PRESSURE

MEASUREMENT
by N. Asyiddin
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ....................................................................................................................... 1
What is pressure? ......................................................................................................................... 1
Types of Pressure Exerted by Fluids ............................................................................................. 1
Pressure Produced by Liquids ................................................................................................................ 1
Pressure Produced by Density................................................................................................................ 2
Pressure Produced by Gases ................................................................................................................. 2
Pressure Resulting From External Load ................................................................................................. 2

Glossary of Pressure .................................................................................................................... 3

Absolute Pressure, Pabs .......................................................................................................................... 3
Gauge Pressure, Pgauge ........................................................................................................................... 3
Atmospheric Pressure, Patm .................................................................................................................... 3
Differential Pressure (DP) ....................................................................................................................... 4
Head Pressure ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Vacuum................................................................................................................................................... 4

Units of Pressure .......................................................................................................................... 4

Conversions between Units .................................................................................................................... 4

METHODS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................ 5

Pressure-sensing Instruments and Elements ................................................................................ 5
A. Mechanical Pressure Elements ...................................................................................................... 5
Liquid Manometers........................................................................................................................ 5
i. Barometer............................................................................................................................. 6
ii. U-tube Manometer................................................................................................................ 7
iii. Well Manometer.................................................................................................................... 8
iv. Inclined-limb Manometer ...................................................................................................... 9
v. Liquid Manometer................................................................................................................10

B. Elastic Elements ..............................................................................................................................11

Bourdon Tubes.............................................................................................................................11
1. C-Type Bourdon Tube..........................................................................................................11
2. Spiral Bourdon Tube ............................................................................................................12
3. Helical Bourdon Tube...........................................................................................................12
Bellows.........................................................................................................................................14
Diaphragms..................................................................................................................................15

TECHNICAL INFO. AND PRESSURE GAUGES CONSTRUCTIONS...................................................17

C. Electronic-type Pressure Sensors .................................................................................................20

Capacitance type .........................................................................................................................20
Strain gauge.................................................................................................................................21
Piezoelectric.................................................................................................................................22

Pressure Transmitters And Summary .......................................................................................... 23

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 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
A major portion of all industrial measurement relates in some way to pressure in its several forms.
Flow, for example, is often measured by determining the pressure that exists at two different
points in a system. In a Bourdon system, pressure changes are used to produce the mechanical
motion of a recording stylus.

Pressure can also be used to measure temperature in a filled system through changes produces
by an expansion of the liquid or fluid in the filled system.

Pressure measurement is made more than any measurement in the process industries. It is the
best quick indication of the work done by pumps and compressors. It is also the most important
measure of the status of operating pressure vessels.

What is pressure?
Pressure is a measure of the force exerted over a unit area.

F
P= , where P=pressure, F=force exerted, A=area
A

For the pressure in a container, it is a measure of force exerted by a fluid due to its molecular
activities. This is a derivation from the concept above combined with the Kinetic Theory of
Matters.

Types of Pressure Exerted by Fluids

Pressure Produced by Liquids
All fluids (liquids and gases) have weight, thus they exert a pressure against the wall of their
containers. The pressure exerted by a liquid at any given point or location in the vessel depends
upon the height of liquid above it. This pressure is independent of the shape of the vessel.

In the diagram above, the pressures exerted at the bottom of each vessel are equal, provided that
the liquids have the same density and at the same height.

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Pressure Produced by Density
Density is the weight of one cubic meter of material. Different liquids weight different amounts for
the same volume and therefore would create different pressures.

Since we know that, pressure is equal to force (or weight) over a unit area, and in any fixed
volume of column, the weight of liquid contained varies with density; therefore density change will
change the pressure of the container.

Pressure Produced by Gases

To study some of the principles governing the behaviour of gases, we will use air as common gas
known. Since air does have weight, it builds up static pressure, much the same as liquids do. One
cubic foot of air weighs about 0.08 lbs. A room 10 feet wide, 20 feel long and 8 feet high has 1600
cubic feet of air in it weighing about 128 lbs. The deep layer of air which blankets the earth exerts
a pressure much like the water pressure at the bottom of the ocean. This pressure is known as
atmospheric pressure and is about 14.7 psi at sea level.

