CHAPTER - 111

SOUTH INDIA IN HISTORY

Dr. Vincent Smith, who wrote a comprehensive history of

India, is of the opinion that most historians have recorded the

history of ancient India as if a territory called South India did not

exist. This is more of less correct. However, it appears strange

when one learns that the history of India actually starts with

South India. The renowned scholar, Prof. Sundaram Pillai, has

said that anyone who makes a scientific study of Indian history

1
should start from the banks of Kr�i:ia, Kaveri and Vaigai.

But those who wrote India's history, for the most part,

concentrated on the northern regions; consequently, it also

happened that the Deccan region, South of the Vindhyas,

received very little attention. The reason given in the records

th
concerning the history of South India before 6 century AD had

been vague as wel I as incomplete. Thus the dearth of authentic

records regarding South India's history has resulted in a gap that

is difficult to bridge.

In spite of all this, the history of South India is an

inseparable part of Indian history and like the history of any

68
other region it is interesting as well. The Deccan is one of the
_

oldest populated areas in the whole world.

The term 'South India' refers to all those areas which lie

south of the Vindhyas. In some of our Purar_1as like Markar_19eya,

Vayu, and Matsya, there are references to some famous

kingdoms of South India. Of these, Co!a, Par_1dya, and Kerala are

situated towards the southernmost part. In the Mahabharata,

Sahadeva, the youngest of the Par_1davas, is said to have gone to

Dak?ir_1apath after having defeated the Par_1dya ruler. Perhaps this

suggests that the Par_1dya kingdom was not a part of South India

or Des?ir_1apath. Again, regarding rivers, it is seen that in the

Vayupurara, Godavari and others which originate from the

Sahyas are called rivers of Dak?inapath. Yet, Narmada and Tapti

are not called so. This leads us to conclude that the term

'Dak?inapath' was originally used to designate different places.

In the Ramayara, too, South India is referred to as follows :

when the monkey warriors are directed to search for Sita in

Andhra, Co!a, Par_1dya and Cera countries, one of the landmarks

mentioned is the gold-covered, diamond-studded gates of the

2
Par_1dya king's city.

69
 It may be said that the foundations of Indian culture were

laid by the Aryans and the people who lived before the Aryan

invasion. However, in the languages and institutions of South

India are to be seen evidences of the state of affairs before the

Aryans arrived. The Marathis of Western Deccan, who are the

southernmost of all the people in India also speak Inda-Aryan

languages. Those to the East and South of them speak Dravidian

languages, the most ancient among which is Tamil.

Geographically, the Vindhya and the Satpura mountains

separate North and South India. So, the political agitations that

rocked North India did not affect the South. Rivers have always

played important roles in the history of South India. From very

ancient times, people had lived in and around these river deltas.

Consequently, on the banks of these rivers are situated most of

the cities and capitals.

Sources of South Indian History

The sources of South Indian history can be divided into

two major categories : I iterary and archaeological. Among these,

literary sources can be classified into two groups, sacred

literature and secular literature. Epics like the Mahabharata and

70
the Ramayara, and religious books like those of the Buddhists

and Jains belong to this group. The Ramayara and the

Mahabharata give us many good details about the culture of the

people of South India, and about the development in social and

political life. They give valuable help to understand the

geography of South India as well as its contacts with Ceylon and

other islands. Like the epics, the Pural)as also give us many

details about the history of the Satavahanas and the Ra?trakiJ\as.

Besides, the Prabandha literature of Tamil also gives important

sources of information about the history of the Tamil country.

Vidyaranya Kalajiiana, a religious work, helps us in the study of

the origin of Vijayanagara. The Gatasaptasati of Hala and the

Brhatkatha of Gul)a9ya refer to the contemporary social life

during the period of the Satavahanas.

The other category, secular literature, includes the

historical, semi-historical and literary works produced at different

times by various court poets who lived in different parts of South

India. The Sangam literature is very helpful to understand the

Tamil countries and their history. Works like mailappatikaram

and Marimekhalai reflect the political and cultural life of the

people in the far south, under the Co!as, the Ceras and the

71
Pai:19yas. They also deal with the cultural contacts of South India

with Ceylon and other islands. The earlier Tamil grammar,

Tolkappiyam of Tolkappiyar, reflects the social and cultural life

in the Tamil country. Works like Anuktamalgada and the

Kavyavacakam reveal the glorious political and cultural

developments under the Vijayanagara kings.

Besides these indigenous literary sources, foreign testimony

also reveals the history of South India's cultural, commercial and

maritime activities. The Ceylonese Chronicles, the Mahavamsa,

and the Dfpavamsa/ in Pali language, deal with South Indian

history and also the Buddhist influence in Ceylon.

The accounts given by travellers like Fahien and Huen­

Tsang from China are very important for a good understanding ·of

the history of South India. Like the Chinese travellers, there were

many travellers of European origin and Arabs, who came to

South India during the glorious days of the Vijayanagara empire.

Arcaeologocal Sources of South Indian History

Archaeological sources are very important in the study of

3
the history of South India. According to K.N. f)ikshit,

"archaeology is a handmaid to history, but this handmaid is

72
thoroughly faithful and can be relied upon to bear the torch

correctly to the dim recesses of long forgotton passages of

history". The English term 'archaeology' is derived from two

Greek words 'archaious' meaning 'ancient' and 'logos'

meaning 'knowledge'. Archaeology thus means a systematised

study of antiquities. If deals with the actual remains of the dim,

distant part, in the shape of inscriptions, coins, monuments,

ruins of houses, graves, weapons, books, pottery, art and

architecture. By a scientific study of archaelogical sources, a

good deal of historical information can be discovered and

excavated by archaeologists.

Archaeological sources may be divided into three main

groups. They are : inspirations on epigraphy, monuments and

numismatics.

The study of inscriptions or writings engraved on some

object is epigraphy. Usually these inscriptions were issued by

the rulers under their seal. The collection and scientific study of

these inscriptions started only after the advent of the British.

British scholars like Col. Mackenzie collected about 9600

inscriptions relating to South India.

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 A large number of inscriptions have come to light in South

India. These inscriptions are in Brahmi, Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil,

Telugu and Prakrit languages. Most of these inscriptions are

found inside the State of Karnataka. However, many of them are

found also in the neighbouring states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra

Pradesh and Maharashtra. The minor rock edicts of Ashoka

found at Brahmagiri, and Siddapura in Chitradurga district and

various parts of Karnataka states, reveal that Ashoka exercised

political control over these territories. These inscriptions give a

picture of the period of their rule and their personalities. The

inscriptions at Sravar:1abelagola and SrTrarigapanar:1a reveal that

Chandragupta abdicated the throne of Magadha and came to

Karnataka, where he settled down and died. The Talagonda

pillar inscriptions of Kakustuvarman is perhaps the only historical

account available to know the origin and early history of the

Kadamba dynasty. The Nanagat inscriptions reveal the extent of

the Satavahana empire and the achievements of Satakarl)i I. The

Chikkerur, Vadageri and Hyderabad museum inscriptions help

us to study the history of the Calukyas of KalyaQi. The

Hyderabad museum inscriptions, in particular of Vikramaditya

VI, help us to fix the date of the Vikrama era.

74
 The inscriptions of Uttaramellur give us a good deal of

information about the local self-government system of the

4
Co!as. In the same manner, the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara

monarchs have issued their own inscriptions. The Lakhundi

inscription of the Hoysalas refers to the northern expansion of

the Hoysalas. All the Vijayanagara inscriptions, found both in

Karnataka and Telugu land, have been written under the seal of

'Sree Virupak?a' the presiding deity of Hampi. As many as 5000

inscriptions of the Vijayanagara period have come to light and of

these about 200 are copper plates, mostly in Sanskrit.

