Lab Session 4

Study of Photo voltaic cells in series and parallel combination.

Photovoltaic cells
Photovoltaic (PV) is the name of a method of converting solar energy into direct
current electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a
phenomenon commonly studied in physics, photochemistry and electrochemistry. A photovoltaic
system employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells to supply usable solar power.

Working of a photovoltaic cell

Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materialsexhibit
a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and release
electrons. When these free electrons are captured, electric current is produced that can be used as
electricity.

Fig.1 Basic circuit of solar panel

The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell. Solar
cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, used in the
microelectronics industry. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form an
electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other. When light energy strikes the solar cell,
electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical conductors
are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can be
captured in the form of an electric current -- that is, electricity. This electricity can then be used to
power a load, such as a light or a tool.
Effect of temperature on solar panels
Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in temperature
reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the semiconductor material
parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with increasing temperature can be
viewed as increasing the energy of the electrons in the material. Lower energy is therefore needed to
break the bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor band gap, reduction in the bond energy also
reduces the band gap. Therefore, increasing the temperature reduces the band gap.

Combinations of solar panels

There are three main combinations

 Series combination
 Parallel combination
 Series-parallel combination

Series combination
Series wiring is when the voltage of a solar array is increased by wiring the positive of one solar
module to the negative of another solar module. This is similar to installing batteries in a flashlight.
As you slide the batteries into the flashlight tube the voltage increases. However, current remains
same in series combination.

Fig.2 Series combination of solar panels

When panels are connected in series the voltage adds up and the current is same only when each
panel is having same current rating. If any of the panels connected in the series is having lower current
rating in comparison to the other panels, it will lower down the current flowing in the other panels
and will impact their individual performance. Their underperformance will affect the efficiency of
solar roof that will produce lower current and power than mentioned in the nameplate.

In simple words, when two different panels are connected in series, the voltage still adds up but the
system current is equal to the current of the panel having the lowest current rating. It is you who has
to decide what should be the system voltage and the system current of your solar PV system so that
it can match up with your other devices like battery, inverter and the solar charge controller.

Parallel combination

Parallel wiring increases the current (amps) output of a solar array while keeping the voltage the
same. Parallel wiring is when the positives of multiple modules are connected together and all the
negatives for the same modules are connected together. Parallel circuits have multiple paths for the
current to move along. If an item in the circuit is broken, current will continue to move along the
other paths, while ignoring the broken one. This type of circuit is used for most household electrical
wiring. For example: when you turn off your TV, it doesn’t also turn off your lights.

Fig.3 Parallel combination of solar panels

Lab Session 5
Study of Sizing of a photovoltaic system

Solar PV system
Solar power system is one of renewable energy system which uses PV modules to convert sunlight
into electricity. The electricity generated can be stored or used directly, fed back into grid line or
combined with one or more other electricity generators or more renewable energy source.

Major system components

PV module
It converts sunlight into DC electricity.

Solar charge controller:

It regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV panels going to battery and prevents battery
overcharging and prolongs the battery life.

Inverter

It converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean AC current for AC appliances or fed
back into grid line.

Battery

It stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a demand.

Load
It is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights, radio, TV,
computer, refrigerator, etc.

Solar PV system sizing

Determine power consumption demands

The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy consumption
of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows
Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used

Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per day which must
be delivered to the appliances.

Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules

Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the system) to get the
total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.

Size the PV modules

Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the sizing of PV
module, the total peak watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV
module and climate of site location. We have to consider “panel generation factor” which is different
in each site location. For Thailand, the panel generation factor is 3.43. To determine the sizing of PV
modules, calculate as follows:

Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules

Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2) by 3.43 to get the
total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.

Calculate the number of PV panels for the system

Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV modules available to
you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that will be the number
of PV modules required.

Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are installed, the
system will perform better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV modules are used, the system
may not work at all during cloudy periods and battery life will be shortened.

Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the inverter
should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal
voltage as your battery.

For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount of Watts you
will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances.
In case of appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should be minimum 3 times the
capacity of those appliances and must be added to the inverter capacity to handle surge current during
starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV
array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.

Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle battery
is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged
and discharged day after day for years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy
to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the size of battery, calculate as follows.

 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.

 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the number of days that
you need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the
required Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)

Solar charge controller sizing

The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities. Select the
solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type of
solar charge controller is right for your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has enough
capacity to handle the current from PV array.

According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit current
(Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3

Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3
Lab Session 6
Study of thermo syphon effect

Thermo syphon
Thermo siphon, also known as thermos syphon, is a process used to exchange heat from liquids
without a pump. This eliminates cost and simplifies the heat transfer process. The most common
ways thermos siphoning is accomplished is through water and solar convection.

Working
The thermo syphon process can be used commercially in solar hot water heaters. A thermo syphon
is a passive system, which means there are no mechanical moving parts. Instead, the system relies
solely on the sun's energy to work. The water is collected in a piece of equipment called a batch
collector, which is mounted on a building's roof. It is braced at an angle so when the water is
collected, it can flow out using gravity.

Cold water is denser than warm water, so the storage tank is mounted slightly above the batch
collector. As the sun heats the batch collector, the warm water rises and flows into the storage tank.
Cold water sinks to the bottom and flows into a cold water supply line. This water is used for general
cold faucet use.

