Power System Analysis

Prof. A.K. Sinha

Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Lecture - 15
Load Model
Welcome to lesson 15 on Power System Analysis. In this lesson, we will discuss Load
Model. Till now, we have discussed models for different components of power system.
We started with the model for transmission line, then we discussed the model for the
transformers and then, synchronous machines. In this lesson, we will take up the models
for loads. Basically, the loads are consisting of number of different kinds of components.
They can be your household fans, lights, heating, air conditioning or industrial loads as
induction machines, pumping loads in agriculture. So, we have different kinds of loads in
the system. And as for power system analysis, we need to model these loads properly to
get the proper and accurate analysis of the system, under different conditions.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:26)

So, here we will take up different types of loads. So, we will talk about what are the
different types of loads, that we have. Then, we will talk about the voltage characteristics
of different loads, frequency characteristics of loads. That is when voltage and frequency
in the system changes, how these loads are going to behave. And we will also talk about
the composite load, because actually when we are modeling these loads, we are modeling

them at the substation level. So, there are very large number of loads, all these have to be
aggregated and put as a composite model for the power system analysis.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:21)

So, the basic instruction or instructional objective for this lesson will be, that on
completion of this lesson. You should be able to explain the voltage and frequency
characteristics of different types of load. And you would be able to develop a model for
composite loads.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:45)

Now, first thing that we are going to discuss is why we need modeling of the load. Well,
we know that with the change in voltage and frequency, the active and reactive power

drawn by different types of loads vary in a different manner. That is different loads have
different voltage and frequency dependence characteristics. That is whenever a voltage
or frequency changes, the load also changes along with it.
So, voltage and frequency dependence of load, then these loads affect the behavior of the
power system. Because, if the loads suddenly increase or decrease with change in voltage
and or frequency, then the response of the power system also will have to be taken into
account to cater to these changes. We have very large number of different types of loads.
So, when we are fine to model this we need to take that into consideration, that is how
we are modeling.
Whether, we need to model each component, each load separately which in most of the
cases is impossible. Because, at a substation, distribution substation level also you will
have 1000's of various loads. Because, it caters to a number of residential complexes,
may be it will be catering to certain industries in that area, commercial, establishments in
that area. And all these will have large number of loads.
So, if you are thinking in terms of modeling all the loads separately. Then, at every
substation you may have to have model more than 1000's of these loads, which is a very
very difficult thing for any analysis to be carried out. Now, these as said earlier these
loads also differ in their characteristics. So, whereas an induction machine load will have
a different characteristics with variation in voltage or an frequency lighting load, or say
incandescent bulb will have the entirely different characteristics.
If the frequency changes the incandescent bulb, it does not effect at all. Whereas, it does
effect the loading on a induction machine. Similarly, if the voltage changes the loading
for a lighting load will depend on the. since it depends on the square of the voltage. So,
there is going to be variation in the load. if the voltage goes down the power drawn by
the bulbs will reduce, of course will get less light.
If the voltage goes up, then the power drawn by the load increases considerably, and the
lamps glow much brighter, but of course it also reduces the life of the lamps. Now, as I
said, since we have very large number of loads connected at any substation, we need to
aggregate these loads and build a composite model for the loads. So, we are going to
discuss these factors in this lesson.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:36)

Now, we will talk about different types of load. I have shown here 4 different types of
loads. There may be many more, but these are the general types of load that we have. We
have lighting load which consists of incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps, may be
discharged lamps. That is those light bulbs that we have incandescent bulbs, then we
have fluorescent tubes or compact fluorescent lamps.
We also use sodium vapor lamp or mercury vapor lamps. So, the lighting load consists of
these kinds of lamps. And we will discuss about characteristics of these loads. Another
loading which we have is heating loads, especially in colder regions we use heating of a
space. As well as in industry we need lot of heating, so we have heating loads. And these
heating loads are basically using resistors. And therefore, we have a different kind of a
loading characteristics for these.
Then, a majority of loads in industry, as well as in agriculture sector are induction motor
loads. Because, the induction motors are the work horse of the industry. They are used
almost for all kinds of applications even in agriculture, we have all these pump sets
which are basically operated by means of induction machines. So, we have large number
of induction motors, we need to learn about how to analyze or this loads with induction
machines.
So, we need to know what is the characteristics of these machines, when voltage or
frequency changes. Synchronous machines very few of them are there, but we need to
model them, because synchronous machines are mostly used as generators. But, in some

places where we need very constant frequency drives, we do use synchronous machines.
So, synchronous machines loads are also the loads which we need to discuss.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:19)

