Growing

Raspberries

&
Blackberries

in the Inland Northwest

&
Intermountain West
by Danny L. Barney, Michael Colt, Jo Ann Robbins,
and Maurice Wiese

The authors
Danny Barney, Extension Horticulturist and Superintendent of the University of Idaho Sandpoint Research &
Extension Center
Michael Colt, Extension Horticulturist at the UI Parma
Research and Extension Center
Jo Ann Robbins, Extension Educator in Blaine County
Maurice Wiese, Plant Pathologist, UI Department of Plant,
Soil, and Entomological Sciences
1999 University of Idaho

Contents
How raspberries and blackberries grow ......... 3
Selecting and preparing your site ................... 5
Designing your plots ..................................... 6
Plant and row spacing ............................. 6
Support ................................................... 8
Trellis posts ........................................... 12
Selecting your plants .................................. 14
Planting ...................................................... 14
Caring for your berries ................................ 15
Irrigation............................................... 15
Fertilization........................................... 19
Weed control ........................................ 22
Winter protection ................................. 23
Pruning ................................................. 24
Harvesting and storing
your berries ........................................... 27
Controlling insect pests and diseases ........... 28
Insects and mites ................................... 28
Diseases ................................................ 29

Most blackberries and raspberries

take three years from planting to reach maturity
and remain productive for 8 to 12 years.

Growing
Raspberries

&
Blackberries

in the Inland Northwest & Intermountain West

Raspberries and blackberries (brambles) are

grown for home use and local sales throughout the Inland
Northwest and Intermountain West. These popular fruits
can be eaten fresh or made into jams, jellies, syrups, compotes, pastries, juices, and many other foods. Besides their
excellent flavor, raspberries and blackberries provide vitamin A, vitamin C, and dietary minerals.
Raspberry and blackberry fruits develop their best flavors
when allowed to ripen before picking. Once ripe, however,
the berries become soft, bruise easily, and quickly lose their
texture and flavor. Raspberries and blackberries being
shipped long distances are picked before they are fully ripe
and never develop full flavor. This creates a market advantage for commercial growers providing local customers with
high-quality fruit.

Raspberries
Raspberries come in four colors: red, yellow, black, and
purple. Red and yellow raspberries are the same species,
and are the most cold hardy of the brambles. A few cultivars (cultivated varieties) tolerate winter temperatures of
-25o to -30oF, and many are hardy to -20oF. Red raspberries
1

are popular for eating fresh, cooking, and juicing. Yellow

raspberries are very sweet and excellent fresh, but lack the
tartness and color needed for processing.

Red and yellow raspberries

are the same species, and are the most cold hardy
of the brambles.

Black raspberries belong to a different species and can be

injured at temperatures around -10oF or lower. Black
raspberry fruits are smaller and seedier than red raspberries.
Some people like them fresh, but they are used most often
in making pastries or jam.
Purple raspberries are crosses between red and black raspberries. They are very vigorous, highly productive, and fall
somewhere between red and black raspberries in cold
hardiness. In Idaho trials, purple raspberries survived
winter temperatures of -20oF with no injury. Purple raspberry fruits have uneven shapes and often muddy, purplish
colors. Their flavor makes them fair for eating out of hand,
but excellent for preserves.
Raspberries produce either one or two crops of fruit each
year. Summer-bearing raspberries produce a single crop of
fruit beginning in early to mid summer. Fall-bearing (also
known as everbearing) raspberries bear a crop in mid
summer and another crop in late summer or early fall. Red
and yellow raspberries may be either summer- or fallbearing. All black and purple raspberries are summerbearing. By growing several cultivars, you can enjoy fresh
berries from early summer through late fall.
Blackberries
Blackberries come in trailing and erect types. Trailing
blackberries include such cultivars as Marion, Logan,
2

Bababerry, and Youngberry. We often call trailing blackberries dewberries, and they come in both thorny and thornless types. Trailing cultivars do not develop much cold
hardiness and many are injured or killed at 0o to 5oF.
Erect blackberries may be thorny or thornless and are
generally more cold hardy than trailing types. Chester,
Darrow, and Illini Hardy have survived winter temperatures between -15oF and -20oF with little injury in Idaho
trials. All blackberries are summer-bearing, but some
cultivars ripen in early summer, while others do not ripen
until late fall.

How raspberries
and blackberries grow
Most blackberries and raspberries take three years from
planting to reach maturity and remain productive for 8 to
12 years. Because diseases and pests can gradually build up,
many home and commercial growers replant about every
10 years.

By growing several cultivars,

you can enjoy fresh berries from early summer
through late fall.

Red and yellow raspberries and some blackberry cultivars

spread by means of underground stems and can invade
adjacent yards and planting beds. Canes arise as suckers
from the crown or underground stems (rhizomes). These
canes are biennial and live only about 18 months. During
their first year of growth, we call the canes primocanes.
In summer-bearing raspberries and all blackberries,
primocanes produce only leaves and no flowers or fruit.
3

During their second growing season, we call the canes

floricanes because they bear flowers and fruit. Shortly after
the fruit ripens, the floricanes die. Each year, new
primocanes grow to replace the floricanes.
Fall-bearing red and yellow raspberry plants produce fruit
on their primocanes. In these cultivars, the primocanes
grow 3 to 6 feet tall during the spring and early summer.
Flower buds then develop on the top one-fourth to onethird of the primocanes. Flowers appear in mid to late
summer, developing into fruit during the late summer and
early fall. During the winter, the tops of fall-bearing
primocanes wither and die. The following spring, flower
buds arise on the still-living floricanes below the dead tops.
In this way, a single cane bears first a fall crop, then a
summer one, creating two crops of berries each year. The
total yield of berries produced by a fall-bearing raspberry
plant is about the same as that produced by a summerbearer.
In a horticultural sense, neither raspberries
nor blackberries are true berries.
Both produce aggregate fruits composed
of many small, single-seeded
drupelets held together with
microscopic hairs. The drupelets
form around the outside of a
receptacle, or core.
When raspberries are picked,
the cluster of drupelets that we
call a raspberry slips off the
receptacle, leaving the core
behind. In blackberries, the
receptacle breaks off where it
connects to the stem and
remains inside the berry.

