The region of Tamil Nadu in modern India has been reported to have continuous human

habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE.[1] Throughout its history, spanning the early Upper
Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures. the
Tamil region has remained independent of external occupation.
The three ancient Tamil empires of Chera, Chola, and Pandya were of ancient origins. Together
they ruled over this land with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth of some
of the oldest extant literature in the world. They had extensive maritime trade contacts with
the Roman empire. These three dynasties were in constant struggle with each other vying for
hegemony over the land. Invasion by the Kalabhras is said to be during the 3rd century disturbed
the traditional order of the land by displacing the three ruling kingdoms. These occupiers were
overthrown by the resurgence of the Pandyas and the Pallavas, who restored the traditional
kingdoms. The Cholas, who re-emerged from obscurity in the 9th century by defeating the
Pallavas and the Pandyas, rose to become a great power and extended their empire over the
entire southern peninsula. At its height the Chola empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km
(1,389,968 sq mi) straddling the Bay of Bengal. The Chola navyheld sway over the Sri
Vijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia.
Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due toincursions of Muslim
armies from the northwest and the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the 14th century,
the Tamil country became part of theVijayanagara Empire. Under this empire,
the Telugu speaking Nayak governors ruled before the European trading companies appeared
during the 17th century eventually assuming greater sway over the indigenous rulers of the land.
TheMadras Presidency, comprising most of southern India, was created in the 18th century and
was ruled directly by the British. After the independence of India, after the Telugu,
Kannada, Tulu and Malayalam parts of Madras state were separated from Madras state in 1956,
it was renamed as Tamil Nadu in 1969 by the state government.

Pre-historic period[edit]
Further information: Prehistoric South India, Prehistory of Sri Lanka, South Asian Stone
Age, Bronze Age India, and Iron Age India

Paleolithic[edit]
The prehistoric period during which Lower Paleolithic settlements existed in the Tamil Nadu
region has been estimated to span the period from about 1,510,000BCE[1] until around 3000
BCE.[2] For most part of the lower Paleolithic stage, humans lived close to river valleys with
sparse forest cover or in grassland environments. The population density was very low and so far
only two localities of this lower Palaeolithic culture have been found in south India.
[3]
Archaeological research has uncovered evidence of fossil remains of animals and primitive
stone implements around the northern Tamil Nadu that could be dated to belong to around
3,000,000 BCE.[citation needed]Humans in South India, belonging to the species of Homo erectus, lived
in this primitive 'old stone age' (Palaeolithic) for quite a long time, using only crude implements
such as hand axes and choppers and subsisting as hunter-gatherers.[4]
A discovery of a rare fossilized baby brain in Viluppuram district, by a team of archeologists was
reported in April 2003, It is estimated to be about 187,000 years - 200,000 years or older.[5][6][7]
[8]
The ancestor of modern humans (Homo sapiens) who appeared around 50,000 years ago was
more developed and could make thinner flake tools and blade-like tools using a variety of stones.
From about 10,000 years ago, humans made still smaller tools called Microlithic tools. The
material used by the early humans to make these tools were jasper, agate, flint, quartz, etc. In
1949, researchers found such microliths inTirunelveli district.[9] Archaeological evidence suggests
that the microlithic period lasted between 60003000 BCE. [10]

Neolithic[edit]

In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of
the Neolithic period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. A Neolithic
axe head with ancient writing on it has been found in Tamil Nadu.[11] TheNeolithic humans lived
mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for
periodical migration for grazing purposes. They gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits.
They were also starting to use copper for making certain tools or weapons.

Iron Age[edit]
During the Iron Age humans started using iron for making tools and weapons. The Iron Age
culture in peninsular India is marked by Megalithic burial sites, which are found in several
hundreds of places.[12] On the bases of both some excavations and the typology of the burial
monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from
the north to the south. Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district
and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.
[13]

The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from
around 1000 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably
at Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of
India unearthed 157 urns, including 15 containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus
husks, grains of rice, charred rice and Neolithic Celts. One urn has writing inside, which,
according to archaeologists from theArchaeological Survey of India, resembles early TamilBrahmi script, confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago.[14]Adhichanallur has been
announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies. [15][16]
Mentions of the political situation of Tamil Nadu before the common era are found in Ashoka's
edicts dated c 300 BCE and, vaguely, in the Hathigumpha inscription dated c.150 BCE. The
earliest epigraphical evidence in the Tamil country are that of the Pandya king Kadungon (c.
560590 CE) who displaced the Kalabhras from the Pandyas country. Nilakanta Sastri, A
history of South India, pp 105, 137

Early history[edit]
Main article: Sangam period
See also: Tamil history from Sangam literature

Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela

Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings calledVendhar and
several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or Velir.
[17][18]
Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called kizhar or mannar.[19] During the 3rd
century BCE, the Deccanwas part of the Maurya Empire, and from the middle of the 1st century
BCE to 2nd century CE the same area was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty. The Tamil area
had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and
chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. The royal courts were mostly
places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for
distribution of resources.Tamil literature Tolkappiyam sheds some light on early religion.

