conditions and the fuel consumption level is
calculated.
specific gravity * volume of fuel consumption (20 cc)
Fuel consumption (Fc ) =
tavg * 1000
The above mentioned formula is used for finding the fuel consumption. The
parameters required for finding the fuel consumption are specific gravity, volume of
fuel consumption and time average.

Table 5.3 Experimental Parameters

Serial
No

Applied load
A(amps)
0
15
3
4.5
6

1
2
3
4
5

V(volt)
250
250
250
250
250

Time for 20cc of fuel

T1
26
18
16
14
13

consumption
T2
Tavg
25
25.5
18
18
16
16
14
14
13
13

Fuel consumption
Fc (kg/s)
6.51*10-4
9.22*10-4
1.04*10-3
1.19*10-3
1.28*10-3

The table showed above mentions various fuel consumption values for
different input parameters of applied load and time for 20cc of fuel consumption.
The fuel consumption values thus obtained are taken as input values for CFD
analysis.

33

CHAPTER-6
METHODOLOGY

The methodology used in this project is to find out the optimum air intake to
reduce the NOx pollutant by the computational fluid dynamics method. The Fluent
CFD code has been used to predict the NO x emissions by varying the air mass
flow rate under different load conditions.

The steps involved in computational methodology involve the following

steps.
i.

ii.

Pre-processor
a. Geometry generation
b. Mesh generation
c. Boundary conditions
Solver
a. Solver and Discretization scheme

34

iii.

b. Turbulence model
c. Species Transport
d. NOx Model
Post processor

6.1 GEOMETRY GENERATION

The simulation model can be done by any of the modelling packages or
using GAMBIT package. The two dimensional simulation model was created in the
GAMBIT package.
6.1.1 Steps for Modeling in GAMBIT

Select a Solver
Create the initial vertices
Create arcs for the bend of the inlet manifold
Create the straight edges
Create the faces from edges

Fig 6.1 2D simulation model of combustion chamber

6.2 MESH GENERATION

35

Prior to the CFD simulation, computational meshes were generated

using GAMBIT. A complete 2D model of the combustion chamber was modelled on
GAMBIT and the T Grid pre-processors from Fluent. The GAMBIT was used to
generate mesh with interval size 0.5, which consisted of triangular elements
throughout the rest of the flow domain. For complex geometries like helical ports
quad/tri meshes have no numerical advantages. So triangular meshing is used for
this problem.
6.2.1 Steps for Meshing in GAMBIT

Select a mesh
Select a face mesh
Select the face to mesh
Choose the triangular element
Enter the value of interval size 0.5
Click apply
Specify the boundary type
Export and save the session

Fig 6.2 Mesh model of combustion chamber

6.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

36

Mean flow velocity at the inlet @zero lift, U ref= mass flow rate /(density * area)
Reynolds number Re

= Uref D/

Turbulent intensity, U/ Uavg

= 0.16 (Re)-1/8

Turbulent length scale (l)

= 0.07*L

Turbulence kinetic energy (k)

= 3/2 (Uref Ti) 2

Dissipation rate,

= C 3/4 k3/2/l

Turbulent Viscosity ratio (TVR)

= t/

At the Air-Inlet face

Velocity magnitude in m/s
Temperature

=305 K

Species mass fraction for O2

=0.23

At the Fuel-Inlet Face

Mass flow rate in Kg/s
Temperature

= 305 K

Species mass fraction for fuel (C10H22)

=1

At the Pressure-Outlet Face

Gauge pressure in Pascal

=0

Back flow temperature

=305 K

Species mass fraction for O2

=0.23

At the Outer-wall Face

Temperature

= 305 K

6.4 DISCRETIZATION AND SOLVER SCHEME

6.4.1 DISCRETIZATION
In the finite-volume method, quadrilateral is commonly referred to as a cell
and a grid point as a node. In 2D, one could also have triangular cells. In 3D,
cells are usually hexahedral, tetrahedral, or prisms. In the finite-volume approach,
the integral form of the conservation equations are applied to the control volume
defined by a cell to get the discrete equations for the cell. The integral form of the
continuity equation for steady, incompressible flow is

