Electrical Instrumentations

and Measurements
(BEH 10102)
Basic Concept of
Instrumentations and
Measurements

Instrumentations
And
Measurements

Instruments

A device or mechanism used to determine the

present value of a quantity under observation
Purpose: supply information about some variable
quantity that is to be measured
Basic functions:

Indicating: Provide a visual indication to the quantity being

measured
Recording: Store the quantity in a permanent record
Controlling: Control the quantity

Measurement
The process of determining the amount,
quantity, degree, or capacity by
comparing an unknown quantity with an
accepted standard quantity.
Purposes:
To monitor a process or operation
To control a process

Measurement Processes

Measurement is a process where physical parameters

are changed to significant figures by using certain
instruments.
Those significant figures must followed by units for
showing the characteristic of the measured physical
parameter
Input Signal

Output Signal
Measuring
instrument

Physical
parameters

Electrical
parameters

Before Measurements
1.

Measurement method: Identify what are the

parameters to be measured, what the best method is,
how much measurement is needed and how to record
the results.

2.

Parameters characteristics: whether ac or dc, the

frequencies etc.

3.

Quality: cost and time allotted, instruments capabilities,

measurement knowledge and proper results.

4.

Instruments: choose the right instruments such as

analog or digital, and also some experience and/or
knowledge to operate the instruments.

Doing Measurement
1.

Quality: make sure that the chosen instrument is the

best for that measurement, proper position in getting
the data, taking enough measurements whether the
results are reliable.

2.

Safety first: effect of electrical shock, overload,

instruments limits and dont forget to read the manual.

3.

Sampling: observe the changes in the physical

parameters while measuring, identify which ones
should be measured if the parameters are changing,
take enough readings and ensure the sample readings
are acceptable and reliable.

After Measuring

The process of measurement does not end

only with data collection.

The data obtained must be analyzed,

mathematically/statistically and the results
must be reported completely and accurate.

Instrumentation System
Physical
parameters
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Velocity
- Displacement
- Force

Sensors/
Transducers

Signal
conditioner
- Bridges
- Amplifiers
- Filters

Signal
converter
- A/D or D/A
converters
- F/V converters
- V/C converters

Display
- Oscilloscope
- Meter
- Plotter
- Computer

Instrumentation System

An instrumentation system should have sensors, signal

conditioners, signal converters and a display.

Sensors/transducers are used to sense the physical parameters

and convert the parameters into electrical signals.

These signals will be conditioned by signal conditioner for

eliminating noises, amplification purposes and others.

Then the signals will be sent to signal converters so that it will be

suitable for display, whether in digital, analog, current, voltage,
pulse or other forms.

Analog and Digital Instruments

Analog instrument
Values of the measured parameters are shown by the deflection
of a pointer.
The pointer is deflected continuously with the changes in the
measured analog parameters/signals.
The readings may not be accurate due to parallax error while
taking the readings.
Example: analog ammeters, voltmeters, ohmmeters etc.
Digital instrument
Values of the measured parameters are shown in digital form
(significant figures) where it can be read directly.
With this method, parallax error is eliminated.
Digital instruments use digital signals, which is logic binary 0
and 1 method.
Example: digital multimeters, frequency counters etc.

Characteristics of an
Instrument

Accuracy: Showing how close the readings

shown by the instrument to the exact values of
the measured parameters. Usually, the accuracy
of an instrument is depicted in percentage (%).

Precision: The instruments capability of

showing the same readings if the
measurements were to be done repeatedly. If the
readings are constantly the same with the
repeated measurement, then the instrument is
said to be very precise. An accurate instrument
must be high in precision, but high in precision
doesnt mean it will show the exact values of
measurement.

Characteristics of an
Instrument

Sensitivity: Showing the ratio of the changes in the

output readings to the changes in the input, which
is the measured parameter.

Linearity: An instrument is said to be linear if the

output is linearly proportional to the measured
parameters.

Range: The minimum and maximum limit for the

instrument to operate correctly and usually it is set by
the manufacturer.

Nominal value: Values (input and output) set by the

manufacturer in the instruments instruction manual.

Characteristics of an
Instrument

Tolerance: Maximum deviation from the actual value.