For fall-bearing raspberries, many commercial growers

mow the primocanes off several inches above the ground
after harvesting the fall crop. Doing so reduces pruning
labor costs at the expense of the smaller summer crop. It is
generally best to wait until early spring to mow off the
canes. This wait allows carbohydrates produced by the
bushes in summer to move into the rhizomes and roots and
make your bushes more vigorous.

Selecting and preparing your site

Raspberries and blackberries have similar growing requirements. Usually they grow best in full sun on a well-drained
(but not droughty), slightly acid to neutral soil that has a
pH of 5.6 to 7.0. Brambles are shallow-rooted, with about
90 percent of the roots lying in the top 20 inches of soil.
Avoid planting into a poorly drained location. Red raspberries, in particular, are susceptible to root rot and cannot
tolerate standing water or poor drainage. On poorly
drained sites, plant raspberries in raised beds that are 6 to
12 inches above the surrounding soil. Raised beds in small
gardens can be enclosed with wooden timbers or stones.
For large plantings, use a tractor-mounted hill or bed
former to create raised beds about 1 foot high and 3 feet
wide.

Avoid planting
into a poorly drained location.

You can confine blackberries and raspberries to small

garden beds by burying 14-inch-wide strips of aluminum
or galvanized steel flashing (used in roofing) around the
outsides of the beds.

Besides being intolerant of wet soils, brambles are susceptible to a disease called Verticillium wilt. Peppers, tomatoes,
potatoes, eggplants, and other small fruits are also hosts for
this disease. Whenever possible, do not plant brambles next
to these crops or in locations where they have been grown
within the past five years.
Select a site that receives full sun exposure and is not in a
frost pocket. Plant where the bushes have good air drainage
(this helps prevent diseases), but avoid windy sites, if
possible. If you must plant in a windy area, protect the
plants with a windbreak. Some authorities recommend
planting brambles in rows running north and south to
provide even exposure to sunlight on both sides of the row.
Before planting, eliminate all perennial weeds, such as
quackgrass and Canada thistle. These highly invasive weeds
can quickly choke out a bramble patch. The most effective
method of eliminating perennial weeds is to kill them with
a translocatable herbicide such as glyphosate. Contact your
garden center for recommendations and always follow label
directions. Note that herbicides that contain glyphosate are
highly toxic to raspberries and blackberries and should not
be applied after the brambles are planted.
Brambles benefit from compost or well-rotted manure
added to the soil before planting. A soil test before planting
can help identify potential problems with soil acidity and
nutrients. Preparing the planting bed the preceding fall
allows for easier and earlier spring planting.

Designing your plots

Plant and row spacing
Allow plenty of space for your planting. Overcrowding
makes caring for crops more difficult and usually reduces
yields and increases pest and disease problems. For red and
yellow summer-bearing and black raspberries, lay out
6

Characteristics and requirements

for raspberries and blackberries
Red and yellow raspberries
Expected yield: 2 to 3 pounds per hill
Hardiness: -20o to -30oF
Plant spacing:
Summer-bearing: 2 feet apart (hedgerow)
or 2 1/2 to 3 feet apart (hills)
in rows 8 feet apart
Fall-bearing: 2 feet apart (hedgerow)
or 2 1/2 to 3 feet apart (hills)
in rows 10 feet apart
Row width:
Summer-bearing: no more than 12 inches
Fall-bearing: no more than 18 inches

Black raspberries
Expected yield: 2.5 to 3 pounds per hill
Hardiness: -5o to -10oF
Plant spacing: hills 3 feet apart in rows 8 feet apart
Row width: No more than 12 inches

Purple raspberries
Expected yield: 3 to 4 pounds per hill
Hardiness: -15o to -20oF
Plant spacing: hills 3 to 4 feet apart
in rows 10 feet apart
Row width: no more than 12 inches

Blackberries
Expected yield: 6 to 7 pounds per hill
Hardiness: +5o to -20oF
Plant spacing:
Trailing: hills 5 feet apart in rows 8 feet apart
Erect: hills 5 feet apart in rows 10 to 12 feet apart
Row width: no more than 12 inches

planting rows 8 to 10 feet apart. Fall-bearing raspberries are

more spreading than summer-bearing types and are easier
to manage when the rows are 10 feet apart. Purple raspberries are quite vigorous and rows should be 10 feet apart.
Trailing blackberries are confined to trellises and can be
planted in rows as close as 8 feet. Erect blackberries are
much more spreading and require rows 10 to 12 feet apart.
Ensure that the row spacing will allow you to easily navigate between the bushes with the mowers, tractors, or other
equipment you will be using. Leave room at the ends of
rows for trellis posts (if needed) and to turn equipment
around.
The planting distance within rows depends on the type of
berry and the training system. When red and yellow
summer-bearing raspberries are grown as individual bushes
in hills, space the plants 2 1/2 to 3 feet apart in the rows.
If you want to create a solid hedge of raspberries, space the
plants 2 feet apart. A hill system makes weed control in the
berry rows easier. Hedgerows simplify picking and improve
light exposure. Fall-bearing raspberries are usually planted
2 feet apart in hedgerows, but can be planted 2 1/2 feet
apart in hills.
Black and most purple raspberries do not spread underground (sucker) as much as red raspberries and are usually
grown in discrete hills. The only exception is the purple
cultivar Royalty, which can be grown either in hills or
hedgerows. Space black raspberry hills 3 feet apart and
purple raspberry hills 3 to 4 feet apart in rows. Space
blackberries 5 feet apart in rows.
Support
A trellis keeps canes and fruit from touching the ground,
reduces wind breakage and fruit loss, and makes weed
control and other management easier. Red and yellow
summer-bearing raspberries are usually supported on posts
or trellis wires (fig. 1). Fall-bearing cultivars are sometimes
8

Wire or twine
5 to 6 feet

Hill system using a single fence post

25 feet

Total height
5 to 6 feet
2 feet

4 inches
2 feet
Hill training

Hedgerow training

Vertical or trellis

5 feet

3 feet

V trellis with a hill system

(The V trellis is also suitable for a hedgerow system.)

