The Shipping Technology of Cholas

K.V. Ramakrishna Rao I.R.S.,

B.Sc., M.A., A.M.I.E., C.Eng. (I )., B.L.

A paper presented at the 27th annual sesssion of South Indian History Congress
held at Rajapalayam and published in the proceedings, 2007, pp.326-345.

Assistant Commissioner of Customs, 25 (Old.9), Venkatachala Iyer Street,

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Ancient Indian Arts and Sciences

Introduction: Of late, some researchers1 have started throwing doubt on the

overseas expedition of Rajaraja Chola through Rajendra Chola on the plea that
the Parasasti / Meikkirti could have been written with poetic fantasy rather than
the factual accuracy. Even, had Rajendra Cholan gone there, it could have been
only a raid to loot and not to set foot as a conqueror! Earlier Aidan Southhall2
analyzed the West African politics in terms of the “segmentary states
theory” and applied to medieval European states. Burton Stein3 applied such
model to South India, though Bernard S. Cohn4 opposed. Burton, then applied
such theory to Cholas and George W. Spencer5 accepting it to declare that in such
“segmentary states”, the state’s functions were custodial rather than regulative,
magico-ritualistic rather than managerial. Thus Cholas resorted to the policy of
“plunder and piety” just like Frankish kings of early mediaeval Europe. Rajaraja
too fulfilled his charitable obligations – his “necessary giving” – in an extravagant
way, aggressively acquiring booty only to donate more lavishly to temples and
Brahmans. In such an attempt, the Tanjore inscriptional details of Cholas
expedition to South East Asian Countries are dubbed as mere rhetoric. All these
continue, though R. C. Majumdar6 after discussing the “struggle between the
Silendras and the Cholas”, long back pointed out, “That the story of this
victory is not merely an imagination of the court-poets, but based on
facts, is proved, beyond doubt, by the detailed references to the

1
George W. Spencer, The Politics of Expansion – The Chola Conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya, New Era
Publications, Madras, 1983.
Richard G. Fox (Ed.), Realm and Region in Traditional India, Duke University Program in Comparative Studies on
South Asia, Monograph No. 14, Durham, Duke University, 1977.
Moti Chandra, Trade and Routes in Ancient India, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1977, pp.212-214. He doubts
the naval battles of the Cholas, but not the oversea expedition.
2 Aidan W. Southall, Alur Society, Cambridge University Press, UK, 1956.
3 Burton Stein, The Segmentary State in South Indian History, in Realm and Region in Traditional India, pp.3-51.
4 S. Benard Cohen, African Models and Indian Histories, in Realm and Region in Traditional India, pp.90-113.
5 George W. Spencer, opt.cit, he starts his hypothesis in his introduction to his book and elaborates thereafter in

subsequent chapters, segmentary theory - pp.6-7, piety and plunder – pp.8-10 etc.
6 R. C. Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, Firma KLM, Calcutta, 1973. pp.38-39.

1
vassal states. It is interesting to note that many of these States are included in
the Silendra Empire by later Chinese authorities”.

Though, non-Indian researchers point out the maritime activities7, international

trade, import and export of goods, movement of people-groups with religious
beliefs8 etc., their studies have been restricted to Chinese, Arabic and European
exploits or impact with passing remarks to Indians and Cholas. Accepting the fact
of Indian goods, people, their religion, temple-building technology etc., going
there, but doubting their mode of travel appears illogical and unhistorical.
Therefore, a critical study is made in this paper to analyze the shipping, ship-
building and naval capabilities of the Cholas.

Whether Naval battles were fought or not?: The core is dealt with The
concept of oversea expedition and conquer is linked with Naval battles so that the
incoming warriors from the ships land and enter into cities so that the conquest
is complete. The critical observations made by different researchers are
mentioned as follows:

George W. Spencer9: “In spite of several references in Tanjore record to ships and
bodies of water, there is nothing in those purely rhetorical references that
requires us to believe that Cholas fought naval battles. Indeed, the equally
conventional reference to capturing the Kedah elephants would
suggest land battles”.

Moti Chandra10 succinctly describes the Cholas expedition to SEA concluding as

follows: “In the conquests of Rajendra Chola came almost the whole eastern part
of Sumatra, and the central and southern parts of the Malay peninsula. He also
occupied the capitals of Srivijaya and Kedah. Perhaps this expedition started in
1025 A.D”. Significantly, in next the line, he poses the issue:

“The Indian literature does not mention many sea battles. Therefore, we are
surprised to read the description of an Indian fleet in Tilakamanjari 11 of
Dhanapala12. The story mentions that this Indian fleet was led by an Indian
prince, Samaraketu of Rangasala. He led this expedition to Indonesia because the
feudatory chiefs there refused to pay the tributes and taxes in time………….”.
Surprised by the close similarity between the narration about Cholas naval
expedition and the Tilakamanjari story, he notes:

7 Geff Wade, An Earlier Age of Commerce in Southeast Asia: 900-1300 CE, Asia Research Institute, National
University of Singapore.
8 Tansen Sen, Buddhism, Diplomacy and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400, Honolulu,

Association for Asian Studies, University of Hawai'i Press, 2003. p.156.

See also Tansen Tan, “Maritime Contacts Between China and the Cola Kingdom (A.D. 850-1279)” in K.S. Mathew
(ed.), Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History, Delhi, Manohar, 1995, pp. 25-42.
9 G. W. Spencer, opt.cit, Sl.no. 6 of Notes to Chapter 7, p.172.
10 Moti Chandra, opt.cit, pp.212-214.
11 Tilakamanjari, 2nd edition, Bombay, 1938, pp.113-141.
12 Dhanapala seems to have flourished in the reigns of Styaka and Vakapatiraja of Dhara (774-995 A.D). but,

Merutunga places him as contemporary of Bhoja (1010-1025 A.D).

2
“Whether the sea expedition described in the Tilakamanjari gives
glimpses of the victorious expedition of Rajendra Chola, or some
other Indian ruler, depends on the exact date of Dharmapala. But,
there is hardly any doubt that Dhanapala had an intimate knowledge of
Indonesia”. Then, he gives a free translation of the story, which narrates as to
how the army encamped on the shore, the soldiers marched to the villages, the
Indonesian prince meeting the pilot, who was a very clever navigator and did not
care for any sea danger, usage of boats while disembarking etc., Thus. The text
uses many expressions related to naval expedition. Then , Moti Chandra
discusses about hero-stones that depict naval battles ending with A. S. Atlekar’s
reference13 to “flotilla of ships”. P. C. Chakravarti14 has dealt with “Navak
Warfare in Ancient India”, in 1930, particularly pointing out the Naval
capabilities of the Tamils.

K. V. Raman15, in the context, just points out the Cholas’ trade relation with
China and SEA countries without going into the naval aspect. P. Venkatesan 16,
though deals with “Naval Battles and Shipwrecks Referred to in Tamil
Epigraphs”, he repeats the details from the inscriptions of Rajaraja and Rajendra,
again not explaining about naval details. But, there have been depiction of ships
not only in hero-stones, but also on the coins of Satavahanas, Salankayanas,
Pallavas and others and such coins are in fact known as “ship-type” coins.

