ENEL 381 E LECTRIC M ACHINES 1

3 PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

These machines are called synchronous because their speed is directly related to
the line frequency.

or

or

Where P is the number of poles.

Thus, 2 or more machines connected to the same ac system which has a

constant line frequency (steady state conditions) will run in synchronisation i.e.
have the same electrical synchronous speed. However, their actual, or shaft
speeds can be quite different eg. A turbo-alternator where P = 2 runs at 3000
rpm but a hydro generator where P is large eg. P = 48 runs at 125 rpm. This
allows matching of a generator to its energy supply source (turbine) and its
characteristics.
Eg.

Steam low volume, high speed, low pressure

hydro high volume, low speed, high pressure

CONSTRUCTION:
The two basic parts of a synchronous machine are the magnetic field structure,
carrying a dc excited winding, and the armature which has a 3phase winding in
which the ac emf is generated.
The use of a rotating dc field system is almost universal, because it permits
the ac windings to be placed on the stator, where they are more conveniently
braced against electromagnetic forces and insulated for high voltage.

PHYSICAL CIRCUIT

SCHEMATIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

ROTORS
Cylindrical rotors (have a constant rotor stator
air gap and hence reluctance) are used for high
speed machines (not laminated due to high
centrifugal forces)
Salient pole rotors (where the interpole
reluctance is higher than that at the pole) is used on
low speed machines (more economical, but would
fly apart at high speeds).
(laminated iron to reduce eddy currents.)
DAMPER WINDINGS (Amortisseur)
Copper or brass bars are set into the pole faces and connected together at the
ends. Useful for
- Damping transient oscillations
- Starting synchronous motors as
induction machines
When the rotor speed is different from
s, currents are induced in the damper
windings. These act as the cage rotor of
an induction machine, producing a
torque to restore the synchronous speed.
With cylindrical m/cs, eddy current dampening in rotor iron since unlamented.

ROTORS

The axis of symmetry of the north magnetic pole of the rotor is called the direct
or d axis. That of the south magnetic pole is the ve d axis.
The axis of symmetry halfway between adjacent N and S poles is called the
quadrature or q axis. The q axis lagging the N pole is considered the +ve q axis.
This is /2 electrical degrees away from the +ve direct axis.

STATOR WINDINGS
The 3phase winding is distributed around the stator in slots in a wave or lap
winding configuration.
A winding is composed of coils, each with 2 sides which are placed in the slots.
Most 3phase windings are double layer i.e. 2 coil sides are placed in each slot.
Thus, the number of coils in a double layer winding is equal to the number of
slots, S.

Each coil has a number of turns Nc

The coils composing a winding are place in the slots to form equally spaced
groups. The number of groups in each phase winding is equal to the number of
rotor poles, P.
The number of slots per pole per phase
Where S is number of slots
P is number of poles
m is number of phases

By distributing the winding about the stator the mmf distribution is nearly purely
fundamental sinusoidal i.e. very little harmonics.
This should be compared to a concentrated winding which has a square wave
and thus is comprised of a sum of odd numbered harmonics.

OPERATION OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Assume a sinusoidal mmf distribution around the stator (1 phase)

If the exciting current is i = Imsin(t)

then

For 3 phases both the spatial and time phase of the phases are separated by
120.
Hence

(
(

)
)

(
(

)
)

The resultant M = MA + MB + MC

This is a rotating magnetic field.

When the rotor of the synchronous machine is excited by dc magnetic poles are
formed. The rotor will align with the stator field and hence will tend to rotate
with the rotating magnetic field.
Note: An unexcited salient pole rotor will also align with the rotating magnetic
field to present the path of least reluctance. The developed is known as the
reluctance torque and adds to that developed when the rotor field winding is
excited with dc. Reluctance torque is absent in cylindrical rotor machines.

If the rotor is at standstill, the inertia is such that even though there is a rotating
magnetic field the motor will not start. Hence the rotor has damper bars which
act like the cage of an induction motor and thereby provides a starting torque.
Once the rotor starts running and nears synchronous speed (slip speed of
induction motor operation), the excitation is applied to the field and the rotor
locks in to the rotating mmf.
The damper bars have no action at synchronous speed since there must be
relative movement between them and the mmf to produce a torque.

Any departure from S results in induced currents and hence torque, which
tends to restore the synchronous speed.
Alternatively, synchronous motors may be started by auxiliary motors.

OPERATION OF A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Faradays law says that if a flux linking a coil changes in time, then an emf or
voltage is induced in the coil.