Figure 1. Training and trellises for summer-bearing red and

yellow raspberries.

18 inches

3 feet

Two-wire trellis supported on wooden T-shaped posts

Figure 2. Trellises for fall-bearing red and yellow raspberries.

grown without support, but vigorous, heavily-laden canes

can easily topple. A simple two-wire trellis supports fallbearing raspberries and makes management much easier
(fig. 2). Black raspberries and purple raspberries can be
grown free standing, but benefit from trellis or post support in snow country or windy areas. Purple raspberry
canes can grow 9 feet tall and bear heavy crops, making
them likely to fall over. Erect blackberries are generally
grown free standing, but trailing and semi-erect cultivars
require support (fig. 3).
Trailing blackberries are always supported on trellises. One
method of training trailing blackberries is to form wheels of
canes (fig. 3). As the new primocanes grow, tie them
together into a bundle. As the canes continue to grow, wrap
them into a circle and support them by a hook on the top
trellis wire (do not wrap the canes around the wires).
10

Ratchet tensioners

Two-wire trellis supported on metal fence posts

(Ratchet tensioners keep wires tight on long trellises.)

If your site experiences winter temperatures below about

+5oF, lay the wheels of canes on a plastic sheet on the
ground after the leaves have dropped in the fall. Cover
them with another plastic sheet and then with straw or
other mulch. Mulching the canes protects them from cold
winter temperatures. If you mulch, set out baits or traps to
control mice and voles.
In early spring, rehang the wheels of floricanes and begin
forming new primocane wheels. After harvest, cut off the
expended floricanes near the ground, leaving the
primocanes that will bear next years crop. This method is
obviously best suited to home gardeners. Trailing blackberries are not generally recommended for commercial operations in the Inland Northwest and Intermountain West.

11

25 feet
Floricanes

Primocanes

Primocanes

5 to 6 feet

Spring and summer

After harvest

Figure 3. Training trailing blackberries.

In spring, rehang the overwintered wheel of canes, if present.
Bundle new primocanes and, as they lengthen in summer,
form them into a wheel hanging from the trellis wire.
After harvest, cut off the spent floricanes and dispose of them.

Trellis posts
Fence posts 8 to 10 feet
long and driven or buried 3
to 5 feet deep work well for
support. Soils that frost
heave call for the longer
posts and greater depths.
For trellises 50 feet or
longer, use two anchor
posts at the ends of the
rows (fig. 4). Farm supply
stores carry the necessary
hardware to create trellis
systems.

12

Figure 4. Double post arrangement

for anchoring the
ends of trellises.
Posts may be either of wood
or of metal. For wooden posts,
bolt or nail cross bars to the
two posts. Special T
fasteners are available for
metal fence posts.
Ratchet tensioners allow
easy tightening of trellis wires.

Wheel hooks
Mulch
Dormant canes
Plastic film
Late fall and winter
In late fall or early winter, after the leaves have dropped, lay
the primocane wheel on the ground and cover it with straw,
sawdust, or another mulch. Install rodent traps or baits.
Sandwiching the primocane wheel between two layers of
plastic film can keep the canes clean and reduce diseases.

4 feet

Ratchet
tensioners
5 to 6 feet

Trellis wires
4 to 5 feet
Turnbuckle

1.5 to 2 feet

3 to 4 feet

13

Selecting your plants

Begin with the best nursery stock available. Taking root
cuttings or transplants from established beds, either your
own or a neighbors, is unwise. Nursery plants nearly
always grow better because they harbor fewer pests and
diseases. If possible, select plants certified as virus indexed.
They will be more vigorous and long-lived than virusinfected stock. While tissue cultured plants are usually free
of pests and diseases, they are smaller and more tender than
traditional bare root stock and harder to establish. Most
growers have better success with nursery matured raspberries and blackberries. These are tissue cultured plants grown
out in a container or nursery bed for a year before sale.
Recommended cultivars are listed in table 1.

Planting
Most mail order raspberry plants are sold bare root. Schedule shipments so that your bare root plants arrive in late
March or April. Keep them cool and moist, but protect
them from freezing. One option is to dig a trench about 1
foot deep in a shaded location. Fill the trench with moist
sawdust and heel (bury) the canes in the sawdust until
planting. Transplant bare root stock as soon as the ground
becomes workable in the spring.
Local nurseries generally sell raspberries and blackberries as
containerized plants. You can transplant these any time,
but the earlier in the season you plant them, the sooner
they will become established.
Brambles seldom need root pruning at the time of planting, other than to cut off damaged or diseased roots. For
dormant, bare root plants, dig a trench 3 to 4 inches deep,
spread the roots horizontally along the bottom of the

14

trench, and cover them with 3 to 4 inches of soil. Remove

containerized plants from their pots and bury them so that
the tops of the root balls are covered by about 1/2 inch of
soil. Do not prune the canes when planting.
Whatever planting stock you use:
Eliminate all weeds (especially perennials) before
planting.
Prepare a loose, friable planting bed.
Never allow roots to become dry during planting.
Water the plants after planting.
Mulch around the new plants with clean straw, sawdust,
or compost to keep the soil moist and control annual
weeds.