“Ship-type Coins” Of Sathavahanas, Salankayanas, Kurumbas,

Pallavas: The introduction of “ship-type coins” has been attributed to the
Sathavahanas17, who were ruling the south during c.200 BCE onwards, just
touching the northern boundaries of the Tamils of the Sangam period.
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi and Yajna Sri Satakarni have issued Ship-type coins
depicting two-mast ships sailing on wavy oceanic waters under partially clouded
sky. The coins of Pulumavi have been recovered between Madras and Caddalore
proving the existing of ports in that area. The coins of the latter were found in
Maharastra. Here, under the two-mast ship fish (LHS) and conch (RHS) are also
depicted. The other parts of ship – have also been clear. The Salankayanas have
also issued similar coins proving that they too had seafaring activities and naval
dominance. Interestingly, their ships portray some parts of the ship on both sides
under water. Though, they could be easily interpreted as oars, but the shapes
negate it. In another coin, a roughly circular shape object attached to one side of

13 A.S. Atlekar, Indian Culture, Vol.II, 1935-36, p.417.

14 P. C. Chakravarti, Naval warfare in Ancient India, The Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol.4, No.4, 1930.12, pp.645-
664. Also see in: http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/cha.htm
15 K. V. Raman, Port Towns of Tamilnadu – some Field Data and the Prospects of Marine Archaeology, in Marine
Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries (Proceedings of an International Seminar), National Institute of
Oceanography, 1988, pp.114-118.
16 P. Venkatesan, Naval Battles and Shipwrecks Referred to in Tamil Epigraphs, Ibid, pp.26-27.
17 E. J. Raposon, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, London, 1908, p.34ff.

V. V. Mirashi, A Ship-type Coin of Yajna Satakarni, Journal of the Numismatic Society, Vol.III, Pt.I, 1941, pp.43-
45.
R. Krishnamurthy, Pallava Coins, Garnet Publishers, Chennai, 2004, pp.46-49.

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the ship. Then come the ship-type coins issued by the Pallavas18, which depict
both one-mast and two-mast ships and also single-mast boat with Nandi / bull
symbol on the observe. The picture nos. are given as appearing in the book of R.
Krishnamurthy19 for convenience. In the coins with sl.nos. 25 and 26, the oars are
very clear. No.35 also shows two-mast ship. In 36, part of a ship is depicted with
a lengthy devise underneath with three rectangular scooped out holes. It could
not be an anchor, as it has been depicted with full length of the ship.

Sir Walter Elliot20 gives interesting description for the two-mast ship depicted in
Pallava coin: “Two-mast ship like the modern coasting vessel or d’honi,
steered by means of oars from the stem”. About this ship-type coins, he
records that there were two and both were found missing and then, one
recovered. In his words21, “This is one of the two coins mentioned on
p.36, supposed to have been lost. It was discovered in arranging the
present series, but the other is still missing” (1884). In another Pallava
coin (numbered as 55 in plate II), he comments that observe has ‘a horse facing
right, with a pellet in front’ and reverse ‘indistinct’. But, the reverse depict a two-
decked ship, perhaps which he did not want to acknowledge, as it would be too
modern to be imagined in the Pallava period! In fact, he calls them as
“Kurumbas”. These coins were recovered from the coastal Labis and Merkayars
in exchange for useful necessaries. About the coins, he describes as follows22:

“Those of native origin are small, irregularly rounded pieces of thin

copper, bearing generally the device of a bull, with occasionally some
letters in Cave-character on the observe; and on the reverse, a tree, ship,
star, crab, fish etc. but, their most remarkable characteristic is
the elegance and delicacy of form with which the animals are
designed, indicating a considerable advance of art; and in this respect
contrasting favourably, but with the Andhra money on the one side, and
with the Chola, and Pandyan currencies on the other” (emphasis added).

Thus, he could have noted the similarity of coins of Cholas and Pandyas, besides
Andhras and Kurumbas, as implied in his argument of contrast of art. Coming to
Cholas of the material period, the available / reported coins depict only stars, fish
prominently (these are specifically mentioned in the context). Therefore, it is
intriguing to note that there are no coins issued by Rajaraja or Rajendra either to
commemorate their oversea expeditions or victories or at least depict their naval
capabilities on their coins. When so many metallurgical highly skilled bronzes are
attributed to the Cholas, it is also intriguing that they issued fewer coins. But,
considering the disappearance of coins from India23, it can be surmised that such

18 I. K. Sarma, Coinage of the Sathavahana Empire, p.227.

19 R. Krishnamurty, opt.cit.,
20 Sir Walter Elliot, Coins of Southern India, Prithvi Prakashan, Varanasi, 1970, p.152.
21 Ibid, p, 152B.
22 Ibid, p.35.
23 K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, The Appearance and Disappearance of Coins in Ancient India”, to appear in Dr. Raja

Reddy Facilitatioon Volme, 2007.

4
coins could have gone to the foreigners (just like Leiden Copper plates) and in the
possession of private collection (Indian coins are offered for sale in internet).

Revenue System proves the Maritime activities of Cholas: The Revenue

system of the Cholas interestingly talks about duty on imported goods into their
territories. The South Indian Inscriptions have given enough details about it. It is
unique in the sense that the levy was imposed based on the type of the vessel in
which the goods were imported or imported goods brought in instead of the
goods imported. Thus, the levy is mentioned for the following:

 Marakkalam = Ship
 Patavu = Boat
 Kalavam = Raft

P. Shanmugam24 dealing with the topic notes that. “.. a similar tax imports
are mentioned in an epigraoph of Ganapatideva (1244). We have no
such evidence to suggest a corresponding item in CM
(Cholamandalam)”. That is, the dilemma implied is that the inscriptions
mentioning the three type of naval tax levied are found only in Tondaimandalam
and not in Cholamandalam, but such division has been conceived, perceived and
applied by us only. It is well known that such import-export, naval-maritime,
shipping-shipbuilding activities would be near sea and not interior areas under
the Cholas. Therefore, such inscriptions located near sea, here, Kollitturai, are
significant.

The Navy (of Cholas): Under the caption “The Navy”, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri25
has given the following details and they split into points for interpretation as
follows:

 The ‘numberless ship’ which carried Rajendra’s troops across the ‘rolling sea’
to the conquest of Sri Vijaya and its dependencies could not have come up
suddenly and must be accepted as proof of a steady naval policy pursued by
the Cola monarchs of the period.
 The steady naval policy pursued by the Cola monarchs of the period
could not have been without the knowledge of ship-building, ship-
technology and shipping.

24 P. Shanmugam, The Revenue System of the Cholas 859-1279, New Era Publications, Madras, 1987, p.52.
25 K. A. Nilakanta Sastry, The Colas, University of Madras, Madras, 1984, pp.458-460.
For convenience, the notes references as he mentioned are reproduced here for convenience:
Notes
53. Journal of Oriental Research. vi, 299ff.
54. Ferrad, Voyage, p.32; Wilson, Persian Gulf, pp.57-58 and n.Pelliot casts a doubt on Sulaiman’s
authorship of the work attributed to him, T’oung Pao, xxi, pp. 401-402.
55. Ferrad, op.cit., p.93. See also Renadout-Ancient Accounts- Remarek ‘E’, and Marco Polo.
56. Ferrand, Voyage, p.14.
57. ‘Dans tous ses ouvrages nautiques, Ibn Majid fait frequemment allusion’a l’ opinion des Colas qu’il
appropuve ou rectifie. Ce’st qu’il devait avoir en main les Insructions nautiques tables geographuques avec
indication de la latitude des ports, utilis’ees par les marins du Coromandel et qu’il les comparait avee les
documents arabes des meme nature’. Ferrand, Journal Asiatique, 11:14, (1919), pp.171-172.