If is the flux per pole and the angular frequency then the induced voltage is
sinusoidal

Hence the rms voltage is

Because phases b and c are displaced by -120 and -240 with respect to a, then
(

i.e. they form a balanced 3phase set of voltages

SOME REALISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

DISTRIBUTION FACTOR:
Since an N turn winding is made up of coils distributed in slots, the voltages
induced in these coils are displaced from one another in phase by the slot angle
.

The resultant voltage at the terminals of the winding is then the phasor sum of
the coil voltages. The magnitude of the resultant voltage, Er, is equal to the
distribution factor, kd, times the sum of the magnitudes of individual coil
voltages, Ec.

If

and

P = number of poles
S = number of slots
m = number of phases
q = number of slots per pole pre phase

then S = Pqm

(electrical degrees)

It can be shown that (above)

(

)
( )

For 3 phase windings i.e. m = 3

q

kd

0.966

0.960

0.958

0.957

0.957

0.956

0.955

PITCH FACTOR: kp
In a full pitch coil, the coil pitch, , is the same distance as that between two
adjacent rotor poles (i.e. electrical degrees).
radians

(pole pitch) Actual degrees

In a fractional pitch (chorded) winding the coil pitch is

i.e less than the pole pitch.
There is thus a reduction in the flux linking the coil with a consequent reduction
in induced emf.

Chorded or fractional coil pitch

Full pitch coil

We define a pitch factor;

Note:

in any units since their ratio is dimensionless

if = (pole pitch)
and is in electrical
radians

e.g. = 10 slots, = 8 slots kp = 0.95 (4/5 pitch)

The product kdkp is called the winding factor kw

The induced emf in a winding, taking these effects into account is

SPACE HARMONICS (due to coil distribution)

The mmf and flux distribution for a full-pitched, polyphase winding with one
slot per pole per phase, and assuming a constant air-gap and no iron saturation
is;

The frequency domain representation of the mmf distribution is

( )

Since M is a function of the components are known as space harmonics

The pole pitch, n, of the nth harmonic mmf is 1/n that of the fundamental = /n
For an alternating exciting current i = I sin t

for n odd

In practice the windings are distributed with q slots per pole per phase and the
mmfs of coils are displaced from each other in space. Also the displacement
angle is different for the various harmonics since their pole pitches are
different.
For an m phase machine with q slots per pole per phase, the distribution factor
for the nth harmonic is
(

)
(

And the pitch factor for the nth harmonic is

(

Hence the mmf of one phase of a polyphase winding is

(

for n odd

FOR A THREE PHASE WINDING

The phase windings of a 3 phase machine are displaced by 2/3 in space and the
currents by 2/3 in time. It can be shown that the total mmf has the form

The triplen harmonics are absent i.e. they can be removed because of the three
phase arrangement of the coils.
The fundamental is a travelling wave moving in the +ve direction
The fifth harmonic is a wave travelling in the ve direction
The seventh harmonic is a wave travelling in the +ve direction
These are the most significant.

REDUCTION OF 5TH HARMONIC BY CHORDED OR SHORT PITCHED WINDINGS

Consider the fundamental and the fifth harmonic

Now consider a short-pitched coil (4/5 pitch)

The net 5th harmonic flux enclosed is zero

no 5th harmonic voltage will be induced in the coil.
(

and the fundamental and 7th harmonic are

(

(
)

)
(

Similarly, the 7th harmonic may be completely eliminated by a coil of 6/7 pitch.
(

( )

(
)

)
(

Since both 5th and 7th harmonic needs to be suppressed a good compromised is
for
or 5/6 pitch

)
)
)

Also the distribution of the coils in each group over several slots reduces the
harmonic content.
e.g. for q = 6 (slots/pole/phase),
(

for 3 phase winding

)

(
(

)
)

(
(

)
)

Combined, this gives the winding factors

,

The total rms voltage for a distorted waveform composed of a sum of harmonic
is,

[( ) ]

SLOT HARMONICS
Consider a rotor pole and stator with slots:

Permeance variation

The permeance variation is due to the slots and teeth and hence the magnetic
field, (and induced emf) contain tooth ripples or slot harmonics.

For an m phase winding with q slots/pole/phase

(

The number of slots per pole = mq

Hence the variation of permeance in the air gap can be approximated by

(

Since number of ripple wavelengths in one fundamental

Since the fundamental mmf varies as

the resultant flux density variation is

{

}{

)}

which has a fundamental frequency component, i.e.

and frequency components expressed as;

(

[ (

)]

[ (

)]}

Therefore slotting gives rise to slot harmonics of orders 2mq 1

Now consider the rotor moving at a rotational speed .
The fundamental rotor mmf in a three phase machine is a travelling wave

translates from

The slot ripple component of mmf is of the form

translates from

This can be resolved into two counter-rotating components, i.e.

