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Mahler's Theory of Development

Margaret Mahler's theories on child development focus largely on the mother/child
relationship. Her study on separation-individuation is considered her most valued
contribution stressing the importance of consistent attentiveness especially from the mother
during a child's first three years of life as vital to the ultimate goal of raising children who
grow to be successful, adaptable adults.
Note: For the purposes of this article, the primary caregiver will be referred to as the mother.
In practice, this person may be the natural mother or another individual (or a select few
individuals) who are responsible for the primary and everyday care of the child.
Getting the Right Start
Parents, even those who have no background whatsoever in the formal study of child
development will attest to the importance of giving children the best possible start by
welcoming them into a home environment which is both loving and attentive. The mother,
typically the primary caregiver during the earliest years of a child's life, who is warm,
nurturing and attuned to the changing needs of her child will certainly provide the child with
a greater sense of security and confidence than a mother who is distant or uninterested. This
simple truth is the basis of Mahler's Separation-Individuation Theory, which details the stages
of the child's development during those crucial first three years of life.
Normal Autistic Phase: Birth to 1 Month
A newborn infant is blissfully unaware of anything but its own needs. At this stage, the
mother needs to be available to lovingly meet the baby's needs and introduce tender, caring
interaction.
Normal Symbiotic Phase: 1 to 5 Months
During these first few months, babies begin to learn about their world and develop their very
first human bond -- that which they share with their mothers. Positive stimuli (cuddling,
smiling, engaged attention) and relief of discomfort (feeding promptly when hungry,
changing of soiled nappies, providing an appropriate sleep environment) all help the infant to
develop a trust that their needs will be met, building a basis for security and confidence.
Sub-phase One: Differentiation - 5 to 10 Months
As the baby matures, he develops an increased interest in both the mother and the outside
world. Not yet able to understand that she exists outside of his view, parents often first notice
their baby's first outward signs of separation anxiety during this time as the baby continually
"checks back," looking at other things but then looking for the mother as a reassurance that
she is still present. Often, babies are most comfortable to express interest in outside stimuli
when they feel safe in their mother's arms during this phase. Consistent access to the mother
aids the baby's emotional well-being and while it first appears about this time, this need may
continue well into the practicing sub-phase.

Sub-phase Two: Practicing - 10 to 16 Months

As children's mobility increases, they are able to explore their environment with an autonomy
that was previously impossible. Still not ready for extended separation from their mothers,
crawlers and beginning walkers will sometimes choose to separate briefly from their mums,
but will typically return quickly for assurance and comfort. Some independent play time is
enjoyed, but often the baby is only comfortable to play on their own when the mother is
within the child's line of sight. Mothers who are able to release their children to a beginning
level of independent exploration whilst staying nearby will provide their baby with the ability
to take pleasure in their growing world. Mahler described this "hatching" as the true birth the
individual occurs, with the child beginning to have a basic sense of self not directly
connected to the mother.
Sub-phase Three: Rapprochement - 16 to 24 Months
As parents of toddlers know, they can be a confusing bunch. One minute, they are running
from their mothers, refusing her attention or wishes, and the next they are anxiously clinging
to her. Mahler referred to this as "ambitendency" and explained that this behaviour is
representative of a toddler's sometimes opposing desires and needs. It is during these months
that children first get a real sense that they are individuals, separate from their mothers, which
is both an exhilarating and frightening discovery.
Toddlers continue to take pleasure in exploring their environment, but during this phase,
much of their growth comes from socialisation. Imitation of others is common (much to the
amusement and sometimes dismay of parents!), as is the tendency to want the things that
others have, taking them by force if necessary. Mahler also observed that toddlers often
become a bit "low key" when they are not around their mothers, and may withdraw a bit into
themselves. Unlike when they were babies, toddlers learn that their emotional needs are not
automatically sensed or tended to, so they may be especially demanding of their mother's
attention. When they don't get their way, frustrated toddlers often resort to throwing temper
tantrums. Now aren't you glad to hear that your little one's behaviour is perfectly normal?!
Sub-phase Four: Consolidation and Object Constancy - 24 to 36 Months
At some point around the second birthday, children begin to be more comfortable separating
from their mothers, knowing that they will return (object constancy). This ability makes it
possible for two year olds to accept that they are unique from their mothers without anxiety,
allowing the child to engage substitutes for the mother when she is absent.

SEPARATION-INDIVIDUATION
(MAHLER)

THEORY

OF

CHILD

DEVELOPMENT

Separation-Individuation Theory of Child Development (Mahler)

Mahler is regarded as one of the main contributors to the field of ego psychology, a school of
thought which evolved from Sigmund Freuds Structural Model (id-ego-superego). Her aim was not
to develop a novel theory, but to broaden the scope of pre-existing theories. Her studies focus
primarily on mother-infant interactions within the first three years of life [1][2], thereby filling a void in
psychodynamic stage theories, such as Freuds psychosexual stages of development, and Eriksons
psychosocial stages of development. Although this article will refer to mother-infant relations, the
theory holds true for any primary caregiver.
According to Mahler, successful completion of the developmental stages in the first few years of life
results in separation and individuation. Separation refers to an internal process of mental separation
from the mother, while individuation refers to a developing self concept. Although interrelated, it is

possible for one to develop more than the other, largely depending on the mothers attitude towards
the child[3].
Stages of Development
1.

