EXPERIMENT NO 1

AIM : To study the evolution of fuel cell advancement

THEORY
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that dynamically converts the
energy of a chemical reaction between hydrogen and an oxidant into
electrical energy for our consumption.
Fuel cells work just like a battery in its basic principles: two
electrodes separated by an electrolyte. They differ from batteries in
that they are designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants
consumed.
They produce electricity from an external supply of fuel and oxidant
(typically oxygen or air, although chlorine and chlorine dioxide have
also been used) as opposed to the limited internal energy storage
capacity of a battery.
The physical structure of a fuel cell consists of an electrolyte layer
separating two electrodes. At the present time fuel cells are in
research and are constantly being improved for better performance
and application purposes
HISTORY OF FUEL CELL:
Despite their modern high-tech aura, fuel cells actually have been
known to science for more than 150 years! Though generally
considered a curiosity in the 1800s, fuel cells became the subject of
intense research and development during the 1900s. In 1800, British
scientists William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle had described the
process of using electricity to decompose water into hydrogen and
oxygen . This process is named electrolysis.

2H2O(l) - 2H2(g) +O2(g)

HOW FUEL CELL WORK
In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery, consisting of an
electrolyte placed between two electrodes: an anode and a cathode.
Unlike the battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require
recharging
It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as
fuel is supplied. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen
over the other, generating electricity, water and heat. Hydrogen fuel
is fed into the "anode" of the fuel cell.
Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell through the cathode. This reaction
occurs along a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton and
an electron, which take different paths to the cathode.
The proton passes through the electrolyte. The electrons create a
separate current that can be utilized before they return to the
cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule
of water.
CHARACTERSTIC OF FUEL CELL
Fuel cells can offer cogeneration efficiencies as high as 80% by
producing electricity and thermal energy for applications such as
water heating or space heating.
Fuel cells are also attractive because of their low environmental
impact relative to conventional systems.
The fuel cell stack itself operates on hydrogen, thus, water is the only
product from the stack reaction.

Fuel cells minimize emissions of regulated pollutants. The emissions

of currently regulated pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrous
oxides, sulfur oxides, and particulates are well below current air
quality regulations and typically nearly nonexistent .

Because of their attractive properties,fuel cell have already been

developed and used widespreadcommercial use through three main
application s; TRANSPORTATION , stationary power generation and
portable application.
RESULT
Hence, we studied the evolutuion of the fuel cells advancements.

Experiment NO 2
Aim: To study the construction,working, and principal of Alkaline
fuel cell (AFC).
THEORY:
The alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its
British inventor, Francis Thomas Bacon, is one of the most
developed fuel cell technologies. NASA has used alkaline fuel cells
since the mid-1960s, in Apollo-series missions and on the Space
Shuttle. Alkaline fuel cells consume hydrogen and pure oxygen
producing potable water, heat, and electricity. They are among the
most efficient fuel cells, having the potential to reach 70%.
WORKING:
The two electrodes are separated by a porous matrix saturated with
an aqueous alkaline solution, such as potassium hydroxide (KOH).
Aqueous alkaline solutions do not reject carbon dioxide (CO2) so the
fuel cell can become "poisoned" through the conversion of KOH to
potassium carbonate (K2CO3). Because of this, alkaline fuel cells
typically operate on pure oxygen, or at least purified air and would
incorporate a 'scrubber' into the design to clean out as much of the
carbon dioxide as is possible. Because the generation and storage
requirements of oxygen make pure-oxygen AFCs expensive, there are
few companies engaged in active development of the technology.
There is, however, some debate in the research community over
whether the poisoning is permanent or reversible. The main
mechanisms of poisoning are blocking of the pores in the cathode
with K2CO3, which is not reversible, and reduction in the ionic
conductivity of the electrolyte, which may be reversible by returning
the KOH to its original concentration. An alternate method involves

simply replacing the KOH which returns the cell back to its original
output.
When carbon dioxide reacts with the electrolyte carbonates are
formed. The carbonates could precipitate on the pores of electrodes
that eventually block them. It has been found that AFCs operating at
higher temperature do not show a reduction in performance,
whereas at around room temperature, a significant drop in
performance has been shown. The carbonate poisoning at ambient
temperature is thought to be a result of the low solubility of
K2CO3 around room temperature, which leads to precipitation of
K2CO3 that blocks the electrode pores. Also, these precipitants
gradually decrease the hydrophobicity of the electrode backing layer
leading to structural degradation and electrode flooding.
On the other hand, the charge-carrying hydroxyl ions in the
electrolyte can react with carbon dioxide from organic fuel oxidation
(i.e. methanol, formic acid) and/or air to form carbonate species.
Carbonate formation depletes hydroxyl ions from the electrolyte,
which reduces electrolyte conductivity and consequently cell
performance. As well as these bulk effects, the effect on water
management due to a change in vapor pressure and/or a change in
electrolyte volume can be detrimental as well .
Chemistry equation:
The fuel cell produces power through a redox reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen. At the anode, hydrogen is oxidized according
to the reaction:

Diagram of an Alkaline Fuel Cell. 1: Hydrogen 2:Electron flow 3:Load

4:Oxygen 5:Cathode 6:Electrolyte 7:Anode 8:Water 9:Hydroxyl Ions.
CHARACTERSTIC OF AFC:
AFCs are the cheapest of fuel cells to manufacture. The catalyst
required for the electrodes can be any of a number of different
chemicals that are inexpensive compared to those required for other
types of fuel cells
The commercial prospects for AFCs lie largely with the recently
developed bi-polar plate version of this technology, considerably
superior in performance to earlier mono-plate versions.
The world's first Fuel Cell Ship HYDRA used an AFC system with 5 kW
net output.

Another recent development is the solid-state alkaline fuel cell,

utilizing alkali anion exchange membranes rather than a liquid. This
resolves the problem of poisoning and allows the development of
alkaline fuel cells capable of running on safer hydrogen-rich carriers
such as liquid urea solutions or metal amine complexes.
RESULT
Hence, the construction ,working & principal of alkaline fuel cell has
been studied.

Experiment No-3
AIM : To study the construction ,working and principle of phosphoric
acid fuel cell.
THEORY:
The electrolyte consists of concentrated phosphoric acid and a silicon
carbide matrix is used to retain the acid while both the electrodes
which also function as catalysts are made from Pt or its alloys. The
operating temperature is maintained between 300 to 430 deg F or
150 to 220 deg C, at lower temperatures, phosphoric acid tends to
be a poor ionic conductor and CO poisoning of the Pt electrocataly in
the anode becomes severe.st
The phosphoric acid fuel cell has demonstrated its use in a number of
commercial building. Worldwide, there are over 40 MW of
demonstrators in various phases of testing or under fabrication,
mostly in the 50 to 200 kW capacity range. However, larger plants of
1 MW and 5 MW output are also being constructed.
The electrochemical reactions occurring in a PAFC are:
at the anode:
H2 = 2H+ + 2eat the cathode:
1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- = H2O
with the overall cell reaction: l/2O2 + H2 = H20 .
CONSTRUCTION:

Electrolyte is highly concentrated or pure liquid phosphoric acid

(H3PO4) saturated in a silicon carbide matrix (SiC). Operating range is
about 150 to 210 C. The electrodes are made of carbon paper
coated with a finely dispersed platinum catalyst.
ADVANTAGE OF PAFC:
At an operating range of 150 to 200 C, the expelled water can be
converted to steam for air and water heating (combined heat and
power). This potentially allows efficiency increases of up to 70%.[2]
PAFCs are CO2-tolerant and even can tolerate a CO concentration of
about 1.5 percent, which broadens the choice of fuels they can use.
If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed.[3] At lower
temperatures phosphoric acid is a poor ionic conductor, and CO
poisoning of the platinum electro-catalyst in the anode becomes
severe.[4] However, they are much less sensitive to CO than PEFCs
and AFCs.

APPLICATION:

PAFC have been used for stationary power generators with output in
the 100 kW to 400 kW range and they are also finding application in
large vehicles such as buses.
RESULT
Hence, the construction,working and principal has been studied.

Experiment No 4
Aim : To study the construction,working and principle of proton
exchange membrane fuel cell.
THEORY:
This type of fuel cell also known as the Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane Fuel Cell consists of a proton conducting membrane, such
as a perfluorosulphonic acid polymer as the electrolyte which has
good proton conducting properties, contained between two Pt
impregnated porous electrodes. The back of the electrodes are
coated with a hydrophobic compound such as TeflonR forming a wet
proof coating which provides a gas diffusion path to the catalyst
layer. Within the cell, H2 at the anode provides protons and releases
electrons which pass through the external circuit to reach the
cathode. The protons solvate with water molecules and diffuse
through the membrane to the cathode to react with the O2 while
picking up electrons and forming water.
CONSTRUCTION:

Thus, the electrochemical reactions occurring in a PEMFC are:

at the anode:
H2 = 2H+ + 2eat the cathode:

1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- = H2O

with the overall cell reaction: l/2O2 + H2 = H20
Note that the fuel cell operates on H2 while only a few ppm of CO
may be tolerated by the Pt catalysis at its operating temperature of
175 deg F or 80 deg C. If a hydrocarbon fuel such as natural gas is
used as a fuel, reforming of the fuel by the reaction:
CH4 + H2O = 3H2 + CO
(in the case of natural gas), followed by shifting of the reformate by
the reaction:
CO + H2O = H2 + CO2,
and removal of the unconverted CO to ppm levels are required to
generate the required fuel by the cell. Any sulfur compounds present
in a hydrocarbon fuel have to be removed prior to use in the
reformer to a concentration of <0.1 ppmV. There is a limit on the CO
concentration in the fuel gas to the fuel cell which is <10ppmV.
ADVANTAGES
Some of the advantages of the cell are that it may be operated at
high current densities resulting in acell that has a fast start capability,
compact and light weight design, and that there is no corrosive fluid
spillage hazard because the only liquid present in the cell is water.
Thus, a PEMFC is well suited for use in vehicles. A disadvantage
associated with this type of fuel cell, however, is that Pt catalysts are
required as promoters for the electrochemical reaction.
PEFCs are capable of operation at pressures from 0.10 to 1.0 MPa (10
to 100 psig) and with suitable current collectors and supporting
structure, these fuel cells may be capable of operating at pressures
as high as 3000 psi

The ionic conductivity of the electrolyte increases with the water

content. It is necessary to maintain a high enough water content in
the electrolyte to avoid membrane dehydration and maintain proper
ion conductivity without flooding the electrodes. Thus, the balance
between production of the water by the oxidation of the H2 and its
evaporation has to be controlled.
RESULT
Hence, we studied construction,working and principle of PAMFC

Experiment No-5
AIM: To study the construction,working & principle of Direct
methanol fuel cell
THEORY:
DMFC are a subcategory of proton-exchange fuel cells in
which methanol is used as the fuel. Their main advantage is the ease
of transport of methanol, an energy-dense yet reasonably stable
liquid at all environmental conditions.
Efficiency is quite low for these cells, so they are targeted especially
to portable applications, where energy and power density are more
important than efficiency.
It is the direct catalytic oxidation of a dilute water solution of some
liquid organic fuel (usually methyl alcohol solution of a few percent)
by oxygen (or most often air). This reaction produces electric current,
carbon dioxide, water and heat.
CONSTRUCTION:

REACTION:

On the anode: CH3OH + H2O => CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-

On the cathode: 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e- => 3 H2O

The complete reaction: CH3OH + 3/2O2 => CO2 + 2H2O

Advantages:

Methanol is easier to transport and store than hydrogen

No fuel cell reformer is needed

Small

Disadvantages:

Although the energy density of methanol is high, due to the low

operational temperature its electric efficiency and current
density are low

Due to the low operational temperature it requires the use of a

catalyst

Methanol is toxic and flammable

Areas of use:

Mobile phones

Laptops

Other portable devices

RESULT :
Hence we studied the construction and working of DMFC

EXPERIMENT NO- 6
AIM: To study the construction,working & principle of Molten
carbonate fuel cell
Theory:
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells work at a high temperature. The high
temperature allows operating these cells directly with natural gas.
They have been developed in the middle of the 1960s, and since
then the best results have been achieved in enhancing the efficiency
and the lifetime of these cells. This type of cells differs in operation
from the other fuel cells. They contain molten carbonate salts as
electrolyte, usually a mix of two carbonates. The most frequently
used combinations are the mix of lithium carbonate and potassium
carbonate, and the mix of lithium carbonate and sodium carbonate.
The high operational temperature is needed to melt the electrolyte
and to achieve sufficient ion permeability. The molten electrolyte is
able to conduct the carbonate ions (CO32-). These ions move from
the cathode to the anode, where they combine with hydrogen to
form water, carbon dioxide and electrons. The electrons flow
through an outer circuit and so produce electric current and heat
before arriving at the cathode
CONSTRUCTION:
Materials
Due to the high operating temperatures of MCFCs, the materials
need to be very carefully selected to survive the conditions present
within the cell. The following sections cover the various materials
present in the fuel cell
Anode

The anode material typically consists of a porous (3-6 m, 45-70%

material porosity) Ni based alloy. Ni is alloyed with either Chromium
or Aluminum in the 2-10% range. These alloying elements allow for
formation of LiCrO2/LiAlO2 at the grain boundaries, which increases
the materials' creep resistance and prevents sintering of the anode
at the high operating temperatures of the fuel cell
Cathode
On the other side of the cell, the cathode material is composed of a
porous Ni that is converted to a lithiated nickel oxide (lithium is
intercalated within the NiO crystal structure). The pore size within
the cathode is in the range of 7-15 m with 60-70% of the material
being p Electrolyte.
MCFCs use a liquid electrolyte (molten carbonate) which consists of
a sodium(Na) and potassium(K) carbonate. This electrolyte is
supported by a ceramic (LiAlO2) matrix to contain the liquid between
the electrodes. The high temperatures of the fuel cell is required to
produce sufficient ionic conductivity of oxygen through this
electrolyte.Common MCFC electrolytes contain 62% Li2CO3 and 38%
K2CO3.