[(

[(

]}

which are slow moving multi-pole harmonics. Their wavelengths are;

(

and the corresponding velocities are;

(

As the number of waves passing any point on the stator per second is (speed
wavelength), each component induces an emf of fundamental frequency in the
armature.
Relative to the rotor, however, these two waves have different velocities. The
rotor velocity is 2f or (). Hence the waves travel at velocities
(

and

with respect to the rotor. In any closed rotor circuit they will each generate
currents of frequency 2mqf (by considering the ratio of speed to wavelength)
e.g.
[
(
(

These currents superimpose a time varying mmf at frequency 2mqf on the rotor
fundamental mmf. This can be resolved into two counter-rotating components
relative to the rotor, each travelling at high velocity 2mq. and therefore at,

relative to the stator. The resultant stator emfs have frequencies (2mq 1)f
e.g.

m = 3, q = 2

11, 13 harmonics

m = 3, q = 6

35, 37 harmonics

Consider the distribution and pitch factors for these cases:

(

)
(

[(

[(
for m = 3, q = 2,

]
) ]

, 2mq 1 = 11,13
(

for a short pitched coil,

(

((

for

(4/5th pitch)

Similarly for the 13th

In general, slot harmonics cannot be reduced by short pitch or distribution
without reducing the fundamental a little amount.
In practice 1. The use of fractional-slot windings. high frequencies
2. Skewed slots or pole shoes. averages reluctance
3. Shaping or bevelling of pole shoes
4. Displacing the centre line of damper bars in successive pole
faces.

EFFECT OF SKEWING A COIL ON HARMONIC FLUX LINKAGE

For any harmonic n (odd)

- for an un-skewed coil the number of N and S harmonic poles contained
within the pole pitch (for a full pitch coil) are (n+1)/2 and (n-1)/2
respectively giving a net imbalance of 1 N pole .
- By skewing the coil side over x slots a loss of north pole and a gain of
south pole is made. The net harmonic flux is thus zero and no emf is
induced in the coil.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

- Unsaturated cylindrical rotor,
- Steady-state behaviour, balanced conditions
- Analyse on a per-phase basis.
The armature winding has resistance, Ra, per phase. This takes into account the
effects of operating temperature and skin effect.
The armature winding has leakage flux (caused by currents in the conductors)
that link the armature conductors only, but not the field winding.
}

The resultant air gap flux is a combination of the field flux and the armature
reaction.

due to field current and armature current.

From the viewpoint of the armature windings these fluxes manifest themselves
as generated emfs

Excitation
voltage

Voltage due to
armature reaction
voltage
These are proportional to the field and armature currents If and Ia respectively,
each one lagging the flux generating it by 90.
The phasor diagram for synchronous generator.

Note: Current Ia lags Ef due to load.

Thus there is a resultant air gap emf

The effect of armature reaction as that of an inductive reactance Xa armature

reaction reactance.

The air-gap voltage r differs from the terminal voltage Vt by the voltage drops
due to the armature resistance and leakage reactance.
Hence the per phase equivalent circuit is

Note: This equivalent circuit is valid for the synchronous motor where the
direction of current Ia is reversed.

Define the synchronous reactance

and synchronous impedance

PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR A GENERATOR ON LOAD

It is usual to drop the flux information and rotate the voltage (and current)
vectors so that Vt is on the horizontal axis.

In all but small machines, the armature resistance is usually neglected (except
insofar as its effect on losses (efficiency) and heating is concerned)
The angle is known as the torque or power angle and the angle
factor angle.

is the power

The machine is said to be overexcited when:

|

| |

| |

otherwise it is underexcited

e.g under excited (for same terminal voltage)

leading power factor.

useful operation for machines in parallel.

The voltage regulation is defined as

OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS: OCC
Plot terminal voltage (line to line) as a function of field excitation, when the
machine is running at rated speed

The OCC is a curve because of magnetic saturation.

From this test the no-load rotational losses (friction, windage, core losses) can
be determined. The first two are constant at synchronous speed while core
losses are a function of the flux in the machine and hence the voltage.

SHORT CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS SCC

The machine is driven at rated speed.

