Flourished and nurtured around 2500 BC in the western parts of South Asia, on the

banks of River Indus, the ancient Indus Valley Civilization also known as the Harappan
Civilization marked the birth of Indian Society. In the year 1922, the Archaeological
Department of India, during their excavations, found the ruins of two major cities of
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa that opened the doors to the rich history of one of the ancient
civilizations in the world.
The evidences at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro shows that the Harappan people were
peace-loving men who had shown great sense of architecture and art. The Great granary at
Harappa, the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, terracotta tablets with scripts, solid houses with
wells, well-planned drainage system, agricultural field and fire altars at Kalibangan, the
discovery of pottery, other artefacts and jewellery suggests that the Indus valley people were
leading a full-fledged urban life. They had trade with Mesopotamian Cities and were
following Barter System.

In 2016, a group of scientists from IIT Kharagpur and Archaeological Survey of India
found that the Harappan Civilization is about 8000 years old contrary to the findings in
earlier researches. They also published their conclusions about the reasons for the decay of
the Harappan Civilization in the Nature Journal in which they suggested that the shift in
cultivation patterns might have caused the collapse of the civilization1.

However, after the decline of Indus Valley Civilization, during 1500 BC, India
witnessed another great period of social evolution, known as the Vedic Period. This period is
divided in to two phases; Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period. During Early Vedic
Period (1500 B C to 1000 B C), Aryans came and settled in India. Aryans were Semi-
Nomadic people migrated to north western plains through the mountain passes of
Afghanistan. From the period of 1000 B C to 500 B C is known as Later Vedic Period. The
texts of Later Vedic Period show the use of the term ‘Grama’, means village, which refers to

1
Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatite from India: Implications to climate
change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization, Anindya Sarkar, Arati
Deshpande Mukherjee, M. K. Bera, B. Das, Navin Juyal, P. Morthekai, R. D.
Deshpande, V. S. Shinde & L. S. Rao, Scientific Reports volume 6,
Article number: 26555 (2016) Nature Research Journal
their transformation from Semi-nomadic life to agricultural settlements. Village life later
gave a way to Social Stratification system called Caste system which is mentioned in the
hymns of Rigveda in terms of Varna System wherein people were divided in to four
categories: Brahmins (Priests), Kshathriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas (traders and peasants) and
Shudras (Slaves). Later Vedic period was known for the increase in trade which was referred
as ‘Vanijya’.

The major sources of information with regard to Vedic Period are Vedas, Epics and
archaeological sources like pottery. Vedic period is well known for its literary sources that
were written in Sanskrit language. The first of Vedas is Rigveda that was written during Early
Vedic Period. In Later Vedic Period, three other Vedas were written which are Samaveda,
Atharva Veda and Yajur Veda. The term Veda is derived from Sanskrit and it means
Knowledge. Shrutis and Smritis are the two major divisions of Vedic literature. Vedic
Literature also laid the foundations of Philosophy in India. This era contributed to the Indian
literature in a great way. In the year 1786, Sir William Jones, the founder of the Asiatic
Society of Calcutta, identified that there is a close relationship between Sanskrit, the language
of these Indo-Aryans, and Greek, Latin, German and Celtic languages which paved the way
for studies in Indo-European family of languages2.

The political developments in the Later Vedic period led to the emergence of
Kingships in different regions of Gangetic Plains. The explosion of petty kingdoms in many
parts of India in the later periods of history was originally rooted from the kingship systems
that developed during the Later Vedic Period. During this period, tribal warfare and conflicts
were common. The struggles and fights between the cousins of Pandavas and Kauravas in
order to obtain the control of the Doab of Western Ganga-Yamuna is the source of
storytelling of Mahabharatha, the great epic of India.

The fifth Century B C was characterised by the vigorous religious movements based
on the principles of Buddhism and Jainism. After the death of Buddha, who was originally
Gautama, a prince from a wealthy family in the Present-day Nepal region, gave up the
materialistic and luxurious life and endured the life of the poor. Later he got enlightenment
\through meditation under the Bodhi tree which popularized him in the name of ‘Buddha’, the

Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). The History of India, Routledge Publications,
2

New York (Pg. 36-48)

Enlightened. After his death, his followers proliferated his teachings that gave rise to the
religious movement of ‘Buddhism’. His teachings include the ‘Eight-Fold Path’ (Right
Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort,
Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration) to attain ‘Moksha’ or Salvation.
Vardhamana Mahaveera, was born in to the family of Kshathriyas in North Eastern
India who left the luxuries of his life and wandered around in order to understand the truths
of life. After the attainment of enlightenment, he came to be known as Mahaveera who later
became the propagator of Jainism. He advocated spiritual conquest and accepted the idea of
reincarnation. He was a follower of Ahimsa (Non-Violence), Satya (Truthfulness), Achaurya
(Non-stealing), Brahmacharya (Celibecy) and Aparigraha (Non-possession).

India witnessed the emergence of Persian Kingdom in the Sixth Century B C which
was the first major empire in the recorded history of India. Under the rule of Dareios, new
political developments were happened in the Banks of Indus. The rule of this territory yielded
the greatest amount of revenue to Persian empire. However, the lack of archaeological
evidence limits the information regarding the Persian empire in India.

Some of the Mahajanapadas of Eastern Gangetic Plains established their control over
the others in the fifth century BC. There emerged a kind of strategic quadrangle: Koshala and
the tribal confederation of the Vrijis held sway north of the Ganga; Vatsa, with its capital
Kausambi, dominated the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna; and Magadha ruled the large
region southeast of the Ganga.

Vrijis were powerful tribal confederations who had fourteen years long war with
Magadha in which two Generals of Magadha seized a village called ‘Pataligrama’ later
renamed as ‘Pataliputra’. Soon there was another threat of war was upon Magadha over this
region by the King of Ujjain. But Magadha was stronger and powerful that such threat
couldn’t make any huge impact on their empire.

The period of Magadha was followed by the Maurya dynasty. Maurya dynasty
witnessed the expansion of their kingdom from Kashmir and Peshawar in the North and
Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East by the Great emperor Ashoka.
Chandra Gupta Maurya is the most powerful emperor from Maurya dynasty3.

After the Maurya dynasty India was politically disunited for almost five centuries
during the country was plundered by foreigners. The emergence of Guptas helped the
restoration of the stability of the country. The period between the decline of Maurya empire
and the emergence of Gupta dynasty is known as the Dark Period in Indian history 4. Samudra
Gupta (c. AD 335–375) was the first great ruler of this dynasty. Sanskrit literature flourished
under his patronage. Kalidasa, the great poet and dramatist lived at this time contributed epic
works in India’s literature.

Rajput were the subsequent major rulers after Harshavardhana. But the conflict within
the Rajput dynasties led to their disintegration and the Turks conquered India followed by the
battle of Tarain (1192) in which the Great Warrior Prithviraj Chauhan of Rajput was defeated
by Mohammed Ghori who established his kingdom in the country.

Palas were the most important dynasty of east India. Gopala was the founder of this
dynasty and he was not of royal lineage. He was chosen by the people according to an
inscription by his son, Dharmapala, where he stated that his father was elected in order to put
an end to ‘the state of the fishes’, refers to the anarchy in the state. Dharmapala (c.790–821)
and Devapala (c. 821–860), were the two great successors of Gopala.

The early history of the ‘far south’ is the history of the three tribal princedoms; the
Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras. The details about them are mentioned in Ashoka’s
inscriptions of the third century BC, in Tamil inscriptions of the second century BC (written
in Brahmi script like the Ashokan inscriptions) and in Kharavela’s inscription of the first
century BC. The Sangam literature of the Tamils draws information about this period.
Archaeological discoveries and the reports of ancient European authors also provide
additional evidence, mainly with regard to maritime trade. The flourishing trade with Rome
was one of the key features of this era. The accounts of Sri Lankan origin contain many
references to the fights between the kings of Sri Lanka and the kings of south India.
3
Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). The History of India, Routledge Publications,
New York (pg.50-80)
4
Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). The History of India, Routledge Publications,
New York (Pg.85)
Compared to the sources available for other regions in early Indian history, Sangam literature
was very rich and resourceful and was named after the ‘academies’ (sangam) of Madurai.
The Sangam poets worked under the patronage of the Pandya kings. Some traditionalist
historians observed that these works were composed from around 500 BC to AD 500, but
more recent research has shown that they were possibly composed in the first to the third
centuries AD, the second century being the most active period. The famous Tamil grammar,
known as the Tolkappiyam, is considered to belong to the period, dating back to c.100 BC.
The great Tamil epic poem, Shilappatikaram was found to be composed during the fifth or
sixth centuries AD.5

Many regional kingdoms emerged during early and medieval periods of Indian
history. The Sultanate of Delhi was the major empire during the medieval age in India. Slave
dynasty (1206-1290 AD), Khilji dynasty (1290 – 1320 AD), Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414
AD), the Sayyad Dynasty (1414-1450 AD), Lodi dynasty (1451-1526 AD) were some of the
major dynasties of Medieval India. The Mughal dynasty was established under Babar (1483-
1530 AD) by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi. Akbar is one of the greatest emperors India has ever
seen who ruled during 1556-1605 AD. Art, architecture, literature and music was flourished
during his period. Land revenue system was the most noteworthy among his administrative
reforms. He was succeeded by Jehangir (1605-1627 AD), Shahjahan (1627-1658 AD) and
Aurangzeb (1658-1707). Other major kingdoms in medieval India were the Vijayanagar
Empire (1336-1665 AD) and Bahmani Kingdom (1346-1526AD). Sikhism was also
flourished during the period.

Trade with Dutch, Portuguese and English East India Company opened new chapters
in Indian history. Although British rule and colonisation affected India gravely, the
advantages that they brought to India is remarkable. Introduction of English education by
Lord Macaulay had profound impact on Indian Society as it enabled the country to
communicate in a common language. The expansion of railway connected the remote
villages in India helped the national leaders in their struggle for independence. In 1861, three

5
Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). The History of India, Routledge Publications,
New York (Pg.104)
independent High Courts in Mumbai, Calcutta and Madras were established. In 1876, Queen
Victoria took the title ‘Empress of India’ at the heights of British imperial power6.