Now, we will take up each of these types of load one by one. Now, if we look at the
lighting load, the real power for these loads are basically independent of frequency. That
is change in frequency does not affect the real power drawn by these loads, whereas a
change in voltage does affect them considerably. In fact, if we have a incandescent bulb
the resistance of this lamp is not a linear resistor, because the temperature of the filament
goes to very high values.
So, we have a non-linear resistor, in their and therefore, the load is not exactly varying as
per the square of the voltage. But, it varies with some factor which is near to the square
of the voltage. And we have other loads like fluorescent tubes, we have compact
fluorescent lamps, we have discharge lamps, like sodium vapor lamps or mercury vapor
lamps.
All these form the lighting load and the characteristics of all these lamps with variation
and voltage, can be seen as V to the power 1.6. That is it is not exactly V squared, but
they can be model as varying with voltage. So, power is proportional to V to the power
1.6. So, if the voltage increases by 10 percent our power will increase much more, it is
not a linear relationship, but the radiation is V to the power 1.6.
The reactive power drawn by these loads are generally very small, especially
incandescent lamps they do not draw any reactive power at all, because they can be

represented by a pure resistor, whereas for the CFLs or fluorescent tubes and the
discharge lamps, we do have a little bit of reactive power drawn by them. The
fluorescent tubes of course, the older models which use normal choke, they have low
power factor.
But, most of the model chokes that we have electronic chokes, the power factor is quite
high. Even with those older chokes they are now providing some capacitance, to
compensate for the low power factor. And therefore, the reactive power drawn by these
loads are very small. And therefore, the variation of reactive power with the variation
and voltage is most of the time neglected.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:32)

Next we will discuss the heating load. Now, for heating load are basically can be
modeled as pure resistors. So, if we are modeling it as pure resistor, then the real power
will be equal to V into i and i is equal to V by r. So, actually a real power will be
proportional to V square by R, R being constant. So, real power is proportional to the
square of the voltage.
Again here the frequency has no part to play, because the frequency, whether it is DC or
AC at any frequency, except if we go to frequencies which are much higher, in terms of
100's of Hertz or kilo Hertz or mega Hertz. The skin effect their does come into picture
and the R value or the resistance does change. But, at 50 Hertz it does not affect it much
and therefore, the frequency has hardly any effect. And also the variation of frequency
for our power supply is very small.

Because, the bank under which it operates is generally very small, it is less than 1
percent or 2 percent plus minus 1 percent or 2 percent. So, these loads are independent of
frequency variation.
We can consider them to be completely in independent of frequency variation. That is
real power does not change with frequency. But, with voltage it changes considerably,
because real power is proportional to V square. Now, reactive power since these are
basically resistive loads, reactive power for these cases will be 0. And therefore, these
loads most of the time can be represented by a pure resistance only. So, a constant
resistance representation is good enough for most of the heating loads.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:58)

Next, we will discuss induction machine load or the induction motor load. Now, we will
consider the voltage characteristics of these induction motors. I will not go into the
theory of induction machine, because you would have done that, in the course on
induction machine or in the course of machines. And therefore, I will take it for granted
that you already know, the basic theory of induction machine. And from there, we will
build the characteristics and the models for the induction machine. So, here we will talk
about the real power versus voltage characteristics and reactive power versus voltage
characteristics of induction machines.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:47)

Now, if you recall the induction machine equivalent circuit is shown here. Now, in this
the terminal voltage V T is applied to the induction machine the stator winding of the
induction machine has resistors r s and an reactance X s. The magnetizing part is
represented by a reactance X m, of course we are neglecting the core loss part. So,
therefore, this resistance normally which we put in parallel with X m is neglected,
because that part is much smaller.
And therefore, this representation of X m for magnetizing part is good enough. Now, the
rotor circuit has reactance X r and resistance r r. And the load is represented here as r r
into 1 minus s by s. This is standard equivalent circuit for an induction motor. So, steady
state equivalence circuit of an induction motor excluding core loss component can be
seen as the circuit. I t is the current which is flowing into the induction machine.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:14)