5
 The early Colas of the Sangam period had a good share in the maritime trade
and activity of the Indian seas.
 So such “naval policy” had been continuous and not originated
suddenly. Thus, the Colas of Sangam period must have had ruled like
their contemporary Satavahanas, as otherwise, it is unimaginable or
intriguing to note Satavanas ruling states and the Colas without state
reportedly leading “tribal state”, as has already been suggested by some
historians26.
 The history of the Hindu colonies in the Malay Archipelago and Indo-China
gives clear evidence of a steady increase, under the Pallavas, in the trade and
culture contacts between these lands and the countries of South India.
 Thus, the Pallavas navigation technology goes before the Colas in
the seafaring actrivities. B. Ch.Chabra27 has pointed out as to how the
Pallava inscriptions of non-Indian sources (available in SEA countries)
are dating before the Indian Pallavas. Thus, the overseas trade and
shipping of Pallavas cannot be ignored.
 The Tamil inscriptions of Takuapa53 shows that an important mercantile
corporation of South India, the manigramam, had established itself on the
opposite coast of the Bay of Bengal in the ninth century A.D.
 Now, there have been many inscriptions found even upto Southern-
China and they are discussed separately.
 The Colas only continued an ancient tradition in the attention they gave to
developing their power on the sea. The conquest of Ceylon and the Maldives,
and the evidence of the Chinese annals o the embassies that reached China in
the period from the Cola country give us some measure of the success they
attained in this direction.
 The literary evidences of Sangam literature and the conquest of
Ceylon and Maldives had been prelude to their overseas expansion.
 And the overthrow of the Cera fleet at Kandalur salai may well be taken to
mark the definite establishment of Cola naval power in this period in the
territorial waters of Southern India. We have little direct evidence on the
build of the ships employed.
 Though about the “overthrow of the Cera fleet at Kandalur salai” is
interpreted differently, the fact being that not only Colas had maritime
capabilities, the Ceras too possessed such capabilities with their unique
ship-building and ship-academy.

26 Champaka Lakshmi et.al eds.State and Society in Pre-modern South India, Trissur, 2002. pp. 39 ff., see
“Antecedents of the State Formation in South India,” therein.
R. Champakalakshmi, State and Economy: South India Circa A. D. 400-1300”, Romila Thapar, ed., Recent
Perspectives of Early Indian History (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1995), pp. 266-308.
Burton Stein, The Segmentary State: Interim Reflections, Hermann Kulke, ed., The State in India, 1000-1700.
(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 134-161.
Nicholas Dirks, Political Authority and Structural Change in Early South India, in The Indian Economic and
Social History Review, Vol. XIII, No. 21, pp. 125-157.
James Heitzman, State Formation in South India, 850-1280, in Kulke, The State in India, pp. 162-194.
27 B. Ch. Chhabra, Expansion of Indo-Aryan Culture During Pallava Rule (as evidenced by inscriptions), Munshiram

Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1965.

6
 Considering that the author of the periplus distinguished three types of
vessels several centuries earlier on the Coromandel coast and that naval
expedition of Rajendra was a great achievement in itself, the existence of a
well-ordered fleet comprising ships and boats of different grades must be
admitted.
 Of course, the “civilized, progressed and advanced” Egyptians,
Greeks, Romans, Arabs and others would not have been dealing with
“mythical goods” of Indians and the latter sailing in “mythical ships”.
 The Arab merchant Sulaiman made several voyages between China and the
Persian Gulf in the ninth century A.D., at a time when this long distance trade
was being carried on very briskly. In his curious account of Maldives, he says
that the people of these islands ‘built ships and houses and executed all other
works with a consummate art’54.
 The mention of Maldives is interesting as it was stronghold of
Pallavas once and they were building ships and supplying to others.
 Sulaiman had no occasion to visit the Coromandel coast; and his voyages were
made before the rise of Colas of the Vijayala line into prominence. Taking into
account Sulaiman’s testimony to the quality of the ships built in Maldives, and
the conquest of these islands effected by Rajaraja’s fleet, we may form some
idea of the efficiency of Cola navy in this period.
 Rather, the Colas tried to imitate the Pallavas in dealing first with
the “Pallavas” of Maldives and then Ceras (Kanthalur salai). In any
case, the ship-connection (ship-building and ship-academy) is
interesting.
 Abu Zaid Hasan, in the notes which he added to Sulaiman’s work about the
beginning of the tenth century A.D., observes that the vessels of the Indian
ocean, specially those made at Saraf, differed in construction from those of
the Mediterranean. ‘It is a fact that the type of ship built by pieces of wood
sewn together is a specially of the builders of Siraf, the ship builders of Syria
and of Rum (Byzantum) nail, on the contrary, these pieces of wood and never
sew them one to another’55.
 Zaid observation of “sewn Indian ships” must be general, in
otherwords that the Indian ships were built in such a way that the
joints could not be seen buty appeared as if the wooden planks / parts
were sewn together with wooden nails.
 Today we can see boats on the maras coast with planks ‘sewn’ together by
threads of cocoanut fibre. But these are usually of a small size; and the
observations of Abu Zaid based on what he saw and heard at Siraf about A.D.,
916 on navigation in the Indian Ocean56 should be no obstacle to a just
estimate of the size and importance of the navy of the Cola empire more than
a century later. If the Arab writers are too early, Marco Polo comes
unfortunately too late, and we are without a good contemporary account of
ship-building on the Coromandel coast under the Colas.
 Again , this is generalized observation. What used on the Maras
coast are boats, but what is discussed here are ships. Therefore, the
shipbuilding technology varies accordingly.

7
 Ahmad-ibn Majid, an Arab writer of the fifteenth century and author of
several nautical works, makes frequent allusion to the opinions of the Cholas
which he approves or modifies. He must have had before him a specilised
nautical literature of Tamil (Cola) origin which he compared with Arab
documents of a like nature.
 He must be having Indian books on Shipbuilding etc., for example,
Kappal Sattiram (the science of ships), Navai Sattram (The Technology
of Shipbuilding). When he tried to write without mentioning the
sources, naturally, opinion was bound to change because of borrowed
ideas. Copying technology is different from understanding science
behind it.
 This literature must have included geographical tables with indications of the
latitudes of ports for use of the mariners of the Coromandel coast57.
 Yes, H. B. Sarkar28 has proved from the sources that the Arabs
freely used Indian tables, but circulated them as if they were authors.
Baitul Hikmah of Harun-al-Rashid (785-809), and the works
attributed to Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (919-921), al-Ishtkhri (934), Ibn
Hawqal (c.980), al-Muqaddasi (985), Abdul Fida, Sidi Ali (d.1562) etc.,
prove the fact.
 Of this technical literature mentioned by this Arab writers, unfortunately no
part seems to have survived.
 Naturally, as pointed out, the Arabs destroyed the Indian originals
and circulated their version as their own without any acknowledgement
to Indians. And there was no respect for intellectual honesty or
intellectual property, rights and so on, which we talk about nowadays!

From the above note of K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the following facts could be
known:
 The navy possessed by the Cholas.
 Their seafaring capabilities.
 Their oversea expedition to SEA countries.
 Arabs testimony to Cholas presence even in the West, besides East (SEA
Countries).

The Naval expeditions of Cholas mentioned in the Inscriptions: A

detailed account of overseas expedition undertaken by Rajaraja through his son
and Commander-cum-Captain has been recorded in the inscriptions as
“Meikirti”, where certain description, expression and words point to Oceanic,
maritime and naval details and they are discussed as follows:
That the “மெய்க்கீ ர்த்தி / Meikkirti” references of the following description of
the oversea exploitations imply the science and technology behind:

28H. B. Sarkar, Trade and Commercial Activities of South India in the Malaya-Indonesian World (up to A. D. 1511),
Firma KLM Private Limited, Calcutta, 1986, pp.645-664.