Bias: Constant error in the instrument, where the instruments

pointer doesnt start at zero.

Dead zone/band: Certain ranges at which the instrument will not

give any readings although there are changes in the measured
parameters.

Zero drift: Zero reading of the instrument is changed from the

origin.

Chapter 1
Error in Measurement

Introduction
Measuring is basically used to monitor a process or
operation, or as well as the controlling process.
For example, thermometers, barometers, anemometers
are used to indicate the environmental conditions.
Similarly, water, gas and electric meters are used to keep
track of the quantity of the commodity used, and also
special monitoring equipment are used in hospitals.

Introduction
The major problem encountered with any measuring
instrument is the error.
Therefore, it is obviously necessary to select the
appropriate measuring instrument and measurement
method which minimizes error.

To avoid errors in any experimental work, careful

planning, execution and evaluation of the experiment
are essential.

Performance Characteristics
A knowledge of the performance
characteristics of an instrument is
essential for selecting the most suitable
instrument for specific measuring jobs.

It consists of two basic characteristics Static and Dynamic

Static Characteristics
The static characteristics of an instrument
are, in general, considered for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying
process condition.
All the static-performance characteristics are
obtained by one form or another of a process
called calibration.

Static Characteristics
Instrument
Measurement
Accuracy
Resolution

A device or mechanism used to determine the

present value of the quantity under measurement.
The process of determining the amount, degree, or
capacity by comparison (direct or indirect) with the
accepted standards
of the system units being used.

The degree of exactness (closeness) of a

measurement compared to the expected (desired)
value.
The smallest change in a measured variable to
which an instrument will respond.

Static Characteristics..
Precision

A measure of the consistency or repeatability of

measurements, i.e. successive reading do not differ.
(Precision is the consistency of the instrument output for a
given value of input).

Expected
value

The design value, i.e. the most probable value that

calculations indicate one should expect to
measure.

Error
Sensitivity

The deviation of the true value from the desired

value.
The ratio of the change in output (response)
of the instrument to a change of input or measured
variable.

Error of Measurement
Some factors that affect the measurements are related to the
measuring instruments themselves.
Other factors are related to the person using the instrument.
The degree to which a measurement nears the expected value Is
expressed in terms of the error of measurement.
Error may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage of
error.

Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the

expected value of the variable and the measured value of the
variable,

Absolute and Percent Error

Error: The degree to which a measurement conforms to the

expected value.
Absolute error: the difference between the expected value of the
variable and the measured value of the variable
e = Yn Xn
e: absolute error
Yn: expected value
Xn: measured value

Percent error

Absolute error
100 %
Expected value

Example 1.1

The expected value of the voltage across a

resistor is 50V, however the measurement yields
49V.
The absolute error
e = 50 49 = 1V
1
100 %
The percent of error =
50

= 2%

Accuracy
It is more frequently expressed as a accuracy
rather than error

Example 1.2

The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 50V, however

the measurement yields 49V.

Accuracy:

A 1

Yn X n
Yn

50 49
50
1
1
50
0.98

Percent accuracy:
a = 100% - 2% = 98%
= A x 100% = 0.98 x 100% = 98%

Exercise 1.0

The expected value of the voltage across a

resistor is 80 V. However, the measurement
gives a value of 79 V. Calculate:
(i) absolute error,
(ii) % error,
(iii) relative accuracy, and
(iv) % of accuracy.

Solution

Precision

A measure of the consistency or repeatability of

measurements
A quantitative or numerical indication of the closeness with
which a repeated set of measurements of the same variable
agrees with the average of the set of measurement

Xn Xn
Precision 1
Xn
X n : the value of the n th measuremen t
X n : the average of the set of n measuremen ts

Example 1.4

Table 1.1 gives the set of 10 measurement that were recorded in the
laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 5th measurement
Measureme
nt
Number

Measurement
Value
Xn (volts)

98

102

101

97

100

103

98

106

107

10

99

Solution

Exercise 1.1
Measurement
Number

Measurement Value
Xn (volts)

98

102

101

97

100

103

98

106

107

10

99

Calculate the precision Precision

of the 4th measurement

Solution
Xn Xn
Precision 1
Xn
97 101 .1
1
101 .1
1 0.04
0.96

Static Error
gross errors or
human errors,
Static
errors are systematic
errors,
categorized

and
random
as
errors.

a. Gross Error

The fault of the person using the

instruments
Due such things as incorrect reading of
instruments, incorrect recording of
experimental data, or incorrect use of
instruments

b. Systematic Error

Due to problems with instruments,

environmental effects, or observational errors
Recur if several measurements are made of the
same quantity under the same conditions
Instrument errors
Environmental errors
Observational errors

i. Instrumental Errors
Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of
their mechanical structure.