Linear because
no saturation
PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR SCC TEST:
The armature current lags the excitation voltage Ef by almost 90 (because ra
Xs)

Consequently the magnetic axis of the armature reaction and the field are very
nearly in line and opposing each other. The resultant air-gap is only about 0.15
of its nominal value i.e. 0.15pu thus the machine is operating in the unsaturated
condition.

By representing the OCC and SCC on the same graph the unsaturated
synchronous impedance per phase is obtained.

Unsaturated synchronous impedance

(

Saturated synchronous impedance

If ot and od are in pu then so is Zs

SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO

Saturated synchronous impedance.

REAL AND REACTIVE POWER:

Notation: P + jQ is +ve for an over excited generator
The complex power output of a generator, per phase:

Take

then

i.e the voltage reference.

(

and the current

thus

and
[(

thus

Note: these equations stand if line-to-line voltages are used in three phase
machines

REAL POWER

Also

so curve represents real power or torque.

The max value of power is for

the critical power angle.

is the steady state limit of operation. At this point any further

increase in prime mover input to the generator causes the real power output to
decrease. The excess power goes into accelerating the generator, thereby
increasing its speed and causing it to pull out of synchronism.
For normal steady state operating conditions, the power angle is well below
/2, e.g. 15.
CHANGING EXCITATION: i.e. magnitude of Ef but hold P constant

does not change much

(second order effect)

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE AS A GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR)

ALTERNATOR CONNECTED TO AN ISOLATED ELECTRICAL LOAD
The behaviour of an alternator supplying an isolated electrical load is very much
different from that of one connected to a large system.

per unit equivalent

circuit for a three
phase system

Operating Characteristics:
1. The frequency depends entirely on the speed of the turbine or prime
mover. A governor is required to keep the frequency constant.
2. The power factor is the load power factor. i.e. varies with the load.
3. The terminal voltage Vt depends on:
a. speed

and

b. field current

(governor)
(generator)

c. armature current through armature reaction

(load)

d. power factor.

(load)

Practically, the field current is the only means of control.

4. The amount of real and reactive power generated is controlled by the load
for any given (or maintained) terminal voltage Vt.

ALTERNATOR CONNECTED TO AN INFINITE BUS

Definition: If the system is so large that it can absorb all the power an alternator
can put out or supply all the power the machine would require as a motor,
without any change in system frequency or voltage at the machine terminals,
then the machine is connected to an infinite bus. This condition is very nearly
realised in practice when a machine is operated as part of a large power grid.
Operating Characteristics
1. The speed is determined by the system frequency i.e. the mechanical drive is
forced to operate at a speed

2. The terminal voltage is the bus voltage.

3. The power factor is determined by the field current under or over
excitation for lagging or leading PF
4. The amount of power generated is determined by the prime mover. The
speed of the prime mover is fixed, but the torque can be varied achieved
by adjusting the governor characteristic.

PARALLEL OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

In order that a synchronous generator may be connected in parallel with a
system, (comprising of other machines), the following conditions must be
fulfilled. (synchronising)
1. The frequency of incoming generator must be the same as the frequency
of the power system to which the generator is to be connected.
i.e. bring the generator up to speed using the prime mover.
2. The magnitude of the voltage of the incoming generator must be the same
as the system terminal voltage
i.e. adjust field current If until Vt matches Vbus
3. The voltage of the incoming generator must be in the same phase as the
system voltage.
4. The generator must have the same phase sequence as that of the bus.
Once the machine is synchronised, the power output of the prime mover is
increased until the desired generator output is obtained ( increases).
As the power output rises, an automatic voltage regulator adjusts the field
current If to maintain the desired terminal voltage (Ef increases). As a result the
generator supplies its share of the system Vars.

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:

With known terminal bus voltage Vt and a given synchronous impedance ZS (or
reactance XS), the operating variables are;

There are four independent equations relating these variables.

Hence the synchronous machine has two degrees of freedom. The selection of
any two variables determines the operating point and establishes the other four
quantities.
Condition 1: Consider loci of the excitation voltage and armature current for
constant real power and variable excitation of a synchronous generator
operating at constant terminal voltage and frequency.

For the real power output of the generator to be constant,

is constant
and

is constant

The variation in power factor angle,

power angle, , is small.

, is large, whereas the variation in the

Now consider the adjustment of excitation until

Since
(
the real power

is unchanged.

However for the reactive power

since

then
(

has changed from

to

Alternatively

The value of this has gone from +ve to ve. This is mainly due to the change in
magnitude of Ef since the change in is small. Hence to a first degree
approximation
( )

Condition 2: Consider loci of the excitation voltage and armature current for
constant excitation and variable real power output of a synchronous generator
operating at constant terminal voltage and frequency.

