CH 2
CH 2
CH 2
BIOLOGY
CHAPTER 2
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
2.1 Kingdom Monera
2.2 Kingdom Protista
2.3 Kingdom Fungi
2.4 Kingdom Plantae
2.5 Kingdom
Animalia
2.6 Viruses, Viroids
and Lichens
Since the dawn of civilisation, there have been many attempts to classify
living organisms. It was done instinctively not using criteria that were
scientific but borne out of a need to use organisms for our own use for
food, shelter and clothing. Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more
scientific basis for classification. He used simple morphological characters
to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs. He also divided animals
into two groups, those which had red blood and those that did not.
In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of classification with
Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that included all plants
and animals respectively. This system was used till very recently. This
system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes,
unicellular and multicellular organisms and photosynthetic (green algae)
and non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms. Classification of organisms
into plants and animals was easily done and was easy to understand,
but, a large number of organisms did not fall into either category. Hence
the two kingdom classification used for a long time was found inadequate.
A need was also felt for including, besides gross morphology, other
characteristics like cell structure, nature of wall, mode of nutrition, habitat,
methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships, etc. Classification
systems for the living organisms have hence, undergone several changes
over time. Though plant and animal kingdoms have been a constant
under all different systems, the understanding of what groups/organisms
be included under these kingdoms have been changing; the number and
nature of other kingdoms have also been understood differently by
different scientists over time.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
17
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Cell type
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic
Cell wall
Present
Noncellulosic
(Polysaccharide some
+ amino acid)
Present
(without
cellulose)
Present
(cellulose)
Absent
Nuclear
membrane
Body
organisation
Mode of
nutrition
in
Absent
Present
Present
Present
Present
Cellular
Cellular
Multiceullar/
loose tissue
Tissue/
organ
Tissue/organ/
organ system
Autotrophic
(Photosynthetic) and
Heterotrophic
Heterotrophic
(Saprophytic/
Parasitic)
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(Photosyn- ( H o l o z o i c /
Saprophytic
thetic)
etc.)
Autotrophic
(chemosynthetic and
photosynthetic)
and Heterotrophic (saprophytic/parasitic)
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BIOLOGY
cell wall. When such characteristics were considered, the fungi were placed
in a separate kingdom Kingdom Fungi. All prokaryotic organisms were
grouped together under Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic
organisms were placed in Kingdom Protista. Kingdom Protista has
brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae
within Plants and both having cell walls) with Paramoecium and Amoeba
(which were earlier placed in the animal kingdom which lack cell wall). It
has put together organisms which, in earlier classifications, were placed
in different kingdoms. This happened because the criteria for classification
changed. This kind of changes will take place in future too depending on
the improvement in our understanding of characteristics and evolutionary
relationships. Over time, an attempt has been made to evolve a
classification system which reflects not only the morphological,
physiological and reproductive similarities, but is also phylogenetic, i.e.,
is based on evolutionary relationships.
In this chapter we will study characteristics of Kingdoms Monera,
Protista and Fungi of the Whittaker system of classification. The Kingdoms
Plantae and Animalia, commonly referred to as plant and animal
kingdoms, respectively, will be dealt with separately in chapters 3 and 4.
2.1
KINGDOM MONERA
Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera. They are the most
abundant micro-organisms. Bacteria occur almost everywhere. Hundreds
of bacteria are present in a handful of soil. They also live in extreme habitats
such as hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans where very few other
life forms can survive. Many of them live in or on other organisms as
parasites.
Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape: the
spherical Coccus (pl.: cocci), the rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli), the
comma-shaped Vibrium (pl.: vibrio) and the spiral Spirillum (pl.: spirilla)
(Figure 2.1).
Flagellum
Spore
Cocci
Bacilli
Spirilla
Vibrio
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
19
Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex
in behaviour. Compared to many other organisms, bacteria as a group
show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Some of the bacteria are
autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food from inorganic substrates.
They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic.
The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e., they do not synthesise
their own food but depend on other organisms or on dead organic matter
for food.
2.1.1 Archaebacteria
These bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh habitats
such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
and marshy areas (methanogens). Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria
in having a different cell wall structure and this feature is responsible for
their survival in extreme conditions. Methanogens are present in the gut
of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes and they are
responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these
animals.
2.1.2 Eubacteria
There are thousands of different eubacteria or true
bacteria. They are characterised by the presence of a
rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum. The
cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae)
have chlorophyll a similar to green plants and are
photosynthetic autotrophs (Figure 2.2). The
cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae. The colonies
are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They
often form blooms in polluted water bodies. Some of
these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in
specialised cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and
Anabaena. Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria
oxidise various inorganic substances such as
nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released
energy for their ATP production. They play a great role
in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous,
iron and sulphur.
Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant
in nature. The majority are important decomposers.
Many of them have a significant impact on human
affairs. They are helpful in making curd from milk,
production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume
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2.2.1
Chrysophytes
This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids). They are found
in fresh water as well as in marine environments. They are microscopic
and float passively in water currents (plankton). Most of them are
photosynthetic. In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells,
which fit together as in a soap box. The walls are embedded with silica
and thus the walls are indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind
large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat; this accumulation over
billions of years is referred to as diatomaceous earth. Being gritty this
soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms are the
chief producers in the oceans.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
21
2.2.2 Dinoflagellates
These organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending
on the main pigments present in their cells. The cell wall
has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface. Most of
them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the
other transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.
Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax)
undergo such rapid multiplication that they make the
sea appear red (red tides). Toxins released by such large
numbers may even kill other marine animals such as
fishes.
2.2.3 Euglenoids
Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in
stagnant water. Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein
rich layer called pellicle which makes their body flexible.
They have two flagella, a short and a long one. Though
they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when
deprived of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by
predating on other smaller organisms. Interestingly, the
pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in
higher plants. Example: Euglena (Figure 2.4a).
(a)
2.2.5 Protozoans
All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or
parasites. They are believed to be primitive relatives of
animals. There are four major groups of protozoans.
Amoeboid protozoans: These organisms live in fresh
water, sea water or moist soil. They move and capture
(b)
Figure 2.4 (a) Euglena
(b) Paramoecium
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BIOLOGY
2.3
KINGDOM FUNGI
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
23
(ii)
(a)
2.3.1 Phycomycetes
Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats
and on decaying wood in moist and damp places or as
obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is aseptate
and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction takes place by
zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile). These
spores are endogenously produced in sporangium. A
zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes. These
gametes are similar in morphology (isogamous) or
dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous). Some common
examples are Mucor (Figure 2.5a), Rhizopus (the bread
mould mentioned earlier) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi
on mustard).
(b)
2.3.2 Ascomycetes
Commonly known as sac-fungi, the as comycetes are mostly
(c)
multicellular, e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast
(Saccharomyces). They are saprophytic, decomposers, Figure 2.5 Fungi: (a) Mucor
(b) Aspergillus (c) Agaricus
parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung). Mycelium
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BIOLOGY
2.3.3 Basidiomycetes
Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi
or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living
plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched
and septate. The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative
reproduction by fragmentation is common. The sex organs are absent,
but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic
which ultimately gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take
place in the basidium producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores
are exogenously produced on the basidium (pl.: basidia). The basidia are
arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Some common members
are Agaricus (mushroom) (Figure 2.5c), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust
fungus).
2.3.4 Deuteromycetes
Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or
vegetative phases of these fungi are known. When the sexual forms of
these fungi were discovered they were moved into classes they rightly
belong to. It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage have
been given one name (and placed under deuteromycetes) and the sexual
stage another (and placed under another class). Later when the linkages
were established, the fungi were correctly identified and moved out of
deuteromycetes. Once perfect (sexual) stages of members of
dueteromycetes were discovered they were often moved to ascomycetes
and basidiomycetes. The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores
known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched. Some members
are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are
decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling. Some examples are
Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
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BIOLOGY
Head
Collar
Sheath
RNA
Capsid
Tail fibres
(a)
(b)
infect a cell they take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate
themselves, killing the host. Would you call viruses living or non-living?
The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by
Pasteur. D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes as causal
organism of the mosaic disease of tobacco (Figure 2.6a). These were found
to be smaller than bacteria because they passed through bacteria-proof
filters. M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected
plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants and called the
fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid). W.M. Stanley
(1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised and crystals consist
largely of proteins. They are inert outside their specific host cell. Viruses
are obligate parasites.
In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could
be either RNA or DNA. No virus contains both RNA and DNA. A virus is
a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious. In general, viruses
that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect animals
have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.
Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are
usually double stranded DNA viruses (Figure 2.6b). The protein coat
called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the
nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral
geometric forms. Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes
and influenza. AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus. In plants, the
symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing
and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
27
SUMMARY
Biological classification of plants and animals was first proposed by Aristotle on
the basis of simple morphological characters. Linnaeus later classified all living
organisms into two kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. Whittaker proposed an
elaborate five kingdom classification Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia. The main criteria of the five kingdom classification were cell structure,
body organisation, mode of nutrition and reproduction, and phylogenetic
relationships.
In the five kingdom classification, bacteria are included in Kingdom Monera.
Bacteria are cosmopolitan in distribution. These organisms show the most extensive
metabolic diversity. Bacteria may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in their mode of
nutrition. Kingdom Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes such as
Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime-moulds and Protozoans. Protists
have defined nucleus and other membrane bound organelles. They reproduce
both asexually and sexually. Members of Kingdom Fungi show a great diversity
in structures and habitat. Most fungi are saprophytic in their mode of nutrition.
They show asexual and sexual reproduction. Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes,
Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes are the four classes under this kingdom.
The plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms. Algae,
bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms are included in this
group. The life cycle of plants exhibit alternation of generations gametophytic
and sporophytic generations. The heterotrophic eukaryotic, multicellular
organisms lacking a cell wall are included in the Kingdom Animalia. The mode of
nutrition of these organisms is holozoic. They reproduce mostly by the sexual
mode. Some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids as well as the lichens are
not included in the five kingdom system of classification.
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BIOLOGY
EXERCISES
1. Discuss how classification systems have undergone several changes over a
period of time?
2. State two economically important uses of:
(a) heterotrophic bacteria
(b) archaebacteria
3. What is the nature of cell-walls in diatoms?
4. Find out what do the terms algal bloom and red-tides signify.
5. How are viroids different from viruses?
6. Describe briefly the four major groups of Protozoa.
7. Plants are autotrophic. Can you think of some plants that are partially
heterotrophic?
8. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify?
9. Give a comparative account of the classes of Kingdom Fungi under the following:
(i) mode of nutrition
(ii) mode of reproduction
10. What are the characteristic features of Euglenoids?
11. Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their structure and nature of
genetic material. Also name four common viral diseases.
12. Organise a discussion in your class on the topic Are viruses living or nonliving?