Now, we know that r r plus r r into 1 minus S by S is equal to like that, if we add these
two resistances here r r and r r into 1 minus S by S. Then we have this equal to r r by S,
where S is the rotor slip and this is equal to N 1 minus N 2 by N 1. Where, N 1 is the
synchronous speed given by 120 f by P, where f is the frequency in Hertz and P is the
number of poles. So, this we had seen when we discussed the synchronous machine. So,
synchronous speed is 120 f by P and N 2 is the actual speed of the rotor.
So, it is N 1 which is the synchronous speed minus N 2 the actual speed divided by the
synchronous speed, this is how we define the slip. That is how much the rotor is slipping
with respect to the synchronous speed. So, because the air gap flux the three phase
winding on the stator, produces field which is rotating in the air gap at synchronous
speed. And the rotor if it is rotating at a speed N 2, then it is slipping with respect to the
rotating magnetic field in the air gap.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:00)

So, this is how we define the slip, therefore if we add these the rotor resistances and the
load part. Then, we are going to get the equivalent circuit as, this is the stator part, this is
the magnetizing part, this is X r the reactance of the rotor circuit. And the rotor resistance
as well as the load part is represented here, so we have this as r r by s. Now, when s is
equal to 0, then what we have is this resistance is infinite, which means it is open circuit.
And which simply says, that no load can be served, because no current will be flowing in
this part of the circuit. And the machine, therefore cannot operate at synchronous speed,
because whenever it rotates there is going to be some loses in friction and wind age.
Those mechanical losses have to be supplied and if it rotates at synchronous speed, there
will be no current which can flow in the rotor circuit. Because, there is no flux which can
be cut by the rotor conductor and therefore, no torque can be developed.
When the rotor is standstill, then r r is giving the resistance of the rotor. That is when the
machine is at standstill, then we have the resistance of the rotor here. And since, this
resistance will be much less, so much smaller, therefore you will have a very large
current flowing through this. As the rotor picks up speed the value of s will keep on
reducing.
And that means, this r r by s will keep on increasing, because s is equal to 1 is standstill.
And as the rotor starts rotating s becomes less than 1 and it keeps on increasing till it
reaches very near to the synchronous speed, then this s is very near to the synchronous

speed. Normally these induction machines will be working at around slip off around 0.4,
0.5 like that, that is at 4 percent, 5 percent slip.
Therefore, this value will be very large. But, when we switch on the machine, that is
when we apply the voltage across the machine, when it is at standstill this resistance, this
s will be equal to 1. So, this is only r r coming into picture and that is why you get a very
large current flowing. So, starting current of induction machine is generally very large.
So, this effect has to be taken into account, when we are trying to analyze the machine.
So, if we have an induction machine node, then we have to consider all this. And that is
why this circuit provides us that kind of a representation, where we can model this
machine properly.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:43)

Now, if we see here ((Refer Time: 23:51)) this magnetizing part is drawing some current
here. Now, this current will be very much out of phase or almost at 90 degrees with this
current, because this will have a large resistance initially, so a small resistance. And
therefore, we will have here, what we will get is this current being very small, because
this impedance is going to be very large, it is only the magnetizing current.
So, what we can do is, we can shift this on this side. And therefore, we can make our
model something like this, where we have also neglected the stator resistance, which is
much smaller compared to the stator reactance. So, approximate model which makes our
analysis much simpler, can be seen as this circuit model. So, this is the approximate
equivalent circuit model for an induction machine.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:06)

