Open System Interconnect Model (OSI)

OSI Layer Model describes how information is transmitted between

networking devices. OSI model was developed in 1984. It divides data
transmission process in seven layers. Each layer has its own functions and
protocols.

OSI model was created with following purposes:

To create a common platform for software developers and hardware

manufactures that encourage the creation of networking products that can
communicate with each other over the network.
To help network administrators by dividing large data exchange
process in smaller segments. Smaller segments are easier to understand,
manage and troubleshoot. With layer approach they only have to
troubleshoot the devices which are working in faulty layer.

Protocols:
Protocols are the standard terms which computers use to understand each
other. Just like two people must speak a common language in order to
communicate, two computers must have one or more protocols common in
order to exchange the data. No matter what software the computers are
running and what kind of computers the network uses, they must have a
common protocol in order to understand each other.
Before 1980, developing these protocols was the responsibility of hardware
manufactures. They developed proprietary protocols to support their own
products. With proprietary protocols we were not able use mix equipment
from different manufactures on same network. To run a network we had to
buy all devices from the same company. This entire method makes
collaboration between different types of computers nightmare.
To sort out this issue, open standard protocols were developed. Open
standards are industry-wide protocol definitions that are not tied with a
specific manufacturer company. With open standard protocols, we can use
equipment from any vendor to build our network. As long as the equipment
implements the standard protocols, it should be able to coexist on the same
network. With open standard protocols, networks can consist of many
different computing platforms running entirely different software.
Protocols are implemented on a network in several ways. Some are
integrated into the operating system. Others are device drivers, such as the
driver for a particular network interface adapter supplied by its
manufacturer.

Protocols can be relatively simple or highly complex. Many organizations are

involved in developing protocols for networking. From those following five are
the most important organizations.
1.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

2.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

3.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

4.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

5.

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

7 layers of OSI Model:

Application Layer:
Initiates Network Request i.e. it provides platform to send and receive data
over the network. All applications and utilities that communicate with
network fall in this layer. For examples
Browsers :- Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome etc
Email clients: - Outlook Express, Mozilla Thunderbird etc.
FTP clients :- Filezilla, sFTP, vsFTP
Application layer protocols that we should know are following:
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) Used to control the
connected networking devices.
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) Used to transfer the files rapidly.
DNS (Domain Naming System) Used to translate the name with IP
address and vice versa.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) Used to assign IP
address and DNS information automatically to hosts.
Telnet used to connect remote devices.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) Used to browse web pages.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Used to reliably sends/retrieves files.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) Used to sends email.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol v.3) Used to retrieves email.
NTP (Network Time Protocol) Used to synchronizes clocks

Presentation Layer:
Formats and prepares the data. Presentation layer prepares the data. It takes
data from application layer and marks it with formatting code such as .doc,
.jpg, .txt, .avi etc. These file extensions make it easy to realize that particular
file is formatted with particular type of application. With formatting
presentation layer also deals with compression and encapsulation. It

compresses (on sending computer) and decompresses (on receiving

computer) the data file. This layer can also encapsulate the data, but its
uncommon as this can be done by lower layers more effectively.

Session Layer:
Establishes and manage sessions. Session layer deals with connections. It
establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two communicating
nodes. This layer provides its services to the presentation layer. Session layer
also synchronizes dialogue between the presentation layers of the two hosts
and manages their data exchange. For example, web servers may have
many users communicating with server at a given time. Therefore, keeping
track of which user communicates on which path is important and session
layer handle this responsibility accurately.

Transport Layer:
Breaks data into packets. Provides following services:

It sets up and maintains the connection between two devices.

It multiplexes connections that allow multiple applications to
simultaneously send and receive data.
According to requirement data transmission method can be connection
oriented or connection less.
For unreliable data delivery connection less method is used.
Connection less method uses UDP protocol.
For reliable data delivery connection oriented method is used.
Connection oriented method uses TCP protocol.
When Implemented a reliable connection, sequence numbers and
acknowledgments (ACKs) are used.
Reliable connection controls flow through the uses of windowing or
acknowledgements.
Remember
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

five main functions of transport layer

Segmentation
Connection Management
Reliable and Unreliable data delivery
Flow Control
Connection Multiplexing

Segmentation:
Segmentation is the process of breaking large data file into smaller files that
can be accommodated by network. To understand this process thinks about a
700 MB movie that you want to download from internet. You have 2MBPS

internet connection. How will you download a 700MB movie on 2MBPS

internet connection?
In this case segmentation process is used. On server transport layer breaks
700MB movie in smaller size of segments (less than your internet connection
speed). Assume that 700Mb movie is divided in 700 segments. Each
segment has file size of 1Mb that your PC can easily download at current
connection speed. Now your PC will download 700 small files instead of one
large file. So next time when you see download progress bar in browser,
think it about segment receiver progress bar. Once your browser receives all
segments from server, it will pop up a message indicating download is
completed. Transport layer at your PC will merge all segments back in a
single 700Mb movie file. End user will never know how a 700Mb movie
makes its way through the 2Mbps connection line
Connection management:
Transport layer setup, maintain and tear down connections for session layer.
Actual mechanic of connection is controlled by transport layer. Transport
layer use two protocols for connection management UDP and TCP.

