basic electrical Lec02

Introduction to Electrical Engineering
Prof. Bhim Singh

Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi
Lecture: 02
Elements in Electrical Circuit
(Refer Slide Time: 00:30)
Welcome to the course introduction to electrical engineering. we will have a today second
lecture discussing the elements in electric circuits. The outline of the today presentation is
starting from introduction we will discuss basic circuits and circuit elements theoretical
questions and exercise numerical analysis. Of course, we will have a some unsolved problem
with the references which we have followed for this lecture.
Well coming to the introduction to this lecture and we have that related to that whenever the
energy is required on large scale or large power it is generally not utilized in its original form
rather it is converted into electrical energy. I mean the question is why the typical examples
are like a solar photovoltaic array converts solar energy in the light form to electricity is
upcoming I mean throughout the world at very high pace.
Or the wind turbine converts the wind velocity or wind energy into the electricity. And
thermal power plant converts chemical energy of fossil fuel into the electricity. And of course
the battery converts chemical energy into electricity like. Of course I mean here we can say
that the electricity and neither is an or in nature in original form not it utilize in the final form
is only we convert into it and of course we transmit it as well as finally we utilize another
form like.
what are the advantage of this energy in electrical form which it can be transported from one
place to another place in efficient manner. I mean the efficiency of transmission is quite high
and for the flow of energy can be controlled very precisely efficiently in electrical electricity
form. I mean that is another major region or you can call it the advantage and its very neat
and clean form of energy you cannot see it of course and it is not visible also.
Its only flow through electrical electric wires like our electrical conductor and it can be
converted to other form of energy through suitable equipment depending upon for which
form you want whether mechanical whether you want light or sound. So, there are plenty of
form which require probably for human beings for either for comfort or for requirement like
typically. So, lot of applications related to mechanical as well as typically of your other form.
So, typical examples are it can be converted to mechanical energy through a motor as well as
maybe some other form light energy with either the bulb or maybe like a typically with the
LED available nowadays.
Of course there are some disadvantage of this energy in the electrical form it had to be always
derived from some other sources of energy as it is not in available directly in electricity form
or in electrical energy form. That is the one reason and it cannot be stored on large scale
therefore it must be generated as and when required. Of course we have a very large grid in
most of the most of the countries in the world.
Where of course the power, you have a large number of consumers as well a large number of
generators and we call of course a large grid like. So, but of course this couple of
disadvantage remains there only like. Of course we have some energy storage but not
certainly of that large scale like common also.
Well this electrical engineering could be summarized in the four categories typically the
production of electrical energy. Then the transmission of electrical energy then application of
electrical energy and then of course control of electrical energy like. So, well all these four I
mean aspect typically the first three are related to the efficiency. So, we have a good
efficiency of this energy conversion from other form either from mechanical to electrical
form as well as transmission.
And as well as application of this electrical energy may be converting it to mechanical I mean
the these conversion are very high efficient compared to the other form of energy conversion.
I mean typically like example I can give you like if you have like electric typically a vehicle
an automobile vehicle the efficiency of converting from chemical energy typically from
petrol or diesel to convert your mechanical the efficiency around 25 to 30%.
However to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy the efficiency is typically
around 96 to 98% order of 95 to 96% moreover there is a possibility of back regeneration. I
mean we can convert that kinetic energy of the wheel into electrical energy which also can be
very efficient and we are able to recover 40 to 50% energy and that is the reason that energy
consumption in electric vehicle compared to automobile based vehicle.
I mean it becomes one-sixth or one-seventh consumption of this electrical energy or the net
energy in electric vehicle and that is one of the reason why this electric vehicle at the moment
I mean throughout the world is going to increase and of even a Federal Government of India I
decided to buy 2030 that all the vehicles I mean must be converted into electrical vaccines.
And of course the control of this electrical energy is very precise as well as typically
measurement is also very precise. Or accountability is also very precise of this electrical
energy like I mean also.
Well a basic electrical system has four constraint or part as the source. The function of the
source is to provide the energy for the electrical system that is for example battery or the
generator. And the loads the function of load is to absorb the electrical energy supplied by the
source and convert to other form may be typical example may be like motor. Then lamp,
heaters depend in which form you are going to convert it like.
And part of the electrical system I mean you can just see here it is a source with the
transmission followed by control and then finally it is the load there.
The control apparatus its function is to control the voltage and current or say power typical
example here the switch I mean which you can stop or you can start the power flow through
this control. So, in between the control which we are talking about it may be the kind of
either the switch or maybe depends on power level it may be your conductor or it may be
large switch like maybe a circuit breaker or other form of the switches like which can be
controlled very precisely as well as remotely without much difficulty like on.
So, typical example may be here is you have a generator and a switch and followed by the
lamp system or it can be like a you have a generator and it may be a with the switch you have
a lamp bulb as a load unit. And of course you have a several representation of symbols for
different components of electrical system like as simple wire we say they are the wires or
conductors.
Then with the circle in the G we write it for the generator and of course the symbol with the
cross with the circle we call it lamb or bulb and of course with the bar with between the two
points I mean the wire we call it the switch. So, these are the symbol used of course in this
electrical circuit which is used for the lamp like.
we have electrical components I mean the active component we divide typically the electrical
component is typically a voltage source I mean which are really you can just see typical
example may be a battery a DC source. And may be a DC generator or AC generator. So,
those are the typically the sources voltage sources because they keep an almost constant
voltage typically across the load or even under open circuit condition.
And of course these are much in practice. As a voltage source because most of the load are
designed for a particular voltage. So, the voltage whether you are feeding from the battery the
most of the load which you might have typically a domestic inverter or many other loads
which are operated from the battery. Typical example I have told like may be electric vehicle
motor as well as the other accessories in electric vehicle may be air conditioning your console
and control auxiliary motors.
I mean they are operated with constant voltage battery also. And of course another example
may be a generator like DG set or maybe the generator typically may be for hydrogenators or
thermal generator. I mean thermo thermal power station generator or maybe or typically even
a wind power generator. So, they are AC generator. So, they also give almost like a constant
voltage but of course with the load voltage may vary but there is a method of controlling that
voltage.
So, that the voltage across the load remains constant also and we have of course regulating or
control system for that. So, another source which of course we call it current source. the
current source is not of course available in nature. So, prominently because in that case in the;
current source if you really can find the current source depending upon the impedance of the
load your voltage across the load go on changing.
So, those sources are not too much but we many applications we derive the voltage source
with the help of like BJT because that is a current operator device. And of course like a solar
photovoltaic array and that also we have like a current source. But of course we that current
source we do not use directly we might be using from solar PV either from typically by a
converter DC-DC converter we charge the battery.
Of course with this current source or typically we might be feeding it to maybe a to the AC
grid by converting the DC into AC or might be using directly for some of the applications
from solar directly for maybe for the purpose like induction cooker or maybe for the fans or
there are plenty of application which are coming up like with the solar energy which are fed.
But the major benefit of course this in that case is typically in solar also in current fed.
That the inner production is there because of the current because current cannot exceed more
than a particular limit like but of course they are not so much easily available in nature and
they are not very extensively used. Now most of the loads are designed for constant voltage.
So, that is why the voltage source are more permanent in nature like I mean also. So, these
are of course the you can call it active component in electrical engineering.
And of course we have a passive components which are part of electrical circuit I mean the
electrical component like a typically like a resistor. Of course, resistor will be discussing in
detail in later on and they are used in many of electrical circuits as a part of requirement. And
of course, we have like a inductors they also use on in AC circuit. As well as of course
somewhere in control of DC circuit also use this component especially the inductors like
common.
And then the capacitors through capacitor these inductant capacitors are the energy storage
device. So, they are also required for this many convergent may be the DC to AC or DC to
DC converter and they are required the energy is storing device like I mean also. And of
course the transformer, transformer of course in AC system is a basic backbone passive
device I mean it does not have its energy.
But its convert typically from one voltage level to another voltage level that is one of the
major task but of course it can correct convert the current level as well as it can provide the
transfer of impedance also in many applications. But major application of it is the voltage
transformation from one level to another level and also given certainly a big push for the bin
of AC system.
Last time we discussed like with the AC bar and DC bar I mean and finally the AC really one
however we have many disadvantage of AC system but still I mean the AC system has gone
because you can generate that optimum voltage you can transmit at optimum voltage and then
you can utilize that optimum voltage that transformer provide that conversion of the voltage
from one level to another.
And allow the you can call it the best efficiency or best conversion efficiency form for all
three conversion either in generation or transmission hour. Typically finally in utilization like
also. The transformer is very backbone devices for I mean not only for convergent voltage
level it also provide the isolation also of electrical circuit from one circuit to another circuit.
So, isolation as well as you can have a multiple output also isolate the output also with a
transformer.
Even a DC-DC converter we use the transformer. So, transformer and electrical engine you
can call it either for even for this earlier AC circuit. Now even many DC circuits also
transformer are extensively used of course for providing isolation, change of voltage, level
apart from because in large change of voltage level isolation is also required like coming.
And of course getting multiple outputs also and requirement for the not only for that you
require you want to connect the multiple load also for that purpose also we use the
transformers.
So, transformer is a really I mean a very important development the passive components of
electrical energy system like common.
So, coming to typically your active devices I mean battery is one. battery are of course of
many kind I mean like you might be having like a six this battery cell then your nine volt
batteries well I mean then laptop battery then you have a mobile battery. I mean day to day
you just look into different battery on 150 ampere hour jumbo tubular battery used for many
purpose like.
So, these batteries you can call it today the day by day their applications are increasing. There
are the batteries which are not rechargeable you might have seen the battery cell and there are
now many rechargeable batteries are now in more in practice either you can see here either in
your mobile phone or you might have in laptop this battery. Apart from that even many other
applications also as well as the lowest material you look into for my might be for even your
all the auto mobile vehicle also.
you have initially the battery for many purposes like not only for starting but for lighting I
mean for air conditioning to plenty of application have been there. But now in electric vehicle
this is become some one of the main sources of energy as a restoring device. So, these are the
energy storage device or active device in electrical engineering and for many purpose I mean
their application day by day even a portable tools as well as the even the lot of toys you might
have seen which are operated from the DC and there we use the these batteries.
So, there are plenty of application advantages of nowadays day to day life like common. And
many of the gadgets which you really use whether it is a watch or whether it is your mobile
phone I mean plenty of applications like also.
Then of course we have a typically different kind of generator as active device. So, one is
typically maybe residential diesel generator or you might have a typically Honda portable
generator. I mean these are the typical name with the trade name for the industry or you have
a power big Power Digi set or generator. Like of course these are you can call it the generator
used for emergency purposes.
there are other generators also which are used for your conventional generator or forcing
phase based generation with the help of chaos as well like the your coal gas also. And apart
from that we have a generators which are of course having all these of mechanical motion
these most of these energy other form here the chemical energy converted into mechanical
form and that mechanical engine virtually drive your generator to convert into electrical form.
But there of course like hydrogenator hydro turbines turns the your generator to convert this
mechanical energy into electrical energy. And of course you know the solar which give you
directly the DC and you have to convert into AC with the help of inverter like I mean also.
So, these are of course we call it typically the generator as a you can call it active devices.
Now coming to the your passive devices typically the rations which have been in application.
Especially lot of application in spite we know the resistance dissipate the power but many
circuits and majority of the large number of circuit we use this resistor especially in
electronic circuit or typically the circuit related for your many of the controlling device. I
mean also measurement devices control devices.
And even the typically you can call it electronics devices we use this component passive
component I mean like the resistor. However it is a flossy element and we know but still we
use typically. So, typical example maybe you can think about this resistor as a symbol I mean
this is the typical practical shape how the resistor is made. This resistor is of 0.1 ohm as