Caring for your berries

Irrigation
Raspberries generally require irrigation from bloom
through harvest to ensure good berry size. Raspberries
cannot, however, tolerate wet soils and you must avoid
overwatering. Planting on a wet site or overwatering is
especially damaging to red raspberries, which are highly
susceptible to root rot. On alkaline soils (those whose
pH is above 7.0) overwatering makes iron chlorosis problems more serious.
Overhead sprinklers are often used to water brambles, but
can encourage fruit and cane diseases. A better practice is
to apply water directly to the soil at the base of the plants.
If you use sprinklers, apply water early in the morning to
allow the canes to dry quickly.
Reduce watering after the first frost to encourage the canes
to harden off. A late fall watering after the plants are
dormant will help prevent winter injury caused by the
canes drying out.
15

Table 1. Recommended raspberry and blackberry cultivars for the

Inland Northwest and Intermountain West.
Fruit characteristics
Disease resistance
Cold
Fresh Processing Phytophthora Spur
hardiness
Cultivar (OF) Ripening Size Flavor use
use
root rot
blight
Summer-bearing red raspberries
M-L
E
G
G
M
E
G
G
L
G
G
G

Algonquin
Canby
Chilcotin

-30
-25
-25

1
1
1

Festival
Haida
Killarney

-30
-20
-30

1
1
1

M
M
M

G
G
F-G

G
G
G

Latham
Newburgh
Nootka

-25
-20
-25

1
1
1

S
S
M

G
G
G

Nordic
Reveille
Skeena

-30
-30
-25

1
1
1

M
L
M

Souris
Taylor
Tulameen

-30
-25
-20

1
1
1

M
L
L

Amity
-25
Autumn Bliss -25

1,4
1,3

Heritage
Redwing
Summit

-25
-25
-25

1,4
1,3
1,3

L
M
M

Amber
-25
Fall Gold
-25
Golden West -25

1,3
1,3
1

M
M
M

16

3
1
2

2
1
2

G
G
F

3
2
3

3
3
3

F
G
F

G
P
G

4
4
2

2
2
1

G
G
E

G
G
E

G
G
E

3
3
1

2
2
2

E
G
G

G
G
G

G
G
G

3
3
3

2
2
2

2
3

2
2

G
G
E

3
3
4

2
2
2

Yellow raspberries
E
E
P
E
E
P
G
G
F

3
3
3

2
2
2

Fall-bearing red raspberries

M
G
G
G
M
E
G
G
G
G
E

G
G
E

Table 1. Recommended raspberry and blackberry cultivars for the

Inland Northwest and Intermountain West (cont.).
Fruit characteristics
Disease resistance
Cold
Fresh Processing Phytophthora Spur
hardiness
Cultivar (OF) Ripening Size Flavor use
use
root rot
blight

Allen
Blackhawk

-10
-15

1
1

L
M

Bristol
-10
Cumberland -5
Haut
-15

1
1
1

M
L
M

Brandywine
Success
Royalty

-20
-20
-20

2
2
2

L
M
L

Chester
Dirksen
Navaho
Thornfree

-20
-15
-10
-10

3
3
4
4

Black raspberries
G
G
G
F
F
F

4
4

3
3

F
G
E

4
4
4

3
3
3

Purple raspberries
G
F
E
G
G
E
G
G
E

3
3
3

3
3
3

Thornless blackberries
M
G
G
E
L
G
G
E
S-M
G
G
E
L
E
E
E

4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4

F
G
E

F
G
E

Thorny blackberries
Darrow
-25
2
S
F
F
G
4
4
Illini Hardy -20
4
M-L
G
G
E
4
4
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ripening:1 = early to mid summer; 2 = mid to late summer; 3 = late summer to early fall;
4 = early to late fall
Fruit size: S = small; M = medium; L = large
Fruit flavor, fresh use, and processing use: P = poor; F = fair; G = good; E = excellent
Disease resistance:1 = very susceptible; 2 = susceptible; 3 = moderately resistant; 4 = very resistant

17

Table 2. Fertilizers to add for each 10 feet of row.

Cow & horse*
manure or 10-10-10 or 20-20-20 or 21-0-0 or 36-0-0
(pounds)
(ounces) (ounces) (ounces) (ounces)

Year
Planting
2
3+

15
20
30

13
18
27

6.5
9
13.5

6.5
8.5
12.5

3.5
5.0
7.5

Note: Scatter fertilizer in a 2- to 3-foot-wide band centered on the berry row.

10-10-10 contains 10% each by weight N, P, and K,
20-20-20 contains 20 % each N, P, and K; 21-0-0 is ammonium sulfate,
36-0-0 is ammonium nitrate.
*Cow and horse manure contain about 0.5% N.
Rabbit and poultry manure contain about 1.8% N, so use one-third the
manure rates shown in table 2.

Table 3. Phosphorus fertilizer to add at planting for each 10 feet of row,

based on soil tests.
0-45-0a or
(ounces)
4.0
3.0
2.5

Soil test P
(ppm)
0 to 1.0
1.0 to 2.0
2.0 to 3.0
3.0 to 4.0
4.0 to 5.0
5.0 to 10.0

2.0
1.5
1.0

Steamed bone mealb

(ounces)
16
12
9.5
8.0
6.0
5.0

Above 10.0
0
0
Note: Scatter fertilizer in a 2- to 3-foot wide band centered on the berry row.
a
0-45-0 is triple-super phosphate.
b
Use steamed bone meal to avoid potential problems with human pathogens.

Table 4. Potassium fertilizer to add at planting for each 10 feet of row,

based on soil tests.
Soil test
(ppm)
0 to 50
50 to 75
75 to 100
Above 100

Potassium
Potassium Potassium-magnesium
sulfate or nitrate or sulfate (sul-po-mag)
(ounces)
(ounces)
(ounces)
4.0
2.5
2.0
0

5.0
3.5
2.5
0

10.0
7.0
5.0
0

Note: Scatter fertilizer in a 2- to 3-foot-wide band centered on the berry row.

18

When choosing fertilizers,

select those that are low in chlorides.