The inscriptions relate to many subjects like donations,

commemoration of great events or deeds, land grants, literature,

eulogy and religion. They are of value in fixing chronologies,

ascertaining the territorial limits of kingdoms and tracing

developments in the fields of art, religion, literature, society and

economy. The eulogies of kings by their court poets describe the

qualities of the rulers concerned, their military achievements,

liberality etc. The inscriptions on copper plates refer to the sale

or grant of land gifts. They detail the aims and conditions of

grants, define bounc.Jries of lands, and also include historical

75
data relating to donors, donation made to individuals, temples,

monastries and educational institutions.

Thus these inscriptions are highly valuable for fixing

chronology. They also reveal the social, cultural and political life

of that age.

Monuments

It is said that a nation's culture is reflected in its

monuments. Like the inscriptions, the monuments and ancient

remains including ruined palaces, temples, cities, and forts are of

historical value for different periods. They reveal the social,

political and cultural life of the people of that age. The discovery

of bricks, tiles, shells, rock crystals, utensils and bangle pieces at

Chandravali reveals the colourful life of the society during the

period of the Satavahanas. The architecture of the different

periods will reveal the social, political and cultural life of the

people of that age. Thus these monuments possess great

historical value as a source material.

Numismatics

Numismatics has been aptly regarded as a handmaid to

the muse of history. Besides the above-mentioned sources, the

76
study of numismatic sources has a very important place in

knowing about the history of South India. Numismatics, the

study of coins, is a pigmy in comparison to the epigraphically

giant inscriptions. It gives us only a few nuts and screws for the

framework of history. However, its value for political,

chronological, administrative, cultural, religious and economic

history is not negligible. Several ruling dynasties have issued

coins of their own. These coins contain legends and titles of their

kings and they were issued on certain memorable occasions

also. Coins also help us to understand the different stages which

mark the different and interesting phases of the evolution of

human civilizations. The metals used to make coins reflect the

economic prosperity or otherwise of a particular period. Coins

also point to the patronage of art. They afford unmistakable

evidence to the reconstruction of different aspects of history and

culture. The circulation of coins helps us to determine the

extent of the territory of each dynasty.

The constitution of the Kadamba kings in the field of Indian

numismatics is very great. They serve as a model to the whole

field of coinage in South India. The Padmatankas of the

Kadamba and Ganges, the Panas of the Hoysalas, and the

77
Varahas of the Vijayanagara rulers are the important coins of

South India. The earliest coins discovered in India are of the

Romans (O.S.I.H.9) The Calukyas of Badami were known for

gold coins which bore the image of a boar as the emblem. The

Hoysala King Narasimha I had issued gold coins. The gold coins

of Vijayanagara were called pagoda, Pana, Haga etc. The Co!as

5
and Pal)9yas issued their own coins. Various metals like copper,

lead, silver and gold were used for the manufacture of coins. On

the basis of the metals used, the prosperity of these countries can

be determined. It is also a notable fact that the existence of

foreign coins indicates that there were trade and commercial

relations between South India and foreign countries. Thus the

study of coins helps us to reconstruct the history of South India.

South India in Pre-history

Geologists and anthropologists believe that one of the

oldest areas of human settlement is South India. This is supported

by evidence of geological antiquity, that favourable climate of

the Deccan, and the stone relics discovered in the elevated

areas in the valleys of the Narmada and Godavari. It may be

assumed that the higher regions of the Deccan, which comprise

78
hills and valleys, supplied ancient man with edible fruits and

other products. Scientists think that human settlement in this

region is almost 500000 years old. This period may be divided

6
into a number of stone-ages. In 1863, Robert Bruce discovered

stone-age implements near Pallavaram and after that similar

finds have been made in many parts of South India, as also in

Karnool and the valleys of the Godavari. It is believed that a

wooden comb discovered in Gundakkal belongs to early stone­

age.

Implements belonging to the period between Paleolithic

and Neolithic ages have been discovered in Sayorpuram in

Thirunelveli, and the valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari. A

variety of clay pots and vessels have been unearthed in Padapad

in Karnool, and Sanagundala Durg. The people of the middle

stone-age were mostly hunters. The practice of burying corpses

prevailed among them. Thirunelveli, Thirussirappa!!i, Salem and

North Arcot of the old Madras state, Warangal, Ananthapur and

Hyderabad of Andrapra Pradesh have yielded remains of the

Neolithic Age. So also in Mysore. There is reason to believe

that the people of these areas lived together as families engaged

in agriculture. They domesticated animals and made fire by

79
rubbing together wood and stone. They could also make boats

and knew the technique of using the potter's wheel. Cloth was

made by weaving cotton and wool. Their proficiency is also to

be seen in making combs and ornaments from bone, shells and

rudrak?am.

It is said that the lirigam and bull carved into a hill side in

Kapgallu in Bellari belong to the New Stone Age. But its

authenticity has not been conclusively established. Another fact

worth noting is that specimens discovered in Raipur in Andhra

and Brahmagiri in Mysore indicate that after the Neolithic Age,

but before iron began to be made use of, there prevailed a time

during which brass and copper were used. The remains of a

period during which iron was used have been discovered in

Thirunelveli, Ananthapur, Kadappa, Karnul and Karnataka. The

most extensive area ever discovered from the pre-historic period

is supposed to be Adichanellore in Thirunelveli. Complete

skeletons of humans, improved earthen utensi Is, gold ornaments

and similar other relics have been discovered from this place.

Another salient feature of pre-historic South Indian culture

is the tombstones found in a wide variety. Graveyards dating

80
back to the Stone-age are to be found in Hyderabad and Mysore.

Also, many similarities have been noticed between South Indian

stone-age culture and Mediterranean stone-age culture which

7
flourished between 2500 and 1500 BC. Excavations conducted

after 1945 throw light on the period of South Indian stone-age

culture. These excavations have brought to light earthenware

51
and similar items belonging to the first and second centuries

A.O. On the basis of evidence collected from Brahmagiri m

1947, Haimendorf concludes that the stone-age culture of

Southern India much have existed between 100 and 400 BC.

However, the period of the stone-age culture of the

Mediterranean area was between 2500 and 1500 BC, and

certain similarities do exist between it and South Indian culture.

Therefore, it appears safe to assume that South Indian stone-age

culture flourished around 1000 BC.

History of the Origin of the Dravidians

It is a difficult matter to determine the class -structure of

those people who lived in South India from the Paleolithic Age.

It is generally agreed among anthropologists that the

Malapandarams of Travancore, Panians of Waynad, and

81
Chenchus of Hyderabad are the descendants of the people of

the Paleolithic Age. They still follow their ancestral methods for

finding food. Among them, Kadars and others resemble negroid

races to a remarkable extent. It is significant that Paleolithic

implements discovered from the vicinity of Madras are very

much like those discovered from South Africa.

In his book, Dravida Deities of Modern Hinduism, V.T.L.

Mora contends that the people of South India might have

engaged in trade and commerce with Africa, Australia, and

Malaya, and that it is quite possible that ship-wrecked Africans

had settled down in South India. The renowned scholar, lravati

Karve, is of the opinion that certain customs and influences of

Australian languages, seen among the early people of Southern

India, are indicative of the arrival of Polinesians from the Pacific

to South India. Such conjectures notwithstanding, it is still

difficult to know the previous history of the Dravidians or to

pinpoint the place of their origin.