May be due to friction in the bearings of the meter movement, incorrect

spring tension, improper calibration, or faulty instruments
Can be reduced by proper maintenance, use, and handling of
instruments.
Instrumental errors can be avoided by;
selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement applications.
applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental
error.
calibrating the instrument against a standard.

ii. Environmental Errors

Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring
device, including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument,
such as the effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric
pressure or of magnetic or electrostatic fields.
These errors can also be avoided by;
(i) air conditioning,
(ii) hermetically sealing certain components in the instruments, and
(iii) using magnetic shields.

iii. Observational Errors

Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer.

The most common error is the parallax error introduced in reading a

meter scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading
from a meter scale.
These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers. For
example, an observer may always introduce an error by consistently
holding his head too far to-the left while reading a needle and scale
reading.

Sensitivity of a Voltmeter

The sensitivity of a voltmeter is given in ohms per

volt. It is determined by dividing the sum of the
resistance of the meter (Rm), plus the series
resistance (Rs), by the full-scale reading in volts.
In equation form, sensitivity is expressed as
follows:

This is the same as saying the sensitivity is equal

to the reciprocal of the full-scale deflection current

Example 1.5

A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1 k/V is connected

across an unknown resistance in series with a
milliammeter reading 80 V on 150 V scale. When the
milliammeter reads 10 mA, calculate the :
(i) Apparent resistance of the unknown resistance,
(ii) Actual resistance of the unknown resistance, and
(iii) Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

Solution

Exercise 1.2

Referring to Ex. 1.5, if the milliammeter reads 600 mA

and the voltmeter reads 30 V on a 150 V scale,
calculate the following:
(i) Apparent resistance of the unknown resistance,
(ii) Actual resistance of the unknown resistance,
(iii) Error due to loading effect of the voltmeter.

Solution

The total circuit resistance is given by

The voltmeter resistance Rv equals

Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of unknown

resistance = 50 .

c. Absolute Error and Relative Errors

(Reference Book/Modul)

If a resistor is known to have a resistance of 100 with possible

error of 10 , the 10 is an absolute error (This is because
10 is stated as an absolute quantity, NOT as a percentage of
the 100 resistance)

When the error is expressed as a percentage or as fraction pf the

total resistance, it becomes a relative error.

Thus the 10 is 10%, relative to 100 (10% dpd 100 = 10

)

So the resistance can be specified as R=100

10%

Absolute Error and Relative Errors

If the voltage is measured as 20.00 V using an

instrument which is known to have a 0.02 V
error. The measured voltage can be stated as
20.00 V 0.02 V .
The 0.02 V is an absolute quantity, so it is an
absolute error.
But 0.02 V is also 0.1% relative to 20V
So the measured quantity can be expressed
as 20V 0.1% and now the error is stated as
relative error

d. Random Errors
These are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors
have been substantially reduced or at least accounted for.
Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large
number of small effects and may be of real concern only in
measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy.
Such errors can be analyzed statistically.

These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in

the ordinary process of making measurements.