shown there and 5 watt this is the specification of this resistor that it can dissipate with this
surface area without blowing or without damaging it can dissipate up to 5 watt.
And from this you can certainly find out how much current bearing capacity of this or the
voltage can be bared across this resistance I mean according to this power. So, you can find
out certainly power is given here. So, you can find out the current form here I mean typically
from resistance value I mean the P = I 2  R to form this you can find out what is the
maximum current can be allowed through this resistance without excessive heating or
blowing this resistor like common also.
Then you have another shape of resistor typically of 140 watt it can dissipate as this TO247
resistor or there are plenty of other shape like carbon resistors are used in electronic circuit.
They are available in quarter watt as well as v culture what means 0.25 watt or 0.5 watt or
even they are available even up to 1 watt like. And then you have a 5 watt resistor as it is
shown in first and this lost.
As well as you have one wire bound resistor huge in any application for typically for heating
application or many other typical application. And then of course you have another series of
resistance which you have seen here surface mounted resistor shown as a lego chip resistor
using many of electronic circuits. I mean so that your electron circuit you can call it the
surface is smooth and it looks like a very and the dissipation is also within limit also. So,
these are the typically the resistive elements of different shape.
And another element passive element is the inductor which is used in electrical engineering
as a typically air core inductor. The advantage of course of air core inductor is that it does not
saturate. I mean the flux is the proportional to your current I mean because the air is only in
the air. So, you have a linear magnetic circuit but the major disadvantage that you do not
produce the large flux because the relative permeability of air is quite low.
So, you require the large excitation current for producing some flux here. But of course we
used to reduce the excitation requirement for this inductor may be this ferrite core total
inductor you can see that the wire is bound on the toroidal core of ferrite I mean which
increases the inductance manifold but of course there is a certainly a non-linearity involved if
this saturate like coming.
So, certainly you have to design at a typically this at a flux density of course less than 0.4
Tesla. So, that it this your code does not saturate otherwise you cannot define the inductance.
I mean inductance will not be fixed it will go on changing I mean with the current also or
with the flux or particular amount of excitation on this core like. Or you have a typically the
laminated core structure laminar core structure of course is required in case of when you are
using this on AC because it will certainly will have a core losses into it.
Apart from that on wire bound takes a high square losses but you will have in the core the
core losses also which is because of the rate change of the current. Especially in the AC we
apply the voltages which are changing across it and certainly you produce the core losses
eddy current losses as well as hysteresis losses both into this. To reduce especially your eddy
current losses will eliminate it.
So, that the eddy current or eddies which are induced in the your solid iron or solid steel I
mean though that are reduced by providing insulation in between different laminations. So,
you can call it the relations of this for the eddies are increase and that reduce the amount of
current flowing through this Eddie or eddy currents like and that because of this that reduces
the different losses in the inductor like.
And so that is not dissipating with that much power. So, you can define the inductance of
course you have to keep precautions that it also does not saturate with the typically when you
are using the large inductor. Of course the these inductors I mean there are two more
important specification one is that for which value of inductance like which is normally in
your millihenry or Henry for which value you are designing this inductor.
Apart from that for how much current you are going to design it. The cross section area of the
conductor is decided by the current rating of the inductor I mean this inductor how much
current you want to pass through it. And of course the number of turns are decided how much
the inductance really you want from this. So, the inductance depends certainly on number of
tons square and of course the current depends on cross section area of the inductor.
So, certainly length on the conductor will increase if you require more down number of tons
to increase the value of the inductance like I mean also. So, but of course these inductance are
required in many your AC circuit as well as DC circuit for the various purpose when really
you want to develop the proper conversion of the power in AC as well as in the DC circuit
and for some time.
Of course I mean typically these inductors are required to take a different voltage drop also
across this like in many electrical circuits.
So, you can say we have a sometime couple inductor. Couple inductor the role is that you
might be putting the two coils in two different circuit and the isolation also may be required
between the two circuit. And the inductance certainly the coupled circuit provide much
higher inductance because not only you have a self inductance of the two coils which are on
the same core but you also have a mutual inductance also between these two coils.
So, that really can be additive nature or it can be of subtractive nature you can reduce the net
inductance even you keep the two coils in series or parallel. So, you can increase or you can
decrease the inductance of individual coil inductances also like I mean also. Well then you
can have a variable inductor in many application we require a variable inductor also. I mean
for the purpose of typically of specific requirement.
And these certainly provide the variable inductance by certainly introducing the either the
changing of number of turns or providing the different length of air gap into that. So,
different geometries are used for variable inductor like I mean also. Then of course you have
a like a typical example as a variable inductor with the 0.5, 0.1 micro henry to 30 micro henry
as a variable inductor.
Of course with the fixed value I mean that is required in many of the electrical circuit when
we are using that these inductors like.
So, then another passive component which we talk about in the capacitors they are available
of various variety of the value because they are used for typically like we call it low voltage
ceramic capacitor they are given like with this kind of structure. I mean like of course they
are not bound with the polarity like. I mean you can have either the voltage polarity either
positive or negative. So, that does not affect either you use on AC circuit or you use the on
DC circuit.
And of course you have a high voltage ceramic capacitors also. So, that is for low voltage and
this is for high voltage up to order of flight gadget it is in specification itself like typically
maybe six kilo volt up to that it can withstand the voltage across the terminal of these two
terminals across this. Then you have a surface mounted ceramic capacitor all these are the
ceramic capacitors.
So, they do not have any polarity feature but you can understand they offer very low in the
capacitance. I mean with this of course with the arrangement. Though but they are very
extensively used in electronic circuit or many of the power electronic circuit also like.
So, then you have a polyester film capacitors. So, they are also used in again an electronic
circuit. I mean like their value normally is little more I mean compared to ceramic capacitor
or axial polyester film capacitor or typically 220 nanofarad polystar capacitors which can be
used which can be used at 310 AC I mean which are given in specification. So, they are also
used of course in many electronic circuit of these capacitors.
Where of course with you will be having voltage appearing across these capacitors of by
directional nature of AC or part of AC plus DC I mean also but values are certainly much
lower. Then we have of course the variable capacitors you might have seen in the many
transistors we vary the capacitors to tune the frequency. So, these are the capacitors used on
those transistor earlier radio transistor or that because you have to tune for different
frequency.
I mean in those analog circuits like common. You have a typically surface mounted chip
electrolyte capacitor. I mean this is the design of course typically forty seven micro farad 35
volt surface mounted chip electrolytic capacitor electrolytic capacitor. I have certainly the
polarity I mean you can connect only in one polarity like with the positive negative sign but
they offer little higher value much higher value like a 47 micro farad.
Where we have seen earlier the ceramic capacitors are of very low value of even either nano
farad or maybe even in micro farad like it might be 0.147 micro farad or 1.2 micro farad like
order of that. In the typically order of similar sizes you can call it like. But of course
electrolytic why it is given there the name is there is electrolytic there which can be only
typically charged only in one polarity like. So, that is the reason they are used only on the in
the DC circuit like.
Then you have many kind of electrolytic capacitor like typically here forty seven micro farad
four fifty volt radial electrolytic pressure and the polarity is given clearly here that okay you
have to connect this terminal with the negative another terminal with the positive like. I mean
they are marked with the polarity. But of course their size is much smaller they are cheaper
compared to your other kind of capacitor for the same microfarad value like.
And you have a plenty of variety of electrolyte capacitor because they are very extensively
used as an energy storage element in case of your electronic circuit even you can find in the
electronic circuit every indicated circuit require a part of some capacitors. So, that the supply
voltage is very less stabilized across every IC’s. So, there we require large number of
capacitors in any electronic circuits like alpha.
Then of course with after covering you can call it linear passive element we have a non-linear
element also in your electrical engineering or electrical circuits. So, one of them is the diode
which are also very extremely this is very famous we call it like IN4007 and 4007PN junction
diode I mean this is very extensively used up to it can withstand up to 7 ampere as well as
400 volt.
most of the circuit we use for in the rectifier or many electronic circuit this diode and you
have a the zener diode also which certainly when it conducts it can take a particular kind of I
mean voltage typically across the Zener diode. Because you say you know Zener advancing
back down is there the voltage there. So, sometimes you basically for protection of many of
the devices put across the many of the IC chips. So, that voltage does not exceed and there we
use this Zener diodes like common also.
And you have a light emitting diode. So, I hope you know earlier these LED light emitting
diodes with different colours they are using as indicators for different kind of the situation
like a red is given with the danger or maybe like a traffic light we use this red for the purpose
that you have to stop. And maybe green be allowed to go and of course the other colours are
also used for the display in different electronic circuits or different gadgets.
But nowadays we have a white LED which is your very extensively for the lighting purpose
like I mean also. So, because these LEDs are very efficient as far as the light emitting is
concerned and they operate with very low voltage I mean normally we apply it not more than
typically around 3.5 volt across the LED 4 to switch on of this though and current required is
very also low.
So, the LED technology I mean for the lighting system you might have seen for nowadays it
has come very efficient lighting system including compared the your vapour lamps including
your tube light and your compact fluorescent these are considered almost like 100% more
efficient. And it is replacing the big way in country like India developing country also we are
going we have a large.
We have seen last decade a very tremendous revolution for very efficient lighting system
using this LED system like and they are supposed to be designed for different. They are to be
energized by DC voltage so you need LED drivers for that but of course in electronic circuit
we already have a regulated DC supply where we use this LED for different function which I
have mentioned there like.
Then of course you have a typically Schottky diodes which we call it with the silicon carbide
typically with the 1200 volt and 10 ampere. These Schottky diodes considered to be
reasonably fast diode and to consist of very small losses I mean when it is really conducting I
mean also.
Then you of course have photo diodes which are very very much used for the many
applications like your physical application. Where you want to detect the position like maybe
the position, I mean we want to use the rotary position or linear position or you want to use
for the counting purpose when the there is a fraction of the light. So, you can make a number
of counts. So, it is used typically in many gadgets I mean physical gadgets used for many
practical many practical applications like I mean also or you have like a surface mounted
diodes.
So, that of course the normal element. So, now coming to the basic concept of your electrical
engineering different quantity. So, we defined a charge which is normally represented by
capital Q. So, most basic quantity in electric circuit is the electric charge and charge in
electric in an electrical property of a atomic particles of which matter consists measured in
coulombs like I mean.
And one electron carries negative charge of 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs and one coulomb is equal
to 6.24 x 1018 electrons. So, the law of conservation of charge states that the charge can be
neither be created nor destroyed and only can be transferred like.
And typical example here with the electric circuit: So, electric current flow of electronics
charge in a conductor I mean from if you have like electrical circuit. So, and you have it
source like a DC source which can normally represented. So, there is a current flow but the
electrons flow in just exactly opposite direction as your current flow. So, current flows in
case of DC circuit from positive polarity of battery to negative polarity.
But the electron is move in opposite direction of course in the same direction we call it
positive barrier that we call in holes like. So, electric current due to the flow of electronics
charge in a conductor. And electric current is the time rate change of the charge measured in
ampere that is we discussed last time on the name of very famous scientist I mean the ampere
like. So, mathematically the relationship between the current and the charge when the time is,
dq
i=
dt
So, we call it the current is the rate change of the charge like I mean also.
So, now the current direction depends upon the nature of charge flowing that is the current
flows into the in the direction of positive charge flow and in the opposite direction to the
negative charge flow. So, you can just see here that I which goes from positive charge
barriers that i = dq is you can see the how the current is current and this positive charge
dt
carriers are moving in a particular direction.
And how in the second right diagram you can say current is due to negative charge
movement. The current direction is just opposite to the positive negative charge carriers and
current is now i = dq . But certainly, the movement of you can call it electronically just
dt
exactly to the direction of the current like I mean.
And you can see how the current direction are there for the large current the magnitude of the
current passing through the element depends on the number of charge flowing that is for the
large number of the charge flowing current is high and vice versa. So, here the current
direction is just exactly I mean like for the large current many charge flowing and a small
current very feature you can call it the charges are flowing I mean. So, that represents the
charge carriers like on that.
So, now we can define the current as a like a 1 ampere equal to 1 coulomb per second and the
t