8
 காந்தளூர் சாலை கைெறுத்து29 = He checked / controlled the College of
Marine Shipping and Military Academy at Kanthalur, as the Chera King was
building ships and selling to Arabs and Europeans and all in turn were acting
against the interests of the Cholas. The Chera King perhaps, refused or
stopped sending ships required by the Chola Empire. Some take the literal
meaning of கைெறுத்து as destroying ships, but in the context, it is
incongruent and meaningless, as he could not have destroyed, therefore he
must have seized the ships meant for Arabs or Europeans, instead of offering
to Cholas.
 முந்நீர்ப் பழந்தீவு பன்ன ீராயிரம் = the expression முந்நீர் has been
frequently used in the ancient Tamil literature from Tolkappiyam and
therefore, its usage in historical context has been very significant and its
identification with Maldives has been more significant. That the Pallava
inscriptions and sculptures have been found in Maldives proves the Tamil
connection dating back to 3rd cent.CE. Again, interestingly, Maldives play role
in supplying cowries (used in astronomy) and as coinage and ships to India –
that were build with wooden planks sewn together).
 கடைிடங் காவைன் = the Protector or Lord of places of Ocean (implying
ports, port cities and coastal areas). This title is followed by the titles of
Narapati, Aswapati, Gajapati etc. Moreover, the conquered places mentioned
in the SEA countries happened to be coastal cities or ports. Therefore, where
his influence was felt and hence, known as so.
 கடல்புக மவகுண்டு = He was angered because of the entering of oceanic
waters (implying some sort of Tsunami / deluge occurred)
 மபாரு கடல் ஈழம் = Ezham situated in the attacking oceanic waters
 மதண்டிலர ஈழம் = Ezham situated in the cold / southern oceanic waters.
 மநடுங்கடல் உத்தரைாடம் = the place to be reached by traveling a long
distance in the north of ocean.
 அலைகடல் நடுவுட் பைகைஞ் மசலுத்தி = he steered his fleet through
the wavy ocean. It is mentioned in the context of Kadaram.
 ஆழ் கடல் சூழ் = the wavy oceanic waters surrounding “Mayirudingam” or
Ji-lo-ting as mentioned by the Chinese.
 நிலைபுனல் = brimming estuary. It is mentioned connecting Mapappalam
located in the Isthmus of Kra.

29 The different interpretation of காந்தளூர் சாலை கைெறுத்து are as follows:

 The naval fleet at Kanthalur was destroyed.
 Food was supplied to the students there at Kanthalur on calculated basis.
 The Naval academy at Kanthalur was checked.
 The ships at Kanthaur were seized.

9
 மதாடுகடற் காவற் கடமுரட் = the oceanic water touching and well
protected. Again it is mentioned in the context of Kadaram. The extra word
used denotes the confronting nature of Kadaram with the Cholas.

Here, each word or expression has to be taken in the maritime context instead of
appreciating the literary nuance to dub it as a rhetoric. This description has been
doubted by researchers as pointed out above. But, considering the description
correlating with other evidences, the shipping and navigational skills of Cholas
cannot be mythologized.

Inscriptions found in the SEA Countries and China 30: Significantly,

inscriptions in mainly Tamil and Tamil bilingual (Tamil with Sanskrit, SEA
languages like Thai, and Chinese) have been found in SEA Countries and Eastern
China. They are tabulated as follows:

Where found / Script and Dated to Remarks

located Language
used
On the hill The Pallava Mid ninth The tank was dug by the
Khau-Pra-Narai Grantha and century CE Pallava King Nandivarman
(Bra Narayana), entirely in or 870 CE. III.
about ten miles Tamil. Valanjiyar – a merchant
upstream on the association is mentioned.
Takuapa river, on
the west coast of
peninsular
Thailand.

At the early port site Tamil in the 1010 Saka or Nanaesa-Tisaivavirattu-

of Loho Tuwa, just Kawi script 1088 CE Ainnurruvar – The
to the north of of Java. Merchant association is
Barus on the west of mentioned.
the island of
Sumatra.
Neusu Aceh, North 12th century It deals with trading
Sumatra CE regulations among the
exporters.
Batu Bapahat, west Tamil in the 13th century Translation not available
Sumatra Javanese CE
influenced
central
Sumatran
script
Porlak dolok, north Tamil and Late 13th Invoking God for the
Sumatra Old Malay / cent.CE protection of the city.
30 The Medieval Tamil-language Inscriptions in Southeast Asia and China, http://ismaili.net/0104c.html

10
 Javanese
language.
Nkhom Si Tamil- Late 13th Grant given to Brahmans
Thammarat Sanskrit, cent.CE. by Senatipati.
Thailand bilingual. 1183 Saka or
1261 CE
Pagan, Upper Do 13th cent.CE Gant of Mantap, door and
Burma based on lamp to a deity.
paleographic
grounds –
dated by
Hultzch
Quanzhou, Eastern Tamil in Late 13th Text not completely read
China Tamil- cent.CE and published.
Chinese It refers to a permission
language. given by Chekchai Khan to
Dava Chakravartigal
Sambandha Perumal.

Cross-checking with Local literature of SEA: H. B. Sarkar31 after

discussing about the so-called “Leiden grant” of Rajaraja Chola (980-1014)
delves upon the inscriptional evidences of the Cholas, which asset the conquest of
Kadaram even by Virarajendra Cola (1069-1070), implying that the movement of
Cholas or representatives of Cholas had been there for nearly 100 years from
Rajaraja to Rajendra reign. Quoting Tibbets32, Sarkar points out that Cholas
knew SEA more than the Arabs, as Idrisi could add only two names in the
geographical data on South-East Asia: these are Karimata and al-Anam. Joustra33
pointed out Tamil names in central Sumatra: Coliya, Pandia, Meliyala and
Tekang, thus clearly referring to Cola, Pandya, Malayala and the Deccan. Ma
Tuan-lin34 records about the Chu-lien mission to China reaching there in 1025.
Then, he mentions about one text Nagarakritagama is an old-Javanese
literary work (dated to 1365). The text was discovered from Bali in 1894,
translated and published later. In this work, the Colas are designated as Coda or
Gauda. It mentions the places which were raided by the soldiers of Rajendra Cola
as Kampar, Kampe, Haru, Parlak, Samudra etc., (Nagar.13. 1-2). The local stories,
particularly, the story of Manimekhalai show similarity. Of course, the art and
architecture prove the Indian influence, which is too well known to be repeated
here.

The Astronomy of Chola Period: The Shipping, navigation and astronomy go

together. Rajaraja encouraged astronomy and there was Colleges exclusively at

31 H. B. Sarkar, opt.cit, p.25-27.

32 Tibbert, Lexicon geographicam ini titulus est Marsid alittila ala asma al-ambika-was al-bika, 6 volumes, Leyden,
quoted by H. B. Sarkar, p.25.
33 Joustra, TBG, 45 (1902), pp.541-576, quoted by H. B. Sarkar, opt.cit, p.68.
34 Marques d’Harvey Saint-Denys (Trans.), Ma Tuan-lin, quoted by H. B. Sarkar, opt.cit, p.161. Also see, K. A.

Nilakanta Sastri, Foreign Notices of South India, Madras, 1939, p.323.