Now, using this model if we want, we can plot the power versus voltage characteristics at
different voltages for the machine. That is if we have applied 1 per unit voltage, then
what we will get is a characteristics like this. If we have reduced the voltage to 0.8, then
the operating characteristics will be following this curve and so on. If 0.6 there then it
will be following this curve and if it is 0.45, it will be following this curve.
That is at different values of voltage applied to the terminal of the machine. We can plot
the power versus voltage characteristics of the machine, it is very similar to the torque
speed characteristics or torque slip characteristics. So, when we apply these voltages, we
can find out how the power versus slip of these machines change. So, slip is equal to 1
basically means that, this is the standstill position and slip is equal to 0 is this position
where the power output is going to be 0.
All these machines will work only in this portion, that is this is the stable portion on the
left of this line. We have got the stable portion, this is this part is stable, this part is stable
and so on. This part which is on the right of this line is the unstable part, that is the
machine would not be working in this part at all. So, when you apply the voltage it goes
up like this and it will be working on this portion somewhere.
Now, suppose the load the mechanical load or machine is 1 per unit. Then what we find
is if we have applied a voltage of 1 per unit, the operating point will be this point. If we
had applied a voltage of 0.8 per unit operating point will be here. Suppose, if we reduce

the voltage to 0.6 what we find is, this will be the operating point. And if we reduce the
voltage further what do we find is that, there is no operating point available.
So, what is going to happen if the voltage goes below 0.6 per unit, for this machine when
the load remains at 1 per unit. Then, in that case we find that there is no point of
intersection between a constant power load. And constant power 1 per unit load and the
power speed characteristics of the machine. So, this simply means that, this machine will
stall or it will stop, it will not be able to generate torque to take care of this power or the
mechanical load of the machine.
So, electrical torque is going to be much less than the mechanical load on the machine.
And therefore, the machine will start slowing down and will finally stop, this is called
stalling of the machine. Now, if this kind of a situation can happen, if we have a short
circuit occurring very near to the machine terminal, or the substation at which this
machine is connected. There, then the voltage at the machine terminals can go to very
low value.
Because, if this short circuit is occurring at a nearby substation, then the voltage at the
substation can go very low during the period of short circuit. And if this happens, then
some of the machines induction machines if the voltage goes below this point will start.
And this point is the maximum power that can be generated by this machine, is called the
P max for the machine. And the slip at which this can be generated is called the critical
slip.
And the voltage at which the maximum power is equal to the load is called the critical
voltage. So, in this case we find that V is equal 0.6 per unit is the critical voltage for this
machine. Because, below that the machine is going to start, that is it is going to come a
stop. And the slip at which this occurs is the critical slip. Now, if this happens that the
machine stops, then if the short circuit is removed, again it will the voltage will be
restored and the machine will start.
Now, if it starts from a stand still position or at a very low speed, it is going to draw very
large current. Because, we have seen from this characteristics that (Refer Time: 31:09),
this s will be coming near to one. So, this resistances is very small, so the current drawn
by this machine will increase considerably. Therefore, this situation needs to be analyzed
properly if we are doing an accurate, we are going to do an accurate analysis of a power

system under such situations. Similarly, if we want to keep the torque on the machine
constant and vary the voltage, then we get different characteristics.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:07)

If the torque is constant say at 1 per unit, then we have this characteristics a which shows
how the real power is going to vary. This dotted line for this characteristics a is telling
us, how the real power is going to vary, when the voltage is varied. That is if it increases
beyond 1 per unit, then the real power which will be developed by the machine will also
be more than 1 per unit. Otherwise, we are finding that this will be near to 1 per unit and
at very low voltages it does rise a little bit and then, falls off considerably.
Of course, beyond 0.6, we find that this is going to fall down and you will have a stalling
of the machine. The characteristics b is for 0.75 per unit torque and it is characteristics c
is for 0.5 per unit torque. Now, the real power changes are not really very much except
that, beyond the critical voltage you are going to get no power at all. But below this the
variation is not very large may be around 10 percent or so whereas the variation in the
reactive power is considerable.
If you see, if we are keeping the torque at 1 per unit and change the voltage, then the
reactive power which is absorbed by the machine is like this, whereas on this side of
course, the reactive power increases considerably. So, below a certain voltage, the
absorption of reactive power by the machines becomes very, very large. Same thing is
seen by this curve b, which is for 0.75 percent of the full load torque and c which is at
0.5 or 50 percent of the full load torque.