Gradually the rulers came under the influence of Vedic beliefs, which encouraged performance
of sacrifices to enhance the status of the ruler.[21] Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika co-existed with
early Shaivite, Vaishnavism and Shaktism during the first five centuries.
[20]

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in the Pillars of
Ashoka (inscribed 273232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject
to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.[22][23] The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled around
150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil
kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.[24]
Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in
the Sangam poetry.[25] In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in
the Cilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They
attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of
the flood banks of the river Kaveri with the aid of his feudatories.[26] These legends however are
conspicuous by their absence in the Sangam poetry. Kocengannan was another famous early
Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was even
made a Saiva saint during the medieval period.[27]
Pandyas ruled initially from Korkai, a sea port on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula,
and in later times moved toMadurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as well
as by Greek and Roman sources during this period.Megasthenes in his Indika mentions the
Pandyan kingdom.[28] The Pandyas controlled the present districts of Madurai,Tirunelveli, and
parts of south Kerala. They had trading contacts with Greece and Rome.[29] With the other
kingdoms of Tamilakam, they maintained trading contacts and marital relationships with Tamil
merchants from Eelam. Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam
literature. Among them Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam' deserves a special mention.
Besides several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are
two major worksMathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) that give
a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam
age. The early Pandyas went into obscurity at the end of the 3rd century CE during the incursion
of the Kalabhras.
The kingdom of the Cheras comprised the modern Western Tamil Nadu and Kerala, along the
western or Malabar Coast of southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with Africa.
[30][31]
Chera rulers dated to the first few centuries AD. It records the names of the kings, the
princes, and the court poets who extolled them. The internal chronology of this literature is still far
from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be
derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the
rulers referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is
famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram.[32] The
people of the regions which constitutes the ancient territories of the Cheras spoke Tamil
language and had extensive interaction with the rest of the Tamil country. It was only towards the
9th or the 10th centuries CE, due to Sanskrit influences on Tamil, a new
language Malayalam began to evolve in western parts of the territory.[33]
These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in Tamil. The
classical Tamil literature, referred to as Sangam literature is attributed to the period between 200
BCE and 300 CE.[34][35] The poems of Sangam literature, which deal with emotional and material
topics, were categorised and collected into various anthologies during the medieval period.
These Sangam poems paint the picture of a fertile land and of a people who were organised into
various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies,
although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited
through the adherence to the established order (dharma).[36] The people were loyal to their kings
and roving bards and musicians and danseuse gathered at the royal courts of the generous
kings. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of
various types find mention in the Sangam poems. The amalgamation of the southern and the
northern styles of dancing started during this period and is reflected fully in the
epic Cilappatikaram.[37]

Internal and external trade was well organised and active. Evidence from both archaeology and
literature speaks of a flourishing foreign trade with the Yavanas (Greeks). The port city
of Puhar on the east coast and Muziris on the west coast of south India were emporia of foreign
trade, where huge ships moored, offloading precious merchandise.[38] This trade started to decline
after the 2nd century CE and the direct contact between the Roman empire and the ancient Tamil
country was replaced by trade with the Arabs and the Auxumites of East Africa. Internal trade
was also brisk and goods were sold and bartered. Agriculture was the main profession of a vast
majority of the populace.

Interregnum (300600)[edit]
Main article: Kalabhras
After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there is an almost total lack
of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole
region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later
literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a strangle hold of the
country.[39] Information about their origin and details about their reign is scarce. They did not leave
many artefacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scattered mentions
in Buddhist and Jain literature.[40]
Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist or Jain faiths and were antagonistic
towards the Hindu religions (viz.the Astika schools) adhered by the majority of inhabitants of the
Tamil region during the early centuries CE.[41] As a result, Hindu scholars and authors who
followed their decline in the 7th and 8th century may have expunged any mention of them in their
texts and generally tended to paint their rule in a negative light. It is perhaps due to this reason,
the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age'an interregnum. Some of the ruling families
migrated northwards and found enclaves for themselves away from the Kalabhras.
[42]
Jainism and Buddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical
poetry.
Writing became very widespread and vatteluttu evolved from the Tamil-Brahmi became a mature
script for writing Tamil.[43]While several anthologies were compiled by collecting bardic poems of
earlier centuries, some of the epic poems such as theCilappatikaram and didactic works such as
the Tirukkural were also written during this period.[44] The patronage of the Jain and Buddhist
scholars by the Kalabhra kings influenced the nature of the literature of the period, and most of
the works that can be attributed to this period were written by the Jain and Buddhist authors. In
the field of dance and music, the elite started patronising new polished styles, partly influenced
by northern ideas, in the place of the folk styles. A few of the earliest rock-cut temples belong to
this period. Brick temples (known as kottam, devakulam, and palli) dedicated to various deities
are referred to in literary works. Kalabhras were displaced around the 7th century by the revival
of Pallava and Pandya power.[45]
Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the Jain and Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil Nadu.
The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction to this
apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of the
7th century.[46] There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of Saiva
and Vaishnava literature was created. Many Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alvars provided a
great stimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature. Karaikkal Ammaiyar who lived in the
6th century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars. The celebrated Saiva
hymnists Sundaramurthi, Thirugnana Sambanthar and Thirunavukkarasar were of this period.
Vaishnava Alvars such as Poigai Alvar, Bhoothathalvar and Peyalvar produced devotional hymns
for their faith and their songs were collected later into the four thousand poems of Naalayira
Divyap Prabhandham.[47]

Age of empires (6001300)[edit]

The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms,
some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas.