It has come to light that it was Dravidian culture that

existed in MohanJadaro and Harappa. It may be that an

advanced culture had been there in India even before the advent

82
of the Aryans. It is also safe to assume that this culture had

originated in South India, and, having attained to great growth

and progress, had gradually spread to the North.

As far as India is concerned, the Dravidians were the

forefathers of the present-day people who speak Tamil, Telugu,

Kannada and Malayalam. This has led to the conjecture that the

Dravidians originated in India and break-away groups had

emigrated to the Mediterranean regions via Baluchistan, Iran,

Sumeria and Messopotamia. 8

Ole Dame has suggested that there had been a body of

land that united India and Africa. He attributes to this fact the

similarities found among the tribal people of Africa and South

India. But Sir9 William Hunter is of the opinion that the

Dravidians starting out from the Mediterranean, had traversed

the South western passes and arrived in Punjab.

A different view is held by some other scholars. According

to them, civilization originated in Egypt, flourished in the

Mediterranean, reached South India and got intermingled with

the tribes there, to produce the Dravidians. They also hold that
1h
this migration had intensified in the 8 century BC. According to

83
them 10, boats seen only in ancient Egypt could not have reached

here otherwise. However, there is reason to believe that the

emigration of the forefathers of the Dravidians had occurred

between 2500 and 1500 BC when, in West Asia, stone-age

civilization still existed. This conjecture is supported by the fact

that the iron spades and golden lids discovered in Adichanelloor

closely resemble similar items discovered in Palestine and

Cyprus, and are dated between 2000 and 1 200 BC.

Another conjecture made in the light of available

evidence also merits consideration. It is that even before the

Dravidians settled in India, a branch of the Mediteranean people

had reached here and that in due course they intermingled with

Australian and Mongolian tribes who had preceded them. It is

also possible that Dravidians, who came later, lived for a time in

North-Western India before they were compelled to migrate to

South India, owing to opposition from the Aryans. The

intermingling of Aryans and Dravidians must have occurred

later. The class structure in South India is very complicated and

our knowledge about it is very limited. For that very reason, a

consensus among scholars regarding the origin of the Dravidians

does not seem possible.

84
The history of Aryan advent in South India

It is well known that the term 'India' originated from

'Sindhu', the same Indus in whose valleys an extensive and

ancient civilization proliferated. However, opinion is divided as

to who really were the founders of this civilization. We also have

the picture of another different civilization that existed in the

upper regions of the Sindhu. The originators of this civilization

11
caled themselves Aryans. The renowned German scholar, Max

Muller, holds that the term 'Aryan' referred to a language family

rather than to a tribe of people. He further claims that the

similarities noticed across Inda-European or Inda-Germanic

languages prove that the Aryans from Europe moved to the east

and the west and that one of these groups must have come to

India.

It is generally conceded that the Aryans came to India from

Middle Asia. Balagangadhara Tilak opines that the Aryans came

from the Northern Artie regions. In Iranian literature, it is

mentioned that the Aryans came from the lands of long winters.

Morgan holds that western Siberria was the native land of the

Aryans. He concludes that driven by the extreme cold these

85
people must have migrated first to the banks of the Danube and

thereafter reached India via Iran. On the basis of the similarity in

terms referring to trees and places in the �gveda and Zend

Avesta, the famous scholar Mac Donald concludes that the

12
Aryans originally belonged to South Eastern Europe.

The Aryans settled down first in the Punjab and gradually

moved to areas north of Delhi. In those days, the river

Saraswathi flowed there. Historians think that this river has since

dried up. The Aryans lived here for long and composed songs.

The plains of Kurukshetra, where the Pai:,9avas and Kauravas

met in battle, are situated here. The Aryans originally arrived as

wandering shepherds. Initially they did not settle down

anywhere but in course of time they must have become farmers.

When they arrived in India, the Aryans had to fight for the

land with the people who had already settles there. The Aryans

called these early settlers 'Dasyus', meaning 'the slave or servant

class'. The Aryans were fair-skinned, while the Dasyus had dark

skins and flat noses. The latter were also called Dravidians. The

Aryans spoke Sanskrit. They defeated the Dasyus in battle and

86
subjugated them. A convention that no A ryan might marry from

among the Dasyus also was established.

Many people consider that it was with the arrival of the

Aryans that history proper began in South India also, as it has

been in the north. The progress that resulted from the Aryan

invasion is reflected in legends and literature. Those works

produced in North India till about 600 BC throw only meagre

light on the Southern part of the count ry. This is in spite of the

fact that incidents mentioned in epics and legends relating to the

�?i Agathya do speak about an extensive and important

civilization.

The mountain ranges of the Vindhyas were for long

recognized as the Southern border of the land ruled by the

Aryans. Originally, the Aryans occupied the area between the

Himalayas and the Vindhyas, and between the seas on the east

and the west. This region was known as A ryavartta. However, it

must be conceded that irrefutable evidence regarding Aryan

migration to South India had not become available till date. It

may be that the loftly ranges of the Vindhyas had proved an

insurmountable obstacle for the Aryans. There is in the

87
Mahabharata, the story of sage Agastya that he had requested

Vindhya to allow him to pass to the south and also to keep his

height down until he returned. It is conjectured that Agastya

established the first Aryan asrama in the South and that this was

followed by Aryan migration to the south. It is also possible that

the more adventurous of the Aryans might have pushed still

further South and had established relations with the people there.

This could have resulted in the advent of a mixed race in India.

The Aitareya Brahmara, the foremost of the Sanskrit

classics, tells about some countries towards the South of those

13
areas occupied by the Aryans. Some of those people are

Andhras, Pundras, Sabaras, and Pulindas. Pulindas and Sabaras

were savage tribes who resided near about Vindhya. The

Andhras lived to the north of the Godavari. However, Pal)ini

who lived around 600 BC makes no mention of South India,

while he does speak about many countries to the north. To

Kalinga alone, he makes reference. It is to be assumed that at

this time even though the Aryan occupation of North India had

been completed, it had not been the case with the South. No one

seems to have heard about such an established country like

Vidarbha. Most certainly the people of those regions had lived

88
there well before the Aryans arrived. But Kathyayana (400 BC),

who is supposed to have modernised the grammatical

conventions of Par:tini, makes mention of Pal)9ya and Cera

towards the southern tip of India, and it is quite possible that this

Kathyasyana was a South Indian. These countries were known to

Kautilya too. He has mentioned muslin which was a speciality of

the Pa�dya country. Madurai, the capital of the Pal)dyas, is

reminiscent of the Mathura in North India. Also Bodhayanas, one

o the foremost legislators of ancient times, mentions in his

DharmasiJtra, fire customs, out of which two, viz:, marrying the

daughter of one's father's sister are early customs practised by

almost all the people in South India.

K.A. Nilakal)ta Sastri points out that the Aryan migration to

South India might have started off smoothly and peacefully

around BC. 1000 and that it must have been completed just

before the establishment of The Mauryan empire which

comprised most of India except the southernmost part. The edicts

of Asoka found in Mysore and Karnool suggest that Asoka had

14
political and diplomatic ties with South lndia.

89
 Exaggerated they might be, but in the Vedas and the

Brahmar:ias, we come across many references to the spread of

the A ryans to the South. The Aithareya Brahmara mentions

Vidarbha and its king Bhima. Also legends have it that

Vswamitra abandoned his jealous sons in the border of

A ryavartta and that the Andhras, Pundras, Sabaras, Pulindas and

Muthibars (who are generally categorised as Dasyus) are in fact

the descendants of these sons.