11
important cities like Madurai, Tanjai and Trichirappalli35. Incidentally, there was
an astronomer hailing from Gagnaikonda Cholapuram, which is mentioned as
Gangapuri, Gangapura and Sriranga-gangapuri (Epigraphgica Indica xv, p.49)
with prefix Sri-ranga (the stage of goddess of prosperity). His name was
Suryadeva36 and also known as Suryadeva Yajva, Suryadeva Somasut and
Suryadeva Dikshita (c.1191- 1260 CE). He was born on Monday, 3rd that of the
dark half of Magha, Saka 1113 (= 1191 CE). The ahargana for that day, according
to Aryabhata-siddhanta was 15,68,004, i.e, so may days elapsed since Kaliyuga.
So dividing 15,68,004 by 365.25, we get 4293. Subtracting 3102, we get 1191
(4293-3102=1191), this tallies with the year obtained based on Saka era
1113+78=1191 (विशिेशमित 1113 शकेिागकृशण). He was a Brahmin with Nidhruva
gotra belonging to the Chola country and a resident of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
and thus, evidently patronized by the Chola Kings. Rajendra Chola (1012-1044)
founded the city to commemorate his victory over Ganges campaign. Probably,
Somadeva Yajva’s forefathers had been with the Cholas and he could be the Royal
Astronomer he was the Principal of the Astronomical College (Vidhyalaya) in the
Chola territories interacting with others. This all of sudden could not have come
into existence. Referring to Post-Sangam literature, we come across Civaga
Cintamani (dated to 9th-10th centuries, verse no.995) mentioning existence of
Colleges as follows:
கைத்தற் காைங் கல்லூரி
When time comes (after primary education), the youth are admitted to College
(for higher studies). Thus, the mention of கல்லூரி is very interesting and
significant to prove the well-established educational system in the Tamizhagam
during 9th-10th centuries.

Thus, Professor Somadeva Yajvan must have been teaching and researching
there. He has written commentaries on the following works:
 Aryabhatiya (c.500).
 Mahayatra of Varahamihira (c.500)
 Laghumanasa of Majula (c.932).
 Jataka-paddhathi of Sripati (c.1039)
His commentary on Sripati proves that the Indian astronomers were in touch
with each other discussing on the subject matter dealt with.

As mentioned, the forefathers of Suryadeva or their disciples must have

accompanied with Rajendra during his overseas campaigns. Thus, during the
Chola period, the knowledge of geography accompanied with cartography must
have been there, as otherwise, Rajendra chola could not have navigated and
directed his ships exactly going to the respective countries, carried the campaign

35 Colleges at Madurai, Tanjai, Trichirappalli had been famous and their popularity was noted by the European scholars
and professionals.
36 Suryadeva Yajvan, Aryabhatiyam.

K. V. Sarma (Ed), Aryabhatiya with commentary of Suryadeva Yajvan, Part – 3 of Aryabhatiya critical edition,
Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, 1976.

12
by landing on the shores respective cities of the countries after anchoring. He
must have used small boats to reach the shores. After campaign, he must have
come back to his ship and started sailing after de-anchoring. This proves that
Cholas were having maps of India accompanied with the South East countries.
However, it is intriguing and surprising to note none of the maps are available or
reported in possession of anybody.

Civaga Cintamani (verse no. 882) mentions about the existence of “books on the
knowledge of Oceans”, which is very significant in the context:

வாண் ெின்னு வண்லக வடிநூற் கடற்ககள்வி லெந்தர்

தான்ெின்னு வங்கு
ீ கழைான்ைலனச் சுழெற்ைப்
பூண்ெின்னு ொர்பன் மபாைிந்தாங்கிருந்தான் விசும்பிற்
ககான்ெின்னு ெீ ன்சூழ் குளிர்ொெதித் கதாற்ைமொத்தகத.

The brothers are having hands which are well-versed in the handling of glittering
swords and as well as well-written books on Oceans (The sailors of all categories
– traders, businessmen, should be warriors and also good navigators with the
knowledge of shipping, astronomy, geography and oceanography). As Civaga, the
hero is encircled with his brothers shining, the cool Moon is also encircled with
other planets and asterism (visible clearly during the night, as could be observed
by them on the ship during their voyage, i.e, the knowledge of stellar navigation is
also a must for them).

 The mention of availability of books on the knowledge of Oceans is significant.

 “The Books on the Knowledge of Oceans” covers all aspects of Ships, shipping
etc.,
 That the sailors should be capable of handling swords and such books is also
significant considering the dangers involved in ocean-trade, visiting many
countries, the nature of peopled dealt with in trading etc.
 Interestingly, both the Science of Ocean and the Sky are mentioned together
in the same context figuratively.

The Astronomical link among the SEA countries and India: The
Siamese37 and Tiruvalore38 astronomical tables created a great storm in the
Europe making the mathematicians, astronomers and scientists to study them to
find out the accuracy39, as they reportedly had calculations starting from Kaliyuga

37 Johnplayfair, Remarks on the Astronomy of Brahmins, A paper presented by the author in Edinburgh University on
March 2, 1789 and published in the Transaction of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
38 Simon de La Loubere (1642-1729) brought an extract of a Siamese manuscript containing tables and rules for

calculating the places of Sun and moon (Mem de l’Acad. Des Science, tom.8, p.281 & c). Inspired by this, the
European scientists started their research in the tables.
39 K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, European Scientists: Indian Chronology and Historiography, XXth Session of South

Indian History Congress held at Tiruvananthapuram from Feb.25-27, 2002.

13
that started coinciding with a planetary conjunction or alignment that occurred
around 3102 BCE40. The movement of Cholas, particularly, Somadeva Yajvan
with Rajendra to SEA countries could be a source for the spread of such
knowledge. Moreover, historically, the entire area was known as “India”
according to the middle-east and European people, as is evident from their
writings and maps41. The flooding of Jesuits to Siam attacking Royal palaces 42,
infiltrating temples and Buddhist Viharas and researching the scholars for
astronomical, geographical and medical manuscripts speak the motive43. The
movements of selected Jesuits from Cochin and Goa to China and back 44, SEA
countries and back to Pondicherry, Tranqubar etc., prove their collection of
scientific and technical manuscripts, tables, charts and materials.

The Disappearance of Indian Astronomical documents, instruments

and maps: Like the details of Indian shipping, the astronomical documents,
instruments and maps are also surprisingly missing, though, usage of them were
there, as the naval expedition had been the proof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri’s
observation45 made on Ahamad-ibn Majid are interesting to note:

“Ahmad-ibn Majid, an Arab writer of the fifteenth century and author of

several nautical works, makes frequent allusion to the opinions of the
Cholas which he approves or modifiues. He must have had before him a
specilised nautical literature of Tamil (Cola) origin which he compared
with Arab documents of a like nature. This literature must have included
geographical tables with indications of the latitudes of ports for use of
the mariners of the Coromandel coast. of this technical literature
mentioned by this Arab writers, unfortunately no part seems to have
survived”.