The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first
few centuries.[48] The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which
in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power. Their
decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated
Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best. [49]
The Hindu sects Saivism and Vaishnavism became dominant, replacing the prevalence of
Jainism and Buddhism of the previous era. Saivism was patronised more by the Chola kings and
became more or less a state religion.[50] Some of the earliest temples that are still standing were
built during this period by the Pallavas. The rock-cut temples in Mamallapuramand the majestic
Kailasanatha and Vaikuntaperumal temples of Kanchipuram stand testament to the Pallava art.
The Cholas, utilising their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests, built longlasting stone temples including the greatBrihadisvara temple of Thanjavur and exquisite bronze
sculptures. Temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu received liberal donations of money, jewels,
animals, and land, and thereby became powerful economic institutions. [51]
Tamil script replaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Both secular
and religious literature flourished during the period. The Tamil epic, Kamban's Ramavatharam,
was written in the 13th century. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poet Auvaiyar who
found great happiness in writing for young children. The secular literature was mostly court
poetry devoted to the eulogy of the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period and the
classical literature of the Sangam period were collected and systematised into several
anthologies. Sanskrit was patronised by the priestly groups for religious rituals and other
ceremonial purposes. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary of Rajaraja Chola I,
collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books called Tirumurais. The hagiology
of Saivism was standardised in Periyapuranam by Sekkilar, who lived during the reign
of Kulothunga Chola II (11331150 CE). Jayamkondar's Kalingattupparani, a semi-historical
account on the two invasions of Kalinga by Kulothunga Chola I was an early example of a
biographical work.[52]

Pallavas[edit]
Main article: Pallava Empire

Shore Temple in Mamallapuram built by the Pallavas. (c. eighth century CE)

The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his
son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the
2nd century.[53] It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers
under the Satavahanakings.[54] After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over
parts ofAndhra and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the Vishnukundinawho
ruled over the Deccan. It was around 550 CE under King Simhavishnu that the Pallavas emerged
into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the Kaveri River. The
Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I
and Pallavamalla Nandivarman II. Pallavas ruled a large portion of South
India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture during the Pallava rule includes
the Shore Temple, built forNarasimhavarman II, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many

sources describe Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zenschool of Buddhism in China, as a prince
of the Pallava dynasty.[55]
During the 6th and the 7th centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the Chalukyas based
in Vatapi. Pulakeshin II(c.610642) invaded the Pallava kingdom in the reign of Mahendravarman
I. Narasimhavarman who succeeded Mahendravarman mounted a counter invasion of the
Chalukya country and captured the Chalukyan capital Vatapi and ruled it for 12 years. The rivalry
between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for another 100 years until the demise of the
Chalukyas around 750. The Chalukyas and Pallavas fought numerous battles and the Pallava
capital Kanchipuram was occupied by Vikramaditya II during the reign of Nandivarman II.
[56]
Nandivarman II had a very long reign (732796). He led an expedition to the Ganga
kingdom (south Mysore) in 760. Pallavas were also in constant conflict with the Pandyas and
their frontier shifted along the river Kaveri. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the
two as they had to fight on two frontsagainst the Pandyas as wells as the Chalukyas.

Pandyas[edit]
Main article: Pandyan Empire

Pandyan Empire

Pandya Kadungon (560590) is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south.
[57]
Kadungon and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani revived the Pandya power. Pandya
Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c.
650700) had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya
power. Pandya was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching
the Roman Empire; during the 13th century, Marco Polomentioned it as the richest empire in
existence.[58]
The Pandyan Empire was large enough to pose a serious threat to the Pallava power. Pandya
Maravarman Rajasimha aligned with the Chalukya Vikramaditya II and attacked the Pallava king
Nandivarman II.[59] Varagunan I defeated the Pallavas in a battle on the banks of the Kaveri. The
Pallava king Nandivarman sought to restrain the growing power of the Pandyas and went into an
alliance with the feudal chieftains of Kongu and Chera countries. The armies met in several
battles and the Pandya forces scored decisive victories in them. Pandyas under Srimara
Srivallaba also invaded Sri Lanka and devastated the northern provinces in 840. [60]
The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava
territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the Rashtrakutas who had
replaced the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. However the Pallavas found an able monarch in
Nandivarman III, who with the help of his Ganga and Chola allies defeated Srimara at the battle
of Tellaru. The Pallava kingdom again extended up to the river Vaigai. The Pandyas suffered
further defeats in the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil (c. 848). From then the Pandyas
had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas.[61]

Cholas[edit]
Main article: Chola Empire

See also: Early Cholas, Medieval Cholas, and Later Cholas

Around 850, out of obscurity rose Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict
between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur from Mutharaiyar dynasty and eventually
established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and
his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and
killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign. [62] The Chola kingdom
under Parantaka Iexpanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However towards the end of his
reign he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well
into the Chola kingdom.

Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola (c. 1030).

The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace
intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts the Pandya country could not
be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However,
the Chola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in 985. Cholas rose as a notable
military, economic and cultural power in Asia under Rajaraja and his son Rajendra Chola I. The
Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks
of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts
of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola
conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom.[63] He
defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new
capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its
peak the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin
in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged
Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.
[64]
Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia.[65] During the
reign of Rajaraja and Rajendra, the administration of the Chola empire matured considerably.
The empire was divided into a number of self-governing local government units, and the officials
were selected through a system of popular elections.[66]

Brihadishwara Temple

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever resilientSinhalas trying
to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes trying to win independence for their
traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. The
history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists.
A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit
acceptance of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the
bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in
the Vengi kingdom. The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were
exhausted by the endless battles and a stalemate existed.
Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located
on the south banks of the river Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion
of Vengi. Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in
1070 and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty.
Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi kingRajaraja Narendra. The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw
very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, however the eventual decline of
the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the island of
Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.[67] Around 1118 they also lost the
control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore
districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. In the Pandya
territories, the lack of a controlling central administration caused a number of claimants to the
Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy.
During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed in
Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the Pandyas. Rajendra Chola III was
the last Chola king. The Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I even captured Rajendra and held
him prisoner. At the close of Rajendra's reign (1279), the Pandyan Empire was at the height of
prosperity and had completely absorbed the Chola kingdom.[68] The Cholas also found a place in
very famous novel by Kalki title Ponniyin Selvan which portrays the whole Chola history with
Rajaraja Cholan ( Ponniyin Selvan, Arul Mozhi Varman,Vallavarayan
Vanthiyaththevan,Karikalar,Nandhini,Kundhavi) as the characters of the novel.

Cheras[edit]
The Cheras were an ancient Dravidian royal dynasty of Tamil origin who ruled in regions of Tamil
Nadu and Kerala in India.Together with the Chola and the Pandyas, it formed the three principal
warring Iron Age kingdoms of southern India in the early centuries of the Common Era. over a
wide area comprising Venad, Kuttanad, Kudanad, Pazhinad, and more. In other words, they

governed the area between Alappuzha in the south to Kasargod in the north. This included
Palghat, Coimbatore, Salem and Kollimalai. The capital was Vanchi, which the Romans who
actively traded with the Cheras knew as Muzris.

Chera Empire.

By the early centuries of the Common Era, civil society and statehood under the Cheras were
developed in present-day western Tamil Nadu. The location of the Chera capital is generally
assumed to be at modern Karur (identified with the Korura of Ptolemy). The Chera kingdom later
extended to the plains of Kerala, the Palghat gap, along the river Perar and occupied land
between the river Perar and river Periyar, creating two harbor towns, Tondi (Tyndis) and Muciri
(Muziris), where the Roman trade settlements flourished.
The Cheras were in continuous conflict with the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. The Cheras
are said to have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and their ally
states. They also made battles with the Kadambs of Banavasi and the Yavanas (the Greeks) on
the Indian coast. After the 2nd century AD, the Cheras' power decayed rapidly with the decline of
the lucrative trade with the Romans.
The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a long line of Chera rulers dated to
the first few centuries AD. It records the names of the kings, the princes, and the court poets who
extolled them. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a
connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum
Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the rulers referred to in the Sangam poems.
Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding
Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram.
The Chera kingdom owed its importance to trade with West Asia, Greece and Rome. Its
geographical advantages, like the abundance of exotic spices, the navigability of the rivers
connecting the Ghat mountains with the Arabian sea, and the discovery of favourable Monsoon
winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Chera kingdom, combined to
produce a veritable boom in the Chera foreign trade.
The Later Cheras ruled from the 9th century. Little is known about the Cheras between the two
dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulasekharas ruled from a city on the banks of River Periyar
called Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur). Though never regained the old status in the Peninsula,
Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in
the 12th century as a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions. The Chera dynasty
was supported by Tamil warriors such as Villavar, Vanavar and Malayar clans.[citation needed]
The Chera rulers of Venadu, based at the port Quilon in southern Kerala, trace their relations
back to the later/second Cheras. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, ruler of Venadu from 1299 to 1314, is
known for his ambitious military campaigns to former Pandya and Chola territories.