charge I mean q transferred from time 0 to t is obtained by Q = i dt , I mean by taking
t0
integration as current have been the derivative of the charge dq upon dt. So, we can find out
the charge transferred in a particular period from t 0 to t .
And certainly the you can call it the type of current we have a two type of current we already
discussed DC current and AC current and here it is the DC current which remains constant
throughout the time. So, a direct current flows only in one direction and can be constant or
time varying of course but remain constant like.
But we have another alternating current I mean is a current that changes direction with
respect to the time. So, that we call it alternating current means is polluting on changing from
positive to negative with respect to the time like I mean also. So, of course alternating current
have a certain benefit I mean especially for you can say because it passes through 0 in one
cycle it passes to 0 typically two times, I mean like you have a 50 hertz we call it the
frequency or 50 cycle per second.
So, it passes through 0 the hundred times. So, when you want to interrupt the circuit or you
can want to switch off the circuit or you want to control the circuit certainly the most of the
time when you are interrupting the circuit current passage to the 0. And that certainly giving
the lot of saving for designing your physical contact of the circuit in AC circuit is becomes a
much cheaper as far as the manufacturing of your AC switches like I mean compared to the
DC switches like.
Now defining typically another quantity called voltage which are normally we call it voltage
but unit is the we represent in V on the name of voltage. So, another scientist we discussed
about last time about that in introduction. So, the voltage Vab between the two points a and b
in an electric circuit is the energy or work needed to move a unit charge from b to a
dw
mathematically, vab = where w is the energy in joules and q is the charge in coulomb.
dq
So, the voltage Vab or simply V is measured in the voltage. So, one volt is equal to one joules
per coulomb or it also represented in at the one Newton meter per coulomb like. So, that is
the typically you can call it we define the voltage.
So, this voltage is represented in electric circuit like as you see with the polarity especially
for the DC or AC even for DC we say that a point in the this circuit is plus with a and minus
is b and we say between the potential or the voltage between two points ab we represent Vab.
Of course, it is represented with the -Vba. So, you can call it the with the probability and if
you really represent one to opposite represent from b to a.
So, certainly this voltage is minus -Vba because of this sign convention and similarly the
typically other two circuit the two equivalent representations of the same voltage Vab find
typically point a is a 9 volt above point b and point b -9 volt point a I mean typically in
another b circuit like. The voltage or potential difference is the energy required to move a
unit charge from reference you can call it negative point to the another positive point and
measured in volts like and in sort we write. Of course the V for the symbol for voltage like.
Well another quantity we define the power and power is the time rate change of expanding or
absorbing energy measure in watts and of course symbolically we represent it part or we
represent in kilowatt or represent in megawatt. So,
dw dw dq
p= =  = vi
dt dq dt
So, that from this we represent v into i where v the voltage and i is the current. So, where the
p is the power inverse and w is the energy in joules and t the time in seconds and the power p
is the time varying quantity and is called the instantaneous power.
Because many times you might be having this power changing with respect to the time I
mean all this quantity may be like maybe alternating quantity like voltage current and power.
So, they might be changing with the time like I mean also.
Especially in AC circuit: So, we have another quantity we call it energy we present normally
in by W or some time in some literature you might have a representation of it by E. So, you
should not get confused for this. So, energy absorbable supply by element from t to t 0 is
represented as,
t t
w =  p dt =  vi dt
t0 t0
So, energy is the capacity to do the work measured in joules and the electric power utility
company measure the energy in watt hours and where we call it watt hour is the 3600 joules
like I mean. And this is the virtually the one-kilowatt hour either we call it one unit which
you might have seen the energy meters in your home or different premises how we can
account for the energy for the commercial purpose or for accounting in terms of the your
money also.
Now coming to a circuit element, establish the electric circuit though electrical engineering
often deals with the transferring energy from one form to other. And this requires
interconnection of electric electrical devices to form electric circuit. So, you can say a simple
electric circuit is look as an example here that you have a battery and you are connecting a
typically a lamp which causes a current to flow from the battery through the lamp like.
So, this total circuit we call it of course a electrical circuit like the electric circuit is an
interconnection of electrical elements of transferring electrical signal or power from one point
to the other that we call it electrical electric circuit like.
Well the interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements from an electric network and
if the network contains at least one closed path it is it is also known as electric circuit. So,
several type of circuit elements are used as per the application you can say as a the network
that is not a circuit because you have a element some elements here and of course you have a
voltage source but this is not the closed circuit because you say open circuit.
So, we cannot say it is a typically a circuit it is a network but not the circuit and the second
circuit I mean second network that is the circuit because it is a closed path even with the may
be one kind of your element connected to the voltage source. So, that we call it the circuit.
So, this is the difference in network and circuit like also just to explain like also. Well to
every circuit is a network but not all the network are the circuit because network not
necessary might have a closed circuit like common.
So, now coming to typically the classification of electric circuit elements I mean we have
many elements in the electrical circuit which we have seen the circuit a simple circuit earlier.
So, we have a linear element nonlinear element we already discussed I mean the linear or we
will discuss of course the elements. We might have a another classification of circuit element
active and passive and unilateral and bilateral elements like circuit element like.
So, defining the different definition for these elements linear and non-linear element, so, in
electric circuit a linear element is an electrical element with a linear relationship between
current and voltage and typical examples are resistance inductor and capacitors. So, these are
normally the linear elements of course we have a certain assumption but physically they can
change with the temperature also but we presume that of course the most of the time they are
typically linear element their value are not changing.
A linear element obeys the principle of the homogeneity scaling property and additive
property. And all the elements which are not linear and does not obey the principle of
homogeneity like a scaling property and additivity property called nonlinear element the
typical examples are diode, transistors I mean most of the electronics and your power
electronics elements like.
So, typical example here you can call it lean about the homogeneous property. If you have
like a linear circuit or elements consisting of. So, you are applying a signal like X (t) and you
have a Y (t) and then you can say k X(t) will be of course in linear circuit will be k Y (t), I
mean. So, this is typically you can call it like a linear circuit. So, for homogeneous system
and amplitude change in the input result in identical amplitude change in the output so that
we call it typically the linear circuit element.
Similarly, we have a like additive property. So, if you have like a typically input of X1 (t) and
output Y1 (t) or if you have a X2 (t) and linear elements you have in the circuit. So, Y2 (t) and
then when you apply X1 plus X2 together in this linear circuit or element then output will be
Y1 (t) plus Y2 (t). So, this we call it like a property additive property of this your linear circuit
element. So, additive property if the X1 result of Y1 and X2 result Y2 then X1 plus X2 results
in Y1 plus Y2 in the output. So, this we call it additive property of electric linear elements
like.
Then of course we have a linear and non-linear element. So, here you can see the voltage in
currents are typically proportional in this vi characteristic of linear element. The typically
applying the voltage you are having linearly increasing the current in both the circuit either
increasing or decreasing but it is a linear like I mean also. But in case of nonlinear you can
just see the in one side with the positive you can call it the typically positive voltage and
negative current I mean its typically increasing.
And similarly, even for positive current for voltage it is increasing. So, you can call it is a
non-linear behaviour like I mean it is not going to be like a proportional manner like. Of
course, in linear elements they are proportional like you have a negative voltage and negative
current and positive voltage with positive current but in nonlinear it is not so you have even a
positive voltage you have a negative current.
And you or another side rising of positive voltage you might have again the typical positive
current. Then similarly you have another nonlinear element where the polarity is not really
preserved like. So, you can see the difference in the characteristic of your linear and non
linear elements like which are clearly demonstrated in these diagrams like.
So, you can say in linear elements I mean we call it like a slope in V-I characteristic I mean
the characteristic is linear then we call it a resistance slope of this we call it the resistance.
And of course in the inductor if the slope between v and your di/dt, I mean is a linear slope
that we define like inductance value of the inductive circuit and then another circuit if we
have a current (i) and dv/dt a linear slope then we define as a capacitor.
So, all these are you can call it the linear slope I mean. So, that is why we call it the linear
element like a resistor inductor as well as capacitor like.
I mean in case of nonlinear element typically you see the V-I characteristic of diode in the
forward direction you will just see you have a forward voltage of maybe for silicon 0.7 volt
and germanium it is 0.3 volt and after that I mean that drop remains constant and the current
to go on increasing depending upon the external circuit. But in reverse direction you have
very small leakage current and after that they know much current flows into it by even much
higher voltage.
But after that you have a breakdown and then you have a large current. So, you see these both
side of the characteristic of I and V they are not of linear nature and that is why this we call it
the diode as a nonlinear element like. Similarly, you have it BJT. I mean BJT also emitter
current and the your emitter to base voltage, they have a nonlinear relation initially you will
not have any current and but after certain voltage and you have some current rising typically
in nonlinear manner or even a collector current or the base to collector to base voltage you
have a like an again non linear relation for different emitter current.
So, that is the reason they have a different characteristic VI characteristic of BJT and between
the emitter and collector and your collector to base that is why we call it these are the non
linear element and we of course use in the typically lot of electrical circuit electronic circuit
these element diodes as well as the BJT I mean like.
Also, then we come to active elements: The active element we already discussed what are the
active element like a battery which consists of energy and or generators or we have a
transistor as well as operational amplifier. So, we call it these are the elective elements. So,
active elements are capable of supplying average power to the rest of the circuit and easy like
a typically voltage source current source or transistor operational amplifier they are capable
of supplying the typically you can call it of supply average power to the rest of the circuit
like.
Then the passive element we already talked about that the resistor, capacitor, inductor and
transformer they are the passive element and passive element are not capable of supplying
average power to the rest of the circuit they do not store typically any power. So, these
resistor, inductor and capacitor and formula are passive element like.
Then we of course we have defined bilateral element that is another representation and
resistor, capacitor and inductor are bilateral elements means that is the meaning that bilateral
elements offer the same impedance resistance or either direction of current flow or for either
probability of the voltage applied across it relation inductant capacitors are certainly the
bilateral elements.
And of course taking unilateral elements like a transistor or diodes we define unilateral
elements of our different impedance resistance with the change in the direction of current
flow through the it or polarity of the voltage applied across it. And typical example are diode
and transistor. So, you can say the diode in one polarity allow the current to flow with a small
drop across it and another direction it does not allow any current or a small leakage current
with voltage up across it like common.
So, they are not of course you can call it bilateral element they are unilateral elements like
coming and use of course in the electrical circuit like. So, now coming to the typically the
resistor I mean which we use very extensive in electrical engineering. This resistor has a
element, this is a lossy element but we are very extensively use this element in electrical
engineering.
So, they are of course of different perception. So, we call it the resistances or representation
by R of element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current it is measured in ohms.
And you can see just like the symbolic representation, I mean, the voltage is applied and