Ferrand26 in his writing has clearly pointed out as follows:

‘Dans tous ses ouvrages nautiques, Ibn Majid fait frequemment

allusion’a l’ opinion des Colas qu’il appropuve ou rectifie. Ce’st qu’il
devait avoir en main les Insructions nautiques tables geographuques
avec indication de la latitude des ports, utilis’ees par les marins du

……………………………………….., The Interest of European Scientists in Indian Chronology and

Historiography, UGC Seminar on Situating Historical Writings in Post-Independence India (Abstracts volume),
held at Bharathidasan University on March 23 & 23, 2002, Tiruchirappalli, pp.16-17.
………………………………….….., The Interest of European Scientists in Indian Calendar and Chronology, in
Indian Calendar and Chronology (Seminar papers) held at Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad on August 9
& 10, 2003, pp.1-20.
40 B. L. Van der Waerden, The Conjunction of 3102 B.C, Cantaurus, 1980, Vol.24, pp.117-131.
41 The Southern China was known as “Cochin China”, as that area was totally dominated by the Kerala / Chera

merchants / mariners.
In fact, the entire SEA area was marked as “INDIA” in their maps and dealt with accordingly.
42 Pietro Cerutti S.J, The Jesuits in Thailand,
43 Francis X. Clooney, Fr. Bouchaet’s India, Satya Nilayam Publications, Chennai, 2005.
44 Doing Theology in the Context of Mission: Lessons from Alexandre de Rhodes S.J for more details, see in

http://eapi.admu.ph/eapr002/rhodes.htm
45 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, opt.cit, p.459.

14
 Coromandel et qu’il les comparait avee les documents arabes des meme
nature’.

Therefore, the following questions arise:

 What were the allusions made about Cholas by Ahamad-ibn Majid?

 Why he approves or modifies such allusions?
 What was “a specilised nautical literature of Tamil (Cola) origin” possessed by
the Arabs?
 Why he compared Arab records with Tamil-Chola nauctiical literature?
 After comparision, what he did with such “specilised nautical literature of
Tamil (Cola) origin”?
 If the “specilised nautical literature of Tamil (Cola) origin” included
“geographical tables with indications of the latitudes of ports for use of the
mariners of the Coromandel coast”, what happened to such geographical
tables?
 K. A. N. Nilakanda Sastri could say only that, “Of this technical literature
mentioned by this Arab writers, unfortunately no part seems to
have survived”.

More Evidences to prove that Indian maps were taken away: The
following references are given to show the vulnerable condition of Indian
researchers, when most of the historical evidences are in the collections of the
foreigners, which are not easily accessible. Encyclopedia Britannica (1952
edition) gives the following details46:

“The charts in use by medieval navigators of the Indian ocean – Arab,

Persians or Dravidians – were in equal in value if not superior to the charts
of Mediterranean. Marco Polo (1292) mentions such charts; Vasco Da Gama
(1498) found them in the hands of Indian pilot, and their value is fully
explained in the Mohit or encyclopedia of the sea compiled from ancient
sources by the Turkish Admiral Sidi Ali Ben Hosssein in 1554. These charts
are covered with a close net work of lines intersecting each other at right
angles. The horizontal lines are parallels, depending upon the altitude of the
pole star, the calves, the little Bear and the Barrow of the Great Bear above
the horizon. This altitude was expressed in “isbas” or inches each equivalent
to 104’50”. Each isba was divided into “Zams” or eights. The interval
between the parallels thus amounted to 12’51”. These intervals were
mistaken by the Portuguese occasionally for degrees, which accounted for
Malacca, which is, in latitude 2013’N. being placed on Cartino’s chart (1502)
in lat. 14’S. it may have been a map of this kind which accounts for Ptolemy’s
moderate exaggerations of the size of Toprobana (Ceylon). A fdirst

46 Encyclopedia Brittanica, Volume. 14, p.841, 1952 edition, UK (quoted by Tripathi in his book, p.293). Quoted by
Maya Prasad Tripathi, Development of Geographic Knowledge in Ancient India, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan,
Varanasi, 1969.

15
 meridian, eparating a leeward from a windward region, passed through Ras
Kumari (Camorin) and was thus nearly identical with the meridian of the
Indian astronomer which passed through the sacred city of Ujjain (Ozone of
Ptolemy) or the meridians of Azin of the Arabs. Additional meridians were
drawn at intervals of Zams, supposed to be equal to three hours sail”.

As the taking away or possession of such “specilised nautical literature of Tamil

(Cola) origin including geographical tables with indications of the latitudes of
ports for use of the mariners of the Coromandel coast” by the Arabs was accepted,
it is evident that they compared, used and prepared tables and maps, but
suppressed or destroyed the Indian originals. And we know lot of maps produced
exactly during that period onwards attribute to the Arab / Mohammedan /
Muslim geographers / cartographers and so on. This is just similar to the Jesuits
who took Indian books, instruments, charts, tables, samples etc on Indian science
and technology. In any case, we have to show evidences for such happening.
Here, comes the manuscript of “Kappal Sattiram”47.

Kappal Sattiram – Science and Technology of Ships and Shipping:

Indians used to write books on Palm-leaves, particularly, in South India. They
used different scripts to Sanskrit and Tamil languages o various subjects. Most of
the original Sanskrit books are missing as they must have been destroyed by the
Mohammedans, taken away by the Mohammedans for study and also by
European missionaries. As the demand for books increased with the exigencies,
more books could have been produced engaging the scribes. An expression,
“Tiruppugira Pusthakam” found in “Kappal Sattiram” 37 (Science and Technology
of Ships and Shipping) proves that copies of books were made from the
translations and as well as originals. The expressions “Edu Tiruppudhal” (turning
the pages) and “Tiruppugira Pusthakam” (the book that is turned) convey
copying a book from its original, so that the original could be preserved and the
copy given away or sold. As per the directions of the Danish, in the house of
Kangirayap Pillai or Kalingarayap Pillai, a Dubash, the book was dictated and a
scribe had written down. The name of the book is mentioned as
“Nikamasigamani”, a Sanskrit name. As the last line of 8th song clearly
mentions that, “Salaikathirangan sorppadi idanai tamil seythittan”, it
is evident that as per the directions of one Salaikathirangan, it was made into
Tamil i.e, translated into Tamil from Sanskrit. As it was known that there was a
work named “Nauka Sastra” in Sanskrit, that book might have been used for
translation. Here, Kangiyap Pillai says that he is producing the book as per the
directions of Danish in 1620 (of Salivahana Era) or 1698 of CE in his house. So
the Danish used different tactics to get the science and technology books from the
Indians.

The book gives the following details (the author’s comments are given in different
colour):

47 T. Chandrasekharan (Gen.Ed.), Kappal Sattiram, Madras Government Oriental Series, Government Oriental
Manuscripts Library, Madras, 1950.