Normal autistic stage: (0-1 month)

At the very beginning of life, the infant is primarily focused on himself/herself, uninterested in
external stimuli. The mother is viewed as an intrinsic part of the infant, devoid of a separate existence.
The primary goal at this point, is to achieve a state of equilibrium, while lacking the understanding
that the satisfaction of needs may come from an external source.

2.

Normal symbiotic stage: (1-5 months)

At this phase, the infant vaguely acknowledges the mothers existence, not as a unique entity, but as
the main source of need-satisfaction. The fulfilment of the infants physiological needs becomes
intertwined with psychological desires and thus serves as the basis upon which future relationships
will be formed. Crucial to successful progression through the next stages are the availability and the
ability of the mother to adapt successfully to the infants needs.

3.

Separation-Individuation stage: (5-24 months) In this final stage a significant transition

occurs in two overlapping realms. In separation, the infant develops an understanding of boundaries
of the self, and thus the mother is increasingly viewed as an individual. Meanwhile, individuation
marks the development of a sense of self. This consists of four sub-stages:
3a: Differentiation/Hatching: (5-9 months) The infants primary focus begins to transform from
internally focused to externally focused, although the primary point of reference continues to be the
mother. This internal process is exemplified by milestones in motor development which physically
allow increased separation, such as crawling. The infant becomes increasingly interested in
discovering his mother (e.g. how she looks or smells) rather than trying to become symbiotically
unified with her.
3b: Practicing: (9-14 months) Capacity for separation continues to develop with increased
autonomous functions, particularly walking. Although able to explore freely, the child still regards the
mother as unified with him/her and thus explores his/her surroundings while keeping within an
optimal distance. The childs experience of the world he or she discovers is influenced by the
mothers reactions and by her availability to sooth when experiences may be frightening or painful.
3c: Rapprochement: (14-24 months) At this point the childs desire to achieve independence is marred
by a fear of abandonment. Therefore, the child seeks to maintain proximity to the caretaker while
engaging in exploration. This stage is essential to the development of a stable sense of self. This
includes three sub- stages:

Beginning: The child returns to the caretaker in order to share experiences and excitement.
There is an overarching felon of omnipotence and exuberance.
Crisis: The child recognizes his/her limitations versus the desire to be all powerful and self
sufficient. The child is torn in choosing between physical and emotional proximity to the caretaker or
independence. This stage is characterized by temper tantrums and helplessness and thus the need for
emotional availability of the mother increases.
Solution: The child reaches a healthy medium between the two extremes due to language and
superego development. If the crisis is not resolved well, there will be an increase in extreme clinging
or shunning behaviour.

3d: Object constancy: (24+ months) Successful completion of this phase marks the development of an
internalized mental model of the mother, which unconsciously accompanies and supports the child
even when they are physically separated. In addition, a sense of individuality begins to develop. The
degree of ambivalence in the internalized model implicates the formation of a healthy self concept and
self-confidence.

Margaret Mahler and Separation-Individuation Theory

Hungarian-born psychiatrist Margaret Mahler (1897-1985) worked first in her native
Hungary, and then in Britain, and finally in the United States. She is best known for
originating the Separation-Individuation theory of child development. In her theory Mahler
speculates that after the first few weeks of infancy, in which the infant is either sleeping or
barely conscious, the infant progresses first from a phase (Normal-Symbiotic Phase) in
which it perceives itself as one with its mother within the larger environment, to an extended
phase (Separation-Individuation Phase) consisting of several stages or sub-phases in which
the infant slowly comes to distinguish itself from its mother, and then, by degrees, discovers
its own identity, will, and individuality.
Normal Symbiotic Phase: According to Mahler, this phase extends from the first signs of
conscious awareness at four to six weeks until about five months of age. (Mahler originally
called the first few weeks of helpless infancy the Normal Autistic Phase, but later discarded
this designation). In the Normal-Symbiotic Phase the infant is now aware of its mother, but
has no sense of individuality of its own. The infant and mother are as one, and there is a
barrier between them and the rest of the world.
Separation-Individuation Phase: In this phase the infant breaks out of its autistic shell
and begins to connect with its environment and with the people in it. Separation refers to the
development of limits and to the differentiation in the infants mind between the infant and
the mother, whereas individuation refers to the development of the infant's ego, sense of
identity, and cognitive abilities. This phase is divided into three sub-phases, which occur in
the following order, but which often overlap in time:
1.
Hatching (5 to 9 months): The infant becomes aware of the differentiation between
itself and its mother. It becomes increasingly aware of its surroundings and interested in
them, using its mother as a point of reference or orientation.
2.
Practicing (9 to 16 months): The infant can now get about on its own, first crawling
and then walking freely. The infant begins to explore actively and becomes more
independent of its mother. The infant still experiences itself as one with its mother.
3.
Rapprochement (15 months and beyond): The young child once again becomes close
to his mother, but begins to differentiate itself from his mother. The child realizes that his
physical mobility demonstrates psychic separateness from his mother. The toddler may
become tentative at this point, wanting his mother to be in sight so that, through eye
contact and action, he can explore his world.
Mahler further divided Rapprochement into three sub-stages:
Beginning: The young child is motivated by a desire to share discoveries with his
mother.
2.
Crisis: The child is torn between staying connected with his mother and venturing out
from his mother and becoming more independent and adventurous.
1.