current want to flow it and relations of track lead. So, this give a good representation how
really your relations restrict the flow of current I mean in electric circuit lik.
And this resistance of course depends on the dimensions of the structure. So, at fixed
temperature the resistance of a sample of material depends upon the three factors like a
length. As you can see the length in the piece here and cross section area through which the
current is flowing, I mean typically and the actual material huge I mean the material property
I mean that the resistivity.
So, R is represented as a R= , where l is the length of the conductor A is the cross
A
section area through which current is flowing and ρ is the resistivity of the material the
property of the material different material have a different property. And this resistance is
represented as a symbol on the side you can see as current flows I mean from higher potential
to lower potential.
So, we represent where the current enters with the positive sign and other side we represent
as a negative sign. To this kind of current flow then this kind of the potential difference
remains across the resistor. So, resistant circuit representation of relations like.
Then of course this resistance I mean we can call it the resistance of a material also depends
on temperature and the resistance of all pure material increases with increase of temperature
and the resistance of carbon insulator semiconductors and electrolyte decreases with the
increase of temperature. So, we have a material where conductor in case of conductor
resistance increases but in semiconductor material the resistance decreases with increase in
temperature.
So, this resistance of course of the conductor is changes with the temperature and that you
can call it Rt = R0 (1 + 1) . So, you can call it the this where the α is the temperature
coefficient and R0 is the resistance at 0° Kelvin or Celsius and θ1 is the temperature at which
the resistance is to be determined. And if the material is having resistance R1 at θ1 centigrade
and R2 is at the θ2 , then the α is the temperature coefficient at 0° Celsius.
Then R1 upon R2 will be the rest of this and R0 will cancel out. So, you can say it will be like,
R1 1 + 1
= and this method of course by changing the resistor sometimes we use in the
R2 1 +  2
measurement of resistance also in many electrical circuits like on.
So, you can call it temperature coefficient of resistance it is also called in short TCR is the
calculation of relative change of the resistance per degree of temperature change and it is
measured in ppm per degree Celsius and 1 ppm equal to 0.001% like. So, example is
temperature coefficient of resistance alpha equal to 50 ppm per degree celsius then means
that the rations will change more than 0.00005 ohms per degree centigrade temperature
change.
And these are the different symbols for relations to present the resistance in different
electrical circuit. Different kind of resistances it is a symbolic representative differentiation
the first is the fixed relations you just show as a symbol then you have a the simple either you
have a like a typically with the kind of representation of zigzag or you have a solid bar.
And or you have a rehash rate with the bar or you have a like a preset resistance with the
arrow or you have a potentiometer kind of represent or you have a preset potentiometer or
you have a thermistor. I mean like or you have a voltage divider or you have a light
dependent resistors or a strain gauge or your thermal cooper or your bare better or you have a
non inductive resistor symbology no longer you though you have here the symbol as you can
see as a fixed resistance as a box.
Earlier we were using symbols found in old diagrams I no longer used to be used in most of
the circuit as a four simple represented diagram as a box. And for available resistor use
different symbols like with the arrow means it is a variable resistor or may be a rheostatic
representation as with the arrow with the fake point or we have a potential meter kind of
representing which also use many circuit for variable these are the symbols of different kind
of resistances as a circuit element.
So, what do the resistor do in the circuit I mean they are used as a potential divider biasing
resistor operational amplifier gain and feedback. In feedback then current limiting element
impedance for purpose of impedance matching they also use current measuring element. I
mean the voltage across the resistance I mean consider the current measurement because
many instrument like your CRO.
Especially the digital CR or CRO cathode rays slope they normally or digital oscillo they you
they measure only the voltage. So, you just measure a voltage across the resistance in a
circuit and that can you know the value of reaction. So, you can calculate the value of the
current or even the calibration of the currently there automatically there. And as well as use
data and address bulb push up pull up slide.
And another type of there are many different type of resistor and they can be made from
various material like. So, depending upon the application different type operations can be
used. And two type of resistor typically linear fixed and variable and non-linear.
I mean like you can just see the wire variety what kind of I mean resistance resistors we have.
Linear resistors are like carbon composition wire wound thin film carbon film metal film then
thin film metal oxide ceramic cement and feasible oxide. A non-linear are like a thermistor
you might have heard about the thermistor as some measuring device in use in different
application like maybe like a refrigerator for typically calculating the temperature.
Then various resistors photo resistor surface mounted resistor and has a variable like a
potential meters or your state or time trimmers like. So, these are the different kind of resistor
using typically in electrical engineering like I mean also.
Then of course the symbolic at the carbon composition I mean resistance represented with the
colour code. I mean and we will discuss of course colour code and that connected with the
lead like or you have a like wire wound type typically how it is there the different elements of
it or you have a typically metal type metal film, type resistor like on.
And or you have a set typically resistor I mean typically the resistance here or you use the
thermistor how it is represented as a thermistor element you can just see as a symbolic or
photoresistor.
These are for practical or the potentiometer linear nonlinear potentiometer. So, all are
required for different application or the host states or you your trimmer resistor. So, these are
practical photographs of the different kind of product of resistors.
The material which permit current to flow are the conductor, while those do not permit the
current to flow are known as a your insulators. So, the conductors typically are made of
copper, aluminum, silver and typically platinum and bronze and gold. So, and insulator are
glass, rubber, plastic, air, varnish, paper, wood, mica, ceramic and certain oils like. And
resistivity is the property of the material and the resistivity of the insulator higher than the
conductor.
And the typical example of the resistivity of different common materials, typically one of the
best conductors is consider the silver which have very low resistivity of order of 1.64 x 10-8
ohm per meter a one meter length will have this much resistance then followed by copper,
aluminum, gold, carbon, germanium, silicon, paper, mica. So, it goes the table goes for
different resistivity goes from starting from conducting material to your insulating material.
So, you can say Teflon have a very high resistivity of 3 x1012 in meter ohm per meter
typically and of course these are insulated. So, you divide virtually these based on resistivity
into three part the conducting material or conductors or semiconductors I mean as well as the
insulators like depending upon the resistivity property of the materials like.
Then of course we have a colour coding of this relationship to define the value of resistances
and different numbers of colour band are used for the resistance value. And depending upon
the number of bands typically each colour band has a specific value in the code in order to get
the value of resistance we need to decode the colour bands and the first second and third band
are used to indicate the resistance of resistor by means of a colour code.
So, the typically the colour code of resistance represents the different digits like 0 to 9 with
the black brown red orange yellow green blue violet gray white they are of course used in the
terminology in different way. And of course tolerance you have with the different colour 5%
tolerance with the gold I mean bar and 10% with the silver bar and no tone no colour band is
20% tolerance like.
And typically the form left to the first colour band on the resistor indicates the first significant
value. And second colour band indicates second value and so on. And each colour band is
decoded as a digit example red means 2 as it is in shown in the table and 2 means the yellow
means 4 as represented in the table like.
And you can say these are the typically number of colour bands. So, first band then the three
colour bands it is the first digit and four colour bands again first digit and same in 5 colour
band. So, these are six colour bands you might see in the resistor from three bands to six
bands and what these different you can call it the bands represent here in the two and
different bands. And of course, six band represent the temperature coefficient and also.
So, typical examples if you have a four band resistor first digit represents your first digit of
the region second digit represent the second digit and third colour represent the multiplier and
the your last one represents the tolerance like. If you have a 5-band resistor the first digit first
colour is the first digit second colour is second digit and third colour is third digit and then
the fourth band is the multiplier and the fifth is your tolerance like and if you have a six
colour band resistor the first colour is your first digit second colour is second digit and third
colour third digit then fourth digit is multiplier then fifth is your tolerance. And sixth is your
typically temperature coefficient like.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:00:40)
To just to explain with the example here, so, a resistor is marked as follows first band is
brown second band is black and third band is orange. So, no other band. So, what is this
resistance value between the; what value the lie. So, first brand is 1 second by 0 for the black
and third is the orange that is 000 and so the value is your 10000. So, its comes your 10000
ohm or 10 KΩ.
So, since no further band is given in the tolerance it if there is no colour then 20% is the
tolerance. So, resistance lie between 10 k plus 2000, 10000 + 2000 - 2000. So, it varies from
or 12 KΩ to 8 KΩ.
Now with the example here find the resistance value for the given colour code resistor. So,
here we have a four band a resistor 5 band resistor and six band resistors with different
colours like.
So, you can just see here the first rations which have three colours. So, you have a first colour
as a first digit second is the second one and third is the typically third and then you have a.
So, if you look into first colour is the green. So, that is with the 5 and second colour band is
your blue that is six and then you have a this multiplier with the your typically the orange that
is typically the 1000.
So, it becomes like a 56 KΩ and the tolerance of course it is here the; you can call it the gold.
So, that typically represents your tolerance order of your 5% like I mean also here. And the
second resistance is with the 5 brands of first three colour band is the your digit and fourth is
multiplied. So, first is the yellow that is present four here the second is your violet. So, that is
seven and then the typically your third is the black.
So, that is you can call it your third digit. So, that becomes 0 is 470 and red is 4 again 2. So, it
is a 470 into 100 so that become again 47 KΩ and since it is a silver. So, it is a 10%
tolerance. So, you have a 47 plus minus 10% like. So, sixth band, six band is having your
three digits and then multiplier as you can see and then followed by the tolerance of and then
temperature coefficient like you have here like.
So, that is again within the 56 KΩ plus minus 5% because it is a you can call it gold have it
that much tolerance with the temperature tolerance of like a 15% like common in ppm per
degree celsius like.
So, now coming to this typically basic principle of called Ohm's law, we discussed who
invented this ohm's law on the name of ohms. So, in many conductors voltage property to the
current flowing between them provided that the temperature remains constant. So, V
proportional to I as you can see in the graphical representation also. As you apply more
voltage current also increases and this proportionality constant, we call it R.
V
So, we call it R= , there is a slope of this line that is V upon I. So, that way we of course
I
have a ohm’s law representing this electric circuit like on.
So, this resistance here you can just define typically as a short circuit I mean in electric circuit
for short circuit V = IR equal to 0 that represents the 0 direction showing that the voltage is
0 but the current could be anything in that. And here another circuit we call it open circuit
variation stage infinity for open circuit i equal to 0 that is v upon R. So, we can say showing
that the current is 0 but the voltage could be anything because resistance is infinite like.
So, defining the other circuit element like conductance that is the reciprocal of your
resistance and that is represented by g. So, we call it 1/R or I/V just reciprocal operation. So,
conductance is the ability of element to conduct electric current and it is measured in mhos or
siemens and that is one siemen is equal to 1 you can call it 1/R and that is 1 A/V.
Then power dissipated by resistance we already discussed P=VI, this also current is your you
v2
can call V/I. So, you can or v equal to i R. So, is represented p = vi = i R =
2
. So, the
R
i2
power dissipated by distance may also be expressed in terms of G. So, p = vi = v G = .
2
G
So, it can be represented power can be dented in terms of resistance or the conductance like.
So, the series connection of different resistor: So, for n resistance in series R1 R2 and R3 are
Rn. So, equivalent resistance will be sum of all these relations are equivalent to
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + .. + Rn and similarly for n parallel distance R1 R2 and