The revolt of 1857 marked the first struggle for independence in India although the
Britishers called it as a mutiny. It was spread over most north Indian territories and was
participated by many strata of population. This was taken the British by surprise and they
didn’t have a contingency plan which strengthened the Indians. In 1885, the Congress met in
Bombay for the first time and discussed the restricted admission of Indians in to Indian Civil
Services. As a result, in 1892, reforms were made to enrol Indians in to the Civil Services. In
the year1909, the Minto-Morley Reforms made it possible for territorial representation by
means of Electoral Colleges for Muslims as a result of efforts made by the Muslim League.
The word ‘Self-government’ was actually suggested by Lord Chelmsford during the vital
Montagu-Chelmsford reforms which came in effect in the year 1917. The next remarkable
reform was The Government of India Act, 1935 which established the federal government in
India.

Partition of Bengal in 1905 boosted the growth of radical nationalism and augmented
tensions in the country. The role of national leaders along with the efforts of social
reformists, the integration of different segments of population took place in the country. The
entrance of Mahatma Gandhi in to national arena created great waves of patriotism among the
common people in India. The Non-cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement,
Idea of Swaraj, Khilafat Movement and Quit India had shaken the empire of British. Subhas
Chandra Bose inspired hundreds of young Indians to join ‘Indian National Army’. However,
by 1941, there was a two-party system emerged in India; National Congress Party under the
strong leaders like Jawahar Lal Nehru and the Muslim League that became powerful under
Mohammed Ali Jinnah. In 1947, under Lord Mountbatten dates for the inaugurations of two
new dominions of Pakistan and India were fixed for 14 and 15 August 1947. A new India was
born after the centuries old Colonialism and disintegration. The constitution of India was
written under the committee constituted by the new government, headed by Dr. B R
Ambedkar.

6
Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). The History of India, Routledge Publications,
New York (Pg.254-267)
 “Subhas Chandra Bose, who had escaped to Germany in the hope of enlisting
Hitler’s support for the Indian freedom movement, was thoroughly disappointed there and by
the time he reached Japan – where Hitler had sent him after a great deal of prevarication
and delay – there was no longer much scope for Bose’s initiative. He organised an ‘Indian
National Army’ ……………Bose’s heroic endeavour still fires the imagination of many of his
countrymen. But like a meteor which enters the earth’s atmosphere, he burnt brightly on the
horizon for a brief moment only. He died before the war was over, in an aircraft which is
thought to have crashed while flying over Taiwan.”

-Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). The History of India Pg.311

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING INDIAN SOCIETY

The study of Indian Society is important due to the following factors:

 Indian history and cultural heritage are long and wide in nature. The understanding of
the modern India is incomplete without the understanding of its past. The study of
Indian society helps to connect the history of India with the contemporary India.
 In order to frame programmes and policies suitable to the socio-economic and
political conditions of the country, one shall understand and study the Indian Society.
 The social structure of any society can only be understood through the systematic and
scientific study of that society. The study of Indian society provides both a book view
and a field view employing scientific methods.
 It is essential to find problems faced by the society from time to time. A scientific
study is necessary to solve the social problems which is necessary for its survival.
 The study of Indian society also ensures the transmission of culture and tradition from
one generation to the other.
Indian society is compound in its structure. The plurality of multiple elements of culture
makes it a complex structure to understand and analyse. The close observations and analysis
would enable one to comprehend the social system of India.

1.3 NATURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

Following are the major characteristics of Indian Society:

 Indian society and culture are the products of long and complex historical process.
Indian tradition is ancient and continuous.
  India holds plurality and heterogeneity in its culture, religion, language, ethnicity, etc.
 Since the major religion od Indians is Hinduism, its principles impacted the life of
every Indian. Hinduism is a way of life rather than a religion. Hence the principles
like Dharma and Karma influenced every Indian despite of their religion.
 The contribution of India to the Science is well-known all over the world.
Contributions to medical science can be traced back from the Ayurvedic tradition and
‘Charaka Samhita’. Ramanujan and Brahma Gupta are notable scientists from India
whose contributions are precious to the global scientific community.
 The Secularistic approach of India is appreciated by the entire world. All the major
religions of the world exist in India and the country has no state religion. The country
has been following the approach of tolerance towards every religion.
 Natural diversity and its preservation always stay as a part of Indian life. Natural
setting played an important role in developing the culture of country’s population.
Rivers and certain hills are part of worship and regarded as pilgrimage centres in
India.

Indian Society is always projected as an example of ‘Unity in Diversity’ to the world.

1.5 INDIA: UNITY IN DIVERSITY

The term Unity infers a sense oneness or integration. In many countries around the
world, unity rooted in similarities. However, unity does not imply uniformity and Indian
social system can be considered as a finest model for such sense of the word. The essence of
Indian social structure is the expression of ‘unity in diversity’. The bonds of Indian
integration can be traced back to history; the common historical growth, national struggle for
independence against the British imperialist rule, allegiance to Indian Union afterwards,
acceptance of the constitution of India as the law of the land and loyalty towards the Indian
Union. Therefore the
national unity of India is deeply rooted both in the culture and the history of the country.

Geographical Features of India

 India is a vast peninsula in Asia with a geographical area of 33 million Sq. Km which
makes it as the seventh largest country in the world and India has the shape of an irregular
quadrilateral. India constitutes 2.4 percent of the total land area of earth. The geography of
India is diverse and vast as it stretches from the Great Himalayas to Kanyakumari and is
protected by ocean on the three sides and mountain ranges on the other side which made it
difficult for invaders to conquer the land.

India is rich in its flora and fauna. According to the reports of United Nations
Development Programme 2018, India accounts for 7 – 8 percent of the World’s recorded
species. India is home to 96,000 species of animals and 47,000 species of plants. India is also
home to half of the world’s aquatic plants. The wide range of vegetation and climatic
conditions help preserving the biodiversity of Indian subcontinent. The climate of India is
tropical monsoon which consists of mainly four seasons:

 Winter
 Hot Weather Summer
 Rainy South Western Monsoon
 North East Monsoon

The North East Monsoon and South West Monsoon have greater part in the climate
condition of India. The South West Monsoon is the major seasonal wind that brings most of
the rainfall in the country.

The mainland of India comprises of four regions, that are: the great mountain zone,
Gangetic Plains, the Indus, the desert region and the Southern Peninsula.

The Himalayan mountains are located on the north of Indian subcontinent which
ranges from the east to west and is 1500 miles long. The Himalayan rivers have continuous
water flow throughout the year as it is fostered by the snow region. The rivers have the
maximum quantity of water during the monsoon as it brings heavy rainfalls. The Himalayas
are also covered with dense forest and Mount Everest, the highest mountain peak of the world
is situated in Himalayas. Himalaya is also considered to be a holy land for Hindus, the
religious group that constitute majority of Indians. Manasarovar and Mount Kailas are
considered to be the holiest centres of pilgrimage in India.

The plains of Indus and Ganga are 2400 Km long and 240-340 km broad. The rivers
of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the plains of Ganga and Indus. It is one of the most
densely populated areas on earth. The river Ganga flows through the states of Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar and West Bengal and thereafter flows to Bangladesh. The two main tributaries of
Ganga are Alakananda and Bhagirathi. The river Ganga is joined by number of Himalayan
rivers that include Yamuna, Ghagra, Gomti, Gandak and Kosi. In the North Eastern region,
Brahmaputra and Barak provides immense water.

These water resources make the Indo-Gangetic plain so fertile that it attracted foreign
invaders to this region. Hence these plains witnessed the rise and fall of many empires and it
is in this region, Buddhism and Jainism were emerged and flourished. The permanent
settlements of many invaders in this region had great impact over the development of cultural
pluralism in the country.

The Desert region of India can be classified in to the Great Desert and the Little
Desert. Lack of moisture constitute drought in these areas. The Great dessert spreads over
from the Rann of Kutch in Gujrat to Luni river northward. The little dessert lays between
Jaisalmer and Jodhpur in Rajasthan and extends up to northern wastes.

The plains of the Ganga and the Indus forms the Peninsular Plateau by a mass of
mountain and hill ranges varying from 460 to 1,220 metres in height. The Aravalli, Vindhya,
Satpura, Maikala and Ajanta are the most prominent among the mountain ranges. The
Peninsula is bordered on the one side by the Eastern Ghats and on the other by the Western
Ghats. The southern part of the plateau is formed by the Nilgiri Hills where the Eastern and
the Western Ghats meet.

These geographical features and natural boundaries provide India with the protection
from invaders and also promote the sense of unity in the country.

Political Factors in India

 The political unity is found in India from the very beginning of its history. The very
term ‘Chakravarthy’ emerged from the sense of political unity under one central authority.
The conflicts and wars fought between different princely states in India ultimately rooted in
the desire for uniting different regions under one empire.

National unity and integrity have been maintained in the country although major
social and economic inequalities have obstructed the emergence of an egalitarian state. The
existence of diverse language, cultures and religions have made India’s culture tolerant. India
is a nation united against several forms of inequalities like the discrimination based on caste
system as well as gender inequalities. Major legislations and Five-Year Plans were
introduced to uplift the poor and women and children in the country.

The multi-party system and federal form of government are the typical features of Indian
democracy. The major pillar of democracy is that the citizens of the country hold the right to
vote which subsequently results in a government of their choice. The preamble of the
constitution of India embed the major principles of democracy in India:

“WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
‘[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure to all its
citizen: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and opportunity; And to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the {unity and integrity of the
Nation}’ IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do
HEREBYADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION”

-Taken from the Preamble to the constitution of India

All Indian citizen are equally provided with fundamental rights and justice, liberty,
equality without any grounds of discrimination. The 73 rd Amendment Act, 1992 of the
Constitution establishes for a three tier Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), ensuring the
participation of commoners at the grass root level in the administration of the country. The
provision of reservation system for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and for women
ensures representation of all categories of population at the government. This has also
increased the volume and participation of both SC/ST population and women in terms of
decision-making capacity they hold in the political course of the country.
 Political parties and pressure groups play central role in any democratic country.
According to sociologist Lester F Ward, the political parties think that they are opposite poles
in constant conflicts. But in reality, they are simply working together for the accomplishment
of a task unconsciously and contributes to the process of social assimilation. This process is
similar to the process of evolution and it contributes to the development of societies. All these
struggles give way to evolution. In fact, political antagonism refers to social synergy 7. He
compares this evolution of society to the evolution of any organism.