Sources of Error
The sources
of error, other
than the
inability of a
piece of
hardware to
provide a true
measurement,
are as follows:

Insufficient knowledge of process

parameters and design conditions
Poor design
Change in process parameters,
irregularities, upsets, etc.
Poor maintenance
Errors caused by person operating
the instrument or equipment
Certain design limitations

Measurement Error
Combinations

When a quantity is calculated from measurements

made on two (or more) instruments the error due to
instrument inaccuracy combine in worst possible
way.
The resulting error is then larger than the error in
any one instrument.
Calculations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Sum of quantities
Difference of quantities
Product of quantities
Quotient of quantities
Quantity raised to a power

1. Sum of Quantities
A quantity is determined as the sum of two
measurements.

Sum of Quantities..
The total error is the sum of absolute error in each
measurement.
E = V1+V2
E = (V1 V1) + (V2 V2)
E= (V1+V2) (V1 + V2)

Example 1.4
Voltage measurement
1st voltage: V1 = 100V 1%
2nd voltage: V2 = 80V 5%
The sum of two voltage measurements:
V1 = 100V 1% = 100V 1V
V2 = 80V 5% = 80V 4V
E = V1 + V2
= (100V 1V) + (80V 4V)
= 180V 5V
= 180V 2.8%
Notes:
We can not add the percentage directly
The absolute error must be summed to find the total error

2. Difference of quantities
A potential difference is determined as the
difference between two measured voltages

Difference of Quantities

E = V1-V2
E = (V1 V1) - (V2 V2)

E = (V1 - V2) (V1 + V2)

Example 1.5
Voltage measurement
1st voltage: V1 = 100V 1%
2nd voltage: V2 = 80V 5%
The difference of two voltage measurements:
V1 = 100V 1% = 100V 1V
V2 = 80V 5% = 80V 4V
E = V1 - V2
= (100V 1V) - (80V 4V)
= 20 5V
= 20 25%
Notes:
The percentage error in the difference of two quantities can be very large.
If the difference was smaller, the percentage error would be even larger.
Measurement systems involving the difference of two quantities should be
avoided.

3. Product of Quantities
When a calculated quantity is the product of two
or more quantities, the percentage error is the
sum of the percentage errors in each quantity

Product of Quantities
P = EI
= (E E)(/ /)
= EI EI /E EI
Since EI is very small
P = EI (EI + /E)
EI IE
100 %
EI
EI IE

100 %
EI
EI
I E

100 %
E
I

Percentage error

% error in P = % error in I + % error in E

4. Quotient of quantities

It can be shown that the percentage error is the

sum of the percentage errors in each quantity.

E E
R
I I

Solution
E E
I I
IR IR E E

E
I

Percent error in

E E IR
R
I
E E IR

I
I

E IR

I
100 %

E

E IR

100 %
E

E IR

100 %
E
E
E I

100 %
I
E

5. Quantity Raised to a Power

When a quantity A is raised to a power B, the

percentage error in AB can be shown to be

For a current, I with an accuracy of 3%, the

error in I2 is 2(3%) = 6%

Example 1.6

An 820 resistance with an accuracy of 10% carries a current of

10 mA. The current was measured by an analog ammeter on a 25
mA range with an accuracy of 2% of full scale. Calculate the power
dissipated in the resistor, and determine the accuracy of the result.
Solution

Measurement Error
Combinations Summary

For X = A B,
For X = AB,

For X = A/B,
For X = AB,

error in X = [(error in A) + (error in B)]

% error in X = [(% error in A) + (% error in B)]
% error in X = [(% error in A) - (% error in B)]
% error in X = B(% error in A)

Statistical Analysis

Result of the measurement is affected by many

factors.
Example: Measure the resistance of a resistor
Factors: type and purity of the wire material,
temperature, length, cross sectional area,
current distribution etc.
When we know exactly the affecting factor the
difference in the result of measurement can be
explained.

Statistical Analysis (cont.)

If the factors can not be identified and act

purely random statistical analysis of the
data.
Statistical analysis:

Mean value
Average deviation
Standard deviation

Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic
mean of the number of readings taken.
The best approximation is possible when the number of readings
of the same quantity is very large.
The sum of a set of numbers divided by the total number of pieces
of data

Deviation from the Mean

This is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the
group of readings. If the deviation of the first reading, x1 is called d1
and that of the second reading x2 is called d2 and so on,
Deviation: the difference between each piece of test data and the
arithmetic mean. The deviations from the mean can be expressed as

The deviation may be positive or negative. The

of all the deviations must be zero.

algebraic sum

Example 1.7
For the following given data, calculate
(i) Arithmetic mean
(ii) Deviation of each value
(iii) Algebraic sum of the deviations

Solution

Solution..