37

s V. n dS = 0
The integration is over the surface S of the control volume and n is the
outward normal at the surface. Physically, this equation means that the net volume
flow into the control volume is zero. Consider the rectangular cell shown below

fig 6.3 Example of quadrilateral mesh

The velocity at face i is taken to be Vi = uii + vij. Applying the mass

conservation equation to the control volume defined by the cell gives
u1y v2x + u3y + v4x = 0
This is the discrete form of the continuity equation for the cell. It is
equivalent to summing up the net mass flow into the control volume and setting it
to zero. So it ensures that the net mass flow into the cell is zero i.e. that mass is
conserved for the cell. Usually, though not always, the values at the cell centers
are solved for directly by inverting the discrete system. The face values u1, v2, etc.
are obtained by suitably interpolating the cell-center values at adjacent cells.

38

Similarly, discrete equations for the conservation of momentum and energy

for the cell. By extend these ideas to any general cell shape in 2D or 3D and any
conservation equation. Take a few minutes to contrast the discretization in the
finite-volume approach to that in the finite-difference method.

6.4.2 STEPS FOR SIMULATION IN FLUENT SOLVER

The steps taken to simulate the Thermal NO x and Prompt NOx in the
combustion chamber are listed below
a. Read and check the files
i. Read the mesh file of the model
ii.
Check the grid of the model for errors
iii.
Set the scale of the model according to the unit used for the
dimensions. For example, the default unit in the meter to
millimeter.
iv. If necessary, smooth and swap the mesh of the model.
b. Define the model
i. Define the solver, which is segregated solver that is used for
ii.
iii.
iv.

this simulation.
Select the energy equation.
Select the k- equations in viscous model
Specify the species used for the simulation such as fluid, solid
or mixture. In this case the model consists of a mixture.
Therefore, the species in the mixture must be defined, which

v.

is Diesel-air.
Then the properties of each species must be defined or use

the default values in FLUENT

vi.
If necessary set the operating condition.
c. Saving the file
After specify all the parameters, the file is saved by writing the file
for case and data file under a file name.
d. Solve the problem
i. Specify the zone for the solution initialization and defined all
the appropriate values for parameters. Some of the unknown
parameters can use the default values also.
ii.
After that iterate the process until the solution is converged.
e. Obtain the graphical solution

39

i.

There are few options to display the results. The results can

ii.

be displayed in contour, vectors, or path line form

Besides that, the results can be plotted by monitoring the
model according to the zones.

6.5 TURBULENCE MODEL

Normally, standard k -

model is considered to be the most widely used

turbulence model. In a swirling flow field with recirculation, the prediction due to
standard k - method is found to be poor in certain regions. The deficiency of
standard k - model stems from the neglect of anisotropic viscosity and the
generation of additional turbulence due to the effect of streamline curvature.
Accordingly, some advanced turbulence models can be tried out to capture the
swirling recirculation flows. The appropriate choice depends on the strength of the
swirl, which can be gauged by the Swirl number(s). For flows with weak to
moderate swirl (S < 0.5), both the RNG k - model and the realizable k - model
yield appreciable improvements over the standard k - model. For highly swirling
flows (S > 0.5), the Reynolds stress model (RSM) is strongly recommended13.
The effects of strong turbulence anisotropy can be modelled rigorously only by the
second moment closure adopted in the RSM. In this study, the standard k -
model with standard wall function treatment has been considered. Further studies
can be carried out using the aforesaid higher order turbulence models. The
following model constants are used in accordance with the standard k - model.

The turbulence model used in this project will be Standard k - model. The
model is very suitable for initial iterations, initial screening of alternative designs
and parametric studies. This model is valid for fully turbulent flows only. Since the
flow inside the engine cylinder is fully turbulent this model is one of the preferred
model for in cylinder flow analysis. The simplest complete models" of turbulence
are two equation models in which the solution of two separate transport equations
allows the turbulent velocity and length scales to be independently determined.