R3 are Rn , we call it 1 1 1 1 1 that is the parallel
= + + + ....................... +
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn
connection equivalent reactions like.

And similarly, for we can have a for n conductances in series. So, I mean this all conductance
I mean coming in series we say one upon G equivalent,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ....................... +
Geq G1 G2 G3 Gn
Similarly for n parallel connection operations we call it like a n conductance will be Geq is,
Geq = G1 + G2 + G3 + .. + Gn . So, we take the circuit with the convenience
whether we should take conductance, or we should take the resistances. So, if series circuit is
there we take normally in terms of your resistances. And if in case of your parallel circuit that
can we take the conductance because calculation becomes the easier in that form like also.
Then coming to the capacitor well the capacitor which is normally represented in the circuit
like called C. The compression see the rest of the charge one plate of the capacitor to the
voltage difference between the two plates and measured in farad and of course C=q/V and 1
farad is equal to 1 coulomb upon 1 volt. So, all the capacitance C of the capacitor is the ratio
of the charge q per plate to the applied voltage v and it does not depend on the q or v.
It depends on the physical dimensions of the capacitor because this capacitor we consider the
linear element of the electric circuit like.
So, we can say your again the relation between q and v, q  V or we can call it q=CV. as
you can see in the circuit that you have a charge, I mean voltage is applied the positive charge
the negative charge. So, where the q is the charge is charge, by capacitor and with V applied
voltage across the capacitor and C the proportionality constant known as the capacitance of a
typically of capacitor like.
How we define similarly as a I mean in relation between your q and V as it we have defined
the relation between your V and i as a resistance like here. So, a capacitor consists of two
conducting plates separated by an insulator.
So, this capacitor in general three factor determine the value of capacitance the surface area
of the plates the larger the surface area the greater the capacitance the spacing between the
plates the smaller the spacing the greater the capacitance. And the permittivity of the material
that is the property of the material the higher the permeability add the greater the value of
capacitance like.
So, the capacitance of a capacitor depends upon three factors dielectric material in the plate
A
cross section area of the plate and distance between the plate. So, C = where A the
d
cross section area of this plate and d the distance between the two plates and your ε is the
permeability of the dielectric material filled between the two plates like similar to what we
define the in resistance like.
And the capacitance here symbolic it is defined here that current is flowing through the
compressor and voltage across I mean represented with the plus minus sign in the same way
as the resistor that is for fixed capacitor. And variable capacitor of course we have it here
representation with the arrow of variable capacitor like.
So, the V-I relationship of a capacitor is q=CV or C= dq/dt of course taking a derivative of.
dq dv
So, it will be C dv/dt and we can call this C the independent of time. So, =i =C .
dt dt
And you can have a relation between i and dv upon dt as a slope of this characteristic as you
see.
t
1
And the V-I relation for capacitor, v =  i ( ) d + v ( t0 ) that is the initial voltage across
C t0
the capacitor when you start charging this capacitor from a current i. So, where vt (0) equal to
qt (0)/C the voltage across the capacitor at time t0 and above equation shows that the
capacitor voltage depends on the past history of the capacitor current, and the capacitor has
memory.
The energy stored by a capacitor the instance power delivered to the capacitor is,
dv
p = vi = Cv , energy stored in the capacitor is therefore
dt
t t t v( t )
dv v2 So, Considering capacitor was unchanged at
w =  p ( ) d = C  v d = C  v dv = C
− −
d −
2 v( − )
t = − and v(−) = 0 .