Pressure Resulting From External Load

The final or total pressure exerted at any given point in a vessel, pump, line, etc. will depend upon
the head, or weight of liquid being handled plus any external pressure being exerted on the liquid
being handled. Figure below shows the effect of the external pressure.

200 psi compressed air

introduced

0
200

208

Vessel filled with water to a height 20 feet and is open to atmosphere. Pressure at the bottom
would be 20 × 0.433, or 8.66 psi. If we close the vessel and add compressed gas of 200 psi on
the top of the vessel, we would find that pressure of the bottom would be (200 + 8.66) psi, or
208.66 psi.

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Glossary of Pressure
Two reference points for pressure measurement exists. The most logical one is absolute zero –
a condition existing only in a perfect vacuum. Pressures measured from this reference point are
called absolute pressure.

The other reference point used is atmospheric pressure. The difficulty with this reference point
is that it changes with altitude (reference with sea level) and to some extent with weather
conditions. At or near sea level, this pressure is about 14.7 psia or 29.9 inches or 760 mmHga.

Gauge
pressure Gauge
compound
Absolute
pressure
Barometric
range

Atmospheric
pressure (≅ 14.7

Pressure Total vacuum

(Zero or Absolute)

Absolute Pressure, Pabs

Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect to zero pressure (vacuum).

Gauge Pressure, Pgauge

Gauge pressure (or sometimes called Internal pressure) is the pressure measured by a gauge in
access of the pressure of the atmosphere. A pressure gauge indicates the difference between
pressure on a system or vessel and the local atmospheric pressure. However, be careful ! when
reading a pressure gauge; determine whether it is reading absolute pressure or gauge pressure,
normally indicated by “a” or “g”, e.g. psia or barg.

Atmospheric Pressure, Patm

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure measure on the surface in the atmosphere. However, the
difficulty is that it changes with altitude and humidity. Thus, atmospheric pressure may differ from
one area or place to another.

1.01325 Bar 14.69595 psi 101 kN/m2

1 Patm equivalent to :
101.325 Kpa 760 mmHg 10 mH2O

Pabs = Pgauge + Patm

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Differential Pressure (DP)
Differential pressure is the pressure difference, measured between two different pressure points,
within the same pressure reference point., e.g. between unknown pressure and a local
atmospheric pressure.

Head Pressure
Head pressure is the pressure exerted by a liquid that indicated by height of the liquid in a liquid
column.

It depends on;
1. the height of the liquid column.
2. the relative density of the liquid.

Pressure head = R.D x h x 9.8 kPa

where, R.D = relative density of the liquid
h = the height of the liquid
g = gravitational force

Note: Relative density is the density of a liquid relative to the referral standard density
(water = 1000 kgm-3)

Vacuum
Pressure less than atmospheric pressure is called vacuum. A vacuum is a lack of air fluid. The
vacuum scale extend between the absolute zero reference point and atmospheric pressure, thus
it is not a positive pressure. It is treated as a sucking force or negative pressure.

Units of Pressure
Pascal (Pa) or Kilopascal (Kpa) PSI mmH2O
Bar or milliBar N/m2 inH2O
Std. Atm Kgf/cm2 mmHg
Torr inHg

Conversions between Units

Pressure Conversion Matrix
inH2O inHg
Pressure Units PSI KPA mmH2O mmHg Bars mBars Kg/cm2 gm/cm2
(60ºF) (32ºF)
PSI 1 6.8948 27.7620 705.1500 2.0360 51.7149 0.0689 68.9470 0.0703 70.3070
KPA 0.1450 1 4.0266 102.2742 0.2953 7.5006 0.0100 10.0000 0.0102 10.197
inH2O 0.0361 0.2483 1 25.4210 0.0734 1.8650 0.0025 2.4864 0.0025 2.5355
MmH2O 0.0014 0.0098 0.0394 1 0.0028 0.0734 0.0001 0.0979 0.00001 0.0982
InHg 0.4912 3.3867 13.6195 345.936 1 25.4000 0.0339 33.8639 0.0345 34.532
mmHg 0.0193 0.1331 0.5362 13.6195 0.0394 1 0.0013 1.3332 0.0014 1.3595
Bars 14.5040 100.000 402.180 10215.0 29.5300 750.060 1 1000 1.0197 1019.72
mBars 0.0145 0.1000 0.4022 10.2150 0.0295 0.7501 0.001 1 0.0010 1.0197
Kg/cm 2 14.2233 97.9047 394.408 10018.0 28.9590 735.559 0.9000 980.700 1 1000
gm/cm2 0.0142 0.0979 0.3944 10.0180 0.0290 0.7356 0.0009 0.9807 0.001 1

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Methods of Pressure Measurement
There are 3 basic methods for pressure measurement;

I. The first method involves balancing the unknown pressure against the pressure produced
by a column of liquid of known density.