Fertilization
Raspberries and blackberries benefit from regular fertilization. Many fertilizers are available. Ammonium nitrate and
urea add only nitrogen to the soil. Ammonium sulfate adds
nitrogen and sulfur. Because ammonium sulfate acidifies
the soil, it is especially useful for growing sites with alkaline
soils. You may also choose to apply a complete fertilizer,
which contains nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
sometimes other plant nutrients.
When choosing fertilizers, select those that are low in
chlorides. Raspberries are particularly sensitive to chlorides.
Nitrogen. Nitrogen should normally be added each year.
How much nitrogen fertilizer to add depends on the age of
the planting (table 2). In general, if plants are stunted and
leaves are yellowish, add more nitrogen. If cane growth is
excessive, particularly if fruit set is poor and leaves are dark
green, reduce the amount of nitrogen fertilizer you are
applying.
Some fertilizers are very soluble and their nutrients become
available to plants quickly. Other fertilizers release nutrients
into the soil slowly, providing a steady supply of nutrients
to the plants. Both kinds of fertilizers can be used effectively.
For quick-release fertilizers, such as ammonium nitrate or
ammonium sulfate, determine the total amount of fertilizer
you will need to apply for the year. Then apply one-third of
that amount in early spring just as new growth begins.
Apply another third about the first of June and the final
third about the first of July. Splitting the fertilizer applica-

19

tions reduces loss of the nitrogen into the groundwater and

ensures a supply of nitrogen when plants most need it.
Slow-release fertilizers, such as sulfur-coated urea and
manure, can be applied all at once, but are best applied in
early spring.
Phosphorus and potassium. The amounts of phosphorus
and potassium in soils vary greatly from region to region
and you may or may not need to add these materials yearly.
A soil analysis will guide you on which fertilizers and how
much fertilizer to add (tables 3 and 4). Spread fertilizers in
2- to 3-foot-wide bands centered along the berry rows.
Sulfur and boron. Sulfur and boron are also important in
raspberry nutrition. If your soil test shows less than 10
parts per million (ppm) of sulfur, add 1/2 ounce of sulfur to
each 10 feet of row. Less than 0.5 ppm of boron in soil
tests indicates you need to add boron. Boron, however,
becomes toxic to plants at very low concentrations. Never
apply more than 1 to 2 pounds of actual boron per acre.
These rates are equivalent to 0.01 to 0.02 ounces of boron
per 10 feet of row.
Gypsum provides a safe and convenient way to add sulfur
and boron to crops. If soil tests show sulfur is deficient,
spread 5 ounces of gypsum along each 10 feet of row (175
pounds per acre). If boron is deficient, apply 5 ounces of
borated gypsum along each 10 feet of row. Borated gypsum
is available through farm supply stores. Never apply boroncontaining fertilizers in narrow bands. Instead, apply them
evenly throughout your planting using a broadcast fertilizer
spreader.
Magnesium. Magnesium concentrations less than 0.25
milliequivalents of charge per 100 grams of soil indicate
that magnesium is deficient. If your soil is deficient in
magnesium, add 5 to 6 ounces of magnesium sulfate
(epsom salts) or 5 to 6 ounces of potassium-magnesium
20

sulfate (sul-po-mag) for each 10 feet of row. Dolomitic

limestone also provides magnesium and is a good choice
when liming to increase soil pH. This material reacts slowly
in the soil and will raise the soil pH. If you apply dolomitic
limestone to correct a magnesium deficiency, add about 7
or 8 ounces for each 10 feet of row. Monitor your soil pH
closely and keep it between 5.6 and 7.0.
Iron chlorosis. Iron chlorosis is common in raspberries
grown on alkaline soils (soil pH above 7.0). Desert and
other arid-region soils are often alkaline. This disorder
causes stunted canes with leaves that are yellow to almost
white, except for their dark green veins.
To prevent iron chlorosis, avoid planting on alkaline or
heavy, poorly drained soils, and avoid both overwatering
and applying too much phosphorus. Keeping plants
generally healthy helps reduce the likelihood of chlorosis.
In small gardens you can use elemental sulfur to acidify the
soil and reduce chlorosis problems, but this practice is
usually too expensive for larger plantings. On alkaline soils,
regularly using ammonium sulfate fertilizer can help reduce
soil pH and chlorosis.
Manure tends to raise soil pH and can create iron chlorosis
problems on already alkaline soils. If your planting soil is
alkaline and you use manures, consider acidifying the soil
with elemental sulfur.
If chlorosis develops, consider applying iron directly to the
plants or soil. For soil applications, use only chelated
products. These are quite expensive and you must apply
them every year or two. Foliar sprays of iron-containing
materials can also prevent or reduce chlorosis. Follow label
directions carefully as these products can damage leaves.
You will probably have to apply iron sprays every 10 to 14
days during the growing season, usually in the late afternoon or early evening. Check with your garden center or
farm supply store for iron-containing fertilizers.
21

Weed control
Weed control in raspberries and blackberries is critical for
quick establishment and healthy canes. Preparing a weedfree bed before planting is the most important weed control step. Cultivation by hand or with rototillers controls
weeds after planting. Raspberries and blackberries are
shallow-rooted, however, so cultivate no deeper than 2 to 3
inches. Thornless blackberries sucker badly if their roots are
disturbed by cultivation, and the new canes they develop
are often thorny. A moderate amount of cultivation both
controls weeds and creates a loose surface layer that helps
retain soil moisture. Excessive cultivation with machines,
however, can destroy needed soil structure.
Medium-sized bark chips (1/2 to 11/2 inches in diameter) or
clean straw mulches can help control annual weeds.
Bramble roots grow into sawdust, fine bark, and compost
mulches, making the roots more susceptible to drought and
freezing. Fine-textured organic mulches also provide ideal
root environments for quackgrass, Canada thistle, and
other perennial weeds that spread underground. Because
brambles produce new canes from the crown and rhizomes,
weed barrier fabrics do not work well.
Some herbicides are registered for use on blackberries and
raspberries, and can be an important part of a weed control
program. Check with the extension system office in your
county to find out what herbicides are registered for your
area. Always follow label directions.

Medium-sized bark chips

(1/2 to 1 1/2 inches in diameter) or clean straw mulches
can help control annual weeds.

22

Winter protection
Even cold hardy brambles can be injured when warm
midwinter thaws are followed by sub-zero temperatures.
Cold, open winters with little or no snow are especially
likely to cause winter injury. Mulching the base of raspberry and blackberry plants with bark, straw, or pine
needles before winter helps protect the crowns from injury.
Even if the canes are injured or killed, new canes will arise
from the crowns. Use rodent traps or baits if you apply
mulches.
Because of poor cold hardiness, growing trailing blackberries is risky in the Inland Northwest and Intermountain
West. If you grow them, train the canes in wheels and
mulch them during the winter as described earlier.