Pandya revival[edit]
After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, the Pandiyas revived their
fortunes in the 13th century and the Pandya power extended from the Telugu countries on banks
of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. When Kulasekara Pandyan I died in 1308,
a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons the legitimate Sundara

Pandya and the illegitimate Vira Pandya (who was favoured by the king) fought each other for
the throne. Soon Madurai fell into the hands of the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate (which
initially gave protection to the vanquished Sundara Pandyan).

Delhi Sultanate[edit]
Main article: Madurai Sultanate
Malik Kafur, a general of the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khilji invaded and sacked Madurai in 1311.
[69]
Pandyas and their descendants were confined to a small region around Thirunelveli for a few
more years. Ravivarman Kulasekara (r. 12991314), a Chera (Perumal) feudatory of Kulasekara
Pandya, staked his claim to the Pandya throne. Ravivarman, utilising the unsettled nature of the
country, quickly overran the southern Tamil Nadu and brought the entire region
from Kanyakumari to Kanchipuram, under the Chera kingdom. His inscription was found in
Punaamalli, a suburb of Madras.[70] But, Ravivarman's hold over Knci was only short-lived and
his aggressive activities were arrested by the Kkatiya ruler, Pratparudra II. The Kkatiya army
under the command of Muppidi Nyaka marched to Kanci, and captured the city.[71][72]

Martial Arts History of Tamil Nadu[edit]

Martial Arts were compulsory for male children from the age of 5 - 7, as their duty was to
preserve their Mother Land. Some of the Martial Arts practiced by the Ancient Tamil People are

Traditional Gymnastic Exercises

Burning Torch Games

Kuttu Varisai

Silambam

Vaazh Veechu - Sword Fight

Archery

Deer Horn Fight

Spring Sword Fight

VaLari - Traditional South Indian Boomerang

ThiGiRi - Traditional South Indian Chakra Yuddham

Adi Murai, today commonly known as Southern Kalari or Thekkan Kalari.

Malyutham - Traditional Wrestling

Gusthi - Traditional Boxing

Urimaram Eruthal

Varma Kalai - The art of Vital Points

Vijayanagar and Nayak period (13001650)[edit]

Main articles: Vijayanagara Empire, Madurai Nayaks, and Thanjavur Nayaks

Tirumalai Nayak Palace,Madurai

The 14th century invasion by the Delhi Sultans caused a retaliatory reaction from the Hindus,
who rallied to build a new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara Empire. Bukka, with his brother
Harihara founded the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire based in the city ofVijayanagara in Karnataka.
[73]
Under Bukka the empire prospered and continued to expand towards the south. Bukka and his
son Kampana conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India. In 1371 the Vijayanagar
empire defeated the short livedMadurai Sultanate, which had been established by the remnants
of the invading Khilji army.[74] Eventually the empire covered the entire south India. Vijayangara
empire established local governors called Nayaks to rule in the various territories of the empire.

Tanjore became a major cultural centre during the 18th and 19th centuries, underMaratha rule. Figure
depicts a Tanjore painting from this era.
From the collection of the V&A Museum.

The Vijayanagar Empire declined in 1564 defeated by the Deccan sultans in thebattle of Talikota.
[75]
The local Nayak governors declared their independence and started their rule. The Nayaks of
Madurai and Thanjavur were the most prominent of them. Ragunatha Nayak (16001645) was
the greatest of theTanjavur Nayaks.[76] Raghunatha Nayak encouraged trade and permitted a
Danish settlement in 1620 at Tarangambadi.[77] This laid the foundation of future European
involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek
trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631
1676) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in
the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing
temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers, which is representative of the religious
architecture of this period.
In Madurai, Thirumalai Nayak was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and
architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around
Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659, the Madurai Nayak kingdom began to break up.
His successors were weak rulers and invasions of Madurai recommenced.

Maratha influence[edit]
Shivaji Bhonsle, the great Maratha ruler, invaded the south, as did Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore
and other Muslim Rulers, resulting in chaos and instability. Rani Mangammal, the Nayak ruler of

Madurai, tried to resist these invasions showing great courage.[78] Shivaji had conquered
important forts like Jinji and Vellore by 1678. On the other hand, Ekoji, half brother of Shivaji
had established his own rule in Thanjavur.
Jinji served as the Maratha capital for nine years during the 27-year Mughal-Maratha war. The
Mughals captured Jinji in 1698.