As mentioned earlier, it is quite likely that the A ryan

occupation of South India started through Agastya. The epics and

purar:ias contain different stories regarding the arrival of

Agasthya in the South. It may also be that this Agasthya was an

ambassador deputed by the A ryans on their way South. In the

Deccan, he is revered as a most holy personage who was also

one of the earliest of Gurus. Since such stories are based upon

historical facts, it cannot be denied that they contain elements of

truth. Agastya 's name is associated with many places ranging

from the Himalayas to Kanyakumari, and also with many places

that lie outside India. The most famous of these is the place of

Malayaparvata, situated at the southernmost environment tip of

the We.stern Ghats. The proliferation of ashramas and dwelling

90
places associated with Agastya suggests that, unless he is a

purely fictitious character, there must have existed a tribe which

Agastya spread over al I these areas.

The prevailing trend in the methodology of language

studies is that differences in languages point not to differences

in tribes but to those of cultures. If this is applied to study the

existing languages in India, much can be learned about the

Aryanaisation of South India. It is easily established that the

languages of North India and Maharashtra of the Deccan are the

products of cultural variations. But, matters were different where

the east and the south are concerned. The A ryans actually

infiltrated into these regions, gradually spreading their culture.

Yet, it seems that the A ryans did not make any concerted efforts

either to absorb the natives into their culture, or to destroy the

culture that was peculiar to the natives. As a result, the native

culture was not only retained but it was also enriched as a result

of imbibing Aryan culture. The Aryans who arrived from without

could refine and enrich their own Sanskrit, as also learn the

language of the people in the South. This intermingling of

languages and cultures gave rise to a mixed social order. Also,

the people in the South found it expedient to accommodate the

91
gods and goddesses of the A ryans in the existing hierarchy of

gods. It is practically impossible to know much about this

process. But the Tamil legends, the oldest available sources of

evidence for our study, confirm that the A ryan occupation was

actually welcomed in the South. This may be due to the

comparatively late flowering of Tamil literature as also to the fact

that it was not contemporaneous to the first contact of the South

with the A ryans.

But it would appear that the natives of the South did not

approve of certain customs of the A ryans such as yagas.

Consequently, the epics detail incidents of these natives, called

Rak�asas by the A ryans, regularly disrupting the proceedings in

yagasalas, as a mark of their disapproval. In fact, in the

Ramayar:,a, Sree Rama is presented as an avatar for the specific

purpose of ensuring peace and protection in the asramas. It is

doubtful if this has anyS historical significance. Such instances

mentioned regularly in many literary works point to the

resistance offered by the natives of the South to the newly

brought culture from without.

92
 It is. certain that the A ryans, who went to occupy South

India, must have found the mountain ranges of Vindhya and

Satpura, the thick forests and the river Narmada, to be almost

insurmountable obstacles. Hence, some historians opine that the

Aryans could have chosen the eastern coast. In spite of Par:,ini's

reference to Kaliriga, some others hold that it is difficult to

believe that the A ryans came to the South through the eastern

coast. On the basis of the Ramayara and Bouddha Sastra, many

scholars support the view that in spite of having to contend with

the obstacles offered by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges, and the

river Narmada, the A ryans must have passed to the South

through routes that afforded convenient passage. Those who

believe that the Aryans came South through Kalinga point it out

as evidence for the A ryanisation of Ceylon, especially because

Singhalese has been included in the Inda-A ryan group of

languages.

The extensive Aryanisation detailed above was a slow

process spread over centuries and it contributed to the

renaissance of South Indian culture. It is generally believed that

the process, which started in BC 1000, reached its culmination

93
 th
around 4 century BC, before the time of the grammarian,

Katyayana.

History of the Sangam Age

The early historical period of the deep South, which

followed the prehistoric period, witnessed the emergence,

maturing and dissolution of a clearly identifiable social

formation. It was more or less conterminous with the beginning

of the Iron Age in this part of the country. Historians assign a

variety of sources to this period: the megaliths and their furniture;

the hero stones; Tamil Brahmi cave writings; the early Tamil

anthologies (the Sarigam Texts); the punch-marked coins,

references in the Arthasastra and in the Asokan edicts, and an

occasional shred of Northern black polished ware; Graeco­

Roman accounts and the archaeology and numismatics of

Roman presence, and so on. The above categories of sources

represent a period of about a thousand years or more. Now, this

period is no more looked upon as a single, unchanging entity but

considered as representing different stages in the history of social

formation in South India. This period was characterised by

different forms of production, different ways in which man

94
sought to relate himself to nature in his struggle for livelihood.

These are best represented in the early anthologies of Tamil

literature known as the Sarigam literature. Now these texts are

recognised as composed over a vast period of more than a

millennium and belonging to different strata. They are essentially

bardic compositions exhibiting the traits of oral poetry.

Historiographical tradition calls this period the 'Sarigam Age.' 15

This is also the period represented by the first monarchical

states culminating in the Cho!a, Paf)9ya and Cera empires.

There are references in the Mbh to the participation of the

dynasties in the Kuruk?etra war. On the basis of this we can

understand that they came from the deep south to participate in

the war, but some hold different views and state that these

kingdoms belong to North India itself because of the similarity

between the expressions 'Paf)9yas' and 'Paf)9avas'. They also

point out that the customs prevalent among the Paf)9avas were

practised by certain sections in South India, such as polyand ry

and matn·1·my. 16

In Asoka's rock edicts also, there are references to these

kingdoms and their courts, in which it is also stated that these

95
kingdoms were nighbours of the Mauryan empire. 17

Channdragupta Maurya was the founder of Maurya Empire and

his reign started from B.C. 320. His grandson Asoka ruled from

263 to 229 B.C. The rock edicts of this period refer to the South

Indian kingdoms as Co!a Par:iac;Jya and Kera!apattas.

Then the northern boundary of Tamilakam was Venkatam

(Thirupathi). Modern Kerala and the Southern portions of

Mysore state were part of this territory which was tied to the seas

on the east and the west. The eastern coast from Pulicut to

Madurai was the boundary of the Co!as. Western coastal ghats

from Gokarnam to Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli and some parts of

Nanchinad were under the domination of the Par:ic;Jyas.

As it is generally known, Sarigam was an academy of poets

and the rulers of Cera and Co!a kingdoms were its patrons. For

a very long period, Madhurai functioned as its centre.

According to Neelakanta Sastri, this academy narrates the story

of four generations, over a span of 120 to 150 years. Further, he

states the Cera dynasty's genealogical order reconstructed from

these texts, but it would be difficult to narrate the continuous

history of Pal)c;Jyas and the Co!as.

96
 Scholars have different opinions about the period of the

Sarigam Age. The language of the Brahmi script during the

second century B.C. merged with the terms from Sanskrit, and

this language formed the basis of the emergence of Tamil. Later,

Tamil language in Sarigam poetry acquired maturity and

became a beautiful and powerful medium, though including

more words and ideas from Sanskrit. On the basis of this, Sastri

opines that the Sarigham Age was after the third century B.C. 18

Another indicator about the period is the synchronism

between the ruler of Ceylon, Gajabahu I, and the Chera ruler,

Senguttavan, eulogised in Patirruppattu. It is believed that

Gajabahu ruled during 173 to 195 A.O., and it can be inferred

that Senguttavan also ruled in the same period. On the basis of

this, Sastri supports the possibility of fixing period of the Sarigam

19
Age between A.O. 100 and 250.

Sarigam poetry describes the rule of the Co!as, Ceras and

Pa,:i9yas and their interest in the war between the Kauravas and

the Pa,:i9avas. A Sarigam poem describes Utiyan Ceralatan, the

first of the great Cera monarchs, who gave a sumptuous feast to

both parties in the battle of Kurushetra and won the title of

97
Perumchotta Utiyan Ceralatan. But Sastri considers it an

interpolation. His successor Nedum Ceralatan is described to

have subdued several kings, won naval victories, captured

Yavana traders and released them for huge ransom.