II. The second method involves allowing the unknown pressure to act on a known area and
measuring the resultant force either directly or indirectly.

III. The third method involves allowing the unknown pressure to act on an elastic material
and measuring the resultant stress or strain.

Pressure-sensing Instruments and Elements

A. Mechanical Pressure Elements

Liquid Manometers
“Manometer” is a name given to pressure capable of responding to small pressure changes. The
word comes from the Greek terms, ‘Mano’ – meaning ‘thin’ or ‘rare’. (As a gas or vapour, and
meter – meaning to measure).

It is used for measuring pressure in terms of height of liquid column.

Figure : Manometers

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i. Barometer
This is the basic instrument use for detecting atmospheric pressure. A simple diagram of a
barometer is given in the figure below.

vacuum
glass tubing

mercury

Point A
H (varies with
Atmospheri Atmospheric pressure)
c pressure

mercury
reservoir

With the column at equilibrium at point (stationary), at Point A;

Forces Up = Forces Down

Weight of the column = Atmospheric Pressure × Area
Density × Area × Height = Atmospheric Pressure × Area
Atmospheric pressure = ρhg

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ii. U-tube Manometer
The simplest form of manometer consists of a U-shaped glass tube containing liquid. It is used to
measure gauge pressure and are the primary instruments used in the workshop for calibration.

Pressure to Atmospheric
be measured pressure

Scale
7
6

5
4
3
2
1
0
h
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

The principle of the manometer is that the pressure to be measured is applied to one side of the
tube producing a movement of liquid, as shown in figure above. It can be seen that the level of
the filling liquid in the leg where the pressure is applied, i.e. the left leg of the tube, has dropped,
while that in the right hand leg as risen. A scale is fitted between the tubes to enable us to
measure this displacement.

Let us assume that the pressure we are measuring and have applied to the left hand side of the
manometer is of constant value. The liquid will only stop moving when the pressure exerted by
the column of liquid, H is sufficient to balance the pressure applied to the left side of the
manometer, i.e. when the head pressure produced by column " H " is equal to the pressure to be
measured.

Knowing the length of the column of the liquid, H, and density of the filling liquid, we can calculate
the value of the applied pressure.

The applied Pressure = ρ × g × h

By suitable choice of filling liquid, various low ranges of gauge pressure can be measured from
about 500 Pa to 1.5 bar.

Typical filling liquids commonly used in manometers and their densities.

1. Water ( ρ = 1000 kg m-3 )
2. Oil ( ρ can be between 800 and 950 kg m-3 )
3. Mercury ( ρ = 13560 kg m-3 )

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iii. Well Manometer
resultant
pressure, P2

Area A2
Scale

Pressure to be h
measured, P1
Area A1 h+x

0
x

Well Manometer - same as the U-tube except for the reservoir on the high-pressure side. It is
sometimes called a single column gauge. The manometer consists of a metal well of large cross
sectional area connected to a glass tube, or limb. This system normally contains mercury as the
filling liquid. As shown in figure above, both the well and the limb are open to atmosphere, in
which case the level of mercury in the well is equal to that in the limb. In the well type manometer,
the pressure to be measured is normally applied to the well. When pressure applied to the well
the level of liquid in the well falls by the distance " x " and the level in the limb rises by the
distance " h ". When the column of liquid (h + x) exerts a pressure equal to the pressure applied
to the well, the liquid stops moving.

The value of (h + x) will increase as the pressure to be measured increases and will decrease as
the pressure to be measured decreases. The value of (h + x) can be read from a scale positioned
as shown in the diagram above. This scale is normally calibrated in units of pressure, e.g. mm of
mercury gauge or Pascal ( Pa ), so that the pressure can be read directly from the device.