Mulching the base of raspberry and blackberry

plants with bark, straw, or pine needles before winter
helps protect the crowns from injury.

Fall-bearing raspberries are well suited to very cold areas

that also have growing seasons long enough to mature fall
crops. Simply mow off all canes or selectively remove
injured canes during spring pruning. Mulching fall-bearing
raspberries during the winter can help protect the roots and
rhizomes from freezing injury.
Healthy canes are much more resistant to winter damage
than canes weakened by pests, diseases, poor nutrition,
over- or underwatering, weeds, shading, and other stresses.
Keeping canes healthy with good cultural practices helps
maximize cold hardiness. In dry areas, water the canes well
before the soil freezes.

23

Pruning
Proper pruning removes weak, damaged, and dead canes. It
also improves light and air movement throughout the
bushes, which reduces pest and disease problems and
ensures good bud development, well-colored fruit, and easy
picking. How to prune depends on the crop.
Fall-bearing raspberries. Fall-bearing raspberries produce
two crops each year, the first during the early summer on
floricanes and the second in late summer or early fall on
the tops of primocanes. If you double crop in this fashion,
prune in late fall to remove all spent floricanes that bore
fruit that summer. Also cut off the spent tops of
primocanes that bore that fall. In the spring, do not thin
out primocanes, but keep rows narrowed to no more than
about 18 inches wide.
Commercial growers often mow fall-bearing raspberries off
about 1 inch above the ground in early spring before
growth starts, allowing only the fall crop to develop.
Summer-bearing red and yellow raspberries. Prune these
crops twice each year.
1. In late fall to early spring, thin out the dormant canes
and head them back to about 6 feet tall. Remove dead or
weak canes and cut off winter- or disease-damaged cane
tips. Heading back floricanes makes picking easier but
reduces crop yields without increasing berry size. To
create a solid row of canes (hedgerow), leave four to six
of the strongest canes for every foot of row. For a hill
system, space the plants 21/2 to 3 feet apart and retain
10 to 12 canes per hill. Keep both hedgerow and hill
system rows no more than 12 inches wide.
2. After the summer harvest, remove the spent floricanes.

24

Black and purple raspberries. Tip black raspberry

primocanes during the summer to stimulate the lateral
shoots that bear fruit. Tipping means pinching or pruning
off the terminal 2 to 3 inches of primocanes. Tip black
raspberries when the canes are 18 to 24 inches tall. Tip
each primocane only once.
During late fall to early spring, remove short and weak
canes. Cut back the remaining canes to 5 to 6 feet above
the ground and head back lateral shoots to about 8 inches
long. After harvest, remove the canes that bore fruit.
Prune purple raspberries the same as black raspberries, but
tip the primocanes when they are 30 to 36 inches tall, and,
when plants are dormant, head lateral shoots to between
10 and 18 inches (fig. 5).
Blackberries. Prune and train erect cultivars the same as
purple raspberries, but head laterals to 18- to 24-inch
lengths (fig. 5). During the growing season, tip primocanes
when they reach 30 to 36 inches of height. After harvest,
remove the canes that bore fruit.
Blackberries grow best in hills about 5 feet apart. Thin out
the canes during the dormant season, keeping as many as
seven or eight strong canes per hill. Remove suckers that
develop between rows and hills. Erect blackberries can be
grown without support, but growing them between two
wires helps keep the canes confined and manageable.
Do not tip trailing blackberry primocanes or head back
floricanes. Instead, wind them into wheels of canes as
discussed under Support. After the harvest, cut off spent
floricanes. Blackberries typically develop dense, thorny
thickets and can become troublesome weeds if abandoned
or allowed to grow out of control.

25

2 to 3
inches

Purple raspberries
and erect blackberries
30 to 36 inches
Black raspberries
18 to 24 inches

A. Summer tipping of primocanes

5 to 6
feet

B. Dormant pruning

Figure 5. Tipping and pruning black raspberries,

purple raspberries, and erect blackberries.
(A) In summer, tip black raspberries when primocanes are
18 to 24 inches tall.Tip purple raspberries and erect
blackberries when primocanes are 30 to 36 inches tall.
(B) During the dormant season, shorten black raspberry
laterals (side shoots) to about 8 inches long. Shorten purple
raspberry laterals to 10 to 18 inches long. Shorten
blackberry laterals to 18 to 24 inches long.
After harvest, remove the canes that bore fruit.

26

Harvesting and storing your berries

Except in large commercial plantings, raspberries and
blackberries are usually harvested by hand. The berries are
delicate and easily damaged by rough handling. For fresh
use, pick ripe berries gently and collect them in shallow
containers no more than four or five berries deep. Berries
intended for processing can be picked into larger containers. Pick only healthy, intact fruit. Damaged berries leak
juice and quickly rot.
For best fruit quality and storage life, cool raspberries and
blackberries to between 34o and 36oF as quickly as possible
after picking. A few hours delay can result in the loss of
juice from the fruit and poor fruit quality. Cool the fruit by
placing it dry into a refrigerator. Do not immerse the fruit
in water. Wet berries quickly rot, even in a refrigerator.
Rinse off the berries just before use.
Raspberries and blackberries freeze well. Harvest the berries
as for fresh use. Wash the berries and allow them to dry in
a colander or spread out on towels. When the berries are
dry, spread them in layers one berry deep on cookie sheets
lined with waxed paper and place the sheets into a freezer.
The berries will freeze individually, and you can store them
in plastic bags or food storage containers. Simply pour out
the berries you need and place the rest back into the freezer.
Berries intended for sale are generally picked into the
baskets in which they will be sold. The berries are not
removed from the picking containers for sorting and are
not washed before sale. Half-pint and pint containers made
from cardboard or plastic are generally used for fresh sales.
These containers are usually collected into cardboard flats
that hold 12 picking baskets. As for home use, the berries
should be cooled to between 34o and 36oF as quickly as
possible after picking. Commercially, fresh market berries
are usually cooled in forced air tunnels within walk-incoolers.
27

Controlling insect pests and diseases

Although raspberries and blackberries are susceptible to
many insect pests and diseases, only a few are serious in the
Inland Northwest and Intermountain West. Proper site
selection, soil preparation, and plant selection are important steps in preventing pest and disease problems.
Sometimes pests and diseases are controlled using insecticides, fungicides, or miticides. Because regulations governing the availability and use of these materials change
frequently, contact your local cooperative extension office,
garden center, or farm store for up-to-date information.