UDP:
UDP is a connection less protocol. Connection-less transmission is said to be
unreliable. Now, don't get worried about the term "unreliable" this doesn't
mean that the data isn't going to get its destination; its only means that it
isn't guaranteed to get its destination. Think of your options when you are
sending a postcard, put it in the mailbox, and chances are good that it will
get where it's supposed to go but there is no guarantee. There is always a
chance of missing in the way. On the other hand, it's cheap.

TCP:
TCP is a connection oriented protocol. Connection-oriented transmission is
said to be reliable. Think TCP as registry AD facility available in Indian post
office. For this level of service, you have to buy extra ticket and put a bunch
of extra labels on it to track where it is going and where it has been. You get
a receipt when it is delivered. In this method you have a guaranteed delivery.
All of this costs you morebut it is reliable!

Reliability
Reliability means guaranteed data delivery. To insure delivery of each single
segment, connection oriented method is used. In this approach before
sending any segments three way handshake is done

1.
PC1 sends a SYN single to PC2 indicating that it wants to establish a
reliable session.
2.
P2 replies with ACK/SYN signal where ACK is the acknowledgment of
PC1s SYN signal and SYN indicates that PC2 is ready to establish a
reliable session
3.

PC1 replies with ACK signal indicating that is has received SYN signal
and session is now fully established

Once connection is established data transmission will be initiated. To provide

maximum reliability it includes following functions:

Detect lost packets and resend them

Detect packets that arrived out of order and reorder them

Recognize duplicate packets and drop extra packets

Avoid congestion by implementing flow control

Flow control:

The transport layer implements two flow control methods:

Ready/not ready signals
Windowing

Ready / not ready signals method

In this method sender sends data according to its buffer size. Receiver
receives data in its buffer. When receivers buffer get filled, it send a not
ready signal to sender, so sender can stop transmitting more segments.
Receivers send ready signal when it becomes ready to receive next
segments. This method has two problems.
First, the receiver may respond to the sender with a not ready signal
only when its buffer fills up. While this message is on its way to the sender,
the sender is still sending segments to the receiver, which the receiver will
have to drop because its buffer space is full.
The second problem with the uses of this method is that once the
receiver is ready to receive more segments, it must first send a ready signal
to the sender, which must be received before sender can send more
segments.

Windowing
In windowing a window size is defined between sender and receiver. Sender
host will wait for an acknowledgement signal after sending the segments
equal to the window size. If any packet lost in the way, receiver will respond
with acknowledgement for lost packet. Sender will send lost packet again.
Window size is automatically set during the three step handshake process. It
can be adjust anytime throughout the lifetime of connection.
Connection Multiplexing/Application Mapping

Connection multiplexing feature allows multiple applications to connect at a

time. For example a server performs a number of functions like email, FTP,
DNS, Web service, file service, data service etc. Suppose server has a single
IP address, how will it perform all these different functions for all the hosts
that want to connect with it? To make this possible transport layer assigns a
unique set of numbers for each connection. These numbers are called port or
socket numbers. These port numbers allow multiple applications to send and
receive data simultaneously
Port numbers are divided into following rangess
Port
number

Descriptions

01023

Well-KnownFor common TCP/IP functions and applications

1024
49151

RegisteredFor applications built by companies

49152
65535

Dynamic/PrivateFor dynamic connections or unregistered

applications

Common TCP and UDP Port Numbers

TCP

UDP

FTP

20, 21

DNS

53

Telnet

23

DHCP

67,68

SMTP

25

TFTP

69

DNS

53

NTP

123

HTTP

80

SNMP

161

POP

110

NNTP

119

HTTPS

443

Network Layer
Network layer is responsible for providing logical address known as IP
address. Router works on this layer. Main functions of this layer are
following:

Define IP address
Find routes based on IP address to reach its destination
Connect different data link type together like as Token Ring, Serial,
FDDI, Ethernet etc.

IP address
IP address a 32 bit long software address which made from two components:
Network component: - Defines network segment of device.

Host component :- Defines the specific device on a particular network

segment
Subnet mask is used to distinguish between network component and host
component.
IP addresses are divided in five classes.
Class A addresses range from 1-126.
Class B addresses range from 128-191.
Class C addresses range from 192-223.
Class D addresses range from 224-239.
Class E addresses range from 240-254.
Following addresses have special purpose: 0 [Zero] is reserved and represents all IP addresses;
127 is a reserved address and it is used for testing, like a loop back on
an interface:
255 is a reserved address and it is used for broadcasting purposes.