⇒ A1 • x = A2 • h

A2 • h
∴ x= ------------- ( 1 )
A1

Differential Pressure on manometer ;

P1 − P2 = ρ•g•(h + x)
A2
A2 • h If value is too small (negligible),
Applying ( 1 ) = ρ•g•(h + ) A1
A1 then we can have;
P1 − P2 = ρ•g•h
A2
= ρ•g•h(1 + )
A1

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iv. Inclined-limb Manometer
P2
Pressure to be
measured, P1 d
Area A1
Area A2
y
Original level
x
θ

This design of manometer is shown on the figure. As the name " Inclined-Limb Manometer "
suggests, the manometer limb is inclined at an angle to the horizontal. The effect of inclining the
limb is to make the manometer more sensitive than the well type, allowing the more accurate
measurement of a lower range of pressures.

⇒ A1 • x = A2 • d
SOH

opposite
A2 CAH
∴ x= • d ------------------- ( 1 ) TOA
A1 θ
y adjescent
⇒ sin θ =
d

∴ y = d • sin θ ------------------ ( 2 )

Differential Pressure on manometer ;

P1 − P2 = ρ•g•(x + y)

A2 • d
Applying ( 1 ) = ρ•g•( + y)
A1

A2 • d
Applying ( 2 ) = ρ•g•( + d • sin θ)
A1
A2
= ρ•g•d( + sin θ)
A1

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v. 2-Liquid Manometer
The two-liquid manometer is used to measure very Pressure to be Atmospheric
small pressures. This is because a very small applied measured pressure

pressure, will produce a large liquid movement. The

basic arrangement is shown in figure. The manometer
consists of two wells, each of the same large cross
sectional area, connected by a U-Tube of much
smaller cross sectional area. Scale

6
The U-Tube contains two liquids, one is more densed 5

than the other. The lower liquid, of density ρ2 is denser 4

than the upper liquid, of density ρ1 . 3

2
1
Points to note; h
0
The two liquids should be non-mixing and the 1
interface should be clearly visible.
2
3
The closer the densities of the liquids the more 4
sensitive the manometer. 5
6
The scale is usually calibrated by the manufacturer in
units of pressure, e.g. mmHg or Pascal, so that the
pressure can be read directly from the device.

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B. Elastic Elements
There are 3 main types of elastic elements, namely Bourdon Tubes, Bellows, and Diaphragm.
Basically they are designed to follow the physical law that, within the elastic limit, stress is
proportional to strain (Hooke’s Law), that is deflection is proportional to the pressure applied.

Bourdon Tubes

1. C-Type Bourdon Tube

This instrument is by far the most common device used to
indicate gauge pressure throughout the oil gas industry.

A bourdon tube obey Hookes Law, that is within elastic limits. Its
free end will experience a movement that is proportional to the
fluid pressure applied. The measuring element named for
bourdon is partially flattened metal tube formed in a 250° Arc.
The tube is sealed at one end (the tip ) and connected to the
pressure at the other end (socket). Any pressure inside the tube
exceeding the pressure on the outside cause the tube to become
more circular in cross section. As a result, the tip moves in an
arc. This movement is connected through a level, quadrant and
pinion to a pointer which moves round a scale to indicate the
pressure.

The amount of movement of the free end of the tube is directly proportional to the pressure
applied ( providing the tube elastic limit is not exceeded ).

Where greater sensitivity is required, the bourdon tube may be constructed in the form of a Spiral
or Helix.

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2. Spiral Bourdon Tube
Spiral Bourdon Tube is made by winding a partially flattened metal
tube into a spiral having several turns instead of a single C-bend arc.
The tip movement of the spiral equals the sum of the tip movements
of all its individual C-bend arcs. Therefore it produces a greater tip
movement with a C-bend bourdon tube. It is mainly used in low-
pressure application. Spiral bourdon tube is shown in figure.

3. Helical Bourdon Tube

Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It allows the tip movement to be converted to
a circular motion. By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its axis and connecting it to
the tip, the tip movement become a circular motion of the shaft.

Pressure to
be measured

Sealed end of tube

connected to shaft This end of tube
fixed to frame

Rotation of shaft
due to increase
applied pressure

Frame

Advantages of the Spiral and Helical Tubes over the C-Type Bourdon Tube
1. Both the spiral and helical tubes are more sensitive than the C-Type tube. This means that
for a given applied pressure a spiral or helical tube will show more movement than an
equivalent C-Type tube, thus avoiding the need for a magnifying linkage.