Rule of Poligars, Nizams and Nawabs[edit]

European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In
1605, the Dutch established trading posts in the Coromandel Coast near Gingee and in Pulicat.
The British East India Company built a 'factory' (warehouse) at Armagaon (Durgarazpatnam), a
village around 35 miles (56 km) North of Pulicat, as the site in 1626. In 1639, Francis Day, one of
the officers of the company, secured the rights over a three-mile (5 km) long strip of land a fishing
village called Madraspatnam from the Damarla Venkatadri Nayakudu, the Nayak of Vandavasi.
The East India Company built Fort St George and castle on an approximate five square kilometre
sand strip.[79] This was the start of the town of Madras. The coromandel coast was ruled by
the Vijayanagara King (Aravidu Dynasty), Peda Venkata Raya, based in Chandragiri andVellore
Fort. With his approval the English began to exercise sovereign rights over their strip of land. [80]
In 1675, a column of Bijapur army came to Thanjavur to help Vijayaraghava and retrieved Vallam
from the Madurai Nayak. However the same army subsequently killed Vijayaraghava
Nayaka and Ekoji managed to ascend the throne of Thanjavur kingdom. Thus began the Maratha
rule of Thanjavur. After Ekoji, his three sons namely Shaji, Serfoji I, Thukkoji alias Thulaja I ruled
Thanjavur. The greatest of the Maratha rulers was Serfoji II (17981832 ). Serfoji devoted his life
to the pursuit of culture and Thanjavur became renowned as a seat of learning. Serfoji's
patronised art and literature and built the Saraswati Mahal Library at his palace. The incursion of
the Muslim armies from the north forced a southward migration of Hindus from the central
Deccan and the Andhra countries to seek shelter under the Nayak and the Maratha kings. The
famous Carnatic music composer Tyagaraja (17671847), along with the Trinity of Carnatic
music flourished in the Thanjavur district during this time. [81]

Fort St. George, Chennai (18th century etching)

With the demise of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, his empire dissolved amidst
numerous succession wars and the vassals of the empire began to assert their independence.
The administration of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu was fragmented with hundreds
of Poligars or Palayakkararsgoverning a few villages each. These local chieftains often fought
amongst each other over territory. This turned the political situation in the Tamil country and in
South India in general into confusion and chaos. The European traders found themselves in a
situation where they could exploit the prevailing confusion to their own advantage. [82]

European colonisation (17501858)[edit]

Main article: British East India Company

Anglo-French conflicts[edit]

Mohamed Ali Khan Wallajah,Nawab of the Carnatic (17171795)

The French were relative newcomers to India. The French East India Company was formed in
1664 and in 1666 the French representatives obtained Aurangzeb's permission to trade in India.
The French soon setup trading posts at Pondicherry on the Coromandel coast. They
occupied Karaikal in 1739 and Joseph Franois Dupleix was appointed Governor of Pondichry.
In Europe the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 and eventually the British and the
French forces in India were caught up in the conflict. There were numerous naval battles
between the two navies along the Coromandel coast. The French led by La
Bourdonnais attacked the poorly defended Fort St. George in Madras in 1746 and occupied
it. Robert Clive was one of the prisoners of war from this battle. The war in Europe ended in 1748
and with the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the British.[83]
The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than
military terms. Both the Nawab of the Carnatic and Nizam of Hyderabad positions were taken by
rulers who were strongly sympathetic to the French. Chanda Sahib had been made Nawab of the
Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the previous
incumbent, Mohammed Ali Khan Walajah. In the resultant battle between the rivals, Clive
assisted Mohammed Ali by attacking Chanda Sahib's fort in Arcot and took possession of it in
1751. The French assisted Chanda Sahib in his attempts to drive Clive out of Arcot. However the
large Arcot army assisted by the French was defeated by the British. TheTreaty of Paris
(1763) formally confirmed Mahommed Ali as the Nawab of the Carnatic. It was a result of this
action and the increased British influence that in 1765 the Emperor of Delhi issued
a firman (decree) recognising the British possessions in southern India.[84]

British Government control[edit]

Madras Presidency, 1909

Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting
states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast
expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the British
Parliament urged the government to control the activities of the Company. The Company's
financial position was also bad and it had to apply for a loan from Parliament. Seizing this
opportunity, the Parliament passed the Regulating Act (also known as East India Company Act)
in 1773.[85] The act set down regulations to control the Company Board and created the position
of the Governor General. Warren Hastings was appointed the first Governor-General. In
1784 Pitt'sIndia Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government.
The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the
British. The Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1766 to 1799 and the Anglo-Maratha Warsof 1772 to 1818 put
the Company in control of most of India.[86] In a sign of the early resistance against the English
control, the Palayakkarar chieftains of the old Madurai Kingdom, who had independent authority
over their territories, ran into a conflict with the Company officials over tax
collection. Kattabomman, a local Palayakkarar chieftain in the Tirunelveli district, rebelled against
the taxes imposed by the Company administration in the 1790s. After the First Polygar War
(17991802), he was captured and hanged in 1799. A year later, the Second Polygar War was
fought by Oomaithurai was involved in the Polygar Wars against the East India Company. In the
first Poligar war, he was captured and imprisoned in Palayamkottai prison. In February 1801, he
escaped from Palayamkottai and rebuilt the Panchalankurichi fort which had been razed in the
first war. In the second Poligar war that followed, Oomaithurai allied himself with Maruthu
brothers (who ruled Sivagangai) and was part of a grand alliance against the Company which
included Dheeran Chinnamalai and Kerala Verma. The Company forces led by Lt. Colonel
Agnew laid siege to the Panchalankurichi fort and captured it in May 1801 after a prolonged
siege and artillery bombardment. Oomaithurai escaped the fall of the fort and joined Marudu
brothers at their jungle fort at Kalayar Kovil. The Company forces pursued him there and
eventually captured Kalayar Kovil in October 1801. Oomaithurai along with the Marudu brothers
was hanged on 16 November 1801.[87][88]
In 1798 Lord Wellesley became the Governor-General. In the course of the next six years
Wellesley made vast conquests and doubled the Company's territory. He shut out the French
from further acquisitions in India, destroyed several ruling powers in the Deccan and the
Carnatic, took the Mughal Emperor under the company's protection and compelled Serfoji, the
king of Thanjavur to cede control of his kingdom. The Madras Presidency was established so
that the territory under direct Company control could be administered effectively. The direct
administration began to cause resentment among the people. In 1806 the soldiers of
the Vellore cantonment rebelled when William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras decreed that the
native soldiers should abandon all caste marks. Fearing this act to be an attempt of forceful