1 q2
So, then you can call it w stored energy w = Cv2 or w = . So, important is property
2 2C
of circuit to DC in a steady state and voltage along the capacitor cannot change abruptly that
is it must be containers like.
So, we have a different type of capacitors electrolyte capacitor mica capacitor paper capacitor
film capacitor and no non polarized capacitor and ceramic capacitors.
So, these are the different photographs you can say of the different type of crystal like
electrolytic how to look like mica capacitor would look like and proper capacitor out look
like.
And then of course the film capacitors then non-polarized capacitors and ceramic capacitors
the photograph of different kind of capacitors
Then of course the capacitor property what is the capacitor allowed to change linearly or the
increase or decrease linearly but not allowed abrupt change the energy cannot change
suddenly. The capacitor resists an abrupt change of in the voltage across it and according to
V-I relationship of capacitor discontinuous change in the voltage required and infinite
current. So, which is physically impossible conversely the current through the capacitor can
change abruptly like.
So, the capacitor property the ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy it takes power from
the circuit when it is stored energy in its field and return with previously stored energy when
the delivering power to the circuit. A real non ideal capacitor has a parallel model leakage
resistance which is very high and can be neglected for most of the practical application. So,
of course we have some time even an equivalent series resistance also represents in some of
the capacitors like.
So, this is you can call it for n parallel and series capacitors in series equivalent capacitance is
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + .............. + that is equivalent capacitance and four n parallel
Ceq C1 C2 C3 Cn
capacitor Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ............... + Cn that is for equivalent of parallel capacitors.
Now coming to typically the inductors. So, the inductor if the current allowed to pass through
the inductor, it is found that the voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the time
rate or change of the current that is we proportional to the di/dt. How we define
di di
v  v = L , the L is the constant of proportionality which called inductance of the
dt dt
inductor.
And inductance is the poverty where the inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it and measured in henry.
N 2 A
So, you can call it the inductance is defined in terms of dimensions L= where l is
the length of the you can call it the inductor and N is the number of tons and it depends on
core material with the cross section area of A these are typical inductance you can define. So,
if you want to increase the let us say inductance you have to increase the number of turns that
increase the length also and A is the typically cross section area I mean typically even of the
current carrying capacity of course depends on the conductor cross section is also. So,
inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in the magnetic field an inductor
consists of coil of conducting wire.
And the representation of this inductor is your you have a typical air core inductor there is no
core with the current flowing with the voltage across it plus minus and the iron core as a bar 2
bar of core that is your again the inductance here with the variable iron core as a with the
arrow I mean the representation in circuit line.
1 2
So, typically as a relation linear relation of this we call it W = Li and of course the in
2
graphically present the relation this inductance is a slope of a relation between voltage and
t t
di/dt. So, integrating both side we can say i = 1 v ( ) d 1
v ( ) d + i (t0 ) .