2. Spiral and helical tubes can be manufactured in very much smaller sizes than the equivalent
C-Type tubes. Hence, they can be fitted into smaller spaces, such as inside recorders or
controller cases where a C-Type would be unsuitable because of the size.

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 Typical pressure gauge assembly

Some other pressure gauges options

Typical pressure gauge. Pressure gauge with oil fill. The oil to Duplex pressure gauge. Provides
reduce the effects of vibration in the line. simultaneous reading of two pressure points
as well as for use as intrinsically safe at one single gauge.
equipment

APPLICATION OF BOURDON TUBE ELEMENTS

Before using a Bourdon tube on a particular process application, a number of questions need to
be considered. We need only to consider two here.

1. What is the maximum operating pressure likely to be encountered by the tube?

Manufacturers recommend that the normal operating pressure should not exceed 60% of the
maximum scale reading. For example, if the normal working pressure were 6 bar, we would
select a bourdon tube instrument ( pressure gauge) having full-scale deflection of 10 bar.

2. Is the process fluid corrosive or non corrosive? Material for the bourdon tubes must be able
to handle the process fluid. Therefore, selection of pressure gauge must take into account the
corrosivity of the line fluid.

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Bellows
Bellows is a thin-walled, one piece metallic pressure containing element appearing as a stack of
round edged discs. When the pressure inside the bellows increases, these discs thicken and the
length of the bellows increases. This increase in length is the sum of the expansion of all the
discs and is a measure of the pressure inside the bellows.

Movement due to
applied pressure

Before pressure is applied Applied pressure

The movement of the end of the bellows can be used to drive a pointer over a scale. However, in
practice the range of pressure needed to fully extend the bellows is very small; so too is the
pressure required to strain the bellows.

To increase the range of pressure that the bellows can measure, and to protect it from strain, the
bellows is pre-compressed and fitted into a bellows unit as shown in figure below.

pointer
Pre-compressing
spring pivot

bellow

Applied
pressure

Zero
adjustment
frame

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Diaphragms
Is a relatively broad, shallow cup like form which is made of thin metal or flexible materials
chosen for qualities that relate to elasticity, ease of forming and heat treatment, and resistance to
corrosion. It can be manufactured to measure pressures up to 25 bar (this is the same as 2500
kPa or 370 psi). Usually a diaphragm consists of a stainless steel corrugated disc, shown in
"close up" figure below.
diaphragm
Diaphragm
movement

Applied pressure
Diaphragm Corrugation Diaphragm
mounting mounting

Figure : Close-up of a diaphragm

When pressure is applied to one side of the diaphragm, it will flex away from the pressure, the
amount of movement depending upon the magnitude of the applied pressure. The greater the
pressure, the greater the movement.

In a diaphragm gauge, this movement is used to drive a pointer around a scale. The gauge
illustrated below is generally referred to as SCHAFFER diaphragm gauge.

The pressure to be measured is applied to the underside of the diaphragm. The two flanges hold
the diaphragm around its circumference. When the applied pressure increases, the diaphragm
flexes upwards, lifting the ball point and link, thus causing the quadrant to rotate anti-clockwise
around the pivot. The anti-clockwise movement of the quadrant moves the pinion and hence, the
pointer clockwise, indicating an increase of pressure on the scale. Overload protection is provided
by the underside of the top flange against which the diaphragm will seat if the gauges are over
pressured.

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 Schaffer gauge are used with corrosive chemicals since the diaphragms can be coated with a
corrosion resistant material.
i. Metallic Diaphragms
Metallic diaphragms are thin circular pieces of material attached along their circumference to a
rigid plat or another diaphragm, they may be flat or corrugated in a circular pattern. When used
with a second diaphragm, the two form a capsule. The pressure can be admitted to either side of
the single diaphragm or to the inside or outside of the capsule. As the pressure changes a
deflection of the diaphragm or capsule occurs. This deflection is a measure of the pressure.

ii. Non-Metallic or Slack Diaphragms

Non-metallic or slack diaphragms measure vacuum or extremely low pressure. These
diaphragms are made from flexible materials such as leather, rubber, polyethylene or other
synthetic resilient materials.