conversion to Christianity, thesoldiers mutinied. The rebellion was suppressed but 114 British
officers were killed and several hundred mutineers executed. Bentinck was recalled in disgrace.
[89][90]

End of Company rule[edit]

The simmering discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into
the Sepoy war. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in
India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it. In consequence of the war, the British
Government enacted the Act of 1858 to abolish the powers of the Company and transfer the
government to the Crown.

British rule (1858-1947)[edit]

Main article: British Raj
In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years the government
was autocratic in many ways. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by
Britain as important. However, in due course the British Raj began to allow Indians participation
in local government. Viceroy Ripon passed a resolution in 1882, which gave a greater and more
real share in local government to the people. Further legislation such as the 1892 Indian councils
Act and the 1909 "Minto-Morley Reforms" eventually led to the establishment of the Madras
Legislative Council.[91] The non-cooperation movement started under Mahatma Gandhi's
leadership led the British government to pass the Government of India Act (also known
as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) of 1919. First elections were held for the local assemblies in
1921.[91]

Madras famine (1877). Distribution of relief. From the Illustrated London News (1877)

Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwarisystem

resulted in a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 18761877. [92]The government and
several charitable institutions organised relief work in the city and the suburbs. Funds were also
raised from Europeans in India and overseas for the famine relief. Humanitarians such as William
Digby wrote angrily about the woeful failure of the British administration to act promptly and
adequately in response to the wholesale suffering caused by the famine. [93] When the famine
finally ended with the return of the monsoon in 1878, between three and five million people had
perished.[92] In response to the devastating effects of the famine, the government organised a
Famine Commission in 1880 to define the principles of disaster relief. The government also
instituted a famine insurance grant, setting aside 1.5 million Rupees. Other civic works such
as canal building and improvements in roads and railway were also undertaken to minimise
effects of any future famines.

Independence struggle[edit]
The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its
influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial
power in the struggle for Independence. Notable amongst these are Tiruppur Kumaran, who was
born in 1904 in a small village near Erode. Kumaran lost his life during a protest march against
the British. The location of the French colony of Pondichry, offered a place of refuge for the
fugitives freedom fighters trying to flee the British Police. Aurobindo was one such living
in Pondicherry in 1910. The poet Subramanya Bharathi was a contemporary of Aurobindo.

Bharathi wrote numerous poems in Tamil extolling the revolutionary cause. He also published
the journal India from Pondicherry. Both Aurobindo and Bharathi were associated with other
Tamil revolutionaries such as V.V.S. Aiyar and V. O. Chidambaram Pillai.[94] Tamils formed a
significant percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Subhas
Chandra Bose to fight the British occupation in India.[95][96] Lakshmi Sahgal from Tamil Nadu was a
prominent leader in the INA's Rani of Jhansi Regiment.
[94]

In 1916 Dr. T.M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the Non-Brahmin
Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements.[97] During the 1920s, two movements
focused mainly on regional politics began in Tamil Nadu. One was the Justice Party, which won
the local legislative elections held in 1921. The Justice Party was not focused on the Indian
independence movement, rather on the local issues such as affirmative action for socially
backward groups. The other main movement was the anti-religious, anti-Brahimin reformist
movement led by E.V. Ramasami Naicker.[97] Further steps towards eventual self-rule were taken
in 1935 when the British Government passed the All-India Federation Act of 1935. Fresh local
elections were held and in Tamil Nadu the Congress party captured power defeating the Justice
party. In 1938, Ramasami Naicker with C. N. Annadurai launched an agitation against the
Congress ministry's decision to introduce the teaching of Hindi in schools. [98]

Post Independence period[edit]

The political state of Tamil Nadu in India was created in 1969 when erstwhile Madras State was renamed.