L −
or i =
L −t0
So, where i(t0) is the total current for −∞ < t < t0 and i(−∞) = 0. So, The idea of making
i(−∞) = 0 taken is practical and reasonable, because there must be a time in the past when
there was no current in the inductor
So, energy stored in the inductor again the power delivered to the inductor is
 di 
p = vi =  L  i and when you take energy stored. So, you can take
 dt 
t t
di
w=  p ( ) d = L  d i d
− −
t
1
= L  i di = L i 2 ( t ) − i 2 ( − )
−
2
1
And since i(−∞) = 0. So, you can say W = Li 2
2
And you can see property of the inductor here current through the inductor is allowed to
linearly change and then constant and not allowable certain up change as you can see in the
second diagram. So, on v-i correctly shift over across the inductor is 0 when the current is
constant because there is no rate change of the inductance. So, you cannot say the voltage
does the inductor act as the like a short circuit to a DC.
And current through the inductor cannot change instantly. So, the discontinuous change in
current will require infinite voltage across it.
So, the like the ideal inductor the ideal in ideal capacitor the inductor does not dissipate
energy and energy stored in it can be retrieved at a later time. A practical non ideal inductor
has a significant resistance component due to the winding of conducting material such as
copper and resistance is called the winding resistance Rw and it appears in series with the
inductance of the inductor as a representation like.
So, this as a inductor property we say L in series with Rw that is the wire because of wire I
mean this resistance is there and of course we have a in a practical a coupling capacitor also.
So, the non ideal inductor also have a winding capacitance C w due to the compressions
coupling between the conducting coils like.
So, type of the inductors are air conductor laminated core inductor ferrite core inductor
bobbin core inductor toroidal inductor axial inductor and multi layer chip inductor like.
And you can see here how look like air core inductor there is no core in that or laminated
core inductor or you have a like a ferrite core inductor how it is mounted with physically how
they look into in photograph.
Or your bobbin inductor which are bound on bobbin or turtle inductor or axial lead inductor.
Or you have typically various type of inductor like a solid wound inductor followed by total
inductor and your axial lead inductor with the parity typically core inductor.
And here n inductor in series equivalent inductance is sum of L equivalent,

L=L1+L2+L3+…..+Ln

1 1 1 1 1
And parallel inductor of course like relations = + + + ................. + .
Leq L1 L2 L3 Ln
Now typically coming to the diode. So, we have a diode here with the polarity as a simple
represent represented with the arrow with the bar and bar represents the cathode like. An
anode represents the typically the direction of it and in circuit symbol it is on one side and on
the kind of your silver on the other side that really represents the cathode. So, diode is a non-
linear element it is two terminals semiconductor device that acts as the switch.
And that will permits the current to flow steadily in one direction from anode to cathode but
it tends to prevent the flow of current from in the other direction from cathode to anode.
And there are different kind of anode diodes like a generic diode zener diode Schottky diode
light emitting diode tunnel diode and photodiode.
And these are the typical photographs of different kind of diodes starting from generic diode
zener diode discarded diode LED diode light emitting diode tunnel diode and photodiodes.
And diode biasing we present it here as a pn junction diode. So, current id is 0 milli ampere
and there is a typically kind of IC as a 0 voltage and when you have a typically like a here the
VD voltage across this when the typically the current want to I have a opposite typically and
forward I mean is a similar to ID with a small voltage drop across it. So, various biasing of
diodes no biasing reverse bias and forward biasing.
And the characteristic v-i characteristic of diode is here of course in forward direction we
have seen a definite voltage drop when it conducts in forward direction there are many may
have 0.3 volt and silicon have a 0.7 diode volt. And of course reverse up to reverse saturation
you have a small leakage current up to certain of course almost negligible current but after
certain voltage it is the breakdown voltage where the even this large current can flow and it
may damage because of large heating across the diode. So, normally we do not use up to that
large voltage this I would like.
Then you have an ideal versus practical diode. So, ideal diode will present it as a you can say
forward bias and as a kind of reverse bias. So, ideally diodes will we have like a short circuit
during the forward bias condition with 0 voltage drop across it. And the reverse wires reason
it should be open circuit with 0 current passing through it, but of course practical diodes do
not have that like I mean.
So, you can just see here you have a here the 0.7 voltage drop in forward when it conducts
and reverse direction currently typically you have a ideally 0 current but there is some 10
milli ampere very small like leakage current like. The practical diode exhibit a small only
state voltage of across it during forward voltage bias condition and during reverse bias
condition it is also a very small leakage current passes through it which called reverse
saturation current like.
And you have a piecewise linear equivalent circuit as a diode is simple then you have a
voltage drop across 0.7 voltage drop and with the resistance of 10 ohm with the ideal diode
and how the characteristic represented as a here of this diode like coming. So, that is
component piecewise equivalent circuit. So, the practical diode can be approximated with
series connection of ideal diode ideal resistance and the ideal voltage source like.
The Shockley equation for the diode the general characteristic of a semiconductor diode can
be defined by the following equation referred to as the Shockley equation for the forward and
 VD nVT 
reverse bias region I D = I s  e − 1  where I s is the reverse saturation current and VD is
 
the applied voltage forward bias voltage across the diode and any the ideality factor which is
a function of the operating conditions and physical construction it has a range between one
and two.
So, Shockley’s this the voltage in Shockley equations is called thermal voltage and is defined
kTk
as a VT = , where the k the Boltzmann constant equal to 1.38 x 1023 J upon K and T K
q
the absolute temperature in Kelvin that is 273 plus the temperature in Celsius and q is the
magnitude of electro electronic charge that is 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
Now coming to theoretical problems so first question is what materials are generally used as
conductor. The copper aluminum brass iron phosphorous bronze silver tungsten nickels they
are used as your conductor conducting material.
What is the material generally used in insulator?