IP packet
Network layer receive segment from transport layer and wrap it with IP
header that is known as datagram.

Datagram
Datagram is just another name of packet. Network layer use datagram to
transfer information between nodes.
Two types of packets are used at the Network layer: data and route updates.

Data packets
Data packets are used to transport the user data across the network.
Protocols used by data packets are known as routed protocol. For example IP
and IPv6

Route update packets

These packets are used to update the route information within internetwork.
Routers use these packets. Protocols that send route update packets are
called routing protocols; for example RIP, RIPv2, EIGRP, and OSPF

Data link layer

Main functions of data link layer are

Defining the Media Access Control (MAC) or hardware addresses

Defining the physical or hardware topology for connections
Defining how the network layer protocol is encapsulated in the data
link layer frame
Providing both connectionless and connection-oriented services
Defines hardware (MAC) addresses as well as the communication
process that occurs within a media.

MAC Address
MAC address is a 48 bit long layer two address. It is also known as hardware
address. This address is burnt with device by manufacturing company.
The first six hexadecimal digits of a MAC address represent its manufacture
company.
MAC addresses only need to be unique in a broadcast domain.
You can have the same MAC address in different broadcast domains.

Frame
Data link layer receive packet from network layer and wrap it with layer two
Header that is known as frame. There are two specifications of Ethernet
frame.

1.

Ethernet II

2.

802

Key points to remember:Ethernet II does not have any sub layers, while IEEE 802.2/3 has two:
LLC and MAC.
Ethernet II has a type field instead of a length field (used in 802.3).
802.2 use a SAP or SNAP field to differentiate between encapsulated
layer-3 payloads.
With a SNAP frame, the SAP fields are set to 0xAA and the type field is
used to indicate the layer-3 protocol.
802.2 SAP frame is eight bits in length and only the first six bits are
used for identifying upper-layer protocols, which allows up to 64 protocols.
802.2 SNAP frame supports up to 65,536 protocols

Physical Layer
Physical layer deals with communication media. This layer receive frame
from data link layer and convert them in bits. It loads these bits on actual
communication media. Depending on media type these bit values are
converted in single. Some use audio tones, while others utilize state
transitionschanges in voltage from high to low and low to high

Protocol data unit

Piece of data passed between layers collectively known as PDU (protocol
data unit). Layers have different terms to describe it like (segment in
transport layer, packet in network layer, frame at data link layer, and signal
at physical layer.)
PDU include data file and a consistent body of information attached onto
data at each successive layer. This information is called header and footer. It
includes instructions on how to restore the file to its original state when it
receives to the target system.
As a PDU passes through the layers, a header (and footer only on data link
layer) is added to the packet with information to the peer layer on the
destination system for reconstructing the data on its way back up through
the layers of the destination network

Data Exchange Process:

In data exchange process, participating computers work in reverse mode.
Layers on receiving computer perform the same task in reverse mode.
The receiving device takes delivery of, handles, and translates the data from
the sending device at a particular layer. For example on sending computer
presentation layer compress the data, same presentation layer on receiving
computer decompress the data.

On sending computer
Sending application access the application layer.
Application provides data to the presentation layer.

Presentation layer format the data as per network requirement and

forward it's to session layer.
Session layer initiate the connection and forward the data to the
transport layer.
Transport layer broke down the large data file in smaller segments and
add a header with control information, which are bits designated to describe
how to determine whether the data is complete, uncorrupted, in the correct
sequence, and so forth.
Segments are forwarded to the network layer. Network layer add its
header, with logical address and convert it in packet. Network layer forwards
packet to data link layer.
Data link layer attach its header and footer to the packet and convert it
in frame.
Frames are forwarded to the physical layers that convert them in
signals. These signals are loaded in media.
On receiving computer
Physical layer receive signals from media and convert them in frames.
Frames are forwarded to the data link layer.
Data link layer check the frame. All tampered frame are dropped here.
If frame is correct, data link layer strip down its header and footer from
frame and hand over packet to network layer.
Network layer check the packet with its own implementations. If it's
found everything fine with packet, it strips down its header from packet and
hand over segment to transport layer.
Transport layer again do the same job. It verifies the segments with its
own protocol rules. Only the verified segments are processed. Transport layer
remove its header from verified segments and reassemble the segments in
data. Data is handed over the session layer.
Session layer keep track of open connection and forwarded the
receiving data to presentation layer.
Presentation form the data in such a way that application layer use it.
Application layer on receiving computer find the appropriate
application from the computer and open data within particular application