The political Features of the country are briefed below:

 Democratic Decentralisation: Decentralisation is an essential feature of democracy

that ensures equality of opportunity to everyone to participate in the political process
of the country. The introduction of Panchayat Raj System through the 73 rd
Amendment Act ensured the participation of villagers at grass root level in India. This
part of administration served the purpose of democratic principles in the country.
 The constitution of India and its philosophy: The constituent assembly was set up
on 9th December 1946. The assembly appointed a Drafting committee with Dr B R.
Ambedkar as its Chairman, after the passing of the historical Objectives Resolution in
the assembly by Jawahar Lal Nehru on 13th December 1946. The Indian constitution is
the longest written constitution in the world. The constitution ensures popular
sovereignty, equality, liberty and dignity of its citizens. It also guarantees the
fundamental rights to its citizens. The provision for amending the constitution of
India according to the changing societal demands ensures the flexibility and fairness
justice system. The fundamental rights include the following broad categories;
1. The Right to Equality (Article 14-18)
2. The Right to Freedom (Article 19-22)
3. The Right against Exploitation (Article 23-24)
4. The Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25-28)
5. The Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29-30)
6. The Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)
 The Centre-State Relations: India has both unitary and federal features and the
essence of federalism is the division of powers between the Central and State
governments which is embodied in the three lists of power division namely, The
7
Ward, L. (1908). The Sociology of Political Parties. American Journal of Sociology, 13(4), 439-454.
Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/2762696
 Union List, The State List and the Concurrent List that are described in the Seventh
Schedule of the Constitution. The legislative and executive powers are shared
between both Centre and State Governments and it contributes to its federal feature.
 Factors influencing Indian Political Process
1. The political leaders of India are largely selected by their charismatic
personality. Many leaders emerged from the lower socio-economic
background without the support of industrialists or elite class, as they had
shown the people what they are capable of. Good orators with a connection to
the common mass are mostly appreciated and recognized.
2. Influence of family with a legacy of political leaders also influence the
people in India. People always admire the leaders if they had a family history
of being in the struggle for independence.
3. Caste groups and religious communities work as the pressure groups and
vote banks in Indian politics. The Caste groups and religious communities
tend to support the political representative who belong to their caste or
community.
4. The characteristics of the large and heterogeneous population such as
gender, education, etc. are also influencing factors in Indian politics.
5. Mass Media and literature also play as determining factors in influencing
the voters and the common population in the political process in India.
 The Indian Parliament: The parliament of India consists of two houses of elected
representatives, namely, Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha and along with the Office of the
President. The members of Lok Sabha or the Lower House are directly elected by the
people of India. The maximum number of the Lok Sabha mentioned by the
Constitution of India is 552. The Rajya Sabha which is also known as the Upper
House of the parliament consists of 250 members including the 12 members
nominated by the President. The President of India is elected through an electoral
college which consists of elected members of both the houses of Parliament. The
important powers of Parliament include legislative, executive, financial and judicial.
 The Supreme Court of India: Supreme Court of India is the ‘Watch Dog’ of the
Indian Constitution. Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and 31 other Judges.
A judge of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President and the collegium for
appointment the appointment of the Judge comprises of Chief Justice of India, two
 senior most Supreme Court judges, the Union Minister of Law and Justice and two
eminent persons nominated by the committee consisting of Chief Justice of India,
Prime Minister of India and the Leader of Opposition. The Supreme Court is an
independent body, defending the constitution and secures the rights of the citizens in
the country.
 The Election Commission: The Election Commission of India is one of the chief
components of Democratic system of the country, ensuring the fair election process.
The body of the Election Commission comprises of the Chief Election Commissioner
and such members. The major functions of the Commission include the demarcation
of the constituencies, preparing electoral rolls, recognition of political parties and
allotment of symbols, Scrutiny of the nominations, conduct of elections and the
scrutiny of election expenses, etc.

Language in India

The study of language and society is called as sociolinguistics and the origin of this
branch of studies can be traced back to the middle of the twentieth century. Before this
period, some authors were commented on how the language was varied based on socially
relevant factors like class, age or gender. The father of modern linguistics, Ferdinand de
Saussure (1857-1913), saw language as a type of social behaviour and he was influenced by
French sociological thinker Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) who was also his contemporary8.

Language influences the culture and socio-economic dynamics of any country. Language
can be the force behind integrity and simultaneously may pave the way for disintegration.
The 1971 Census of India reported that there are 1652 languages and dialects in India.
According to the renowned Indian sociologist A. R. Desai, “India presents a spectacle of
Museum of tongues.” 9 The spread of education, variations in the socio-economic conditions
and cultural disparities give different colour to different languages that are spoken in India.

8
Hickey, R. (2010). The handbook of language contact. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-
Blackwell.
9
Dasgupta, Sabyasachi, Biswal, Santosh Kumar, Ramesh, M. Anil. (2018). Holistic
Approaches to Brand Culture and Communication Across Industries, USA: IGI Global,
Pg.241
Sometimes India is known as ‘the tower of Babel’ 10 in terms of the confusion that creates by
the existence of multiple languages.

The existence of multiple languages sometimes acts as a disintegrating force in Indian

society. In ancient India, Pali and Prakrit were the prominent languages. The languages like
Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sindhi and Urdu
belong to modern Indo-Aryan languages. The family of Dravidian languages consists of
Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. The Sangam literature of Tamil language consists
of the famous ‘Pathuppattu’ and ‘Ettukkottai’ which believed to be written during the period
between 200 BC and 500 BC11. The Indo-Aryan languages and Dravidian languages are
considered to be the families of origin for other languages and dialects that are found in India.
Regional variations in the dialects of these languages are also observed around the country.

Medieval India witnessed the emergence of new culture under the foreign rulers which
also contributed to the development of new languages along with major transformations that
occurred in the religion, culture and political structure of the country. The travelogues and
accounts of foreign travellers visited India from Islamic countries promoted the growth of
Arabic and Persian languages in the country. Though the Hindu culture, caste system and
village economy remained largely unaffected despite foreign rule, the Indo-Aryan languages
rapidly developed into literary languages.

With the cultural changes occurred, upper caste domination began declining and it led to
the deterioration of Sanskrit language. The waves of religious and social reforms made use of
the idioms and the language of laity which were influential among the commoners.

According to the Linguistic Survey of India headed by George A Grierson, there are 179
languages and 544 dialects in the country. The Census of India 1961 accounted that there are
1652 languages and dialects are there in the country 12. However, factors such as immigration

10
Tower of Babel is one of the most famous stories from Bible (Genesis 11:1-9). According
to this story, humans decided to make a tower that would have its top reaches to heaven. It is
also mentioned that the God had to come down to see this massive city and tower. The name
of the city was Babel, which means confusion. It is mentioned that the construction of tower
was seen as a threat and the God had created the confusion of languages among humans in
order to scatter them to eliminate that threat.
11
http://www.southasia.sas.upenn.edu/tamil/lit.htmlSouth Asia Language Resource Centre, Retrieved
on 12/12/2019
12
Nigam, R. C. (1972) India: Language Handbook on Mother Tongue in Census. New Delhi: Ministry
of Home Affaires
and globalization profoundly altered the number of languages and dialects spoken in the
country in course of time. Census of India, 2011 recognized 1635 languages and dialects are
prevalent in the country. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India recognises two
official and 22 national languages which are referred as Scheduled Languages. Hindi and
English are recognized as the official languages of the country. The government of India also
awarded the status of ‘Classical Language’ to certain languages which are Tamil, Sanskrit,
Telugu, Malayalam and Odiya. Indo-Aryan languages are spoken by more than 73 per cent of
the total Indian population and Dravidian languages are spoken by 20 per cent of the
population. Austric languages are spoken by 1.3 per cent of the total population and only 0.85
per cent of them were accounted as speaking the Sino-Tibetan languages13.

The election manifesto of the Congress Party during the year 1945-46 assured that after
the independence, the states of the Indian territory would be formed based on regional
language. States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was constituted in the year 1953 which
was headed by the retired chief Justice of supreme court Fazal Ali and their report was
published in the year 1955 in which they described linguistic unity and cultural homogeneity
as the major principles behind the formation of the states14.

On 26 January 1950, the Constitution came into force and it declared India to be a "Union
of States". It had classified the country into three categories of states before the
reorganization:
 The former Governors' provinces of British India: Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya
Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
 Former princely states: Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore,
Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra and Travancore-Cochin.
 Some princely states and provinces of Former chief commissioners': Ajmer, Bhopal,
Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, Tripura, and Vindhya
Pradesh.

As a result of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the country was reorganised into 14
states and six Union Territories. The fourteen states included Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Bombay State, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras State, Mysore State,

13
https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/languagebr.pdf
14
Report of the States Reorganisation Commission, 1955
Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The six Union Territories
included Himachal Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Laccadive, Minicoy and
Amindivi Islands, Manipur and Tripura.

Gujarat was formed on 1st May 1960 and Dadra and Nagar Haveli was recognized as a
Union Territory in the year 1961after the end of Portuguese dominion. Haryana was
separated from Punjab and had given the status of state in the year 1966. Himachal Pradesh
was recognized as a state in the year 1971. On 1st November1973, Mysore state was renamed
as Karnataka. Lakshadweep was recognized as Union Territory in the year 1973. In the year
1972, Arunachal Pradesh was separated and was given the status of Union Territory and later
on 20th February 1987, it was recognized as a state. In 1987, Daman Diu was separated from
Goa and had given the status of Union Territory. Goa was also formerly recognized as Union
Territory was given the status of state in the year 1987.
As a result of The North-Eastern Areas Reorganisation Act, 1971, the north-eastern
territory of India was made in to seven states in the year 1986. In the year 2000, Chhattisgarh,
Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were carved out from the states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar respectively. The state Orissa was renamed as Odisha in 2011 and in the
year 2014, Telangana was formed to the family of Indian Union15.

Regional divisions based on linguistic differences sometimes act as a factor of

disintegration in the country. The voices for the doctrine of a single language as a national
identity amidst vast diversities caused distress numerous times in the country. Unlike many
European countries, India doesn’t have a dominant language and that constitute the essence
of ‘unity in diversity’. However, Hindi is considered to be the official language in the country
along with English. There is an increase in the use of English language as it widely used in
jobs that are considered prestigious and lucrative. Use of Indigenous languages are promoted
in parliament and also in administration, planning and in public recruitment exams.

The National Commission on education, which is widely known as the Kothari

Commission recommended the current system of the ‘three-language formula’ in the year
1968. According to this:

Ashok A D (2014 June 2) Telangana: Did you know how India got its 29 states and 7 UTs? India
15

Today.
  The first language is the mother tongue or regional language. E.g. Tamil,
Telugu,etc
 Second language would be Hindi or English in Non-Hindi speaking states and in
Hindi-Speaking states, the second language would be other modern Indian
language or English
 Third language would be English or a modern Indian language both in the Hindi-
Speaking States and in Non-Hindi speaking states.