Patirruppattu describes this dynasty's five kings from three

generations. As a whole, they ruled for two hundred and one

years. But Sastri states that it was not a continuous rule. The last

of the Cera ruler was 11am Ceral, the monarch in the year

A.O. 190.

Sangham poems also narrate the story of more than twenty

Par:i9ya kings. The most important among them 1s

Nedumchezhiyan, the hero of Madurai Kafici. He was a great

fighter. These poems describe great soldiers and connoisseurs

from the ranks of Pai:i9yan kings, like Bhootha Pai:i9yan,

Ugraperumal, etc.

Besides the narration of these three great dynasties, these

poems also describe some important rulers of the period. But,

with all its limitations, most of these poems describe the rule of

the kings and their ideas. Most of the rulers were war-loving

and they considered bravery as a great quality. The rulers were

98
very much concerned about their duties. A ruler wounded in the

battle named Latan II, fasted till death.

�Though there were conflicts for successions, kingship was

hereditary. Civil and criminal disputes were settled by courts

known as Manrams. However, the poets gave more attention to

the narration of the life of the people than to description of the

political situation. Thus, they were the poets of the people and

they tried to reflect the real life of the people. Besides, they tried

to portray social customs, religious rituals, and the development

of art and education.

The Tamil-speaking world was divided into five different

eco-zones. They were Kurinchi (hills and forest), Mullai

(pastures and thickets), Marutam (riparian plains), Palai (panched

lands) and Neytals (coastal tracts). People who lived in these

zones lived a proper life, closer to nature.

In Purananilru, the simple life of the people has been

described, and from it can be inferred that the rigours of caste

and social exclusiveness were unknown. The evils of

untouchability and approachability were unknown to this period.

99
 People had the habit of using liquor and meat. But due to

the influence of Buddhism meat-eating was prohibited. Saints

and poor people used barks of trees, and skins of animals.

Thus, from the Sarigham literature, a more or less complete

picture of the early life of the Tamil people is available to us.

We can see that during this period people led a prosperous and

self-reliant life.

Social and cultural history of South India

Our knowledge of history with regard to the religious,

cultural and social relations of the people of South India is

meagre, compared to that of North India. The earliest

information on the cultural history of South India is got from the

Ramayal)a and the Mahabharata. The Ramayal)a gives more

elaborate details than the latter. A good part of the Ramayana

deals with the happenings in the Deccan, the Tamil country and

also Ceylon. This epic narrates how the lord of Lanka instigated

his agents to destroy the peaceful hermitages in the forests of the

Deccan. In the case of the Mahabharata, it can at best be held

confidently that the story of Arjuna's exploits in Madurai are a

contribution by the authors of the Southern recession of the epic.

100
From the Buddhist scripture we get a small reference to the

voyage of the 'Bavari' and disciples of the hermitage near the

river Godavari towards the North through Mahi?mati. The

th
grammarian Katyayana of the 4 century B.C. refers to the three

Tamil provinces of PaQdya, Cera, and Co!a. Kau\ilya refers to the

trade links of the people on the banks of River Ganga, with the

South. It was supposed to be more easy for the people of the

places of the Ganges to go to South India for trade, than to the

Himalayan regions. While the North Indians had skill in making

blankets with wool, etc., the South Indians were good at trade in

conch - shells, diamond, jewels pearls and gold. It is stated that

cotton industry flourished in Madhura even in ancient days.

The ancient Tamil literature furnishes evidences of

Aryanisation and Sanskritisation in South India. Vedic sacrifices

and rites were largely practised with the help of Brahmins. Vedic

gods like Indra, VaruQa, Siva and Kf?Qa, and the puranic deities

were worshipped. Rivers, mountains and forests also got their

due honour in acts of worship. This idea is very much

corroborated by the lthihasas, the Ramayal)a and the

Mahabharata. Tolkappiyam, the Tamil book, deals noLdnty with.

101
the language and its grammar, but also with the different ways of

I ife and customs.

Tolkappiyam definitely affirms that the rituals of marriage

were established by the Aiyars, i.e, Aiyars, i.e, A ryas among the

Tamils. Accordingly, we find that marriages are conducted

before the sacred fire as witness; the ceremony of StalTpaka, the

cooking of food by the bride soon after the marriage, is also

described. The Crhyasastra, the old manual of the ceremonies,

makes no mention of the Tali, the ornament-bearing string worn

round the neck of the woman as symbolic of her married status,

while the husband is alive. Its mention in the Sangam poem is, a

proof that well indicates that the tali was part of some kinds of

ritual or ceremony of Pre-Aryan fire ceremony when it was

20
introduced by the Aiyars.

The Sangam literature reveals the fact that the Aryan

culture and the customs and practices of Brahmins were

accepted throughout South India. The kings were ve ry particular

to see that their rule did not cause any harm to the feelings of

the Brahmins. This A ryan culture had its own impact on the

cultural heritage throughout South India Even then there were

102
instances of clashes or disagreements between the A ryans and

the Dravidians. Everywhere in India, the indigenous culture was,

for a time, dominated by the superior power and influence of

the new Aryan culture. But, in course of time, there was a

recovery and reassertion of the indigenous elements leading to a

reformation in the cultural milieu. Tamil had its own tradition,

but evinced a marvellous capacity for assimilating the coming

culture, with the result that we have in the Sarigam classics a

superb literature of incomparable force and beauty coupled with

economy of telling expression.

In later times, the society all over India became more

pronouncedly hierarchical. The castes c rystallized and

multiplied, and Brahmins enjoyed social prestige and other

privileges, which roused the anger and envy of the other classes.

The divine rights of the Brahmins referred to in Manusm.rti, the

Mahabharata and the Purai:ias seem to have attained the greatest

strength in the south also. In medieval times, in South India,

there came up rival legends calculated to support the views of

rival schools of thought. One view is that Agastya was the

pioneer of the Aryanization of the Tamil land. But one school

103
held that he was also the creator of the Tamil language and

grammar.

This being the case, while studying the history and culture

of India, we find that South India was no exception from the rest

of this vast country, and that its living culture of today is no less a

blend of A ryan and Pre-A ryan elements than elsewhere. As

mentioned earlier, Agastya is worshipped by the Tamils as the

maker of their culture and as the creator of their language as well

as literature. Also, the Tamils, however, claim Agastya to be

their patron saint. There are certain legends about him. One

story tells that Agastya defeated the great Ravana in a musical

contest. The Mal}imekhalai/ credits him with the supply of

Kaveri water. The famous writer, Vaikkam Chandrasekharan

Nair, is of the opinion that the ve ry name Agastya suggests that

he is a South Indian. Agastya region means the southern region.

In the state of Tamil Nadu, there is a place caked

Agasteewaram. 21 As a whole, there is a vast literature describing

the cultural as well as social uplift of the people of South India.

Like Agastya for the Tamils, Parasurama is deemed by the

Keralites to be the creator of their land. Here one can see an

104
admixture of truth and legend intermingled in the social and

cultural history of South India.

Religious History of South India

The Bhakti Movement

The Vindhya mountains, the river Narmada, and vast

stretches of arid land separate North India from South India.