3.

Solution: The child resolves the above Crisis according to the dictates of his own
newly forming individuality, to his fledgling use of language, and to his interaction with
the temperament of his mother.

Mahler believed that disruptions in the fundamental process of separation-individuation could

result later in life in a disturbance in the ability to maintain a reliable sense of individual
identity.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

By: Elizabeth Grace - Updated: 4 Aug 2013 |

*Discuss

Parents especially first-timers, often wonder what to expect in terms of their children's
development. While it is always exciting to see children grow and learn new things, having
an idea of typical patterns in maturity can help parents to provide their children with the right
encouragement at the right times. Much like several other well respected child psychologists,
Jean Piaget believed that children go through a number of fixed stages on their way to
independent thinking. His theory on cognitive development, though, is perhaps the most
widely accepted and most cited.
Note: While Piaget believed that all children will go through the following stages in order, the
age ranges are only a general guideline. Each child matures in their own time, and even
siblings don't do the same things at exactly the same age.
Sensory Motor Stage: Birth to 2 Years
An enormous amount of growth and development takes place in the first two years of life.
During that time span, children go from being completely helpless to walking, talking, and to
a degree, being able to make sense of the world around them. One of the most important
milestones that children achieve in their first few years, according to Piaget, is their mastery
of "object permanency," or the ability to understand that even when a person or object is
removed from their line of sight, it still exists. Early on, children are only able to perceive
things that are right in front of them, but as they mature, they understand that if a ball rolls
under a chair and they can no longer see it, it still exists, under the chair. This is an especially
important understanding for children, helping them to have an increased sense of safety and
security since they can now grasp the fact that when mum leaves the room, she hasn't
disappeared, but will soon return.
Preoperational Stage: 2-7 Years
Once object permanency is achieved, children move onto this next stage, which is marked by
a number of advancements. Language skills develop rapidly, allowing kids to better express
themselves. Also, children in the preoperational stage are egocentric, meaning that they
believe that everyone sees the world the way that they do, leaving no room for the
perspectives of others. For example, a child will sometimes cover their eyes so that they
cannot see someone and make the assumption that the other person now cannot see them,
either.
A major indicator of this stage is called conservation, or the ability to understand that quantity
does not change just because shape changes. For example, if you were to pour the same
quantity of liquid into two separate glasses, one short and wide and the other tall and thin,
younger children would insist that the taller glass holds more. Children who have mastered
the concept of conservation would be able to understand that the quantities are identical.
Piaget explained that the child's inability to yet grasp the concept is due to their capacity to
focus on only one aspect of a problem at a time (centration), their tendency to take things at

face value (appearance), and the fact that they see something only in its current condition
(state). They cannot yet understand that the wider with of the short glass compensates for the
height of the taller one.
Concrete Operations Stage: 7 to 11 Years
During the concrete operations stage, the centristic thought process is gradually replaced by
the ability to consider a number of factors simultaneously, giving them the ability to solve
increasingly complex problems. Also, kids at this stage can now understand how to group like
objects, even if they are not identical. For example, they are able to see that apples, oranges,
cherries, and bananas are all types of fruit; even they are not exactly the same.
Another important developmental advancement that occurs during this phase is seriation, the
ability to place things in order according to size. Children who have a mastery of this concept
are able to take jars of varying heights and place them in order, tallest to shortest.
They still have some distinct limitations to their thinking process, however, especially when it
comes to applying concepts that they are unfamiliar with. While their understanding of the
things that they have direct access to is strong, kids this age still have a tendency to lack
understanding of things that they haven't personally seen, touched, heard, tasted, or smelled.
Formal Operations Stage: 11 and Beyond
In the final phase of cognitive development, children hold a much broader understanding of
the world around them and are able to think in abstract ways. They are also able to
hypothesise possible outcomes to a given problem and then think of ways in which to test
their theories.
Children in the formal operations stage learn to use deductive reasoning to draw conclusions,
which opens them up to a wider base of knowledge than ever before. An example might be as
follows: A bear is a mammal. All mammals have fur. Therefore, a bear has fur.

For more information, please see:

www.margaretmahler.org
References

1.

Mahler, M. S. (1968). On Human Symbiosis and the Vicissitudes of Individuation.

Infantile Psychosis, Volume 1.

2.

Mahler, M. S. (1952). On child psychosis and schizophrenia: autistic and symbiotic

infantile psychoses. The psychoanalytic study of the child.

3.

Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (2008). The psychological birth of the human
infant: Symbiosis and individuation. Basic Books.

4.