The propagation of Hindi as the official language for the entire country has evoked
vociferous oppositions in non-Hindi-speaking states such as Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Karnataka, Bengal and Assam.

Religion in India

Spirituality has been an important part of one’s personal and social life since time
immemorial. Religion evolved with the human thought and progress. The religious need is as
important as one’s biological, economic and social needs. Sociology of Religion gained wide
popularity from the very beginning of the emergence of the discipline. Emile Durkheim, one
of the founding fathers of Sociology, in his book ‘The Elementary forms of Religious life’,
defines religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things “that is to
say, things set apart and for bidden”.

Ogburn defined “Religion is an attitude towards super human powers”. Mac Iver and
page have defined religion “as a relationship not merely between man and man but also
between man some higher power”. In simple terms, religion is a system of beliefs, rites,
ceremonies and values that are concerned with divine forces.

Characteristics

 Religion is a universal social institution and it is dateless as Its beginning is unknown.

 Religion is used as a powerful agent of social control. Morality and ethics of any
society is largely shaped by its religion. Religion acts as a most effective source for
guiding and moulding human behaviour through its enforcement of moral principles.
 According to Durkheim, religion represents a social fact
  Religion plays a key role in the process of socialization and hence contributes to the
structural and functional integrity of social system.

The social life of an individual entails the economic, political, scientific and other aspects
of human life. Religious aspect is observed as most important and influential in human social
life. Religion in Indian society plays pivotal role in terms of culture, political life, educational
needs and in ideological favours. Belief in supernatural forces, strong emotional bonding with
one’s God and fear with regard to the superhuman power helps to regulate human behaviour.
In many societies, the entire system of right and wrong, morality and value are connected
with religious principles. Religion is also, as a system of worship, consists of forms of
worships, rites and rituals, ceremonies and sacred matters. In modern civilized societies,
religious and spiritual leaders hold a special place of acknowledgement by the society. They
administer meditation centres, educational institutions, charity organizations and conduct
community development programmes and so on. Each religion has its own elaborative
system of cultural practices and hierarchically arranged structures. India, proudly, is the home
for seven major religions in the world. There are numerous religious sects and sub-sects in
India. Although religion has strong hold in both rural and urban areas of India, much
emphasis on religion can be seen in rural India. Religion plays an important role in
determining rural people’s political and economic life in the country.

The philosophical propensity of Indians can be observed from the religious teachings of
Indian spiritual leaders like Sri Sankara Acharya. Most thinkers conceive that Indians
contemplate ceaselessly upon the religion and philosophy of the afterlife, that is, heaven
(Swarga), hell (Naraka) and salvation (Moksha). The belief in Karma (one’s deeds) from
Hindu philosophy is most popular among the Indian philosophical ideas that is spread around
the world.

Sociologists on Religion

The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912) is the famous work by the renowned
classical social thinker Emile Durkheim. According to Durkheim religion is a vast set of
“sacred things”, the content of which is substantially varied over time and is kept apart from
the ‘profane’. In his sociological method, Durkheim provided the explanation is that the
“objective” world is seen through the collective representations, rather than the construed
existing reality through which all religions and cultures seek to define with their symbols.
Sacredness is not merely an attribute of objects but it is semiotic in nature and used for
representing the shared identity capital of a particular group. Therefore, the things in the
materialistic world are classified as sacred and profane with reference to the totem of the
group. It is not necessarily consanguineous based or territorial based.

Max Weber is another classical sociologist, well-known for his ground works in
Sociology of Religion. His works were not only demonstrated the western religions but also
covered the religions of China, South Asia and Islamic world. He was interested in the
emergence of capitalism and the background of its origin. In his major work ‘Protestant Ethic
and Spirit of Capitalism’, the principal argument was the existence of technical and economic
conditions was not enough to nurture capitalism but also the factors of religion and ethics.
The religious ethics that promote work and wealth contributed to the development of wealth.
This can be seen in the difference in religious ethics and the wealth of the community. For
instance, Confucianism was rational and worldly, but it was not ascetic; promoting the spirit
of being scholar rather than a successful merchant. Islam was active and worldly. But the
influence of a warrior ethic dominated the religion. Buddhism was found ascetic and rational
and it didn’t encourage active worldly life. He made many acute observations on the
religious pre-eminence of Brahmins through the role of priests in the hierarchical order that
found in Hinduism. Hence Weber substantiated through his studies on religion that mere
political conditions are not sufficient for the growth of a capitalist economy. This had been
clearly portrayed in his work ‘Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism’ (1904).

Jürgen Habermas, in his work, Religion in the Public Sphere, mainly follows Weber's
theory of rationalization and secularization. Habermas perceives the life world as a “finite
province of meaning” and as a public sphere of communicative action. Life world refers to
the traditions, values, and religion. The emergence of undistorted communication is the
accomplishment of the Enlightenment model. In modern society that is characterised by
differentiation, religion is bound to lose its because of the authority of the holy is gradually
substituted by the authority of an achieved consensus. The freedom of communication slowly
limits the degree of religious discourses. Nevertheless, there is one exemption, where religion
may have a function, and this is in the communication process of the life world.

Habermas develops his sociology of religion further in his work, The Theory of
Communicative Action (1981). He states that God, comes to be known through a
communicative structure through the process called “linguistification of the sacred”. Mythical
views of the world involve little or no differentiation between culture and nature, or between
language and world. The mythical world views hinder a clear delineation of a domain of
subjectivity, complete communication is impossible under the conditions of religion.
Therefore, discourses about the truth and rightfulness of religion are possible but religion will
not serve liberated communicative action in any fundamental way. Critiques objected to
Habermas's theory of the public sphere as his ideal speech community adopts a singular
public sphere rather than a multiplicity of public spheres and also Habermas overstated the
importance of consensus as the outcome of rational discourse ignoring the relationship
between diverse and contending public spheres. However, he presents the changing role of
religion in the modern world16.

Bourdieu's most detailed sociological discussions of religion were initially published

in 1971 in which he draws heavily on classical sociology theories, especially the views of
Marx and Weber. Bourdieu analyses Weber's theory of religious power by using the concept
of “field”. Field refers to the set of all the probable objective relations between positions.
Urbanization and division of labour constituted a relatively autonomous religious field that is
characterized by the structure of relations among different categories of common people and
religious agents like prophets and priests. The symbolic interactions take place in the
religious field is the outcome of the religious interests in play. A ‘religious habitus’ is
established through the legitimate power of the specialists and imposed on laymen. This
religious habitus is a ‘matrix of perceptions’ and it is characterised by the relations of
exchange and competition between the specialists and commoners. Bourdieu also developed
a theory of symbolic power where he stated that the construction of reality (through habitus)
establishes order and meaning in the social world. Bourdieu describes about the ‘symbolic
violence’ that also can be resulted from the run for power and domination in religious
institutions.

Michel Foucault saw Christianity as a major force in shaping western history. His
works during 1950s and 1960s were focused on the suppressive nature of religion and he
engaged in the discourse of ‘death of God’. His major works were Madness and Civilization
(1961) and The Birth of the Clinic (1963) portrayed religion as a part of the culture which
influences and determines the madness and medicine that have been understood in the West.
He analysed how knowledge is reconstituted in different historical periods. In his work, The
Order of Things (1966), he named these particular knowledge forms as epistēmē, by which he
16
Butler, J., Habermas, J., Taylor, C., West, C., & Calhoun, C. (2011). The power of religion in the public
sphere (mendieta e. & van antwerpen j., eds.). Columbia university press. Retrieved december 7, 2019, from
www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/butl15645
meant the sets of presuppositions that organize as knowledge, reality, and truth. His critique
of religion emphases on religious authority. In the multi-volume work by Foucault, History of
Sexuality (1976–84), he involves in an explicit discourse on Christianity by examining
confession and the ethics of self17.

Rural religion

S.C. Dube stated that Hinduism as it is practiced in the village is the religion of fasts
and festivals in which the rites and rituals cover all the milestones including the celebrations
and crisis of life. It is different from the classical philosophical ideal of India. It owns neither
the metaphysical height nor the abstract content of the Hinduism that is practiced by the rural
Indians. M. N. Srinivas also explored the nature of ‘complexity’ of Hinduism and had
introduced the concept Sanskritization through his village studies of India. Many historians,
travellers and Indian social thinkers had revealed that the spiritualism of India cannot be
confined in to the philosophical writings or literature but the soul of India’s religion lies in
the rural community life and it is rather a practical one.

The features of Rural Religion can be summarised below:

 Gods and Goddesses: - In Indian villages, people worship numerous God and
Goddesses. Gods and Goddess of Hindu includes numerous deities that represent the
incarnations of Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu and Goddesses like Lakshmi and
Saraswathi are also worshipped. In many temples, the deities are worshiped based on
their expressions which is known as ‘bhaava’.

 Non-Hindu Gods and Goddesses: The imprudent Indian Villager does not get
gratified with worshipping his formidable range of Hindu Gods and Goddesses but he
also extends his deference and veneration to many other deities which cannot be
referred Hindu by Tradition such as the ‘Vaavaru Swamy’ worshipped at Sabarimala
Temple.

 Rural Gods and Goddesses: Besides the religious based Gods and Goddesses,
countless ‘kula devas’ and ‘devatas’, deities who are believed to be protecting a
particular village, and Gods who are particular to different communities are also

17
Holland, N. (2002). "Truth as Force": Michel Foucault on Religion, State Power, and the
Law. Journal of Law and Religion, 18(1), 79-97. doi:10.2307/1051495
 worshipped in Indian rural areas. these Gods and Goddesses of villages are
fundamentally local and unique.

 Worship of Plants, Trees and Animals: Many trees, plants and animals are
considered to be divine and celestial in Indian villages. Trees like the banyan, neem,
and peepal are treated as godly and can be seen generally in every temple of India.
The plant of Tulsi is considered to be important and its leaves are used for ‘pooja’.
The cow is worshipped as ‘Gowmata’ and is considered to be godlike.

 Ghosts and Witches: The Indian rural populace is known for their belief in ghosts,
spirits and witches. They conduct many ceremonies in order to please or to get rid of
the ghosts, spirits or witches as they believe might be appeared or causing troubles.
Many at times, diseases or tragic incidents happen at a house or in a community may
sometimes be alleged to be caused by such supernatural powers.