Historians say that most of the cultural influences trickled down

to the South from north-western India. But, quite a few

influences like the great Bhakti Movement had their origin in the

South and then made an impact on North India. The Bhakti

movement laid emphasis on the love of God based on childlike

innocence. The movement originated in Tamilnadu, and was

popularised by the Saivites and Vaish r:i avites. Evidence of the

mystical devotion popularised by the Bhakti movement can be

traced back to the Mahabharata, where Kr�r:ia tells Arjuna, "He

who loves me will not perish ......... think of me, love me, give
. "22
sacn.f.ices to me, h onour me, and you w1·11 be one wit h me.

105
 fmr � tl'ikJ-11 �.Rcli:Ulf.¥1 f1JIWRI I

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The early Bhakti saints rejected the Bhakti scholarship and

ritual sacrifices in which the lower classes could not afford to

participate. These saints were mostly traders and peasants

(Vellas), people of low castes, such as fishermen today, tappers

and hunters. Brahmins did not find it easy to accept the

principles of the Bhakti movement as an integral part of

Hinduism. There is a reference in the Mahabharata to the

denigration of Brahmir)S who worked in temples by other

Brahmir)s. In fact, the former were called Cai:i�alas by the

23
latter.

During the beginning of the second millennium, there was

a strong and committed philosophical introspection that steadily

pushed the Bhakti movement aside. The early philosophical

systems were influenced by the debate about the dominion of

the world by the will of omnipotent God. Sankaracarya's

monism had tried to bring together atheist and theist claims by

declaring that the Brahmai:i (the essence of the universe) is

identical with the individual soul and brings under it both the

106
impersonal law (popularised by athiests) and the divine

manifestation which appealed to the individual believer. Thus

Sankara could establish a peaceful coexistence between a highly

developed philosophical system and a variety of faiths.

History of great religious reforms

Again, it was in South India that there occurred some

prominent movements in the field of religion, after the spread of

Buddhism. Some of the greatest philosophers of the world who

were capable of kindling and propagating philosophic teachings

were also born in this region. Sree Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva

and Basaveswara were the prominent among them.

Sankaracarya was the foremost of such philosophers. A

new era in the field of philosophy was started in South India with

the advent of Sankara. Before the period of Sankara, there

prevailed in South India a state of political instability and a

deteriorated state of affairs in the field of philosophy and

morality. Superstitions and immoral activities were the driving

spirit of the society. Hindu religion itself was relegated to· the

background because of the spread of Buddhism and Jainism. It

107
was at this juncture that Sankaracarya came forward and

propounded and propagated the Advaita philosophy. 24

Sarikaracarya was born in a village named Kalady in

Kerala. As regards the time Sankara, there exists some

controversy even now. Still it is considered that Sarikara was

born in AD 788. He lost his father at the age of three. After

initiation, Sankara decided to be a brahmacari throughout his

life. Though his mother objected to it first he got her consent

later.

After a long search for a preceptor, Sankara got Govinda

Bhagavatpada, disciple of Gowdapada, 25 as his Guru. After

imparting the knowledge of the self, Govindacarya wanted

Sarikara to write a commentary on BrahmasiJtra. Keeping in

mind the necessity of preparing a commentary on Brahmasutra,

Sankara continued his pilgrimage to Kasi, where he learned more

on the subject, from the various philosophers he met.

Some time later, he engaged in philosophical discussions

with many scholars and became successful in all debates.

Therefore, these achievements of Sankara are described as

Digvijaya. Then he went to Kashmir and won over the scholars

108
and philosophers. When he was only 32 years old, he died at

Kedarnath.

Sankara's contribution to the development of Vedic

religions was unique. He realised that Vedic religion was

suffering a serious setback. Therefore, in order to prevent its

extinction, he set up four religious institutions or mutts in the

four corners of the country. Sankara produced monumental

literary works in the forms of Bha?ya-s or commentaries on the

vedantic scriptures, Brahmasiltras of Badarayar:ia, and on the ten

principal Upanishads, that helped the revival of Vedic religion.

His Bhasya on Bhagavatgfta is an immortal work even to this

day. Besides these, his devotional hymns like Sivfinanda Lahari

and Saundarya. Lahari have been regarded as the wealth of

literature of all times. The Bhajagovindam stotra is one of his

most popular compositions.

The philosophy expounded Sankaracarya is that of Advaita

or non-duality. According to him, the Upani�adic terms

'Brahman' and 'Atman' indicate the highest reality which is

not dual. Sankara declared that the world is an illusion, but

Brahman is the ultimate reality.

109
 Another important philosophy is Vai?Qavism, known as

Visi?tadvaita, systematised and popularised by Ramnujacarya. 26

Vai?Qavism was mainly expounded in South India by the Alwars

and Acaryas. Ramanuja belonged to the latter group. He was

born in about 1017 A.D at Sri Perumbutur near Kaiici. His

parents were Assuri Kesova Somayaji and Kantimati aevi. After

early education, he went to Kaiichi to study Vedanta under the

eminent teacher Yadava Praksa. But, some time later, Ramanuja

came to differ with his teacher, who was a follower of Advaita

philosophy. So, he left his teacher and became a householder.

Later on, Ramanuja sent his wife to her father and began a career

of Sanyasa. After renunciation he came to be called Yatiraja. By

his love of the people of the oppressed classes, he became a

progressive reformer and a religious teacher who secured a good

many spiritual-minded pupils. His commentary on Brahmasiltra,

known as Sri Bha?ya, became famous.

Ramanuja was the propounder of theistic Vedanta,

popularly known as Visigadvaita, which recognises three

ultimate realities: God, soul, and matter, known as the

Tattvatraya. According to Ramanuja, of these three, God alone is

the independent reality and the other two are dependent on

110
Him. The relation between God on the one hand and the world

of souls and matter on the other is analogous to that between

soul and body. God is the soul of souls and of nature. These

latter are distinct from God, but not separable from Him. It is not

as external relation that governs them, but the internal relation of

inseparability. His conception of reality is that of a complex

whole that is organic.

Madvacarya is another philosopher who contradicted the

Advaita of Sankara and Visi�\advaita of Ramanuja. Dualism was

his philosophy. Sri Madhavacarya was born in 1238 A.D. 27 His

father was Narayana BhaHa, and Vathavati was his noble

mother. When he attained the age of manhood, he had mastered

all the Vedas and Upani�ads. He was initiated into monastic life

by the great teacher Achyuta Prakash TTrtha. Later on, he came

to be known as Madhva, Ananda TTrtha, Sarvajna and Poorna­

Prana.

According to Madhva's philosophy, SrThari is the Supreme

Being, ominiscient and infinite. The individual souls are different

from and subservient to the supreme soul. The world is real.

There is difference between JTvatman and Paramatman, between

111
Brahman and Jada,
. between Jiva and Jiva, and between Jada and.
Ja9a.

Basavasvara, of Karnataka was another religious reformer

and philosopher. During his period (1 ih century AD) Karnataka

happened to witness a great religious reform. There was the rise

of a new religion which was opposed to the established Vedic

tradition. This new religious movement was against the

meaningless customs and social irregularities. The caste system

and other forms of social discrimination oppressed the people

very much. The lower classes led the life of slaves, and the upper

classes exploited them. To liberate society from these conditions,

Basaveswara started a new reform movement, which came to be

known as VT ra - Saivism.

Jainism and Buddhism

Buddhism does not recognize the existence of God and

soul. This can be taken as a kind of revolution in the history of

Indian religions. Since it attacked the varrJa system, the lower

orders supported it. People were taken into the Buddhist order

without any consideration of caste. After the death of the

Buddha, the famous Mauryan king Asoka spread Buddhism into

112
Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka, and thus transformed it

into a world religion. Even though Buddhism disappeared from

the land of its birth, it exists outside India even today.

Buddhism achieved large spread in the South.