40

The standard k - model in fluent package falls within this class of turbulence
model.
6.6 SPECIES TRANSPORT
The species transport with the chemical reaction has been modelled using
the Generalized Finite Rate Chemistry (GFRC) formulation. The finite rate
chemistry approach is based on the solution of species transport equations for
reactants and product concentrations. The reaction between the fuel vapour and
oxidizer is considered to be a single step, irreversible, global reaction as
2C10H22 + 31 O2

20CO2 + 22H2O

The reaction rate may be controlled either by chemical kinetics or by

turbulent eddies whichever is slower. In the present case, the turbulent eddy
dissipation rate is much slower than the rate determined from chemical kinetics
(Arrhenius rate) 12. Hence, the eddy dissipation concept is used to calculate the
reaction rate. The species conservation equations are solved for fuel vapour,
oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour, while nitrogen concentration is obtained
by difference. The standard model constants19 are used for the eddy dissipation
model.
6.7 NOx Model
Calculations have to be performed for thermal as well as prompt NO x
formation. The formation of thermal NO x is determined by a set of highly
temperature-dependent chemical reactions. The presence of a second mechanism
leading to NOx formation is first identified and is termed prompt NO x. The mass
transport equation for the NO species, taking into account convection, diffusion,
production and consumption of NO and related species is solved.

41

The diesel engine is the most efficient among all known types of internal
combustion engine. All over the world, heavy trucks, urban buses, and industrial
equipment are powered almost exclusively by diesel engines. In Europe, dieselpowered cars have become increasingly popular. Owing to the lack of throttling
losses and also to the higher compression ratio, diesel engines have low brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and thus low carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions.
Furthermore, because of its ability to operate at low equivalence ratios, the diesel
engine produces low carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions.
Unfortunately, the diesel engine suffers from relatively high nitrogen oxides (NO x)
and particulate matter (PM) emissions. By the custom field function NO parts can
be compute in terms of parts per million (ppm).
NOx will be computed from the following equation

NOx mole fraction *106

NOx ppm =
1 H2O mole fraction

42

CHAPTER-7
RESULT AND DISCUSSSION

Table 7.1 Results for Mass Flow Rate of 6.51*10 -4 kg/s

Air Velocity (m/s)
Temperature (k)
NOx (ppm)
0.5
2404.257
212.8326
1
2373.014
119.3681
1.5
2305.704
75.12712
2
2163.651
36.14581
2.5
2148.03
29.7076
3
2163.789
24.87245
3.5
2163.298
20.32022
4
2157.443
15.64244
4.5
2147.129
11.74867
5
2152.927
10.12925
5.5
2184.438
10.45406
6
2252.403
12.17822
6.5
2291.823
13.91881
7
2311.645
14.00733
7.5
2309.506
14.72999
8
2329.121
15.67008
8.5
2329.686
17.44686
9
2330.156
20.42359
9.5
2329.927
27.05153
10
2341.899
33.47605
10.5
2322.488
38.93446
11
2342.461
42.64009
11.5
2332.645
44.96497
12
2288.759
49.15229
12.5
2243.94
47.70113
13
2242.508
46.37826
13.5
2244.176
44.16431
14
2241.664
42.94903

43

14.5
15

2230.361
2238.32

42.08464
37.92718

Fig 7.1 Air velocity vs Temperature for fuel mass flow rate of 6.51*10 -4 kg/s

Fig 7.2 Air velocity vs NOx for fuel mass flow rate of 6.51*10-4 kg/s
From the above graph it is evitable that NO X emission at a mass flow rate of
6.51*10-4 kg/s is minimum of air velocity of 5 m/s.

