Lec 2

GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT/INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
It is employed for indirect method of measurement, as it consists of various

functional elements, such as:
(i) Primary Sensing Element:
• This is the element that first receives energy from the measured medium and produces
an output depending in some way on the measured quantity (Measurand). The
measurand is then converted into analogous electrical signal (Voltage or Frequency or
others) by a transducer. It is known as Detector Transducer Stage
• The output is some physical variable e.g., displacement or voltage.
• The measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of measurement, which makes a
perfect measurement theoretically impossible. Good instruments are designed to
minimize this effect.
Fig. Elements of Measuring System or Measuring Instrument
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Variable Conversion Element (Signal Conditioning):
• Sometimes the output of the primary sensing element may not be suited
to the system so the output is converted to some other suitable form
while preserving the information content of the original signal. e.g.
Analog-to-Digital converter (ADC).
• It may be necessary to convert the output signal of the primary sensing
element to another more suitable variable while keeping the information
content of the original signal.
• For instance, the displacement-measuring strain gauge has an output in
the form of a varying resistance. The resistance change cannot be easily
measured and so it is converted to a change in voltage by a bridge circuit,
which is a typical example of a variable conversion element.
Variable Manipulation Element:

• An instrument may require that a signal represented by some physical
variable be manipulated in some way.
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• By manipulation it is meant a change in numerical value of the signal
according to some definite rule, or an increase in amplitude or power of
the input signal, keeping the original nature of the signal (physical
variable) preserved.
• Certain operations, like attenuation, amplification, addition, subtraction,
integration, differentiation, filtering, modulation, and sampling etc. are
performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form for the next stage
of measurement system to accept.
Data Transmission Element:
When functional element of an instrument are actually physically separated,
it becomes necessary to transmit the data from one to another.
• The stage which comprises signal conditioning and data transmission is
known as Intermediate Stage.
Data Presentation Element (Signal Processing/Data Analysis):

The final/terminating stage of measurement which conveys the information
of the quantity being measured to the system or personnel to handle the
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Instrument for monitoring (visual display analog or digital devices ), control,
or analysis purposes.
• Output may be numerical or graphical, discrete or continuous, permanent
or temporary.
• Data Analysis: Statistics, Probability, Fourier domain, Error and Uncertainty,
….
• Monitoring: Ammeters and Voltmeters
• Recording: magnetic tapes, storage type CRT, and digital computers
• Control and Analysis: Computers and Microprocessors.
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Sensors & Transducers
A sensor is a primary element in instruments that detects the
magnitude of a physical quantity under investigation (e.g. pressure,
temperature, level, flow rate, position, velocity, acceleration, chemical
concentration, etc.) and converts it to an electrical signal (i.e. voltage)
A sensor is a device that responds to a changing phenomenon. Both

Sensors and Transducers are sensors; but, transducers have the
capability to convert an input signal to some analog quantity (i.e.
one form of energy to another) quantitatively.
• The sensors can be categorized in a number of ways depending on

the energy input and output, input variables, sensing elements, and
electric or physical principles.
• Sensor design involves the application of some law or principle of
physics or chemistry, e.g.
Resistance of a conductor changes when its length is changed

(strain gage)
Resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is

changed (hot-wire anemometry)
Measuring wind’s direction and speed
Actuators:
An actuator is a device used to produce a motion or an action
(Signal Conditioning)
Amplifiers:
magnitude of the voltage signal is increased
signal inversion, differentiation, integration,
etc.
Filters: reduce noise

remove unwanted signal content
Calibration:
Ensure that recorded values are accurate indicators of variables sensed
A/D Conversion:
conversion of analog and continuous time signals as measured by
the sensor and modified by the signal conditioning circuitry into a
form a computer can understand
(Signal Conditioning)
Sampling: taking a sample of the

signal at discrete times
A/D C: convert the analog

samples into a digital code
GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT/INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
Elements of Measurement System-Pressure Gage
Fig. Elements of Measuring System (Pressure Gage)
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Elements of Measurement System-Pressure Thermometer
Fig. Elements of Measuring System or Measuring Instrument
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Example - Strain Gage
Sensor:
Elongation or shrinking
of resistive grid –
change in resistance
Signal Conditioner:
Change in resistance
causes change in voltage
Readout:
Change in voltage is
converted to strain
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Essential elements of measurement
Measured
Physical variable Signal Output
Sensor Transducer
behavior (measurand) conditioner display
Variable conversion
element
Data acquisition system
• Sensor: responds to physical quantity to be measured