Archaeological research at Pitalkhora and Kolhapur in the west

and Ghar:itasala and Bhattiprolu in the east have brought out

very early Buddhist relics in this region. Brief inscriptions in the

Mauryan script, which may be assigned to the third century BC,

have been discovered on the Stupas of Jaggayaprta, Amaravati,

and Bhattiprolu is in the Andhra area. According to the

Buddhist chronicles, Asoka's missionaries popularized the law

of Buddha in Mahisamandala. Buddhist monks and nuns were

numerous everywhere in the land. The monks themselves were

subdivided into several sects. The early literature of Buddhism

refers to the school of the Andhaka monks, who belonged

28
specially to Andhra. But, Buddhism declined in Andhra desa,

where it had flourished in the early centuries A.O. During this

period the renascent Hinduism began the worship of Buddha at

Amaravati as an incarnation of Vishnu, and seems likewise to

have converted many other Buddhist centres into Hindu shrines.

The active work of the Hindu saints and reformers in the Tamil

113
country caused the decline of Buddhism. In the Cola country,

there were Buddhist settlements m Nagapatam and

Srimulavasam. According to K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, Buddhism was

a powerful influence. For evidence, some scenes from Buddha's

life are represented in decorative panels in a balustrade of the

great temple of Tanjore. 29 During the period of the imperial

Co!as, this religion was found in Nagapattom and we know that

the emperor did not persecute its followers. The author of a

Tamil grammar in the days of Vira Rajendra Cola was a Buddhist

called Buddhamitra. 30

Jainism

Jainism found its way into the region south of the

Vindhyas, as early as the fourth century B.C. The Deccan

became the second home of Jainism. The Tamil land and

Mysore in the south saw the flourishing of Jain influence. At

Sravar:ibelagola in Mysore, Chandragupta Maurya is said to have

spent his last days in the company of Jain ascetics. The

Udayagiri and K�ar:1dugiri hills contain large numbers of caves

excavated for the residence of Jain ascetics. Even today, all the

114
districts of the Andhra country preserve evidences of Jain
31
antiquities.

It is a fact that Jainism had a greater influence than

Buddhism on the life of the people of the south, particularly in

Karnataka and the Tamil countries because Jainism had much

more in common with Hinduism than Buddhism, especially in

respect of many popular beliefs and practices. This identity

served to endear the people of the South to the Jain customs.

There were striking contributions from Jaina authors, to the

literatures of Kannada and Tamil. The Jain temple built at Aihole

by RavikTrthi in the reign of Pulakesin II is said to have been the

abode of all excellence, and Jaina temples and monasteries

continued to be built by the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas in

their dominions.

History of the Great dynasties of South India

There were many kingdoms and dynasties in South India,

the portion of peninsula lying to the south of the Narmada. It

includes three well-marked divisions, the narrow coastal strip

between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, a border strip

115
of plain between the eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, and

the elevated land between the two Ghats.

The Tamil land extended from the Tirupati hill to Cape

Comorin and from the Coromandal Coast to the Arabian Sea. In

ancient times, it was divided into many Nadus or provinces.

Some of them combined together to form big kingdoms. Within

this tract existed three very ancient and powerful kingdoms, the

Pa()dya, the Co!a and the Cera or Kerala. The Puranas and the

Mahabharata also refer to their names on many occasions. If the

epic Mahabharata is to be believed, one of the ancient Cera

kings joined the armies that fought in the Bharata War. This

shows that these kingdoms were as old as the Mahabharata.

Megasthanese, the Greek ambassador, who visited the court of

Chandragupta Maurya, refers to a Pa()dyan queen, who,

according to him, was a daughter of Heracles. He further says

that the Pa()dyans possessed a huge and very efficient army. This

being the case, there was an attempt made by Chandragupta

Maurya to invade the Tamil countries, but we are certain that the

three Tamil countries did not come under the direct rule of the

Mauryans. In one of his edicts, Asoka the Great has referred to

the three Tamil kingdoms as being independent.

116
 As mentioned earlier, at the dawn of the Christian era, the

country south of the Kr�rJa was divided among the three crowned

kings of the Cholas, the Cheras and the Par)dyas. The Chola

country extended from Pulicat to Tondi in the Ramanad district.

South of the Cola country lay the territory of the Par)dyas, which

extended roughly over the modern districts of Madhura and

Tirunelveli and of the old Travancore State. The land of the

Cheras lay north-west of the Par)dya kingdom, along with the

Western Ghats, to the seaside. It stretched right across the

Palghat Gap, taking in portions of Salem and Coimbatore.

We can understand that the above-mentioned kingdoms of

Tamilakam were often at war with one another. For example,

the powerful king of the Chola dynasty named Karikala defeated

the Cheras and Pandyas in a decisive battle. He enlarged the

Chola dominion, and transferred the capital from Worayur in the

Trichinappally district to Kaveripattanam at the mouth of the

Kaveri. He is best remembered for the building of flood banks

for the Kaveri. According to the early Tamil poets, he invaded

Ceylon and brought away thousands of prisoners to work on the

Kaveri embankments. He was a great patron of literature.

117
 After Karikala, the Cheras under their able leader and

warrior Senguttavan, in the second century A.D, established a

hegemony which did not, however, survive him long. According

to the Sangam literature, the son and successor of the Chera ruler

was defeated in battle by the Pandya King Nadunjelian and was

taken prisoner. The Pandyas therefore attained the position held

earlier by the Cheras and held the hegemony in their hands for

several generations. In the meantime, a new power arose in

Peninsular India, which was to overshadow the traditional Tamil

powers. This was the rise of the Pallavas. The social and political

history of these Tamil countries will be discussed in chapter V of

this study. The Kadambas were a family of Brahmins, so called

because they always nurtured the Kadamba tree in front of their

hous(?s. Their dominions included the entire west of Mysore and

the two Kanara districts. Their original capital was at Banavasi.

The Mahabharata refers to Banavasi as a southern place.

According to the famous Talgunda inscriptions, the founder of

the Kadamba power was Mauryasarman, a Brahmin. Much is

not known about the kings of this dynasty. Some of the early

Kadambas were great patrons of Jainism. They had to contend

frequently against their neighbours, the Pallavas and the Cholas.

118
They ceased to exist as an independent power by about

566.A.D. The Chalukyas were a powerful people of the South.

They were in power in the Deccan from the fifth to the eighth

century A.D, and then again from the tenth to the twelfth

century. The first known prince of the Chalukyas was Jayasimha,

who took Maharashtra from the Rashtrakutas. Kirthivarman,

another able king added Northern Konkan and Northern Kanara

to his dominions, in A.O. 567. Pulakesin was the greatest of the

Chalukya kings of South India. He waged many wars m the

Deccan and subdued the whole of it. He reduced the

Rashtrakutas, attacked the Kadambas and reduced to submission

their capital. He defeated the Pallavas also. He conquered the

Vengi country, that is, the tract of land between the lower

Krishna and Godavari. He also crossed the Kaveri, invaded the

country of the Cho!as, the Pal)dyas and the Ceras, and obliged

them to become his allies.