44

Fig 7.3 Contours of static temperature of fuel mass flow rate of 6.51*10 -4 kg/s at air
velocity of 5m/s

Fig 7.4 Contours of NO-PPM of fuel mass flow rate of 6.51*10 -4 kg/s at air velocity
of 5m/s
Table 7.2 Results for Mass Flow Rate of 9.22*10 -4 kg/s
Air Velocity (m/s)
0.5

Temperature (k)
2434.969

NOx (ppm)
261.622

45

1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
14
14.5
15

2451.69
2450.758
2424.001
2377.183
2291.388
2217.579
2222.621
2230.046
2230.643
2222.103
2210.493
2207.5
2217.686
2242.363
2290.259
2334.299
2352.231
2363.511
2347.116
2362.041
2371.12
2377.397
2376.875
2367.145
2367.932
2385.076
2380.479
2362.617
2377.099

161.0053
123.5608
99.72151
75.07653
49.46581
32.99378
28.35014
24.22012
20.0224
16.5068
13.49605
11.46855
10.60098
10.41714
11.24126
12.18747
13.0054
13.01384
13.09187
13.62889
13.75172
15.54419
16.73866
21.96215
28.82411
33.64527
38.72235
44.14764
48.17042

Fig 7.5 Air velocity vs temperature for fuel mass flow rate of 9.22*10 -4 kg/s

46

Fig 7.6 Air velocity vs NOx for fuel mass flow rate of 9.22*10-4 kg/s
From the above graph it is evitable tat NO X emission at a mass flow rate of
9.22*10-4 kg/s is minimum for air velocity of 7.5 m/s.

Fig 7.7 Contours of static temperature of fuel mass flow rate of 9.22*10 -4 kg/s at air
velocity of 7.5m/s

47

Fig 7.8 Contours of NO-PPM of fuel mass flow rate of 9.22*10 -4 kg/s at air velocity
of 7.5m/s

Table 7.3 Results for Mass Flow Rate of 1.04*10 -3 kg/s

Air Velocity (m/s)
Temperature (k)
NOx (ppm)
0.5
2435.076
280.062
1
2485.897
175.7717
1.5
2496.594
141.7921
2
2464.299
113.7109
2.5
2446.168
95.70564
3
2376.723
65.36366
3.5
2256.82
36.96636
4
2236.188
32.20177
4.5
2247.282
28.75506
5
2252.63
24.46999
5.5
2250.407
20.69504
6
2244.004
17.45219
6.5
2233.966
14.4478
7
2225.999
12.1263
7.5
2233.779
11.10209
8
2242.179
10.31696
8.5
2268.081
10.41769
9
2311.594
11.18483
9.5
2352.529
11.88339
10
2368.868
12.54418

48

10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
14
14.5
15

2385.001
2372.077
2370.175
2384.733
2390.005
2382.943
2393.257
2377.918
2382.682
2395.902

12.50008
12.5265
12.58298
13.34304
14.42386
15.13381
16.04062
21.45944
29.09981
34.90672

Fig 7.9 Air velocity vs temperature for fuel mass flow rate of 1.04*10 -3 kg/s

Fig 7.10 Air velocity vs NOx for fuel mass flow rate of 1.04*10-3 kg/s\

49

From the above graph it is evitable tat NO X emission at a mass flow rate of
1.04*10-3 kg/s is minimum for air velocity of 8 m/s.

Fig 7.11 Contours of static temperature of fuel mass flow rate of 1.04*10 -3 kg/s at
air velocity of 8m/s

50

Fig 7.12 Contours of NO-PPM of fuel mass flow rate of 1.04*10 -3 kg/s at air
velocity of 8m/s

Table 7.4 Results for Mass Flow Rate of 1.19*10 -3 kg/s

Air Velocity (m/s)
Temperature (k)
NOx (ppm)
0.5
2441.33
287.239
1
2521.761
192.3633
1.5
2517.314
153.2814
2
2500.202
124.8697
2.5
2489.479
108.3826
3
2461.606
86.78397
3.5
2409.553
65.9378
4
2322.006
44.02804
4.5
2261.914
33.08311
5
2271.448
29.00015
5.5
2275.289
25.43256
6
2274.379
22.01423
6.5
2269.776
18.95749
7
2263.57
16.02742
7.5
2254.128
13.7543
8
2249.052
11.86557
8.5
2252.94
10.60364
9
2262.883
10.18349
9.5
2282.749
10.10894
10
2315.732
10.51964
10.5
2351.073
11.19078
11
2387.295
11.94823
11.5
2387.325
12.16307
12
2399.058
11.94081
12.5
2387.327
11.94412
13
2376.265
12.35086
13.5
2397.611
12.53136
14
2399.873
13.62389
14.5
2407.753
13.55532
15
2401.83
15.00543