So, these show the characteristics of the real power and the reactive power drawn by the
machine, under different voltage conditions. Now, this is mostly telling us about the
steady state operation of the machine. That is if we keep the voltage at 0.9 per unit, then
this is what is going to happen. That is the real power will be this much, the reactive
power drawn by the machine will be this much and so on.
But, if we want to do a dynamic analysis, that is how this machine is going to behave
when these values are changing rapidly. So, how the machine, because what is going to
happen is, the speed of the machine will also change, the voltage and current drawn by
the machine will also vary. So, if we want to study the dynamic or do a dynamic
simulation of the machine, then we need a little different circuit for that.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:57)

Now, what we do for dynamic simulation is, we use a circuit where we have the
resistance of the stator given here as r s. X dash is the transient reactance of the machine.
Now, transient reactance of a induction machine is very much same as the block rotor
reactance of the induction machine. And this voltage E dash is the voltage behind the
reactance of the machine, which is basically what we can call as the voltage generated by
this machine or the air gap voltage. So, X dash is the transient reactance, E dash is the
voltage behind the transient reactance. This is a simplified representation of the induction
machine for transient or dynamic analysis.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:06)

So, with this model, if we want we can find out how the voltage is going to change with
time for this machine. So, that is we can find out the slope of the rate of change of
voltage with time. So, d E dash by d t will be in this case given by omega f, that is twice
pi f, so this is omega. So, j omega S is the slip into E dash minus 1 by T 0, which is I can
write this is as tau 0 into E dash minus j X minus X dash into I t, where tau 0 is the time
constant and this is given by X r plus X m by omega into r r.
That is twice pi f into r r, which can also be written as L r plus L m by r r, where L r is
the inductance of the rotor winding. L m is the inductance representing the magnetizing
part, r r is the rotor resistance. And I t the terminal current into the motor is given by V t
minus E dash into 1 by r s plus j X s. That is what we see from this circuit I t will be V t
minus E dash divide by r s plus j X s.
So, this equation differential equation governs the dynamics of the voltage of the
induction machine. So, when we are doing the dynamic analysis, we use this kind of a
representation. If we want even more detailed analysis then of course, we can also
introduce the rotor dynamics, that is the mechanical dynamics of the induction machine.
However, most of the time that is not required and we do not go in for such complex
representation, unless we are analyzing a single very large induction machine in the
system.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:37)

Next is synchronous motors. The synchronous motors are very rarely used as such most
of their application have been, either as a synchronous condenses, where we want to use
these machines for providing the reactive power. Or in some applications where we need
very constant speed, which is not possible by a induction motor, because where change
in load the induction machine power or the torque changes, so speed also changes.
So, if you change power the speed will change, whereas for a synchronous machine the
speed will remain constant whatever may be the power. So, synchronous machine
characteristics as the voltage changes can also be shown here. We see that with change in
voltage the change in power is hardly there, whereas the change in reactive power is
considerable. Because, we would like to keep as the voltage reduces our reactive power
demand, or the reactive power which is generated by this synchronous generator by
fixing x excitation to keep the E dash constant is going to be much larger.
So, the Q generated is much larger as the voltage goes below the rated value. So, this is
about the synchronous motor.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:22)

Next, we will talk about the different categories of load. In fact, as we said earlier in at a
substation, we have large number of loads which are connected. Now, these loads can be
categorized as loads in residential buildings, loads in industrial sector or in different
industries and loads in commercial and business establishments. Now, these loads in
these different establishments have some kind of different break ups and different
characteristics.
So, what we can do is categorize the loads into different segments, like residential
industrial and commercial. And for each one of these categories, we can find out what is
the percentage of various kinds of loads various types of loads, which are there in these
different categories. And once we have this, then knowing the total load on these
categories, we can form or a composite model or aggregate all the loads. And make a
model of the complete load as a single load on the substation or the busbar of the power
system.