 Good and bad Souls: The villagers do not confine their beliefs only in wicked souls
but they extend their belief in the concepts of good and bad soul. This also aligned
with the concepts of ‘punya’ and ‘paapa’ respectively.

 Belief in Dreams: Rural religion also embraces the belief in dreams. The faith in the
importance of dreams is almost universal but their explanation is different places do
not correspond. Generally, when a person dreams after four ‘o’ clock in the morning
it is believed to be prophetic either for good or bad.

 Notions of Auspicious and Inauspicious: rural people believe that particular

activities should be carried out in particular time or day or month. The time of every
day and night is divided as auspicious and inauspicious. Local ‘Pundits’ or ‘Poojaris’
advice over the auspicious and inauspicious timings.

 Idea of Good and Bad Omens: There are many things that are classified as good and
bad omen while carrying out everyday activities. E.g. Widow is considered to be a
bad omen and widows are exempted from attending marriage ceremonies.

Religious unity in India is perceptible through the places of worship that are scattered all
over the country like Badrainarayan in the North, Dwarika in the west and Ramashwaram in
the south and Puri in the east. The Lord Ayyappa temple situated in Kerala welcomes all
pilgrims despite their religion. People visit the pilgrimage centres of the country regardless of
their caste, community, language and their place of origin. This has been a boosting factor of
national integration and patriotism. Hinduism is the major religion of people in India and it
has been the way of life of people rather than being a religion. The great epics of Ramayana
and the Mahabharata are popular among all the people throughout the country in spite of
religion and caste. The second largest religion in India is Islam and other major religions of
the world found in India are Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and Zoroastrianism.

M.N. Srinivas, the well-known Indian Sociologist, analysed the role of the religion as a
binding force in India’s integration. He examined this relationship among the individuals and
groups of the country in three different levels;

1. The relations between various castes and religious groups at the village and local
levels
2. The role of religion in the economic development of the country
3. Relation between religion and socio – economic privileges.

All religious festivals are celebrated by Indian irrespective of religion. Christmas is not
only celebrated by Christians but also by all other religious sects. Id-Ul-Fitr is a national
holiday and celebrated by all. Diwali is celebrated by everyone in the country alike. Food that
is prepared during each festival are shared by all and gifts are exchanged among different
communities. Many festivals in India are also associated with harvest seasons which
contributes to the economic integration and development of the country.

Article 25 to 28 describes the freedom of religion as the fundamental right of any Indian,
protecting the secular nature of the country. The very idea of India rests on the notion of
Unity in Diversity and religion has played a vital role in that sense of the usage. Every Indian
has the right to choose, practise and propagate their religion but without violating the liberty
and rights of others and also without hurting the sentiments of other religious groups. The
term secularism in the preamble promote religious tolerance in India. According to the
Census of India 2011, Hinduism continues to be the major religion in the country accounting
for 79.80 per cent of followers in the total population followed by Muslim which constitutes
14.23 per cent of total population. The following table gives the account for population of
India based on religion.
Major Religions in India

Religion Per cent of number Number of

of followers followers

Hindu 79.80 % 96.62 Crores

Muslim 14.23 % 17.22 Crores

Christian 2.30 % 2.78 Crores

Sikh 1.72 % 2.08 Crores

Buddhist 0.70 % 84.43 Lakhs

Jain 0.37 % 44.52 Lakhs

Other Religion 0.66 % 79.38 Lakhs

Not Stated 0.24 % 28.67 Lakhs

Source: https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=126326

Hinduism

The emergence of Hinduism traces back to Indus valley civilization and hence called as
one of the ancient and oldest living religions of 21 st century. Worshipping innumerable Gods
shapes Hinduism as polytheistic in nature. The doctrine and philosophy of Hinduism is not
confined to the teachings of one person, but from various accounts and literary sources such
as Vedas, Puranas and Upanishads. Vedas are considered to be the authentic texts of
Hinduism and they comprise of hymns, incantations and rituals that are to be practiced in
one’s daily life. The four Vedas are as follows:

1. Rig Veda
2. Sama Veda
3. Yajur Veda
4. Atharva Veda

The belief in numerous Gods is largely related to natural forces such as Agni (fire), Vayu
(wind) and Varuna (water). The belief in ‘Trimurthi’ refers to the three Gods, representing
three stages of life. Trimurthy comprises Gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, each represents
birth, existence and death respectively. Therefore, Hinduism is a philosophical approach to
life as much as it is known as religion. Some basic principles of Hinduism are given below:

 The notion of Karma refers to the belief that you will be rewarded based on your
actions. In most simple terms, what goes around, comes around. Karma is one of the
most popular philosophical terms rooted in Hindu Philosophy. The concept of re-birth
is centred around the concept of Karma.
 Dharma refers to one’s duties and obligations in life. According to Hindu scriptures, a
society flourishes when its members fulfil their dharma. One’s duty makes him do the
right that leads to the betterment of him and his society.
 The other well-known principle of Hinduism is Moksha which refers to salvation. It is
the liberation of soul from the cycle of birth and death. Moksha is attained only when
one goes in the right path and doing the right actions at the right time.
 Nish kama Karma refers to the self-less actions of individuals. When one helps
another, he shouldn’t expect for something in return or he should be unselfish in his
actions. In this way, the action will be noble and of high order.
 According to Hinduism, there are four stages of life- refers to ‘ashramas’. The four
stages are ‘Brahmacharya’ (Stage of Learning), ‘Grihastashrama’ (Stage of
Householder), ‘Vanaprasta’ (Stage of Hermit) and ‘Sannyasa’ (Stage of
Renunciation).

Hinduism is also known as Sanatana Dharma. Sanatana Dharma is a Sanskrit term which
refers to the Eternal Law. Hinduism contains the principles and guidelines to lead a righteous
and virtuous life. The principles and morals of Hinduism gained wide popularity around the
world due to its humanistic nature.

Islam

Islam is the second largest religion in the world as well as the second largest religion
in India. The term Islam is Arabic and it refers to submission. Islam, thus, refers to the
submission to the will of Allah. It is a monotheistic religion and does not believe in Idol
worship. The holy book of Islam is the ‘Quran’. Quran is the source of guidance for all the
Muslim followers around the world. It is from the Arabia, that the religion was spread all
over the world. During 610 CE, Prophet Mohammed was believed to be visited by Angel
Gabriel and was given the Word of the God. During the 622 CE, Mohammed emigrated to
Medina, fearing persecution at Mecca which marked the beginning of Islamic Calendar
‘Hijrah’. In the year 630 CE, he returned to Mecca with a large crowd of followers that
eventually made the citizens of Mecca to follow Islam18. There are five major principles in
the Islamic teachings which laid foundation for their philosophical and morale life. These five
principles are;

 Shahadah: Acceptance of Allah is the one and true God and Prophet Mohammed is
his messenger and none is worthy of worship except the God.
 Salah: Practicing the prayers five times a day.
 Zakat: Every member of Islam should give out charity to the poor.
 Ramadhan: Fasting from dawn to dusk during the Ramadhan month.
 Hajj: once in a life time, Islamic followers, if they are able, should visit Mecca as it is
their most important pilgrimage centre during the month of Dhul Hijjah.

The Holy Quran is believed to be consists of the revelations directly from the God to his
messenger Prophet Mohammed. He preached the Quran to the larger public through his
sermons. The law that is recognized by the Islamic community is called as “Shariah”. Now
Islam is the second largest religious community in the world consists of 1.57 billion
population that accounts for the 23 per cent of the total world population, that is, 6.8 billion
people. Asia- Pacific region has the highest number Muslim population, that is, 62 per cent of
the total Muslim population. There are two sections of religion that are found among
Muslims; ‘Sunnis’ and ‘Shias’. The study conducted by the American think tank Pew
Research Centre’s Forum on Religion and Public Life revealed that 87-90 per cent of the
Muslim population belong to the ‘Sunnis’ and 10-13 per cent of them belong to ‘Shias’ 19. It is
also predicted that by 2050, India would be home to 11 per cent of the world’s total Muslim
population as per the current growth rate of Muslim Population20.

In India, Islam is considered to be the largest minority religion. Arabs introduced Islam in
India in the year 711A D. In the year 1001, Turks entered India from Afghanistan and
propagated the religion from west to east.21 The foreign invaders through conquest
18
http://americanhumanist.org/Who_We_Are/About_Humanism_islam (retrieved on 13/01/2020)
19
https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2009/oct/08/muslim-population-islam-religion
(retrieved on 12/01/2020)
20
https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/21/by-2050-india-to-have-worlds-largest-
populations-of-hindus-and-muslims/
21
Gutala, R., Carvalho-Silva, D. R., Jin, L., Yngvadottir, B., Avadhanula, V., Nanne, K., … Tyler-
Smith, C. (2006). A shared Y-chromosomal heritage between Muslims and Hindus in India. Human
genetics, 120(4), 543–551. doi:10.1007/s00439-006-0234-x
established Muslim rule in India during the medieval times which influenced the social,
economic, political and cultural life of Indians. The Mughal rule in India promoted art and
literature in the country. The Muslim influence on India’s socio-cultural life is remarkable
and inevitable.

Christianity

Christianity is a monotheistic religion. Christianity has the largest followers in the

world with 2.3 billion followers constituting 31.2 per cent of the total world population in the
year 201522. In India, Christians stands as the third largest religion. They are found across the
country and mainly concentrated in South India. In fact, South India comprises nearly half of
the total Christian population in India, i.e., Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana account for 46 per cent of Christians in India according to the Government of
India Census, 2011. Christianism traces back to the birth of Jesus Christ and Christianity
developed based on his teachings. the development of the religion entirely emphasizes on the
birth, life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ who believed to be the Son of God. He
began his preaching at the age of 30 years and had healed the sick and performed miracles.
He had 12 disciples through whom the teachings of Christ had spread across the world. He
was crucified by the Roman authorities and two days later on Easter Sunday, he was believed
to be risen as his tomb was empty when his followers visited23.

The major festivals of Christians are based on Jesus and his life. Christmas is
celebrated on 25th December every year which is regarded as the day Jesus was born and the
other major festival is Easter which is celebrated during Spring when the day Jesus was
resurrected. The life of Jesus Christ is traced back to 4 BC to 30 BC. The holy book of
Christians is the Bible which contains old testament and new testament deals with narration
of the life of Jesus by Mark, Luke, Mathew and John and parables. The old testament
believed to be written during the time between 1200 and 165 BC and the New Testament was
composed during first century A D. The Old Testament is also known as the Hebrew Bible.