Usually they have little or no elasticity and must be used with a metal spring. The elasticity of the
spring determine the deflection of the measuring element for a given pressure.

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TECHNICAL INFO. AND PRESSURE GAUGES CONSTRUCTIONS
The pressure is shown in standard measuring ranges over 270 angle degrees on the dial. Liquid-
filled pressure gauges offer optimal protection against destruction by high dynamic pressure
loads or vibrations as a result of their cushioning. Switching operations can be carried out when
combined with alarm contacts and electrical output signals (for example 4 ~ 20 mA) can be used
for industrial process automation in combination with transmitters.

1. Pressure gauges with bourdon tube

Bourdon tubes are circular-shaped tubes with an
oval cross-section. The pressure of the media acts
on the inside of this tube which results in the oval
cross section becomes almost round.
Because of the curvature of the tube ring tension
occurs which bends the bourdon tube. The end of
the tube, which is not fixed, moves, this movement
being a measurement for the pressure.
This movement is indicated by a pointer. The
bourdon tubes bent at an angle of approx. 250°
are used for pressures up to approx. 60 bar.
Used for higher pressures are bourdon tubes with
a number of superimposed coils of the same
diameter (i.e. helical coils) or helical-shaped coils
(i.e. helical springs) at one level.
Bourdon tubes can only be protected against
overload to a limited extent. For particularly difficult
measuring operations the pressure gauge can be
provided upstream with a chemical seal as
separation or protection system.
The pressure ranges are between 0 ~
0.6 and 0 ~ 4000 bar with a reading
accuracy (or class) from 0.1 to 4.0 %.

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2. Pressure gauges with diaphragm elements
Diaphragm elements are circular-shaped, convoluted
membranes. They are either clamped around the rim
between two flanges or welded and subject to the
pressure of the media acting on one side. The
deflection caused in this way is used as a
measurement for the pressure and is indicated by a
pointer.
Compared with bourdon tubes these diaphragm
elements have a relatively high activating force and
because of the annular clamping of the element they
are insensitive to vibration.
The diaphragm element can be subject to higher
overload through load take-up points (by bringing the
diaphragm element up against the upper flange).
Moreover, the measuring instrument can also be
protected against extremely corrosive media by
coating with special material or covering with foil.
Wide connection ports, open connection flanges and
purging plugs can be integrated for measuring highly
viscous, impure or crystallizing media.
Pressure ranges are between 0 ~ 16 mbar and 0 ~ 40
bar in accuracy class from 0.6 to 2.5 %.

3. Pressure gauges with capsule elements

The capsule element comprises two circular-shaped,
convoluted membranes sealed tight around their
circumference.
The pressure acts on the inside of this capsule and the
generated stroke movement is shown by a pointer as
measurement of pressure.
Pressure gauges with capsule elements are more
especially suitable for gaseous media and relatively low
pressures. Overload protection is possible within certain
limits.
The activating force is increased if a number of capsule
elements are connected mechanically in series (a so-
called capsule element "package").
Pressure ranges are between 0 ~ 2.5 mbar and 0 ~ 0.6
bar in the accuracy class 0.1 to 2.5.

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4. Absolute pressure gauges
These instruments are used where pressures
are to be measured independent of the natural
fluctuations in atmospheric pressure. As a
general rule all the known types of element and
measuring principles can be applied.
The pressure of the media to be measured is
compared against a reference pressure which,
at the same time, is absolute zero.
For this purpose an absolute vacuum is given as
reference pressure in a reference chamber on
the side of the measuring element not subject to
pressure. This function is achieved by sealing off
the appropriate measuring chamber or
surrounding case.
Measuring element movement transmission and
pressure indication follow in the same way as
with the already described overpressure gauges.
Pressure ranges are between 0 ~ 16 mbar and 0
~ 25 bar in the accuracy class 0.6 to 2.5.