(Refer Slide Time: 42:56)

So, here I have given just some typical values of different kinds of loads, in these
different sectors. This is LM represents large motors, large induction motors, SM
represents small induction motors. DL represents the lighting loads, T x represents
transformer kind of load, CMVA means constant MVA load. And rest is all mixed up
kind of loading for which it is difficult to identify exactly.
So, if you look at residential sector the very few or in fact, no large induction motors,
small induction motors are there for running of water pumps. Your fans, may be air
coolers, may be air conditioners and so on. So, you have a large percentage of loading
which is there for this small motors kind. Now, for lighting load you have some power
drawn by the lighting load.
If you are using fluorescent tubes, CFLs and others this is much smaller. Transformer
loading very few, so around only percent constant and VA load, very few around 4.1
percent. This is a typical value and this will change from various substation, this is for
some particular substation, where this analysis was carried out. And remaining different
kinds of load are shown here as 26.8 percent and so on.
Commercial establishment 0 percent of large motors, large percentage of small motors,
again fans, air conditioning and other things. Lighting load there is much more in
commercial establishments, specially shops and other things, you have all kinds of
advertising boards, you have very large lighting very bright lights there. So, you have
large amount of lighting load, transformer loading is hardly there, constant MVA loading

is also very little remaining type of loads also are somewhat less. Say around 6.3 percent
in this particular case.
For industrial sector we have large motors, which form the major portion of the load that
is around 65 percent of the total load is will be large motors. 15 percent of the load is
small motors, around 10 percent is for lighting load, 1 percent is for transformer kind of
load. 5 percent constant MVA load and 4 percent remaining different kinds of loads that
we have. So, this is showing that we have some kind of a division of different types of
load for different sectors.
These may not be exactly same, but will be following similar kind of trends at various
substations. So, if we know out of the total load at the substation say 30 percent load is
for residential, 40 percent load is for commercial sector and 30 percent of the load is for
the industrial sector. Then, using this division of different types of loading, we can form
a composite percentage of different types of loads. And using this we can make a
composite model for the load at the busbar or at the substation. So, this is what we call
aggregation of the load.
(Refer Slide Time: 47:12)

That is at a substation you have large number of loads. These each of this individual
loads will have different characteristics. Now, what we need to do is aggregate all of
them into one load on the substation. Now, if you want to do that, then we have to again
as I said earlier, know different percentage of various categories of loads that we have.
And we know the division of various types of loads in these categories. So, we can form

a percentage of different types of load on the substation. And then, based on these
voltage and frequency characteristics of these loads, we can build a composite model for
the load. So, next we will talk about the composite load model.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:11)

Now, for most of the system analysis that we do, specially the steady state analysis. That
is the load flow analysis that we carry out for power systems, there we have to model
these loads. Either as a constant power loads that is P and Q remain constant, at that
point or we can call it as a constant MVA load. We can for many of the transient stability
analysis, we model the loads as constant impedance load, that is we assume the loads to
remain as a constant impedance connected at the bus.
So, with change in voltage the power drawn by the load, changes also with the change in
frequency, the power drawn by the load changes, because the impedance will also
change. Then, we can many times for this transient stability analysis, the induction
machine loads are specially a small motors are modeled as constant current loads.
Finally, if we see the composite load, that is if we add up all kinds of load what we have
is loads which are sensitive to both voltage and frequency.
And therefore, if we want we can create a general model for the load as shown here.

(Refer Slide Time: 49:50)

So, we have voltage and frequency sensitive load, where we write the load P at any
voltage and frequency is equal to load P 0, which is the load at the rated voltage and
rated frequency. So, P 0 is the load at rated voltage and rated frequency. This multiplied
by a factor p v s and multiplied a factor p f s. Similarly, the reactive power load can also
be modeled as the Q at any voltage and frequency will be equal Q 0 into, that is Q 0 is
the reactive power of the load at rated voltage and frequency into q v s into q f s.
And these factors p v s p f s, q v s q f s. can be represented as p v s is the voltage
sensitivity of the real power P. If this can be written as k 1 some constant k 1 plus a
constant k 2 into voltage plus a constant k 3 into voltage square, because we have seen
many loads, especially the constant impedance loads are where in the real power varies
as per square of the voltage.
So, here we have p v s given by k 1 plus k 2 v plus k 3 v square. Similarly p f s the
variation of real power with or the sensitivity of real power with frequency is give by this
factor p f s, which we can represent as 1 plus k 4 into f. Now, here we do not use
generally a higher order terms of frequency, because the band of frequency in which the
frequency varies is generally very small.
It is say normally the frequency which is varying in India is around 49.5 to 50.5, so that
is the band of plus minus 1 percent. In fact, in many developed countries this band is
much, much smaller, the variation in the frequency is very, very small. So, frequency
variation in most of the cases is generally neglected. But, even if we consider the