Following are the major beliefs held by Christians:

 There is only one God, whom they address ‘the Father’ as Jesus Christ taught them.
22
https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-
group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ (retrieved on 26/12/2019)
23
https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/history/jesus_1.shtml (retrieved on
26/12/2019)
  They recognize Jesus as the Son of God and he was sent to save the mankind from sin
 Belief in the holiness of Church, life after death and communion of Saints
 They believe in the trinity, i.e., The Father, The Son and The Holy Spirit
 Belief in Prudence, Justice, repentance on sin, love and Universal brotherhood.

There are different sections of Christianity that is called as Denominations. The major
denominations are Catholicism, Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Oriental
Orthodoxy, and Assyrians. Of all the Sections, more than half (50.5 percent) of the total
Christian population belong to Catholicism and 36.7 per cent of them belong to
Protestantism24. The Christians are also abided by the Church rules and regulation as per their
denominations.

Sikhism

The term ‘Sikh’ is derived from the Sanskrit term ‘Shishya’ which refers to disciple.
Sikhs were initially a part of the Vaishnava sect who were spread over the Punjab region
currently situated in India and Pakistan. Sikhism was developed later during the 16 th Century
AD and the founder of Sikhism is Guru Nanak. The followers of Sikhism believe in one God
and it prohibits the worship of other deities. It also forbids idolatry, belief in omens, charms
or witchcraft. Sikhism does not recognize ceremonial impurity at birth and death. It abolishes
caste distinctions as a part of social system. The Sikhs are ideologically closer to the Hindus
than to other religions. ‘Guru Granth Sahib’ is the holy book of the Sikhs. It is also known as
the ‘Adi Granth’.

Sikh men are identified easily due to their physical appearance. They wear Kesh
(uncut long hair), Kanga (wooden comb), Kaccha (shorts), Kara (iron bangle in the hand and
Kirpan (short sword). Sikh population in India is around 2% which is mainly concentrated in
the Punjab and at the adjoining states. There are different sects of Sikh followers. They are;

 Sahajdharis or Nanak Panthis: Followers of Guru Nanak

 Keshdharis or Khalsa: Followers of Guru Gobind Sing
 Udasis: Founded by Sri Chand, eldest son of Guru Nanak and ascetic in order
 Nirankaris: Founded by Baba Dayal

24
https://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/ (retrieved on 26/12/2019)
  Other Sects: Ganghushahis, Dhirmalia, SanwalShahis, Sewapanthis, Kukas or
Namdharis, Nihang, Nirmala, Gulabdasis, Diwana Sadhs, Mazhabi, Ramgarhias,
Radha Soami, Gyanis, Ramdasis, Minas, Handalis , Akali and Jat Sikhs

The fundamental beliefs of Sikhism can be briefed as:

 Faith and meditation on one true creator

 Equality and Selfless services
 Truthfulness and universal brotherhood
 Honest labour and sharing of income

Buddhism

Buddhism took birth in India during 6th century B.C. and became one of the major
religions in the world. The founder of Buddhism is Gautama Buddha who is widely known as
The Buddha, meaning, the Enlighted one. The Buddha was born to a royal family and he was
a popular Prince named as Siddhartha. He left the worldly pleasure as he came to know the
sufferings of his people. He had travelled and led a simple life. He had got the experience of
enlightenment while meditating under the Bodhi Tree and was named as Buddha, the
Enlighted. He started preaching and had great number of followers. Buddhism attracted royal
patronage and was able to spread over the world during the reign of Emperor Ashoka.
Buddha believed that desire is the root cause of sufferings in the world. He advocated simple
way of life and chose the Eight-Fold Path. The Eight-Fold Path od Budhism consists of the
following:

 Right View
 Right Intention
 Right Speech
 Right Action
 Right livelihood
 Right Effort
 Right Concentration
 Right Mindfulness

The essence of Buddhist teachings is expressed in the Four Noble Truths:

  The truth of Suffering
 The truth of origin of suffering
 The truth of cessation of suffering
 The truth of the path to suffering.

According to Buddha, the root cause for suffering is desire. He suggests to follow the Eight-
Fold Path in order to obtain ‘Moksha’ or ‘Nirvana’, which means salvation. The one who
realizes the truth of life and the one who follows the Eight-Fold Path would obtain the
‘Nirvana’. It is the way to end the suffering of worldly life.

Buddhism has two major sects, namely the Hinayana and the Mahayana. At present
Buddhists are found in Sikkim and the adjoining hills, they are also found in Maharashtra as a
result of the recent conversions under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar. However, the number
of the Buddhists in India is very meager and it represents only less than 1% of the total
population.

Jainism

India gave birth to another major religion that is Jainism. Lord Mahavira was the 24th
Theerthankara, who had founded Jainism in India in the 6th century B.C. It is very close to
Hinduism. Many of the Hindu doctrines are retained in it. Jains like the Hindus, venerate and
worship the cows, they often worship in the Hindu temples and also employ the services of
the Brahmin priest in their domestic rites. They are even more scrupulous than the Hindus in
maintaining caste distinctions. But it differs from Hinduism in its heretical views regarding
the sanctity of the Vedas and in its strict insistence on the principle of Ahimsa. Jains
represent only a small portion of the Indian population. They comprise about 0.45% of our
population. Jains are mainly urban people and are found in the town and cities of Punjab,
U.P, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

The major upheld belief in Jainism is to follow the path of ‘Ahimsa’, meaning non-
violence. There are three guiding principles of Jainism which are known as ‘three jewels.
They are:

 Right Belief
 Right Knowledge
  Right Conduct

Jains are divided into 2 major sects which are listed below:

 The Digambaras,
 The Sevetambaras

Zoroastrianism:

Parsis in India are the followers of Zoroastrianism who migrated to Lothal, Gujrat,
India in the 7th century A.D. from Persia in order to escape the forcible conversions to Islam.
They are the followers of the Prophet Zarathustra who taught them to worship a single God
called Ahura Mazda. Zoroastrianism is one of the most ancient but monotheistic religion in
the world. Their number in India is declining rapidly. The population growth is stunningly
low in India. They are about one lakh in total half of which live in the city of Bombay alone.
As such they are mainly urban. They are the most literate and also are on the top of the
economic ladder in the country. Purification ritual is the most important ritual as per the
believers of Zoroastrianism. Following are some of the major beliefs of Zoroastrians:

 They believe in the elements of fire, water, earth and air which are pure and
the fire represents the wisdom of God.
 They believe in the notions of the Judgement Day, heaven and hell, humans
are free moral agents who have free choice, angels and demons, etc.
 Avesta is the Sacred book of Zoroastrians mainly consists of collection of
hymns and songs.
 Zoroastrians pray several times a day and gather together for worship in a fire
temple.
 Angra Mainyu is regarded as the evil spirit and the Sacred fire is maintained in
the temple as the symbol of purification

Race and Ethnicity in India

India is known for the ethnic and racial diversity. India is a centre of racial diversity.
A.W. Green defined race as “large biological human grouping with a number of distinctive,
inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range.” Ethnic diversity is a social
complexity that can be found in every modern society. The ethnic diversity is mostly the
result of conquests at different phases of history which brought diverse populations. Ethnicity
refers to the shared cultural meanings, historical pasts and descent holding together by social
interaction among different groups of people. Hence Ethnicity includes the culture, language,
religion, and traditions which provides a group with separate identity. Following are some
features of ethnicity:

 Ethnicity is a status that is inherited

 An ethnic group is defined by shared cultural heritage, ancestry, history, language or
dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, physical appearance, land of origin, etc.
based on which the membership is determined.
 An ‘ethnic group’ has been defined as a group that regards itself or is regarded by
others as a distinct community by virtue of certain characteristics that will help to
distinguish the group from the surrounding community.

Different Anthropologists classified the racial composition of India. Some of the

notable classification are Sir Herbert Hope Risley (1915), B.S. Guha (1937), A.C. Haddon
(1924), S.S. Sarkar (1961) etc.25

Sir Herbert Risley categorized the Indian populace into seven racial types. Risley had not
mentioned the presence of Negrito element in Indian population. According to him, following
are the seven racial types found in India;

 The Turko Iranian:

The characteristics of this group includes broad heads and long and prominent nose,
fairly tall in stature and the average height of the males varies from 162cm to 172cm, the
eyes are dark in colour, grey eyes are not uncommon. Generally fair complexion and
plentiful hair is found on face and body. The inhabitants of Afghanistan, Baluchistan and
Northwest Frontier Provinces (now in Pakistan) are examples. According to Risley, this
category of race has been formed probably by the mixture of Turki and Persian elements
in which the former’s features are predominant.

 The Indo-Aryan

This category of population is close to the traditional Aryans who invaded India. The
features include tall stature with fair complexion, dark eyes, plentiful hair on face and body,

25
Ali, Ershad. (2019). Ethnic Composition of Indian Population.
predominant longhead, narrow and long nose. People from Punjab, Rajasthan and Kashmir,
particularly, the Kashmiri Brahmins, Rajputs, Jats and the Khattris belong to this category of
race.

 The Scytho-Dravidian:

The people of this category have medium to broad head, low to medium stature, fair
complexion, and a moderately fine nose, which is not visibly long and scanty hair on face and
body. This group evolved by the combination of two distinct racial strains—the Scythians
and the Dravidians. People fromWestern India comprising the Maratha Brahmins, the Kunbis
and the Coorgs are examples of this category. The Scythian element is more prominent in
higher social groups of these regions while the Dravidian features predominate among the
lower social groups in the region.