mica oil in fragmented paper pulan knives rubber glass backlight porcelain one is cotton and
wood they are used as insulators like.
What is the property of a good conductor? A good conductor must have the following
property lower resistivity less variation in distance with temperature good mechanical
strength lesser specific weight high resistance to corrosion and high ductility.
So, what is the resistance? The resistance is the probability of substance which opposes the
flow of current through it. And what is the unit of resistance? The unit of resistance is ohms.
And what is the relation among the resistance length and cross section area resistance varies
directly proportional to the length and inversely proportional to cross-section area the
l
resistance is proportional to length upon a cross section area. So, R= , where length L is
A
the length A the cross section area and low with the resistivity and that general resistance in
ohm.
Define the ohm's law? The ohm law states that at the constant temperature the current
flowing to the circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference across the direction.
can you apply the ohms law to all types of electrical conductor? answer is no ohm’s law can
be applied only in the cases of conductor through metals and electrolytic conduction and it
cannot be applied in the cases of conduction throughout ionized gases and semiconductor.
what are types electric circuit is a complete diverse path for the flow of electric current which
consists of supply source of supply connecting wires switches and load resistances and there
are three types of circuit closed circuit open circuit and short circuit.
So, what is a series circuit series, circuit is a circuit in which the same current flows through
the all the devices and what is the parallel circuit? Parallel circuit is the circuit in which the
same voltage appears or occur all the devices and question 12 what is the value of resistance
which has the first three colour band as a red black and orange. So, that comes as a 20 KΩ.
Coming to the like a sole for numerical problem. So, the total charge entering a terminal
entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin 4πt mC. calculate the current at t equal to 0.5
second.
dq d
i= = ( 5t sin4 t ) mC / s
So, here the dt dt
= ( 5 sin4 t + 20 t cos 4 t ) mA
At t =0.5,
i = 5 sin2 + 10 cos 2 = 31.42mA
So, determine the total charge entering in terminal between t equal to 1 and t equal to 2 if the
current passes through terminal i = (3t2 − t) A.
So, you can find out the charge q,
2
2 2
 3 t2 
Q =  i dt =  ( 3t − t )dt =  t − 
2
t =1 1  2 1
So, you put the value it comes 8 - 2 equal to 1 - 1 upon 2.
 1
= ( 8 − 2 ) −  1 −  = 5.5C So, that comes 5.5 coulomb or C.
 2
Question three the energy source force is a constant current of two ampere for 10 seconds to
flow through a light bulb if 2.3 kilo joules is given off in the form of light and heat energy
calculate the voltage across the bulb.
The answer is total charge delta q q = i  t = 2  10 = 20C
and voltage drop will be
w 2.3  103
v= = = 115V
q 20
Question four is to move the charge q from the point to point require 25 joules find the
voltage drop Vab the voltage of positive with respect to the p if q=5C and q = -10C.
So, the first case
w 25
v= = = 5V
q 5
(b) case
w 25
v= = = −2.5V .
q −10
The question 5 find the power deliver to an element at t equal to 3 millisecond if the current
flowing current entering in positive number is the i = 5 cos 60π t A ampere and the voltage is
a equal to V=3i and v=3 di/dt. So, answer a is v = 3i = 15cos60 t that is putting the value
of your typically into i into it. So, p = vi = 75cos 60 t millisecond putting the value
2
p = vi = 75cos2 (60  3  10−3 ) = 53.48W it becomes 53.48 watt.
And b case is v = 3 di = 3 d ( 5cos60 t ) taking a value of i = 5 cos 60π t A

dt dt
v = −900 sin60 t and p equal p = vi = −4500 sin60 t  cos60 t and t at 3
millisecond is say p = −4500 sin0.18  cos0.18 = −6.396kW (Refer Slide Time: 1:28:32)
To find the power delivered to an element at t = 5 ms if the current entering in the positive
 t

number is i = 5 cos 60π t A and the voltage is equal v = 2i V and v =  10 + 5  i dt V .
 0 
So, answer will be v = 2i = 10cos60 t; p = vi = 50cos 2 60 t So, p equal,
p = 50cos 2 (60  5  10 −3 ) = 17.27W

At t= 5 ms
becomes equal to 17.27 watt like.
And in b case
 t
  t

v =  10 + 5 i dt  ; p = vi =  10 + 5 i dt   ( 5cos60 t )
 0   0 
so, power becomes,
 t

p = vi =  10 + 5 5cos60 t dt   ( 5cos60 t )
 0 
P becomes 29.7 watt.
Coming to seventh question a home electric heater draws 10 amperes when connected to 115
volt outlet how much energy is consumed by the heater over a period of 6 hours.
So, p equal
p = vi = 115  10 = 1150 watt = 1.15kW
that becomes hundred fifty watt or 1.15 kilowatt and
w = p  t = 1.15  6 = 6.9 k watt − hours
So, 1.15 into 6 so this becomes 6 kilowatt or hours like or 6.9 unit.
How much energy does this hundred-watt electric bulb consume in a 2 hour.
So, w equal w = p  t = 100( watt )  2( h )  60(min/ h )  60(sec/ min)
= 720,000 Joule = 720 kJ
720 kilo joule and this can be stated w equal

w = pt = 100  2 = 200 watt − hour or 0.2 kilowatt hour.
To calculate the charge stored in 3 picofarad capacitor with 20 volt across it also find the
energy stored in the capacitor.
So, equal to
q = Cv = 3  10 −12  20 = 60  10 −12Coulomb = 60 pC
energy storage is,

1 1
w = CV 2 =  3  10 −12  400 = 600 pJ
2 2
So, that becomes 600 pico joules.
So, question 10 determine the voltage across 2 micro farad capacitor if the current through it
is i(t) = 6e−3000t mA assume that the initial capacitor voltage is 0.
So,
t
1
v =  i d + v (0 )
C0
and here the initial capacitor voltage 0 hence
t
1
2  10 −6 0
v= 6e−3000t  10 −3 d
6  10 −3
e−3000t 0 = (1 − e−3000t )V
t
= −6
−3000  2  10
determine the current flowing through a 200 micro farad capacitor which voltage is shown.
from varying from 0 to 50 in 2 seconds with the minus and the voltage across the can be
described mathematically,
50t 0 t 1
100 − 50t 1 t  3

v =
−200 + 50t 3t 4
0 otherwise
So, you can call it since i= C dv/dt and C=200 μF, we take derivative of v to obtain.
So, we can take a derivative of v to obtain i equal to
50 0 t 1  10 mA 0t 1
 −10 mA 1t  3

−6 −50 1t  3 =
i( t ) = 200  10    10 mA 3t 4
50 3t 4  0 otherwise
0 otherwise
and becomes 10 milli ampere minus 10 ampere and 10 ampere and 0 and the current certainly
can be represented as a kind of square wave with representation here as a diagram.
Question twelve if the current flowing through one milliamp inductor is i(t) = 90 sin (200t)
milliampere find the thermal voltage and the energy stored.
So, v equal,
di d
v=L = 1  10 −3 ( 90 sin ( 200t ) ) = 90  200  10 −3 cos ( 200t )
dt dt
= 18cos ( 200t )
and w equal,
1 1
w = Li 2 =  1  10 −3  90 2  Sin2 ( 200t )  10 −6
2 2
= 4.05Sin2 ( 200t )  J
Question 13, A coil of copper wire of 200 meter long and the cross section area of 0.8
millimeter square has a resistivity of 0.2 micro ohm meter at normal working temperature
calculate the resistance of the coil.
So, here l length is 200 meter a is a 0.8 millimeter square and rho is the 0.02 micrometer. So,
from the formula of
2  10−8  200
R=
8  10−7 .
R =5 




So, there are some unsolved problems which you can exercise about typically of different
natures and what typically the resistance value of colour.
And these are the references which refer for this lecture, thank you.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Prof. Bhim Singh

(Refer Slide Time: 00:30)

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + .. + Rn and similarly for n parallel distance R1 R2 and

connection equivalent reactions like.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:06:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 1:10:47)

(Refer Slide Time: 1:12:55)

And here n inductor in series equivalent inductance is sum of L equivalent,

(Refer Slide Time: 1:18:08)

What is the material generally used in insulator?

p = vi = 75cos2 (60  3  10−3 ) = 53.48W it becomes 53.48 watt.

And b case is v = 3 di = 3 d ( 5cos60 t ) taking a value of i = 5 cos 60π t A

p = 50cos 2 (60  5  10 −3 ) = 17.27W

720 kilo joule and this can be stated w equal

energy storage is,

(Refer Slide Time: 1:33:50)

(Refer Slide Time: 1:33:53)

(Refer Slide Time: 1:33:55)

(Refer Slide Time: 1:33:57)

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