Insects and mites

Spider mites occasionally become serious
during hot, dusty weather. Spider mites have
eight legs. Use a magnifying lens to
examine the bottoms of leaves
where the tiny mites feed and spin
their webs. Affected leaves take on a
speckled appearance or bronze color.
Natural predators usually control spider mites, but the
mites can become numerous if their predators are killed by
excessive pesticide use. Both organic and nonorganic
pesticides are available to control spider mites. Keep bushes
open by proper pruning and reduce dust by maintaining
roads and alleys in grass or cover crops or by mulching.
Raspberry cane borers cause sudden wilting and drooping
of canes. The adult flies lay eggs under the skins of the
canes. One borer species attacks the tips of canes. Two
other species lay their eggs at the bases of canes. The white
larvae that develop from the eggs burrow through the
center of the canes.

28

Control cane borers by pruning out and then burning or

discarding affected canes. Preventative insecticides can be
applied to the canes before bloom.
Leafrollers. Several caterpillar-like pests known as leafrollers
cause rolling of raspberry and blackberry leaves. These pests
seldom become serious. If they become numerous, you can
easily control them using either biological or chemical
pesticides. In garden plots, pick off and discard infected
leaves.
Thrips, fruit worms, and other minor insect
pests can also be controlled with organic or
nonorganic insecticides.

Diseases
Anthracnose. Anthracnose is a common fungal disease in
the western United States, and can cause serious damage.
Black raspberries are most seriously damaged, but the
disease can infect red raspberries, purple raspberries, and
occasionally blackberries. Outbreaks are most severe in wet
weather.
Symptoms include small reddish-purple spots that appear
most often on canes, but can also occur on leaves, fruit,
and flowers. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge,
become sunken, and turn tan or gray. On leaves, the spots
can develop white centers that fall out, leaving a shot hole
appearance. Affected canes weaken and may die, especially
during the winter. Fruit laterals can be malformed and fruit
ripening delayed.
Good cultural practices reduce Anthracnose problems.
Prune regularly to remove dead and diseased canes. Keep

29

rows narrowed to the widths recommended in the pruning

section of this publication and keep bushes open to improve air and light penetration. Remove prunings from the
planting and burn them or discard them in the trash.
In areas where Anthracnose is severe, avoid sprinkler
irrigation and apply water directly to the bases of the
plants. Apply dormant sprays of lime sulfur or Bordeaux
mix where pesticide regulations allow. The red raspberry
cultivars Heritage, Chilcotin, and Nootka are resistant to
the disease.
Cane blight. Cane blight is caused by a fungus that attacks
all brambles. This disease usually attacks primocanes
wounded by mechanical harvesting, and seldom occurs in
home or small commercial plantings. Damaging
primocanes with string trimmers or mowers also can open
them up to infection.
Cane blight is best controlled by good cultural practices:
avoid damaging primocanes, do not use overhead sprinkler
irrigation, and keep rows narrow and open with good
pruning. Apply lime-sulfur or Bordeaux sprays in the
spring after pruning.
Crown and cane gall. Two bacteria are responsible for
crown and cane galls. These diseases attack all blackberries
and raspberries and other woody plants in at least 93
families. Affected plants weaken and often die, making this
a particularly serious disease.
Crown gall bacteria live in the soil and invade plants
through wounds on the roots or lower stems. The most
obvious symptom is the formation of rough, scabby ridges
or round growths. These galls occur most often on the
roots and crown near the soil surface (crown gall), but can
develop high up on canes (cane gall). Affected canes are
weak, stunted, often yellowish, and unproductive.

30

There are no treatments for cane gall- or crown gallinfected plants. Rogue out and destroy them when you
note symptoms.
The disease organism can survive in the soil for at least
three years. When planting, select a site that has shown no
evidence of the disease. If possible, avoid planting where
shrubs or trees have grown for at least three years. Planting
sites previously used for vegetables, grains, or pasture are
best. Plant using new stock from a reputable nursery.
Tissue cultured or nursery-matured plants are least likely to
harbor the pathogens.

Keeping plants generally healthy

is the best way to reduce crumbly fruit.

Crumbly berry. Occasionally raspberry canes bear crumbly

berries that literally fall apart when you pick them. Viruses
and other diseases, poor nutrition, weather conditions, and
pesticide damage can cause crumbly fruit. Some cultivars
are more susceptible to crumbly fruit than others. Keeping
plants generally healthy is the best way to reduce crumbly
fruit. If the problem persists, consider eliminating your
raspberry plants and replanting with new nursery stock in a
different location.
Cane Botrytis, blossom blight, and fruit rot. These diseases
are all caused by one fungus. The disease can become very
serious in wet years and may kill infected canes.
On canes, symptoms appear in mid to late summer as pale
brown lesions on primocane leaves. The pathogen moves
into the cane and can girdle it. During winter, the cane
lesions become a prominent gray or white. Flowers infected
with Botrytis die and are covered with grayish-black mold.
Infected fruit develops tan spots on drupelets. Grayishblack mold then quickly covers the fruit.
31

Good cultural practices greatly reduce Botrytis problems.