51

Fig 7.13 Air velocity vs temperature for fuel mass flow rate of 1.19*10 -3 kg/s

Fig 7.14 Air velocity vs NOx for fuel mass flow rate of 1.19*10-3 kg/s
From the above graph it is evitable tat NO X emission at a mass flow rate of
1.19*10-3 kg/s is minimum for air velocity of 9.5 m/s.

52

Fig 7.15 Contours of static temperature of fuel mass flow rate of 1.19*10 -3 kg/s at
air velocity of 9.5m/s

Fig 7.16 Contours of NO-PPM of fuel mass flow rate of 1.19*10 -3 kg/s at air
velocity of 9.5m/s

53

Table 7.5 Results for Mass Flow Rate of 1.28*10 -3 kg/s

Air Velocity (m/s)
Temperature (k)
NOx (ppm)
0.5
2438.466
285.3179
1
2517.945
198.9883
1.5
2535.238
161.5938
2
2542.586
139.6385
2.5
2504.967
111.4205
3
2490.747
94.0551
3.5
2438.882
71.94554
4
2387.736
55.59253
4.5
2294.836
36.19157
5
2278.775
31.86563
5.5
2284.825
28.10843
6
2286.243
24.63565
6.5
2284.722
21.46
7
2280.784
18.44975
7.5
2274.972
15.9635
8
2265.828
13.78637
8.5
2260.805
11.81871
9
2263.295
10.6539
9.5
2272.16
10.20567
10
2288.521
9.952856
10.5
2312.238
10.10512
11
2349.317
10.62988
11.5
2386.953
11.26705
12
2399.639
11.84441
12.5
2405.682
12.04235
13
2404.151
11.68078
13.5
2387.94
11.6525
14
2388.464
12.16364
14.5
2402.103
12.40872
15
2407.093
13.22922

54

Fig 7.17 Air velocity vs Temperature for fuel mass flow rate of 1.28*10 -3 kg/s

Fig 7.18 Air velocity vs NOx for fuel mass flow rate of 1.28*10-3 kg/s
From the above graph it is evitable tat NO X emission at a mass flow rate of
1.28*10-3 kg/s is minimum for air velocity of 10 m/s.

Fig 7.19 Contours of static temperature of fuel mass flow rate of 1.28*10 -3 kg/s at
air velocity of 10m/s

55

Fig 7.20 Contours of NO-PPM of fuel mass flow rate of 1.28*10 -3 kg/s at air
velocity of 10m/s

56

CHAPTER-8
CONCLUSION

The engine needs variable flow rate to enhance the combustion in the
cylinder according to its operating condition. Optimum flow rate is necessary
according to the engine operating condition for optimum combustion and emission
reduction. So an experimental set up is been chosen and corresponding fuel
consumption for various electrical loading conditions are found. These values are
taken as input for CFD analysis. For each fuel consumption value corresponding
air flow rate values are tabulated and from that air flow rate which produces
minimum NOx is found. These values are tabulated below.
Table 8.1 Optimized Results
Electrical
loading(kw)
0
1.5
3
4.5
6

Fuel
consumption
(kg/s)
6.51*10-4
9.22*10-4
1.04*10-3
1.19*10-3
1.28*10-3

Air
velocity(m/s)
5
7.5
8
9.5
10

Temperature(k)

NOx(ppm)

2152.927
2242.363
2242.179
2282.749
2288.521

10.12925
10.41714
10.31696
10.10894
9.952856

The CFD results provided clearly shows that the nitrous oxide is reduced
drastically by apply varying air flow rate according to its condition. Thus the
minimum NOx emission values are found for variable fuel consumption and air flow
rate.
REFERENCES

57

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