16
 The standard measurement is given (Verse.3).
 The time suitable for manufacture of ocean-going vessels is given
astronomically based on an earlier work, “Nigama Sigamani” (நீகெ
சிகாெணி, Verse.4).
 The properties of ships (5).
 The suitable time for navigation is given (6-9).
 The best time for fixing of mast is given (13).
 A Tamil king “Parasi Vendan”, who helps shipping technology, is mentioned.
 When a ship could sail safely, when it might face with danger, when a ship
may wreck, and such other exigencies are mentioned (23-28). Thus, it is
amply evident that the Tamils knew the ship wreckage occurred as a result of
piracy by non-Indians. As they followed the rules and regulations of nature
and sailed in the prescribed time, the wreckage due to natural disasters like
tempest, cyclones, rough weather etc., must have been minimal.
 Mathematics involving points / dots is mentioned (29). As it is not explained,
it is not known exactly what mathematical method or mathematics involving
points was used in the maritime context. But, it must have been connected
with Cartography making points on the maps drawn, developed, corrected
and modified. In those days, maps could have been produced only after
undertaking any voyages. Ironically, such projection in navigation charts used
is known as the Mercator, named after the Flemish mathematician and
geographer Gerardus Mercator (1512-94), who reportedly devised it. But it is
evident that they must have known from Indians, as existence of such method
is mentioned here.
 Experts of Books without any weariness (31). It is mentioned that these details
are given by the Experts of Books without any weariness implying that they
exclusively engaged in such observatory and cartographic work making
projections etc.
 When the destruction of a ship with cargo would occur (33) is mentioned.
 When a ship would return successfully with earned profits after selling the
goods aboard (37) is given. These two exigencies have been given in
astrological interpretation, but involving astronomical observation. The
Tamils must have found out the arrival of Arab and European vessels to SEA
countries at a particular time, as their starting with winds from their
destinations had been different from that of Indians. However, they tried to
coincide with the timings of Indians with an intention to compete initially and
then seize cargo by piracy realizing their law abiding nature. Moreover, the
cunning Arabs and Europeans must have used Indian flags, symbols, dress
etc., to cheat the Indians to complete their piracy.
 Persons with two eyes and one eye are compared figuratively with Sun and
Moon. Danger to cargo would come from the persons with one eye (39), as
they stealthily attack other vessels without following any marine-ethics or
Maritime regulations. This is clear indication that Tamils knew of the nature
of pirates, who were not Indians, as they were not following the Indian ethics

17
 of not attacking the vessels of others. Incidentally, the western depiction of
standard pirates have been “one-eyed”!
 Interestingly, another point implied is about the persons with “Surya dhristi”,
“Chandra dhristi”, “Raja dhristi”, Griha dhristi”, “Rakka dhristi” etc. They
were nothing but persons with eye-sight of Moon, Sun, King, Planets, sides
etc. in other words, the ocean going ships had such experts / observers of
Solar, lunar, planetary motions and time calculations. As they had to visit
different countries, they had to know about the Kings of such countries, thus
the experts of Kings. And there were experts in observing directions also, as it
is important in navigation. As such things could have been possible with past
experience, it is evident that the experts mentioned must have had books on
such subject matter.
 Suddenly, the work changes from poetry to prose giving statistical details of
planets, asterisms, stars etc.
 Thus, the measurements for masts are given.
 The measurements for anchors are given.
 Measurement details of a “English ship” is given.
 At the end, it is appended with “Silpa sastram” (A Manual of Sculpre) only
with 13 verses.
 As most of the verses have been written with defective words, language and
grammar, it is evident that the Danish must have engaged poor scribes to
write this work, evidently to substitute, as the original was taken away by
them.
 Many verses have been adopted or imported straight away from the following
earlier works:
சரஸ்வதிஅந்தாதி
கசாதிடகிரகசிந்தாெணி
கணக்கதிகாரம்
நீகெ சிகாெணி
However, the scribe has not acknowledged the source.
 As the work has been incomplete in many aspects, it is evident that the copy
has been only a part of a bigger book.

“Navai Sattiram”48: It is only part of the original work, as the available 64 leaf-
book does not give more details that that of the above “Kappal Sattiram”. Most of
the available songs delve on the auspicious time, date and period for start and
return of journey with astrological couch. In fact, same songs are repeated,
however, subject matter is concerned, it differs and at many places it is
incomplete and thus, there must have been complete book. Particularly, after
discussing about the wooden planks used for mast, the verses are found to be
with broken sentences. Therefore, the copyist must have hurriedly copied from
the original work. The crude drawing of a three-mast ship also proves the fact, as
48 S. Soundarapandian, Navai Sattiram, Madras Government Oriental Series, Government Oriental Manuscripts
Library, Madras, 1955.

18
in many other manuscripts, very good pictures with minute details have been
drawn.

Piercing the veil of Buddhism: If the veil of Buddhism is pierced, the

treatment of all Buddhists – Indians, Chinese, Ceylonese, and SEA categories
alike, would be removed. The tracing of maritime trade between the India and the
ports Southern China to first centuries points to such a possibility. As Tamil
Siddhas49 have made their claimed sojourns or voyages to China, Chinese have
also done50. Haraprasad Ray51 has pointed out the links between India and China
based on the Chinese records. Thus, as described by the Imperunkappiyangal, the
Tamil and other Indian merchants had reached China, as evidenced by the
archaeological evidences of Quanzhou region. Tamil / South Indian merchants
had been there already in the Southeast Asia from the first centuries. The
Buddhist interpretation of events has made all people to appear as “Buddhists”,
but Indians of the whole region acted and interacted together irrespective of their
personal religious beliefs.

Thus, the observation of Tansen Sen52 that,“some credit for the ‘emergence
of a world market’ must go to the Chola (or Cola) kingdom in
Southern India. The trading ports and mercantile guilds of the Chola
kingdom, he suggests, played a significant role in linking the
markets of China to the rest of the world” has been apt. The movement of
“Brahmanas and Sramanas” here had been phenomenal along with other groups.
As they already settled or colonized or established themselves, their building
activities had been natural exhibiting in the material culture. Thus, the Pallava,
Chola, Silendra and other influences are found in script, literature, sculpture and
art.

Indian Maritime Trade with Africa: The South Indian maritime trade with
East African coastal countries during medieval period has been very interesting
and revealing throwing light on Pallava, Chola and Kadamba maritime trade and
shipping. The movement of merchandise cargo from south Indian ports through
Maldives, Chagos for Archipelago, Mauritius, Reunion, Madagascar and coastal
East Africa has been easiest the South Indian marine-traders53. Incidentally,
these islands were used by the Pallava and Cholas for their ship-building
49 Bogar has mentioned his visits to China. In fact, some interprets that he himself was a Chinese came and settled in
Tamilnadu.
50 Wang Gungwu, The Nanhai trade: a study of the early history of Chinese trade in the South China Sea, JMBRAS

31, 2 (1958).
51 Haraprasad Ray, Trade and trade routes between India and China, c. 140 B.C.-A.D. 1500, Kolkata : Progressive

Publishers, 2003;
……………….., Chinese sources of South Asian history in translation :data for study of India-China relations
through history, Kolkata, Asiatic Society, 2004.
52 Tansen Sen, Buddhism, Diplomacy and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400,. Opt.cit, p.
156. See also Tansen Tan, Maritime Contacts Between China and the Cola Kingdom (A.D. 850-1279), opt.cit, pp.
25-42.
53 This exactly fits with the inscriptional claims of the Cholas, which are doubted by some western scholars. As the
scholars have tried to locate the mentioned places only in the south-east, they never thought of locating on the
western side of India.

19
activities. Pallava sculptures, inscriptions and temples have been found in
Maldives54. How the Pallavas could have exercised their influence far and wide
distances from SEA countries to East African coast could be noted from these
archaeological evidences found in those places. During Pallava, Chola and
Kadamba period, the Indian metal workers had achieved highest state of art and
their skill been a great demand throughout the world. In fact, before the advent of
Islam, the movement of Indians to Africa had been very smooth without any
maritime strife.

The finding of a bronze lion statuette55 at trading port of Shanga, Lamu District,
Kenya, in January 1986 raised many questions. It has been dated to 1100 CE and
compared with that of Central and South Indian counterparts, because of close
resemblances and casting techniques. Moreover, the lion is easily comparable
with the depiction noted on South Indian coins also starting from 1st century BCE
with characteristic features. E. C. L. During Caspers56 has pointed out that the
practice of trading bronze animals within the Indian Ocean dates back to at least
the 2nd millennium BC. Scientific analysis of the composition of bronzes found at
Africa and South India and historical evidence of maritime goods prove that
either, Indians exported such bronzes to Africa or the settled Indian metal
workers created them. Roger Summer57 brought out the gold-mining techniques
of Zimbabwe had been very similar to Deccan / South India. Hromnik pointed
out that the Indians of Africa were also responsible for the introduction of cattle
and crops, the stone architecture of Great Zimbanwe and by attracting Negroid
labouers to the south, for the Bantu migrations as well.