Proper pruning and training will help ensure good air
movement and light penetration through the plants. Avoid
sprinkler irrigation, if possible. If you use sprinklers, water
early in the day to allow the canes, leaves, and fruit to dry
quickly. Remove dead and diseased plants and all prunings
from the planting. Commercial growers in wet regions use
fungicides to control this disease.
Phytophthora root rot. Phytophthora root rot is the most
serious red raspberry disease worldwide. Several species of
Phytophthora fungi seem to cause root rot. The fungi
primarily infect red and yellow raspberries and their hybrids, but can also infect black raspberries.
Affected plants begin to thin out, producing fewer canes
each year. Primocanes begin developing normally, then wilt
suddenly. Infected floricanes often leaf out, flower, and
begin setting fruit. Before the fruit ripens, however, the
canes die and the leaves become brittle and yellow with
brownish-red streaks. Developing fruit dry up and shrivel.

Phytophthora root rot is the most serious

red raspberry disease worldwide.

To confirm your diagnosis of Phytophthora, pull an affected cane and its attached roots and rhizomes out of the
ground. Use a knife to scrape away the bark from the lower
cane, crown, and roots. Healthy tissues will be green or
white. Tissues infected by root rot will be cinnamon brown
with distinct borders between the infected and healthy
tissues.
The fungi that cause the disease occur naturally in the soil
and can be rapidly spread in running water; on machines,

32

tools, and feet; and on infected plants. Spores from the

fungi can live in the soil for many years.
Naturally wet or overirrigated soils greatly increase the
occurrence and severity of root rot. Likewise certain cultivars are especially susceptible to root rot. The most important steps in avoiding root rot are to plant on well-drained
soils and select rot-resistant cultivars (table 1). Whenever
possible, plant red raspberries on raised beds or ridges 6 to
12 inches high and 2 to 3 feet wide. Fungicides are available that can control root rot in affected plantings. The
fungicides, however, are quite expensive and less effective in
controlling the disease than using raised beds and resistant
cultivars.
Spur blight. This fungal disease attacks blackberries and
raspberries. Red raspberries are most seriously affected.
Severe outbreaks usually occur only in poorly managed
beds or fields that are overrun with weeds or are overfertilized.
Symptoms begin as wedge-shaped, dark lesions on the tips
and margins of primocane leaves. Before the infected leaves
fall, the fungus invades the stems and buds at the bases of
the leaves. Purplish-brown lesions then develop around the
infected buds. On floricanes, infected buds produce poorly
developed laterals and leaves or do not produce them at all.
Several raspberry cultivars are reportedly resistant to spur
blight (table 1). The best way to control the disease is to
maintain a well-managed planting. Keep berry rows pruned
and open to allow light and air exposure. Control weeds.
Avoid sprinkler irrigation. Apply a lime-sulfur spray in the
spring as the buds are swelling. Other fungicides also
control spur blight.

33

Viruses. Raspberries and blackberries are susceptible to

several virus and virus-like diseases. Blackberries usually
tolerate virus infections better than other brambles. Infected raspberries gradually decline and can eventually die.
Viruses often kill or seriously damage black raspberries.
Symptoms include shrunken, deformed leaves that may be
a mottled green or have distinct yellow patches or patterns.
Viruses can be spread by infected planting stock, on pruning tools, by nematodes, and by aphids.
There are no treatments for virus-infected plants. If you
suspect that a raspberry or blackberry is infected with a
virus, pull the plant out and burn it or dispose of it.
Buy plants certified virus indexed. Eliminate all wild and
virus-infected domestic raspberries and blackberries within
300 feet of your planting site. Control aphids from spring
through fall using insecticidal soap or other registered
pesticides.

There are no treatments for virus-infected plants.

If you suspect that a raspberry or blackberry
is infected with a virus, pull the plant out
and burn it or dispose of it.

34

Gardening publications
from the University of Idaho
Specialty Farming in Idaho: Is It for Me? (EXT 743) ...... $1.00
Specialty Farming in Idaho: Selecting a Site (EXT 744) .. $1.00
Berry Varieties for Idaho (EXT 739) ............................... $2.00
Insects and Mites Destructive to Berries (CIS 628) ............ 50
Diseases of Raspberries in Idaho (CIS 789) ........................ 35
Raspberry Production: Overview (CIS 960) ....................... 50
Raspberries: 1991 Production Costs in Northern Idaho
(CIS 943) .......................................................................... 50
Growing Strawberries in the Inland Northwest
and Intermountain West (BUL 810) ........................ $2.50
Growing Blueberries in the Inland Northwest
and Intermountain West (BUL 815) ........................ $2.50
You can order these publications from the University of Idaho
Cooperative Extension System office in your county or directly
from
Agricultural Publications
University of Idaho
Moscow, ID 83844-2240

phone: (208) 885-7982

fax: (208) 885-4648
email: cking@uidaho.edu

Please include 50 postage for the first publication and 25 for

each additional publication. Idaho residents add 5% sales tax.
For other University of Idaho publications,
check the Resources for Idaho web site at
http://info.ag.uidaho.edu

Market gardeners, home gardeners,

here are crops beautifully suited to the Inland Northwest
and well into Idahos border regions in Montana, Wyoming, and Utah.
Growing Raspberries & Blackberries gives you the information you need to plan, plant, and raise healthy raspberry
and blackberry plantings in a market garden or backyard
bed. Learn about cultivars whose fragile berries youll never
see in a supermarket, despite their surpassing flavor. Read
about the routine, nonchemical practices that will bring
heavy crops and keep your plants nearly pest free.

Did you know?

By growing several cultivars, you can enjoy fresh
berries from early summer through late fall.
Nursery-grown plants nearly always grow better than
transplants from established beds because they harbor
fewer pests and diseases.
Overhead sprinkling can encourage fruit and cane
diseases. To keep your canes healthy (and conserve
water) use drip irrigation or other methods that apply
water directly to the soil.

Issued in furtherance of cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home

economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, LeRoy D. Luft, Director of Cooperative Extension
System, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844. The University of Idaho
provides equal opportunity in education and employment on the basis of race,
color, religion, national origin, gender, age, disability, or status as a Vietnam-era
veteran, as required by state and federal laws.

BUL 812

Published May 1999

$2.50