Reactions:

On the anode: CO32- + H2 => H2O + CO2 + 2e-

On the cathode: CO2 + O2 + 2e- => CO32-

The complete reaction: H2 + O2 + CO2 (katd) => H2O +

CO2 (and)

Advantages:

Due to the high operational temperature no fuel reformer is

needed

The high operational temperature allows the efficient usage of

heat

Cheap raw materials

Disadvantages:

Sensitive to corrosion

Slow starting

Complicated to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide

Areas of use:

Power plants

Industrial usage

RESULT:
Hence we studied working, construction and principle of MCFC.

Experiment No-7
AIM: To study the construction,working & principle of solid oxide
fuel cell
THEORY:
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) are the fuel cells of the highest
operating temperature at present. The electrolyte is such a thin
ceramic (solid oxide) layer that is able to conduct oxygen ions at a
high temperature. In the second half of the 1950s two basic types of
solid oxide fuel cells were developed: the SOFCs of tubular and panel
structure.
The charge carrying oxygen ions form on the cathode from oxygen
molecules and electrons. On the anode, after combining with
hydrogen, the electrons are released, which reach the cathode
through an outer circuit while producing current and heat.
CONSTRUCTION:
Anode:
The ceramic anode layer must be very porous to allow the fuel to
flow towards the electrolyte .Consequently, granular matter is often
selected for anode fabrication procedures. The most common
material used is a cermet made up of nickel mixed with the ceramic
material that is used for the electrolyte in that particular cell,
typically YSZ (yttria stabilized zirconia) nanomaterial-based catalysts,
this YSZ part helps stop the grain growth of nickel.
Cathode:
Cathode materials must be, at a minimum, electronically conductive.
Currently, lanthanum strontium manganite (LSM) is the cathode

material of choice for commercial use because of its compatibility

with doped zirconia electrolytes.

ELECTROLYTE:
Popular electrolyte materials include yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ)
(often the 8% form 8YSZ), scandia stabilized zirconia (ScSZ) (usually 9
mol%Sc2O3 9ScSZ) and gadolinium doped ceria (GDC).[6] The
electrolyte material has crucial influence on the cell performances.
Reactions:

On the anode: 2H2 + 2 O2- => 2H2O + 4e-

On the cathode: O2 + 4e- => 2O2-

The complete reaction: 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

Advantages:

High electric efficiency

The efficiency can be increased to over 70% by a turbo-motor

Due to the high temperature it is not sensitive to the quality of

the fuel

Disadvantages:

Slow starting

Slow reaction to the changes of current demands

Expensive raw materials due to the high temperature

Areas of use:

Power plants

Industrial usage

RESULT:
Hence we studied the working ,construction and principe of SOFC

EXPERIMENT NO-8
AIM: To study the applications of fuel cell in modern day
automobiles.
Theory:
Fuel cells have been used in various kinds of vehicles including
forklifts, especially in indoor applications where their clean emissions
are important to air quality, and in space applications.
The first commercially produced hydrogen fuel cell automobiles
began to be sold by Toyota and leased on a limited basis by Hyundai
in 2015, with additional manufacturers planning to enter the market.
As of June 2016, the Toyota Mirai is available for retail sale in Japan,
California, the UK, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, and Norway.[3]
Furthermore, fuel cells are being developed and tested in buses,
boats, motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.
There are also demonstration models of buses,[47] and in 2011 there
were over 100 fuel cell buses deployed around the world. Most of
these buses were produced by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard,
Hydrogenics, and Proton Motor.
A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck or a fuel cell forklift)
is a fuel cell-powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and
transport materials. Most fuel cells used in forklifts are powered by
PEM fuel cells.
In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever
working hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral
Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and
to travel 160 km (100 mi) in an urban area, at a top speed of 80 km/h
(50 mph).

The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5
kW net output. For each liter of fuel consumed, the average
outboard motor produces 140 times less[citation needed] the
hydrocarbons produced by the average modern car.
The first submersible application of fuel cells is the German Type 212
submarine.Each Type 212 contains nine PEM fuel cells, spread
throughout the ship, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each of
electrical power.
In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the
world's first hydrogen fuel cell-powered tramcar at an assembly
facility in Qingdao.
As of 2015, two fuel cell vehicles have been introduced for
commercial lease and sale in limited quantities: the Toyota Mirai and
the Hyundai ix35 FCEV. Additional demonstration models include the
Honda FCX Clarity, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.
RESULT
Hence, we studied the application of fuel cell in automobiles.