variation in frequency, only the first order term should be good enough. So, p f s we
write as 1 plus k 4 into f and q v s is the sensitivity of reactive power with v, that can be
represented as k 5 plus k 6 into v plus k 7 into v square.
And similarly, the sensitivity of the reactive power with frequency can be written as 1
plus k 8 into frequency. So, we know that by choosing different values of this k 1, k 2, k
3, k 4 all these constants, we can model all kinds of combinations of load. So, once we
know these, the percentage of various kinds of load on a substation, then we can obtain
this coefficients k 1 to k 8. And we can model this the complete load on the substation by
this kind of a generalized load model.
So, with this we end this lesson on modeling of loads. In this lesson, we started with the
what are the various kinds of load. We talked about the voltage and frequency,
sensitivity of load. We talked about how we aggregate these different types of loads and
categories of load into a single load by a generalized load model. So, with this we end
this lesson.
Thank you.
Preview of next lecture
Welcome to lesson 16 on Power System Analysis. In this lesson we will talk about the
power flow problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:47)

In this lesson, we will start with an introduction to power flow problem. Then, we will
talk about how we formulate the Y Bus matrix, then we will derive the power flow
equations. And finally, we will be talking about how we classify the busbars into
different types for power flow problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 55:20)

Well, on completion of this lesson you should be able to explain the significance of
power flow problem. Develop the Y bus matrix for any power network, develop power
flow equations for a power system and classify different types of busbars.
(Refer Slide Time: 55:38)

Characteristics that we see for this Y bus matrix is that it is a symmetric matrix.

(Refer Slide Time: 55:47)

That is what we are seeing here, is Y 1 2 is equal to Y 2 1 is equal to minus Y 1 2, that is

minus small y 1 2. So, what we are saying Y 1 2 is equal to Y 2 1 Y 1 3 is equal to Y 3 1
Y 2 3 is equal to Y 3 2, that is we are seeing that the matrix is a symmetric matrix.
(Refer Slide Time: 56:14)

Then, other type of busbar is a load busbar, where both real and reactive power are
specified. At this busbar what we what are the unknowns, if we know V and delta at this
busbar we have all the variables. So, here P and Q are specified, that is injection real and
reactive power injection is specified. And the unknowns at this busbar are V and delta,

voltage magnitude and its phase angle. We have a third type of busbar which we call as
voltage control busbars.
(Refer Slide Time: 56:52)

These are generally busbars where we have generation. At these busbars P k and V k are
specified, that is the real power and the voltage magnitude is specified. And the power
flow program or the solution of power flow will provide us the reactive power and the
voltage phase angle. Now, these busbars as I said are generally the generator busbars or
switched shunt capacitors or static var systems.
So, busbars which have these, they are generally P V bus or voltage controlled bus. The
main reason for this is at these busbars, since we have reactive power control available.
So, we try to keep the voltage controlled or the voltage magnitude at some specified
value. And therefore, the voltage magnitude can be specified and there is since, these are
also generator busbars or may be load busbars, the real power at these busbars are
known.
So, once we have fixed this magnitude of voltage, once we calculate the delta angle for
this voltage, then we can calculate Q for this voltage. So, Q and delta are the unknowns
for this. Sometimes maximum and minimum var limits that is P G k max and P G k min
for the equipment is also specified. And in case we find after the solution that, the value
of the reactive power that is Q k is exceeding these limits.
Then we fix the value of Q k to these limits and consider this busbars as load busbars.
Because, P and Q are now fixed at these busbars and V and delta need to be found out.

So, with this we come to a the end of todays lesson, we will talk about the solution
methods for power flow equation in the next lesson.
Thank you very much.