It may be noted that the vague references of Herodotus Indians supplying to

“gold dust” and ferrum Indicum to the Persians and the Greeks prove the
metallurgical skill of Indians since c.1500 – 300 BCE period. The Bongozkai
insprition already proved the Indian presence in the Mesopotamian area around
c.1450 BCE. Thus, the fine casting technology of Cholas could easily be correlated
and corresponded with the African specimens. Therefore, the South Indian
history in the context of metallurgy has to be recast with these metallurgical
evidences.

The findings58 of Thor Heyerdahl, Prof. Arne Skjølsvold and Prof. Egil Mikkelsen
have brought out the remains of a temple, Raksha-like sculptures with Pallava-
type inscription The local Maldive people arrange shells in such a way, they look
like a stupa - ruined miniatures of satihirutalu which formed the apex of the
Maldive Buddhist usthumbu. The usthumbu has three parts: the

54 K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, The Maritime Activities of the Ancient Tamils and Indus Valley Civilization, a paper to be
presented during the International Symposium on Indus Civilization and Tamil Language at Chennai on February
16th and 17th , 2007.
55 M. C. Horton & T. R. Blurton, ‘Indian’ metal work in East Africa: the bronze lion statuette from Shanga, Antiquity,

1988, Vol.62, pp.11-23.

56 E. C. L. During Caspers, A Copper-bronze animal in Harran style from Bahrain: evidence of mercantile

interaction, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 1987, Vol.30, pp.30-46.
57 Roger Summer, Ancient Mining in Rhodesia, Salisbury:National Museum, 1969.
58 biblioteknett.no/.../kon-tiki/Research/Maldives

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quadrangular base representing earth; the bell-shaped middle part, representing
water; and the satihirutalu representing air which crowns the usthumbu. The
Buddhist stupa59 from Kaiyuan Temple, adjacent to the site of the Quanzhou
Maritime History Museum resembles exactly like that of Maldive model. The
pagoda spire with lotus base of the stupa has striking resemblance with the
material evidence and also that of Manimekhalai decription. Therefore, the
connection of Pallavas and Cholas with these areas is very visible.

The motive behind the conquests of Cholas: Considering maritime and

other activities, the maritime activities or the over-sea expeditions / conquests
could be interpreted in their attempt to establish their monopoly. Thus, many
times scholars have expressed that they could not understand the motive behind
the conquests, when all Kings had been earning profits in over-sea trade. The
conquest of southern Karnatakadesa by Rajendra in 1032, has been definitely
securing internal trade routes in southern India and as well as control the
western ports, where Gujaratis and Arabs were dominating. Moreover, the left
out Cholas could be considered as “Kadamas” by modern-day historians60.
Kadambas had been so powerful on the western coast, that their influence was
felt on the eastern African coast and middle east countries. They had the title
“The Lord of Western Ocean”. Their inscription61 point to their maritime
actrivities and authority over the western ocean. Their fleet was so powerful that
they could conquest many islands and lands as recorded in the inscriptions. The
Nadukals intrerestingly depict the fleet, naval battles, and other minute details of
ship technolgy carved on them62.

The conquest of Southeast Asia in 1025 and again in the 1070s, the occupation of
Sri Lanka in 1080 prove such dominating attempt. The Chola-China commercial
links reached at an appreciable level with the exchange of missions with gifts.
That the Chinese could build a Vihara at Nagapattinam proves the establishment
of such relationship as proved by the Dao-yi zhi-lue account. The Chinese
inscription found there vouchsafes it. The Japanese scholars63 pointed out he
trade between the ports of South China and the Cholas evidenced by the 11-12th
century Chinese ceramic remains found in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. The
Classical Chinese texts64 and Siddhas poems convey that the Chinese obtained
pepper from Indian ports, and Indians mercury, certain chemicals etc from
China.

59 http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/scholarship.php
60 G. M. Moreas, The Kadamba Kula, Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier College, Bombay, 1931, pp.7-11.
61 John Faithful Fleet, Inscriptions Relating to the Kadambva Kings of Goa, JBBRAS, Vol.IX, p.307.

………………., Epigraphica India, Vol.XIII, p.309.

62 Sheila Tripathi,
63 Noboru Karashima (ed.), In Search of Chinese Ceramicsherds in South India and Sri Lanka, Tokyo, Taisho

University Press, 2004.

64 For information of Chinese texts on Southern India during the Yuan, see Roderich Ptak, Yuan and Early Ming

Notices on the Kayal Area in South India Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient, 80 (1993), pp. 137-55.
The issues of “Indian Archeology – A Review” report the findings of Chinese materials from Indian sites proving the
Indo-Chinese connection during the earlier and medieval periods.

21
Conclusion: As seen, some scholars doubted the Chola inscriptions on the plea
that they are rhetoric without going into the facts or cross-checking the doubted
claims with the local evidences of SEA countries. Why the well-established Cholas
could not have issued coins depicted their maritime excellence, while their
predecessors Sathavahanas, Salankyanas, Kurumbas, Pallavas could have issued
ship-type coins is not explained. As pointed out by Sir Walter Elliot that ship-type
Kurumba / Pallava coins could be obtained on exchange of necessities, what
would have happened to other coins, had they been paid with valuables instead of
necessities is not considered in the context. Incidentally, it has to be noted that
the Tiruvalangadu Copper plates, ironically known as “Leiden grants” and most
of the “ship-type” coins have been now in possession of foreign museums.
Therefore, the fate of missing coins is not taken into consideration.

As the material period 11th century had been dominated by Cholas, Silendras and
SEA powers within “Indian domain” and the Arabs and Chinese playing with
them, the Indian rulers could have been exercising their influence only within
their domains and crossed the boundaries, when the powers of others declined.
Therefore, the theories of “segmentary rule / power”, “piety-plunder” etc., could
not be applied by generalizations. The European medieval of “Frankish plunder
and distribution” is not applicable to Cholas.

That the Cholas granted tax-free lands to Brahmans only to pursue their
astronomical activities, as has been vouchsafed by Suryadeva Yajvan, as
astronomy helped the navigation and not to support their hegemony. In fact, the
work of Brahmins stopped with astronomical activities, as the navigational work
and techniques were carried on by other professional groups. In fact, in such
supposedly or assumed raidings and plunderings, only non-Brahmin groups had
been evidently involved. Therefore, such casteist interpretation would not help to
decide the maritime sojourns effected by the Cholas.

The struggle between Silendras and Cholas in India and as well as the rivalry
among them with Chinese in SEA have resulted in some documents, particularly
that of Chinese, which create wrong impression. In an established governance
and tax-collection, the raids, confiscation and other punitive punishments against
tax evaders has been normal feature and it could not be interpreted as something
unwarranted or historically unacceptable. Tribute payment is just like tax
compliance. Thus, even had the Cholas raided the tax evading Sri Vijaya, Cheras
and Sri Lankan, that would fit to any democratic State governance. The
circumstantial and correlative evidences – the literary evidences, the existence of
Naval architecture books, international trade, impost of tax on goods imported
through different types of vessels, rivalry among the competing national groups
etc., have been normal feature and prove the oversea expedition of the Cholas.

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