 The Aryo-Dravidian: This type is known as the Hindustani type. Generally the heads
of the people are long with a tendency towards medium. The complexion varies from
light brown to black. The nose is usually medium, although the broad nose is not
uncommon. But in this case, the broad nose is always broader than the nose of Indo-
Aryans. In stature, the people are shorter than the Indo-Aryans who usually show a
below average height; i.e. the height ranges from 159cm to 166cm. Thus, the Aryo-
Dravidians is differentiated from the Indo-Aryans. The type is considered as an
intermixture of the Aryans and the Dravidians in varying proportions. The people of
this type are found in Uttar Pradesh, in some parts of Rajasthan and in Bihar.
 The Mongolo Dravidian : This type is known as the Bengalian type characterized by
broad and round heads with a tendency towards medium dark complexion and
plentiful hair on face. The nose is usually medium with a tendency towards
flatness. The stature is also medium but sometimes short. Such people are found in
Bengal and Orissa. The notable representatives of this type are the Bengali
Brahmins and Bengali Kayasthas. According to Risley this type is not only an
admixture of the Mongolians and the Dravidians, some blood strains of Indo-
Aryan type are also mixed with it.
 The Mongoloid The most important characteristic features of this type are
broad-head, dark complexion with yellowish eyes and scanty hair on face and body.
The stature is usually short or below medium. The nose shows a wide range of
variation, from fine to broad. The face is typically flat where the eyes are oblique with
 epicanthic fold. The people of this type are found along the Himalayan region,
especially in the regions namely North East Frontier, Nepal and Burma. The best
examples are the Kanets of Lahul and Kulu Valleys, Lepchas of Darjeeling and
Sikkim, the Limbus, the Murmis and the Gurungs of Nepal and the Bodo of Assam:
 The Dravidian: The stature of these people is short or below medium. The complexion
is dark, approaching to black. The hair is similarly dark and plentiful with an
occasional tendency to curl. The eye colour is also dark. The head is long and the nose
is very broad, sometimes depressed at the root. The people of Dravidian type are
distributed in the region from Ceylon to the valley of the Ganges covering the
southern part of India, which especially includes the Western Bengal, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad), Central India and Chotonagpur. The best example
of this type is the Paniyans of Malabar (South India) and the Santals of the
Chottanagpur. Risley believed these people as original inhabitants of India who are
found to be modified at present by the infiltration of the Aryans, the Scythians and
the Mongoloids.

Dr. B.S. Guha had revised his earlier classifications on the race of Indian population
and composed another list that are given below:

 The Negrito : These people are considered as the first comers and the true
autochthones of India. They are characterized by dark skin colour, short stature,
and frizzly hair with long or short spirals. The head is small, medium, long or broad
with bulbous forehead. The nose is flat and broad. The lips are everted and thick. The
best representatives of this type are the Kadars, the Irulas, the Puniyans, etc. of South
India. Such type of characters is also visible among the tribes living in the Rajmahal
Hills. In respect of the head form and hair form, the Indian Negrito strain resembles
more to the Melanesian Pygmies than to the Andamanese or African Pygmies.
 The Proto-Australoid: This group is considered as the second oldest racial group in
India characterized by dolichocephalic head, broad and flat nose (platyrrhine nose)
which is depressed at the root. They are further short in height, dark brown to nearly
black in skin colour. The hair is wavy or curly. Supraorbital ridges are prominent.
These features are found among almost all the tribes of the Central and Southern
India. The best examples are the Oraons, the Santals, and the Mundas of
 Chottanagpur region; the Chenchus, the Kurumbas, the Yeruvas and the Badagas of
Southern India; and the Bhils, Kols of Central and Western India.
 The Mongoloid: This type of people is distinguished by scanty growth of hair on face
and body. The eyes are obliquely set and show the presence of epicanthic fold. The
face is flat with prominent cheekbones and hair is straight. This group can be divided
into two sub-groups, such as Palaeo-Mongoloid and the Tibeto-Mongoloid. The
former one is further sub-divided as long headed and broad-headed. In Palaeo-
Mongoloid group, especially the longheaded type possesses long head, medium
stature, and medium nose. Their cheekbones are prominent and skin colour varies
from dark to light brown. The face is short and flat. They are the inhabitants of the
sub-Himalayan region; the concentration is most remarkable in Assam and Burma
Frontier. The Sema Nagas of Assam and the Limbus of Nepal are the best examples.
The other sub-division of palaeo-Mongoloid is the broad- headed type who
possesses broad head with round face, dark skin colour and medium nose. The eyes
are obliquely set and epicanthic fold is more prominent than that of the long-headed
type. This type has been identified among the hill tribes of Chittagung, e.g. the
chakmas, the Maghs, etc. Second sub-division of Mongoloid is the Tibeto-
Mongoloids who shows no further divisions. Their physical features are characterized
by broad and massive head, tall stature, long and flat face, and medium to long nose.
The eyes are oblique with marked epicanthic fold. Hair on body and face is almost
absent. The skin colour is light brown. The best examples are the Tibetans of Bhutan
and Sikkim
 The Mediterranian: This group is divided into three distinct racial types, these are: a)
Palaeo-Mediterranean: The people are characterized by long head with bulbous
forehead, projected with high vault. They also show medium stature, small and broad
nose, narrow face and pointed chin. The hair on face and body is scanty. The skin
colour is dark. These people probably introduced megalithic culture to India. The
Dravidian speaking people of South India exhibit the main concentration of this type.
The Tamil Brahmins of Madura, Nairs of Cochin, and Telugu Brahmins are the
examples. b) The Mediterranean: The features include long head with arched
forehead, narrow nose, medium to tall stature and light skin colour. Their chin is well
developed, hair colour is dark, eye colour is brownish to dark and the hair on face
and body is plentiful. These people live in the regions like Uttar Pradesh, Bombay,
 Bengal, Malabar, etc. The true types are the Numbudiri Brahmins of Cochin,
Brahmins of Allahabad and Bengali Brahmins. It may be assumed that probably this
type was responsible for the building up of Indus Valley civilization. c) The Oriental:
These people resemble the Mediterranean in almost all physical features except the
nose, which is long and convex in this case. The best examples are the Punjabi
Chattris, the Benia of Rajputana, and the Pathans
 Western Brachycephals: This racial group is divided into three types, which are: a)
The Alpenoid: This type shows broad head, medium stature, prominent nose and
rounded face. The hair on face and body is abundant and the skin colour is light. This
type is found among the Bania of Gujarat, the Kathi of Kathiawar and the Kayasthas
of Bengal, b) The dinaric: This type is characterized by broad head. The nose is very
long and often convex. The face is long and stature in general is very tall. The skin
colour is dark; eye and hair colours are also dark. The representative populations
are found in Bengal, Orissa and Coorg. The Brahmins of Bengal and Mysore are
the best examples. Both the Alpino and the dinaric people entered into India
through Baluchistan, Sind, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. They penetrated Ceylon from
Kannada. The presence of this type has been noted in the Indus Valley site,
Tinnevalley and Hyderabad. c) The Armenoid: This type shows a resemblance with
the Dinarics in physical characters. Only difference is that, among the Dinarics the
shape of occiput is much developed and the nose is very prominent. The Parsis of
Bombay exhibit typical Armenoid characteristics. The Bengali Vaidyas and
Kayasthas sometimes show the features of this type.
 Nordic race : The people are characterized by long head, arched forehead. The nose is
straight and high bridged. All are tall statured with strong jaw and robust body built.
The eye colour is blue or grey. The body colour is fair which reddish. This element is
scattered in different parts of Northern India, especially in the Punjab and Rajputana.
The Kho of chitral, the Red Kaffirs, and the Khatash are some other
representatives of this type. The Nordics came from the north, probably from
Southeast Russia and Southwest Siberia, thereafter penetrated into India through
Central Asia.
 The above given description proves that the Indian population is composed of almost all
the important races in the world. Therefore, India is sometimes called as a ‘melting pot of
races’ and also called as a ‘museum of races.

THREATS & CHALLENGES IN INDIA

1.5 Regionalism

Regionalism is the idea and feeling of a group of people residing in a particular

geographical area who are characterized by unique language, culture etc., that they are the
sons of the soil and every opportunity in their land must be given to them first but not to the
outsiders. It is a sort of Provincialism and sometimes, this ‘feeling’ is used for political gains
in India. Regionalism in the country can be traced back to the Dravida Movement in Tamil
Nadu which was initially focused on empowering the Dalits, non-Brahmins, and poor people
in the social ladder. Later the movement fought against the imposition of Hindi as a single
official language on non-Hindi speaking areas. Eventually, the movement focused on to carve
out their land of Dravidic separately from India. The movement gradually declined its hold
among the people and faced many splits that led to the formation of regional parties.
Regionalism persisted in different parts of the country. for instance, Marathi pride organized
by Shiv Sena against Kannadigas in Maharashtra, Maharashtra Nav Nirman Sena, Khalistan
Movement, Akali Movement, Telangana Movement, United Liberation Front of Assam etc.
These movements were peaceful and non-violent in the beginning (E.g. Potti Sriramulu’s
non-violent means of fasting) but changed their course of protest over the time and accepted
violent means to achieve their goals. When people started using violence in the name of
regionalism, it violated the principles of democracy. The integration and the feeling of
nationalism would be under threat if regionalism pursued further.

Regionalism in India had taken a new shape and goals. It has become the tool to meet
the political ambitions of leaders using common people’s sentiments and emotions attached
to their land. Regional parties emerged by exploiting the sentiments of local people towards
their land. The existence of regional inequalities among the states created the feeling of
neglect and deprivation. Creation of Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Chhattisgarh were resulted
from the issue of being deprived. Similarly, Telangana was also formed due to the imbalances
in the regional development. The reasons for emergence of regionalism can be described as
follows:
  The work force from other areas keep on flocking to the urbanised areas of
different states. E.g. large-scale arrival of industrial labour force to Mumbai
 It affects the cultural harmony and the local work force feel they are unable to
bargain with the local employees that in turn creates sectional organizations.

There are different types of regionalism; supra —state regionalism, inter-state

regionalism and intra-state regionalism.

 In Supra-state regionalism, the group of states join together to take a common stand
on the issue of mutual interest against another group of states or against the country
itself. North Eastern states in India sometimes exhibit the characteristics of supra-state
regionalism.
 The Second type of regionalism is known as inter-state regionalism in which one or
more states stands against another and it is issue specific. The issue sabotages their
interest. Tamil Nadu- Karnataka dispute over Kaveri water, disputes between Kerala
and Tamil Nadu over the Mulla Periyar dam are examples for inter-state regionalism.
 Finally, there is intra-state regionalism where a part of one state strives for self-
identity and self-development. It is often taken in a positive sense unless it militates
against the collective interest of the state and the nation. For instance, Telangana
Movement.