Since

The real power

has increased while the reactive

power has decreased.

In this case the real power change is large but the reactive power change is
small. Also has changed.
( )

This can also be illustrated mathematically since

(

In per unit notation, under normal steady state operating conditions

Hence

i.e. P depends on (and to a lesser extent Ef)

For
(

i.e.

depends on Ef (and to a lesser extent )

OPERATION AS A SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR

With the generator real power reduced down to zero, over excitation causes the
generator to have a lagging power factor and to a system appears appears
capacitive
i.e. it supplies Vars to an inductive load
Alternatively

Under excitation causes the generator to have a leading power factor and to a
system appears inductive i.e. it absorbs reactive power from the system.
Example: Benmore HVDC station and hydro generating station.

Under light load conditions the generators are run as synchronous compensators
and provide reactive power into the system.
The tail water of the turbines is depressed to accomplish this and in fact the
machines are run as motors.

OPERATION AS A MOTOR

Shown here as over excited.

In this case

is ve since

but

depends on the

excitation.
Since Ia varies as Ef (If) is varied, the graph of Ia versus If can be made. These
are called V curves

Note: at any real power loading, the minimum armature current occurs at unity
power factor.
Synchronous motors are useful for power factor correction if they are on the end
of a line.

The line current is reduced and hence

is improved.

THE CAPABILITY CURVE:

The capability curve shows the limits placed on the electrical watts or Vars, by
the permissible temperature rise of the windings.
Generator ratings are usually given in terms of maximum VA, rated voltage and
power factor.
The power limit is determined by the prime mover rating. The two other are
determined by rotor heating (maximum permissible If) and by stator heating
(maximum permissible Ia)
Consider the synchronous machine phasor diagram.

Multiply each voltage vector by

to give figures in red.

This is equivalent to:

Hence can extract the loci of vectors under maximum conditions of

( )
(

Operating within the boundaries of the red curve is safe from the standpoints of
heating and stability.
For any operation point S* then the following information is available.
1) A line from S* to If = 0 is at an angle * to the

axis.

2) The length of the line in 1 is a measure of If required to provide P*,

rated voltage.
3) A line from S* to

= 0 is at an angle

at

to the O, P axis.

) is < 90 since generators are

Note: The steady state stability limit (
usually connected in series with transformers (and lines) which have
reactance and hence a power angle associated with them.

SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:

Because of saliency, the reactance measured at the terminals of a salient-pole
synchronous machine varies as a fraction of the rotor position.
The armature current is resolved into two components, and in time
quadrature and in phase with the excitation voltage

and produce space fundamental component armature reaction fluxes

and
, the ratio (magnitudes) of which is different from the
ratio
because of the different d and q axis reluctances.
i.e.

For an unsaturated machine the armature reaction

And the resultant air-gap flux is

The inductive effects of the d and q axis armature reaction fluxes can be
accounted for by the d and q axis magnetising reactances Xad and Xaq.
The d and q axis synchronous reactances are:

is the leakage reactance assumed to be the same for both d and q axes
Because of the greater reluctance of the air-gap in the quadrature axis, Xq < Xd;
typically
Also Xd is in the range of 0.6 2.2 p.u. and Xq is in the range of 0.4 1.4 p.u.
Note: there is a small saliency effect present in cylindrical rotor machines
because of the effect of the rotor slots on the q-axis reluctance.
The various fluxes manifest themselves as armature emfs

In complex notation

POWER ANGLE CHARACTERISTIC:

Neglecting the armature resistance, ra

(
(
Solving for

)
)

yields:
(

Hence
(

The resultant max power when

rotor machine and Pmax occurs at
Equal powers occur at a lower

, is greater than that for a cylindrical

for the salient pole machine.

If there is no applied field, Ef = 0, then

(
which is non-zero if

This is the power angle characteristic of a reluctance machine.

Consider Pmax when
(
(

)
)

DETERMINATION OF REACTANCES BY TEST DATA: Slip Test

Consider an unexcited machine i.e. Ef = 0, so no rotor armature reaction.
Balanced voltages are applied at the armature, Vt. The rotor is driven at a speed
(
) where s is small.
The armature currents are modulated at slip frequency by the machine, having
maximum amplitude when the q axis is in line with the mmf wave, and
minimum amplitude when the d axis aligns with the mmf wave.
Note: the armature voltages are also usually modulated at slip frequency
because of impedances in the supply lines, the amplitude being greatest
when the current is smallest and vice-versa (non-infinite bus)