Solution

Average Deviations
Average deviation may be expressed as

Highly precise instruments yield a low average deviation between

readings.

Example 1.8
Calculate the average deviation for the data given in Example 1.4.
Solution:
The average deviation is calculated as follows

Therefore, the average deviation = 0.232.

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of an infinite number of
data is the Square root of the sum of all the
individual deviations squared, divided by the
number of readings. It may be expressed as

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is also known as root mean
square deviation, and is the most important factor in
the statistical analysis of measurement data.
Reduction in this quantity effectively means
improvement in measurement.

For small readings (n < 30), the denominator is

frequently expressed as (n - 1) to obtain a more
accurate value for the standard deviation.

Example 1.8
Calculate the standard deviation for the data given in Example 1.4.
Solution:

Probable Error
For the case of a large number of measurements in
which only random errors are present, it can be shown
that the probable error in any one measurement is
0.6745 times the standard deviation:

Probable error = 0.6745

Limiting Errors
Most manufacturers of measuring instruments specify
accuracy within a certain % of a full scale reading.

For example, the manufacturer of a certain voltmeter may

specify the instrument to be accurate within 2% with full
scale deflection.

This specification is called the limiting error. This means that a

full scale deflection reading is guaranteed to be within the
limits of 2% of a perfectly accurate reading; however, with a
reading less than full scale, the limiting error increases.

Example 1.9
A 600 V voltmeter is specified to be accurate
within 2% at full scale. Calculate the limiting
error when the instrument is used to measure a
voltage of 250 V.
Solution:
The magnitude of the limiting error is 0.02 x 600
= 12 V. Therefore, the limiting error is 250 V is
12/250 x 100 = 4.8%

Example 2.0

A voltmeter reading 70 V on its 100 V range

and an ammeter reading 80 mA on its 150
mA range are used to determine the power
dissipated in a resistor. Both these
instruments are guaranteed to be accurate
within 1.5% at full scale deflection.
Determine the limiting error of the power.

Solution

Therefore, the limiting error for the power calculation is the sum of
the individual limiting errors involved. Therefore, limiting error =
2.143 % + 2.813 % = 4.956 %

Dynamic Characteristics

Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the

measured variables.

Instead, they exhibit slowness or sluggishness due to such things as

mass, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electric capacitance.
In addition to this, pure delay in time is often encountered where the
instrument waits for some reaction to take place.
Such industrial instruments are nearly always used for measuring
quantities that fluctuate with time.

Dynamic Characteristics..

Therefore, the dynamic and transient behaviour of

the instrument is as important as the static
behaviour.
The dynamic behaviour of an instrument is
determined by subjecting its primary element
(sensing element) to some unknown and
predetermined variations in the measured quantity.

3 most common variations in

the measured quantity
Step
change,

in which the primary element is subjected to an

instantaneous and finite change in measured
variable.

Linear
change,

in which the primary element is following a

measured variable, changing linearly with time.

Sinusoidal
change,

in which the primary element follows a measured

variable, the magnitude of which changes in
accordance with a sinusoidal function of
constant amplitude.

Dynamic Characteristics of an
instrument
Speed of
Response

It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds

to changes in the measured quantity,

Fidelity

It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the

changes in the measured variable without dynamic
error (faithful reproduction),

Lag
Dynamic Error

It is the retardation or delay in the response of an

instrument to changes in the measured variable.

It is the difference between the true value of a

quantity changing with time and the value indicated
by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.

Dynamic Response..
The relations between any input and output can, by using suitable
simplifying assumptions, be written as

a's and bs are combinations of systems physical parameters,

assumed constant.

Zero-order Instruments
When all the a's and b's, other than ao and bo are assumed to be zero,
the differential equation degenerates into the simple equation given as

Any instrument that closely obeys above Eq 1.2 over its intended
range of operating conditions is defined as a zero-order instrument.
The static sensitivity (or steady state gain) of a zero-order instrument
may be defined as follows

where

static sensitivity

Zero-order Instruments..