• Transducer: converts quantity to be measured to an analog signal
• Signal conditioner: amplify, filter, integrate, differentiate, etc.
• Data acquisition: records, displays, processes data (hardware & software)
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Active and Passive Instruments:
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to
whether the instrument output:
• is entirely produced by the quantity being measured, or
• the quantity being measured simply modulates the magnitude of
some external power source
• For example, the pressure-measuring

device as shown in Fig. is a passive
instrument. The pressure of the fluid is
translated into a movement of a pointer
against a scale. The energy expended in
moving the pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure
measured; there are no other energy inputs to the system.
• A float-type petrol tank level indicator as sketched in Fig. is an
example of an active instrument.
• The change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and
the output signal consists of a proportion of the external
voltage source applied across the two ends of the
potentiometer.
• The energy in the output signal comes from the external
power source. The primary transducer float system is merely
modulating the value of the voltage from this external power
source.
• In active instruments, the external power source is usually in electrical
form, but in some cases, it can be other forms of energy such as a
pneumatic or hydraulic one.
• In passive instruments it is possible to increase measurement resolution
by making the pointer longer, such that the pointer tip moves through a
longer arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly restricted by the
practical limit of how long the pointer can conveniently be
• In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the magnitude of the
external energy input allows much greater control over measurement
resolution. Whereas the scope for improving measurement resolution is
much greater incidentally, it is not infinite because of limitations placed
on the magnitude of the external energy input, in consideration of
heating effects and for safety reasons.
• In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a more simple
construction than active ones and are therefore cheaper to manufacture.
Therefore, choice between active and passive instruments for a
particular application involves carefully balancing the measurement
resolution requirements against cost.
Null-Type & Deflection-Type Instruments
• The measurand produced some physical effects that produces a similar
but opposing effect in some part of the instrument. The opposing effect
increases until a balance is achieved, at which point the “deflection” is
measured.
• The pressure gauge just mentioned is a good example of a deflection
type of instrument, where the value of the quantity being measured is
displayed in terms of the amount of movement of a pointer.
• A null-type device attempts to maintain deflection at zero by suitable
application of a known effect opposing the generated by the measured
quantity.
• An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge
shown in Figure, which is a null-type instrument. Here, weights are
put on top of the piston until the downward force balances the fluid
pressure. Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level,
known as the null point. Pressure measurement is made in terms of
the value of the weights needed to reach this null position.
• The accuracy of these two instruments depends on different things. For
the first one it depends on the linearity and calibration of the spring,
whereas for the second it relies on the calibration of the weights.
• As calibration of weights is much easier than careful choice and

calibration of a linear-characteristic spring, this means that the second
type of instrument will normally be the more accurate. This is in
accordance with the general rule that null-type instruments are more
accurate than deflection types.
• In terms of usage, the deflection type instrument is clearly more

convenient. It is far simpler to read the position of a pointer against a
scale than to add and subtract weights until a null point is reached.
• A deflection-type instrument is therefore the one that would normally

be used in the workplace. However, for calibration duties, the null-type
instrument is preferable because of its superior accuracy
Analogue and Digital Instruments:
• An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as
the quantity being measured changes. The output can have an infinite
number of values within the range that the instrument is designed to
measure. The deflection-type of pressure gauge is a good example of
an analogue instrument.
• As the input value changes, the

pointer moves with a smooth continuous
motion.
• The pointer can therefore be in an

infinite number of positions within its
range of movement, the number of different positions that the eye can
discriminate between is strictly limited, this discrimination being
dependent upon how large the scale is and how finely it is divided.
• A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so
can only have a finite number of values
• A cam is attached to the revolving body whose motion is being

measured, and on each revolution the cam opens and closes a switch.
The switching operations are counted by an electronic counter.
• The distinction between analogue and digital instruments has become

particularly important with the rapid growth in the application of
microcomputers to automatic control systems.
• Digital instruments are directly interface to automatic control
computers
• Analogue instruments must be interfaced using an analogue to

digital convertor
• A/D convertor: converts analogue output signal from instrument to

an equivalent digital quantity that can be read into a computer
• A/D convertor disadvantages:

1. Adds significant cost to system
2. Finite time involved in conversion process
3. Degrades the speed of operation and the accuracy of control
system

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GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT/INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

It is employed for indirect method of measurement, as it consists of various

• The output is some physical variable e.g., displacement or voltage.

Fig. Elements of Measuring System or Measuring Instrument

Variable Manipulation Element:

Data Presentation Element (Signal Processing/Data Analysis):

A sensor is a device that responds to a changing phenomenon. Both

• The sensors can be categorized in a number of ways depending on

Resistance of a conductor changes when its length is changed

Resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is

Measuring wind’s direction and speed

Filters: reduce noise

Sampling: taking a sample of the

A/D C: convert the analog

Fig. Elements of Measuring System (Pressure Gage)

Fig. Elements of Measuring System or Measuring Instrument

Data acquisition system

• Sensor: responds to physical quantity to be measured

• For example, the pressure-measuring

• As calibration of weights is much easier than careful choice and

• In terms of usage, the deflection type instrument is clearly more

• A deflection-type instrument is therefore the one that would normally

• As the input value changes, the

• The pointer can therefore be in an

• A cam is attached to the revolving body whose motion is being

• The distinction between analogue and digital instruments has become

• Analogue instruments must be interfaced using an analogue to

• A/D convertor: converts analogue output signal from instrument to

• A/D convertor disadvantages:

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