The trauma of the partition did not impact Tamil Nadu when India was granted Independence in
1947. There was no sectarian violence against various religions. There had always been an
atmosphere of mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between all religions in Tamil Nadu.
Congress formed the first ministry in the Madras Presidency. C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) was
the first Chief Minister. Madras Presidency was eventually reconstituted as Madras State.
Following agitations for a separate Andhra state comprising the Telugu speaking regions of the
Madras state by Potti Sriramalu, the Indian Government decided to partition the Madras state.
[99]
In 1953 Rayalaseema and the coastal Andhra regions became the new state of Andhra
Pradesh and the Bellarydistrict became part of the Mysore state. In 1956 south Kanara district
was transferred to Mysore, the Malabar coastal districts became part of the new state of Kerala,
and the Madras state assumed its present shape. The Madras state was named Tamil
Nadu(literally The Land of Tamils or Tamil Country) in 1969.[100][101]
The Sri Lankan Civil War during the 1970s and the 80s saw large numbers of Sri Lankan
Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu. The plight of Tamil refugees caused a surge of support from most of
the Tamil political parties.[102] They exerted pressure on the Indian government to intercede with
the Sri Lankan government on behalf of the Sri Lankan Tamilians. However, LTTE lost much of
its support from Tamil Nadu following theassassination of Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991 by an
operative from Sri Lanka for the former prime minister's role in sendingIndian peacekeepers to
Sri Lanka to disarm the LTTE.[103][104]

The east coast of Tamil Nadu was one of the areas affected by the Indian Ocean earthquake of
2004, during which almost 8000 people died in the disaster.[105] The sixth most populous state in
the Indian Union, Tamil Nadu was the seventh largest economy in 2005 among the states of
India.[106] The growing demands for skilled labour has caused increased number of educational
institutions in Tamil Nadu. The widespread application of caste based affirmative action caused
the state to have 69% of all educational and employment vacancies to be reserved to the
backward castes. Such caste-based reservations have huge public support in Tamil Nadu, with
no popular protests organised against its implementation. [107]

Evolution of regional politics[edit]

The politics of Tamil Nadu have gone through three distinct phases since independence. The
domination of the Congress Party after 1947 gave way to the Dravidian populist mobilisation in
the 1960s. This phase lasted until towards the end of the 1990s. The most recent phase saw the
fragmentation of the Dravidian political parties and led to the advent of political alliances and
coalition governments.[108]
Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949 after splitting from Dravidar
Kazhagam.[109] DMK also decided to oppose the 'expansion of the Hindi culture' in Tamil Nadu and
started the demand for a separate homeland for the Dravidians in the South. The demand was
for an Independent state called Dravida Nadu (country of Dravidians) comprising Tamil Nadu and
parts of Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala.[110] The increased involvement of the Indian National
Congress party in Madras during the late 1950s and the strong pan-Indian emotions whipped up
by the Chinese invasion of India in 1962 led to the demand for Dravida Nadu losing some of its
immediacy. Consequently, in 1963, when the Sixteenth Amendment to theConstitution of India,
precluded secessionist parties from contesting elections, the DMK chose to formally drop its
demand for an independent Dravida Nadu, focusing instead on securing greater functional
autonomy within the framework of the Indian Constitution.[111]
The Congress party, riding on the wave of public support stemming from the independence
struggle, formed the first post-independence government in Tamil Nadu and continued to govern
until 1967. In 1965 and 1968, DMK led widespread anti-Hindi agitations in the state against the
plans of the Union Government to introduce Hindi in the state schools. Affirmative action in
employment and educational institutions were pioneered in Tamil Nadu based on the demands of
the Dravidian movement.[112] The leadership of the Dravidian movement had very capable authors
and literati in Annadurai andKarunanidhi, who assiduously utilised the popular media of stage
plays and movies to spread its political messages.[113] MG Ramachandran (MGR) who later
became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, was one such stage and movie actor.[114]
In 1967 DMK won the state election. DMK split into two in 1971, with MGR forming the
splinter All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK). Since then these two parties
have dominated the politics of Tamil Nadu.[115] AIADMK, under MGR retained control of the State
Government over three consecutive assembly elections in 1977, 1980 and 1984. After MGR's
death AIADMK was split over the succession between various contenders. Eventually J.
Jayalalithaa took over the leadership of AIADMK.
Several changes to the political balance in Tamil Nadu took place during the later half of the
1990s, eventually leading to the end of the duopoly of DMK and AIADMK in the politics of Tamil
Nadu. In 1996, a split in the Congress party in Tamil Nadu eventuated in the formation of Tamil
Maanila Congress (TMC). TMC aligned with the DMK, while another party Marumalarchi Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK), which split from DMK aligned with the AIADMK. These and
several smaller political parties began to gain popular support. The first instance of a 'grand
alliance' was during the 1996 elections for the National parliament, during which the AIADMK
formed a large coalition of a number smaller parties to counter the electoral threat posed by the
alliance between the DMK and TMC. Since then the formation of alliances of large number of
political parties has become an electoral practice in Tamil Nadu.[116] The electoral decline of
Congress party at the national level, which started during the early 1990, forced the Congress to
seek coalition partners from various states including Tamil Nadu. This paved the way for the
Dravidian parties to be part of the Central Government