Since the equation xo = Kxi is an algebraic equation, it is clear that no

matter how xi might vary with time, the instrument output (reading)
follows it perfectly with no distortion or time lag of any sort.
Thus, a zero-order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic
performance.
A practical example of a zero order instrument is the displacement
measuring potentiometer.

First-order Instruments
If in Eq. (1.1) all a's and bs other than ai ao, bo are taken as zero, we get

Any instrument that follows this equation is called a first order instrument.
By dividing by ao, the equation can be written as

First-order Instruments..
The time constant always has the dimensions of time while
the static sensitivity K has the dimensions of output/input.

The operational transfer function of any first order instrument is

A very common example of a first-order instrument is a

mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Second Order Instrument

A second order instrument is defined as one that follows the equation

The above equations can be reduced as

Second Order Instrument..

Any instrument following this equation is a

second order instrument. A practical
example of this type is the spring balance.
Linear devices range from mass-spring
arrangements, transducers, amplifiers and
filters to indicators and recorders.

1st and 2nd Order Devices

Most devices have first or second order responses, i.e. the
equations of motion describing the devices are either first or
second order linear differentials.

For example, a search coil and mercury-in-glass

thermometer have a first order response.
Filters used at the output of a phase sensitive detector
and amplifiers used in feedback measuring systems
essentially have response due to a single time constant.
First order systems involve only one kind of energy, e-g, thermal
energy in the case of a thermometer, while a characteristic feature of
second order system is an exchange between two types of
energy, e.g. electrostatic and electromagnetic energy in electrical
LC circuits, moving coil indicators and electromechanical
recorders.

Significant Figure
Indicate the precision of the measurement
Measurement using digital voltmeter:

Display: 8.135V 4 (four) significant figures Measurement

precision: 0.001V = 1mV
Display: 8.13V 3 (three) significant figures Measurement
precision: 0.01V = 10mV
Resistance value:

Stated as 47.3
Actual value may not be exactly 47.3
3 (three) significant figures
Measurement precision: 0.1

Resistance value:

Stated as 47.3k
3 (three) significant figures
Measurement precision: 0.1k = 100

Significant figure (cont.)

The voltage drops across two resistors in a series

circuit are measured as
V1 = 6.31 V
V2= 8.736 V
The applied voltage is the sum of the voltage drops.
The applied voltage is given by
E = 6.31V + 8.736V = 15.046V
Rounded to the same precision as the least precise
voltage drop, the supply voltage is given as;

E = 15.05V

Significant figure (cont.)

Voltage measurement: V = 8.14 V 3 significant figures

Current measurement: I = 2.33 mA 3 significant
figures
Calculation of resistance using calculator:

V 8.14
R
3.493562232 k incorrect
I 2.33

Use the same number of significant figures as in the

original quantity

V 8.14
R
3.49k
I 2.33

correct

Review Questions
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

Define the terms accuracy, error, precision, resolution, expected

value, and sensitivity.
State the three major categories of error.
A person using an ohmmeter reads the measured value as 470 ,
when the actual value is 47 . What kind of error does this
represent?
State the three types of systematic errors, giving examples of
each.
State the difference between accuracy and precision of a
measurement.
Define the following terms:
i.
Average value
ii.
Arithmetic mean
iii.
Deviation
iv.
Standard deviation

Practice Problems
1.

2.

3.

The current through a resistor is 2.5 A, but the

measurement yields a value of 2.45 A. Calculate the
absolute error and the percentage error of the
measurement.
The value of a resistance is 4.7 k, while
measurements yield a value of 4.63 k
calculate
i.
the relative accuracy of measurement, and
ii.
% accuracy.
The output voltage of an amplifier was measured at
eight different intervals using the same digital
voltmeter with the following results: 20.00, 19.80,
19,85, 20.05, 20,10, 19.90, 20.25, 19.95 V. Which is
the most precise measurement?

Practice Problems..
A 270 . 10% resistance is connected to a
power supply source operating at
300 V dc. What range of current would flow if
the resistor varied over the range
of 10% of its expected value? What is the
range of error in the current?
A voltmeter is accurate to 98% of its full scale
reading.

4.

5.
i.

ii.

If a voltmeter read 200 V on 500 V range, what is

the absolute error?
What is the percentage error reading of part (i)?