5. Differential pressure gauges

The difference between two pressures is determined directly and shown on the differential
pressure gauge. Here again all of the measuring elements known from overpressure gauges and
the measuring principles can be applied.
Two sealed medium chambers are separated
by the measuring element or measurement
elements, respectively. If both operating
pressures are the same the measuring
element cannot make any movement and no
pressure will be indicated.
A differential pressure reading is only given
when one of the pressures is either higher or
lower. Low differential pressures can be
measured directly in the case of high static
pressures.
Very high overload capability is achieved with
diaphragm elements.
The permissible static pressure and the
overload capability on the L and H -side must
be observed.
Transmission of the measuring element
movement and pressure indication is the same
as with the already described overpressure
gauges in the majority of cases.
Pressure ranges are between 0 ~ 16 mbar and 0 ~ 25 bar in the accuracy class 0.6 to 2.5.
Areas of application;
Filter technology (monitoring filter pollution)
Filling level measurement (in enclosed containers)
Flow measurement (pressure drop)

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C. Electronic-type Pressure Sensors
Most electronic pressure sensors incorporate one of the previously discussed elements are the
primary pressure detector, and it is used to vary a measurable electrical quantity to produce a
proportionately variable electronic signal.

Because the energy form is transferred from a mechanical to an electrical nature, these devices
are often classified as transducer.

Generally, electrical pressure detectors are more accurate and have much faster response times
than the previously discussed elements. This is due in part to the accuracy of their electronic
circuitry and in part to the extremely small movement required to the elastic elements in order to
obtain the needed electrical change. The reduced movement very nearly eliminates drift, friction
and hysteresis common to bellows, diaphragm and bourdon elements that require relatively large
movements.

Capacitance type
The capacitance pressure sensor operates on the principle that, if the sensing diaphragm
between two capacitor plates is deformed by a differential pressure, an imbalance of capacitance
will occur between itself and the two plates. This imbalance is detected in a capacitance bridge
circuit and converted to a D.C. output current of 4 to 20 mA. This is shown in Figure 18 where the
movement of a flexible diaphragm relative to a fixed plate is sensed by the capacitance change. A
secondary isolating diaphragm is used to protect the sensing diaphragm.

port

Rigid plate

sensing
Electrical
diaphragm
connection

Isolating Silicone oil

diaphragm

Figure 18

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Another type of capacitor uses concentric hollow metal cylinders. The capacitance of this type
just like the fiat-plate type is proportional to the area. This principle can be applied to differential
pressure measurement, as shown in Figure 19. The pressure acting on the isolating diaphragms
set up similar pressures in the silicone oil filling the space between them. A net force proportional
to the difference between the two pressures acts upon the metal sensing diaphragm and deflects
it to one side or the other, depending on which input pressure is the greater. Each plate forms a
capacitor with the sensing diaphragm, which is connected electrically to the metallic body
transducer.
Electrical
connection

Rigid plate sensing Silicone oil

diaphragm

Figure 19

The sensing diaphragm and capacitor thus form a differential variable separation capacitor. When
the two input pressure are equal, the diaphragm is positioned centrally and the capacitances are
equal. A difference in the two input pressures causes displacement of the sensing diaphragm and
is sensed as a difference between the two capacitances.

Strain gauge
Strain is defined as a deformation or change in the shape of a material as a consequence of
applied forces. A strain gauge is a device which uses the change of electrical resistance of a wire
under strain to measure pressure. The strain gauge changes a mechanical motion into an
electrical signal when a wire length is changed by tension or compression, altering the wire
diameter and, hence, changing the electrical resistance. The change in resistance is a measure
of the pressure producing the mechanical distortion. This is measured by a Wheatstone bridge
circuit, preferably of the null balance type, so that the strain gauge carries no current.

The complete measuring device includes a sensing element ( bourdon tube, bellows or
diaphragm ), a strain gauge attached to the element, a stable power source and a read out
device. A strain gauge element and a typical transducer is shown in the figure below.

Bridge circuit

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Piezoelectric
Piezoelectricity is defined as the production of an electric potential due to pressure on certain
crystalline substances such as quartz, Rochelle salt, tourmaline, barium titanate, ammonium
dehydrogen phosphate and other ceramic crystals. This piezoelectric effect is used for
measurement of pressure, force or acceleration. The primary interest here is in its use as a
pressure sensor.

Quartz is the most commonly used crystal that produces the piezoelectric effect. Synthetic
crystals have been developed that produce the same effect and they generally have higher
sensitivities than natural crystals.