The Hoysalas

After the Cholas, the Hoysalas stepped in as an imperial

power in South India. We may, therefore, briefly outline the

history of their dynasty. Tucked away in the vastness of the

119
Western Ghats, there is a small village called Angadi, in the

South of Mudigere Taluk of the former Kadur district, which has

the honour of being the birthplace of the Hoysalas. In their

inscriptions, the Hoysalas claim descent from the Yadu race, by

assuming titles like Yadava Kulambara dyumani and Lords of

Dvaravatipura. But their relationship with the Yadava dynasties

32
· of North India cannot be established. The founder of this

dynasty was one Sala. His successor Vinayaditya conquered and

ruled over South Kanara and Mysore. He was a great builder of

cities and towns. The most famous among the early Hoysalas

was Bittideva, otherwise known as Vishnuvardhana. He expelled

the Cho!as from the Ganga kingdom. This doughty warrior next

marched South and took possession of al I the territories now

represented by the Salem, Coimbatore, Bellary and Dharvar

districts. Later on, his son Narasimha I and his grandson

extended the Hoysala dominion beyond the river Krishna. But

the Hoysala kingdom was destroyed by the Mohammadens.

The History of the RashtraKutas

The eminent scholar Anant Sadasiva Altekar, has pointed

out in his brilliant work on the Rashtrakutas and their time, that

120
they were of Karnataka origin and that their mother tongue was

Karnataka. According to R.G.Bhandarkar, the Rashtrakutas

formed the main branch of the Kshatriyas named Raths, who

33
gave their name to the country of Maharashtra. But, according

to scholars like Fleet, the Rashtrakutas were the descendants

of the Rathos of the North. But Burnell says that they were

connected with the Dravidian Raddhis of Andhradesa. But it is

not probable that the Rashtrakutas were descended from the

Rastikas or Rathikas who belonged to the middle of the third

34
century B.C and were referred to in the edicts of Asoka . The

earliest prince of the dynasty, mentioned in the grants hitherto

discovered, is Govinda I. But in n inscription in the rock-cut

temple of Desavataras at Eluru, the names of two earlier ones,

Dendivarman and lndraraja, are mentioned. But it is a fact that

we do not even know about their real territory. The Ravikirti

inscriptions at Aihole reveals that Govinda, one of the princes of

the Rashtrakutas, attacked the Chalukya king Pulakesin II and

afterwards became his ally.

The administrative system of the Rashtrakutas was of a

very high level. According to Dr. Altekar, 'king in ministry' was

the normal form of administration in the Rashtrakuta empire.

121
Thus the Rashtrakuta rule is of remarkable importance m the

history of Karnataka.

The Satavahanas

The Satavahanas, successors of the Mauryans in the

Deccan, ruled from Sanchi in the North to Konkan in the South,

upto the sea in the west and the east. This great dynasty ruled for

more than four centuries from 230 BC. Their rule witnessed

intense commercial activity between India and the western

world. They were the followers of Vedic religion. There is a lot of

controversy regarding the origin of the Satavahanas. In the

Puranas they are referred to as the Andhras or Andhra Brityas.

The Mahabharata refers to the Andhras as the Dravidians of

South India. On the basis of Purar:iic evidence, the historians call

them Andhras. According to R.G. Bhandarkar, the original home

of the Satavahanas was Andhra desa, 35 and their capital was

Dhanyakatakam. Dr. V.A. Smith and J. Briggs say that their

capital was Srikakulom. Pliny says that they were from Andhra.

Megasthenese says that the region between Krishna and

Godavari was their original home. The original home of the

Shatavahanas must have been Shatahanikara" or

122
"Shatahariratta", mentioned in the inscriptions, and including

the present Bellary district of Karnataka state. The word

'Satavahana' represents a 'kula' or family, while 'Andhra' was

the name of a Jati or tribe. It has been said that originally the

Satavahanas did not belong to the Andhra stock. But, in later

times, their political authority was extended to the territory north

of the river Krishna, and the name 'Andhra' was applied to

them. The majority of the scholars have accepted them as

Brahmins. Their capital was Paithen or Pratisthana on the bank

of the river Godavari. There are about 23 kings of this dynasty.

Gautamiputra Satakarni was the most prominent among them.

Their contribution and social conditions will be discussed in the

next chapter.

The Pallavas

Scholars have not been able to arrive at a definite

conclusion about the origin of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. The

inscriptions and monuments related to them reveal that they

belonged to Thondamandalam between the North Pennar and

the North Vellar rivers. We are not able to see any reference to

the dynasty either in the early Tamil literature or in the

123
inscriptions of Asoka. So, scholars hold that they were of foreign

origin and were not an indigenous Tamil people. B.L. Rice and

V. Venkayya identify the Pallavas with the Pahlavas or Parthians

supposed to have occupied Tondamandalam. 36 There are

references found in the Mahabharata, to the Pallavas along with

the Vastrapas37 but it does not say who the Vastrapas were

though their home has been identified to be the Gimar region of

old Junagadh, in Gujarath. Prof. Rao has been forced to admit

that the origin of the Pallavas has remained till now a mystery.

According to Prof. Sathyanathier, scholars have wandered from

Persia to Ceylon in search of the original home of the Pallavas of

Kanchi. But, in his opinion, they originated in Tondamandalam

itself. 38 The Pulindars were perhaps identified with the Kurumbas

of Tondamandalam. 'Tondayar' is a Tamil rendering of Pallavas.

The Satavahanas conquered Tondamandalam and Pallavas

become feudatory to the Satavahanas. After the collapse of the

Satavahana empire, about AD 225, the Pallavas become

independent.

124
Notes and References

1. Dr. K. K. Pillai, Dakshina India Charitram, p. 9

2. R.G. Bhandarkar, Early History of Deccan, p.5.

3. Prof. Gilbert Sequeira, History of Karnataka p.10.

4. M.N.V. Ramanappa. Outlines of South Indian History

p.9.

5. M.N.V. Ramanappa. Outlines of South Indian History.

p.9.

6. K.K.Pillai, Dakshina India Charitram, p.20.

7. Ibid., p.25

8. A.G. Menon, Bharata Charitram, Part I, p.34

9. lbid,.p. 35.

10. Ibid., Part I, p.36.

11. Ibid., p.41.

12. AG. Menon, Bharata Charitram, Part I , p.44.

13. R. G. Bhandarkar Early History of Deccan, 1985, p.6

14. K.A. Nilakal)ta Satri , A History of South India, p.83.

15. Kesavan Veluthattu : Into the Medieval -And out of it:

Early South India in Transition,' Presidential Address,

125
 Indian History Congress, Fifty- Eighth Session, Bangalore
University, November 1997, pp. 4-7.

16. K.K. Pillai, Dakshina India Charitram, p. 76.

17. R.G. Bhandarkar, Early History of Deccan , p. 14.

18. K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p. 117.

19. Ibid.

20. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Cultural Contact between Aryans

and Dravidians.1967, p.67.

21. Vikkom Chandrasekaran Nair, Mahabharatathilude

(Mal) , p. 156.

22. Bhagavat Gita, IX 31 : 34.

23. A history of India Herman Kulke and Dietmen

Ruthermund. Rountledge London and New York, 1 999,
p.133.

24. M.N. Venkata Ramanappa, Outlines of South Indian

History, p. 116.

25. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p. 428.

26. M.N. V. Remanappa, Outlines of South Indian History,

p.121.

27. M.N.V. ramanappa, Outlines of South Indian History,

p.125.

126
28. R.�. Bhandarker, The Early History of the Deccan, 1960,
p.42.

29. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p.437.

30. Ibid, p.437.

31. R.G. Bhandarkar, The Early History of the Deccan, p.42.

32. M.N. Venkata Ramappa, Outlines of South Indian

History, p.134.

33. R.G. Bhandarkar, Early History of the Deccan, p.62.

34. Vidyadhar Mahajan, Early History of India, p.326.

35. M.N. Vekata Remenappa, Outlines of South Indian

History, p. 55.

36. Ibid., p.67.

37. Mahabharata Sabha, 48.14

38. Vidyadh!1r Mahajan, Early History of India, p. 341 .

127