Regionalism has been an important part of Indian politics. Sometimes, it has threatened the
unity of the country. Hence it is required to take measures to combat regionalism. Some of
them are given below:

 To endorse the development of the neglected regions and make them a part of national
mainstream.
 Solution of problems faced by the people in particular regions in a peaceful and
constitutional manner, without the interference of outside influence or without the
interference of political parties
 The states should be free to solve their internal affairs except in matters of national
importance.
 To promote the growth of internal work force and provide them with employment
opportunities in order to reduce the economic disparity that is resulted from
urbanization and migration.
 Emergence of regionalism in various parts of the country resulted in a serious threat to
the unity and integrity of the country. The fight for regional identity and socio-economic
growth is merely a necessity but it should not be challenging nationalism.

1.6 Casteism

The Indian social system is caste-rigid and caste dominated. Though many changes
occurred in the caste system in the modern era, the strong hold of caste is indirectly
influencing the everyday life of the common people. The indirect way of caste domination,
subordination, oppression and exploitation remains the same even in the contemporary social
structure. Inter-caste marriages are still a taboo in Indian society. The division of labour and
house settlements are still remaining the same in several parts of the country. Honour Killings
are not rare in the country. When one caste identifies only with their caste, caste loyalties are
developed. This sense of ‘loyalty’ would lead to the growth of feeling of ‘inferiority’ or
‘superiority’ which will eventually result in the development of casteism. Such sense of
belongingness based on the narrow-mindedness about one’s identity with a caste is
considered to be extreme and it is known as casteism. This created divisive tendencies inside
the country and threatened its solidarity. Following are the definitions of casteism:

 ‘Casteism is the loyalty to the caste translated into politics.'

-N. Prasad
 ‘Casteism is the loyalty to the sub caste translated into political. This is unavoidable
as long as the conception of sub caste exists, for that is the one permanent loyalty that
the Hindu has inherited. In fact, no organization of society on the basis of equality is
possible so long as the sub caste exists.'
-K. M. Pannikar
 Casteism ‘an overriding, blind and supreme group loyalty that ignores the healthy
social standards of justice, fair play, equity and universal brotherhood.
-Kaka Kalelkar

Characteristics of Casteism

 Extreme caste or sub caste loyalty

 Completely undermines the interests of other caste or sub caste groups
 Ignores human values and social welfare. 
  Contrasts with the aim of creating a casteless society.
 Contrary to the spirit of the Constitution.
 Adversely affects the outcome of elections. 
 Hinders the process of national integration.

Causes of Casteism

 Caste prestige: The feeling of superiority / inferiority by the members of a caste or

sub caste over the other is the chief cause of Casteism. The Hindu social order is based on the
super ordination and subordination of different castes. This led to the growth of the feeling of
caste prestige and its continuity.
 Connubium: The practice of caste endogamy restricts the circle of marriage to one's
own caste and one’s own sub-caste. This resulted in the growth of casteism as people started
developing different degrees of social distance within and outside their own caste. 
 Lack of scientific worldview: Science and technology have advanced in India
particularly with the advent of modernity and globalization. But such scientific outlook could
not completely change the practices of everyday lives in India. Superstitious beliefs and
orthodox outlook based on caste system still holds back the development of India.

1.7 Communalism

The resentment of the people of one community against the people of other
community and religion can be described as ‘communalism’. Society is divided into different
religious communities whose interest differ and are, at times, even conflicting to each other.
This antagonism eventually leads to falsely accusing, harming and deliberately insulting a
particular community. In many incidences of communal clashes, people loot, attack, burn
down the homes and shops of the helpless, dishonour women and even commit homicide.
From the many incidences that happened in India, it is understood that communalism lead to
violent clashes that results in massive loss of lives and property.

Definitions

 “communalism is the phenomenon of religious differences between groups, often

leading to tension and even rioting between them.”
-Harbans Mukhia
  “Communalism is an ideology in which a minority receives unequal treatment from
the majority, on the basis of religion, culture and ethnic characteristics”
- Zenab Banu
Bipan Chandra, a well-known Indian Marxist historian who is specialised in the
political history of India, had outlined three elements of communalism that are given below:
 Communalism is strong among those people who have common secular interests.
 Secular interests of different religions are different from that of the others.
 Interests of different communities are different and hostile to others.

Communalism in India was the result of British imperialism as a deliberate design to

divide India for protecting their political interests. It served the purpose of the colonial
administration and even continued after independence. Communal tensions in the country
were nurtured and promoted by the political parties after the divide and rule policy of the
British. Therefore, India has a continued history of communal rivalry that became a menace
to modern India.
Causes of Growth of Communalism in India
Jawaharlal Nehru once labelled communalism as the Indian form of fascism. He also
stated that minority communalism is born out of fear whereas majority communalism is a
political reaction to assert their dominance. But he emphasized that “there could be no
compromise on the issue of communalism as it is a challenge to Indian nationhood and Indian
nationalism”.
The main causes for the growth of communalism in are:
 Economic backwardness
 Growth of communal parties and organizations
 Communal media, literature and text-books
 Separatism and isolation
 Involvement of political parties

Remedial Measures
 Value oriented education both in schools and colleges based on secularistic values
 The role of mass media and literature
 Financial incentives to backward communities by the government
  Ban of communal writers and their literature
 Setting up of local peace committees comprised of volunteers from different
communities
 Government should treat the extremists as immediate targets and cripple their
capacity to disrupt law and order.

1.8 Extremism & Terrorism

Extremism refers to holding an extreme or ideology either political or religious while

terrorism is the use of unauthorized means of violence on the people in order to achieve their
political or religious goals. For an extremist, their principles are entirely right and
undisputable whether it is religious or political. They also believe that they have a duty to
enforce those beliefs on the rest of the humanity, sometimes by using the means of violence.
The nature of extremism can be listed below;

 Try to impose one’s beliefs, ideologies or values on the others through force or
indoctrination
 Being intolerant towards other’s beliefs and perspectives.
 Use of violence
 No respect for civil liberties or human rights of others despite any differences like
gender, religion, sexuality, race and so on.
 Extreme perception of ‘ingroup’ and ‘’out group’.
 Fomenting hatred towards other groups

Extremists have a contentious approach towards others. They create a division of “them
and us” narrative and include the supporting religious lines. They identify themselves as the
small, oppressed group who are persecuted for their righteous beliefs. The rest of the world
are treated as their rivals. In religious extremism, they believe in the theological implication
that they are the small group who are on the side of God and their adversaries are also the
adversaries to God. For example: A key ideological weapon that is used by the ISIS’ (Islamic
State of Iraq and Syria) is its rigid belief in who can be categorised as a Muslim. They believe
that Muslims are those who are abide by its strictly enforced interpretation of Islam. ISIS
treats all those people including the members of Islam who are opposed to its worldview as
outsiders and all those designated as absconders and disbelievers must be killed. They twist
the individual grievances as a part of global struggle that they have to fight.
 Politicisation of religion is also a part of extremist’s ideology. The failure of modern
democratic government in delivering the best to their country would also lead to the
emergence of the feeling that the ‘government failed its communities or individuals’.
Neglecting minority communities or associating citizenship with a particular religion would
lead to the growth of extremism. Many at times, extremism invite violence and end up in
deaths of innocent public.

Active and Passive Extremism

It is highly difficult to determine the grey area between those who might have extreme
beliefs but do not put them into practice. For instance, the followers of Salafi-jihadism. The
Salafist possess very conservative religious ideas and different from the very outspoken and
violent groups like Al-Qaeda. Salafist may also approach their religious text in a literal
manner that tend to ignore the historical context of their religion. However, they are not
violent group and hence can be considered as passive extremists. On the other hand, the
groups which hold extremist view points and attempt to impose their beliefs by means of
violence can be regarded as active extremist groups. They engage in violent acts to protect
and promote their extremist ideology.

Terrorism

There is no universal definition of terrorism that is agreed upon by every country on

the globe. However, United Nations Organization sought to criminalize a number of activities
that are considered to be the “terrorist acts” i. e., “Acts that are intended or calculated to
provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for
political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a
political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be
invoked to justify them"26. This criminalizes the acts of armed violence against the public.

Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) urged to take domestic legislative action against
terrorism and it briefed “terrorism" as:

“... criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with intent to cause death or serious
bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the
general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or
compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act,
26
https://www.un.org/en/ga/sixth/71/int_terrorism.shtml (Retrieved on 03/01/2020)
which constitute offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions
and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations
of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar nature, and
calls upon all States to prevent such acts and, if not prevented, to ensure that such acts are
punished by penalties consistent with their grave nature.27”

According to the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to
Terrorism at the University of Maryland, terrorism is "the threatened or actual use of illegal
force and violence by a non-state actor to attain a political, economic, religious or social goal
through fear, coercion, or intimidation." 

The causes of terrorism can be of political, psychological, social, economic or religious.

However, some of the reasons are listed below28:

 Lack of democratic rule: The absence of democratic rule particularly in regions like
the Middle East, endorsed terrorism because in such countries, citizens are denied to
resolve their grievances by means of legal body and were deprived of their civil rights
and freedom
 Human Rights Violations by Governments: Nation States whose governments abuse
the human rights of their people experience comparatively more terrorist activities.
 Foreign Military interventions: large-scale military intrusions with subsequent long-
term occupancies enflame more terrorism.
 Poverty: Poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to education are associated with
terrorism. People who are economically deprived seem to have less to lose by joining
or supporting terrorist movements.

The types of terrorism include the following:

 Political terrorism is used by one political group to threaten another.

 Non-political terrorism is a terrorist act committed by a group for any other
purpose, most often of a religious nature.
  Limited political terrorism is generally one-time schemes to make a political or
ideological statement to protest a governmental policy or action.

https://www.un.org/en/ga/sixth/71/int_terrorism.shtml (Retrieved on 03/01/2020)

27

Piazza, James A. 2015. “Characteristics of Terrorism Hotspots.” CTX: Combatting Terrorism

28

Exchange. 5(3): 15-22.

  State terrorism refers to any violent action started by an existing government to
achieve a particular goal mostly involving decisions against another government.

Impact of Terrorism

 Terrorism causes law and order problems in society which threatens the peace, order,
security and safety of society.
 Terrorism is a threat to the economic progress of the country. Foreign and domestic
investors feel insecure in investing in the countries which are under the threat of
terrorism.
 Terrorism affects the political unity of the country. In India, heterogeneity in religion,
language and ethnicity provides a context for growing extremism and terrorism in the
country that disturbs the political unity of the nation.
 Terrorism also retards the socio-economic development of the country by preventing
the developmental activities.
 Terrorism also paves the way for displacement of millions of people and create
expatriates that threatens the integrity of the country.