The nature of the piezoelectric device is the production of electric potential as it is deformed or
stressed. In a static condition, its potential drops off, producing an error. This characteristics limits
its used somewhat. As a pressure device, it is most useful were pressure variations occur
frequently. It is particularly suited for measurement of pressure transients in ballistics, in internal
combustion engines or in reaction processes where pressures change quickly.

Major advantages of piezoelectric devices are the linear relationship between pressure variation
and output voltage and their high frequency response ( as high as 106 Hz for quartz ). A decide
advantage of the piezoelectric device is its sensitivity to temperature variations. Reproducible
results are not obtained unless temperatures are kept within close limits.

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Pressure Transmitters And Summary
The pressure transmitter is widely used where
indication and/or a record of pressure is required at
a location not adjacent to the primary element, and
where overall high performance is mandatory. Both
pneumatic and electronic transmissions are used.
Figure 4 shows a typical pneumatic transmitter.

Here, the differential pressure to be measured is

applied across a pair of metal diaphragms welded
to opposite sides of a capsule; the space between
the diaphragms and core member is filled with
liquid. The force developed on the diaphragm by
differential pressure is brought out of the Figure 4
transmitters by a rigid rod passing through a metal
seal diaphragm. This force is opposed by a balancing force developed by pneumatic bellows.
Imbalance between capsule force and pneumatic bellows force is sensed by a pneumatic nozzle-
baffle. A simple pneumatic servomechanism responsive to nozzle pressure re-establishes the
balance. As a result, pneumatic pressure is maintained exactly proportional to differential
pressure and is used as output signal; a more or
less standardised signals is 3 to 15 pounds per
square inch.

An electronic-type transmitter is shown in Figure

5. This particular type utilises a two-wire
capacitance technique. Process pressure is
transmitted through isolating diaphragms and
silicone oil fill fluid to a sensing diaphragm in the
center of the cell. The sensing diaphragm is a
stretched spring element that deflects in response
to differential pressure across it. The
displacement of the sensing diaphragm is
proportional to the differential pressure. The
position of the sensing diaphragm is detected by
capacitor plates on both sides of the sensing
diaphragm. The differential capacitance between
the sensing diaphragm and the capacitor plates is
converted electronically to a 4–20 mA dc or 10–50
mA dc signal; these signals are standard in
industry, with primary emphasis on 4–20 mA dc.
Figure 5
The mechanical element techniques most
generally used to convert applied pressures into displacement are diaphragms, bellows, Bourdon
tubes, and straight tubes. These devices are
depicted in Figure 6. Diaphragm types include flat, corrugated, and capsule designs, and the
Bourdon types include circular and twisted tube designs.

Theoretically, the flat diaphragm type shown in Figure 6, will exhibit the highest natural
frequency value, defined by the following relationship:

1 K
fn =
2π M

(where fn = natural frequency, K = max. stiffness, M = min. mass)

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This equation defines the natural frequency in a conventional seismic system processing one
degree of freedom. Relating to this consideration, the sensitivity to vibratory or static acceleration
increases in direct proportion to the total mass of the system and in inverse proportion to the total
stiffness. The flat diaphragm type is characterized by having both, for a given diaphragm
thickness, maximum stiffness (K) and minimum mass (M).

The above analysis pertains to the natural frequency

only. The frequency response of a transducer cannot
always be estimated easily in relation to the preceding
paragraph. Proper consideration must be given to the
total volumetric displacement, dead volume, and
constrictive orifices in the pressure port cavity. The
amount of damping present also influences the
frequency response. It should be kept in mind that in
many types of transducers, the electrical elements
contribute to the overall values of the spring constant
and mass, which determine the natural frequency. If a
constant range is assumed, the type of force summing
member is generally dictated by the force and
displacement necessary to actuate the transduction
elements.

The electrical principles applied to the measurement of

pressure displacement are many and varied. The great
majority of transmitters employ one of the following:

Capacitance Photoelectric
Differential Transformer Piezoelectric
Electrokinetic Potentiometric
Force Balance Reluctance
Inductive Resistance
Ionization Strain Gauge
Magnetostrictive Thermoelectric
Ohmstrictive Vacuum Tube Figure 6
Oscillating

No in-depth discussion of the above principles is presented herein as that would nearly require a
textbook in itself. Each principle has certain advantages and disadvantages, however, but not
necessarily with an equal mixture or ratio.

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