The warm water moves into the storage tank, where it continues to be warmed by the sun. This
continuous rise and fall of water based on the temperature creates convection and allows the thermo
syphon to work. When hot water is needed, a faucet is turned on inside the building and the warm
water from the storage tank flows through the hot water supply line.

Applications
Ground cooling
Thermo syphon water systems can be used for ground cooling. Ground cooling is required in areas
such as Alaska where structures are built on permafrost. Permafrost is soil that stays at or below
freezing for long periods of time. The issue with building on permafrost is that it contains ice which
can thaw if the temperature rises even for a short time. Intermittent thawing and refreezing of the
permafrost can cause a building's foundation to weaken and crack.

Ground cooling can operate with underground pipes that are filled with carbon dioxide or ammonia.
As the liquid is heated from the surrounding permafrost, it turns into vapor. As the vapor evaporates,
it condenses on the outside of the pipes and converts back into a liquid. The cooled liquid flows into
a collection tank and is reused.
Computer cooling
Computer cooling is required because the processor that runs the computer can reach temperatures
upwards of 160° Fahrenheit (71° Celsius). Though most computers are equipped with a fan, a thermo
syphon is often able to reduce processor temperatures more effectively. In a computer thermo syphon,
the fan acts as the convection vehicle by circulating the water so it will heat and convert to vapor.
Similar to the ground cooling system, as the vapor cools it is recollected within the thermo syphon
system and recycled.

Fig.1 Thermo syphon in solar water heater

Thermosyphon Effect
The heat transfer rate of a thermosyphon is a function of its 1) working fluid, 2) symmetry, 3)
construction material, and 4) surrounding environment (Zarling et al. 1990). Different working fluids
have different heats of vaporization, vapor and liquid densities, liquid thermal conductivities, specific
heats, and viscosities, which all affect the performance of the unit. To ensure turbulent flow within
the thermosyphons and to enhance the flow return to the evaporator, the working fluid should have
both a high density and low viscosity (Long and Zarling 2004). The freezing point must be compatible
with low-temperature operations and the fluid should have a high thermal conductivity. In addition,
a sufficiently high vapor pressure at low operating temperatures is needed to transport sufficient mass
in the vapor phase for adequate heat transfer. Depending on the application, site conditions, and
desired soil temperatures, pressurized working fluids such as CO2, Freon, butane, propane, or
ammonia (NH3) have been used. Other fluids may be possible. Figure 8 shows examples of saturation
vapor pressure for CO2, NH3, and propane. The saturation vapor pressure changes with temperature
and at 0°C the saturation vapor pressure for CO2 is quite high at about 3500 kPa. Lastly, the fluid
needs to be chemically pure, stable, and compatible with the container material. Currently, CO2 is
the most commonly used working fluid in the US and Canada.

Fig.2.Saturation vapor pressure versus temperature for different working fluids.

Lab Session No. 6
BioGas Digester Sizing.

Bio Gas Digester

A “biogas digester” is a simple system which produces biogas, via the natural anaerobic
decomposition of organic material

Digester Sizing
The first step for correctly sizing a digester is to understand the quantity and characteristics of manure
and water sources from the farm, which can include raw manure, parlor water, cleanup water, misters
used in the summer, etc. Efforts should be taken to minimize the amount of water used on the
operation, as this will also reduce the size required for the anaerobic digestion system.

Depending on the technology, anaerobic digesters can typically handle between 2 and 13 percent
total solids (TS), which can require dewatering the manure prior to digestion or only sending the
higher strength wastes (i.e., high solids content) to the digester.

The size of the digester is then calculated based on how long the manure needs to remain in the
digester for adequate digestion. The length of time the manure stays within the digester is known as
the hydraulic residence time (HRT), whereas the length of time the solids stay within the digester is
known as the solids residence time (SRT).

Energy of Bio-Gas

E = ȠHbVb

Where,

Ƞ is the combustion efficiency of burner’s boilers, (∼60%).

Hb is the heat of combustion per unit volume biogas (20MJm−3 at 10 cm water gauge pressure, 0.01
atmosphere)

Vb is the volume of biogas.

Note that some of the heat of combustion of the methane goes to heating the CO2 present in the
biogas, and is therefore unavailable for other purposes. The net effect is to decrease the efficiency.

Alternatively,

E = ȠHmfmVb
Where,

Hm is the heat of combustion of methane (56MJkg−1, 28MJm−3 at STP)

fm is the fraction of methane in the biogas.

As from the digester, fm should be between 0.5 and 0.7, but it is not difficult to pass the gas through
a counter flow of water to dissolve the CO2 and increase fm to nearly 1.0.

Volume of Biogas

Vb= cm0

Where,

c is the biogas yield per unit dry mass of whole input (0.2–0.4m3 kg−1)

m0 is the mass of dry input.

Fluid Volume in Digester

Vf= m0/ρm

Where,

ρm is the density of dry matter in the fluid (∼50 kgm−3).

Digester Volume

Vd= Vf tr

Where,

Vf is the flow rate of the digester fluid and tr is the retention time in the digester (∼8–20 days)