2024-25

This message is written so tht the website takes this as a document different from the original

10 BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 2
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
2.1 Kingdom Since the dawn of civilisation, there have been many attempts to
Monera
classify living organisms. It was done instinctively not using criteria
2.2 Kingdom Protista that were scientific but borne out of a need to use organisms for our
own use – for food, shelter and clothing. Aristotle was the earliest to
2.3 Kingdom Fungi
attempt a more scientific basis for classification. He used simple
2.4 Kingdom morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and
Plantae herbs. He also divided animals into two groups, those which had red
2.5 Kingdom blood and those that did not.
Animalia In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of classification with
Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that included all
2.6 Viruses, Viroids
plants and animals respectively. This system did not distinguish
and Lichens
between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular
organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and non-photosynthetic
(fungi) organisms. Classification of organisms into plants and animals
was easily done and was easy to understand, but, a large number of
organisms did not fall into either category. Hence the two kingdom
classification used for a long time was found inadequate. Besides,
gross morphology a need was also felt for including other
characteristics like cell structure, nature of wall, mode of nutrition,
habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships, etc.
Classification systems for the living organisms have hence, undergone
several changes over the time. Though plant and animal kingdoms
have been a constant under all different systems, the understanding
of what groups/organisms be included under these kingdoms have
been changing; the number and nature of other kingdoms have also
been understood differently by different scientists over the time.

2024-25
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 11

TABLE 2.1 Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms

Five Kingdoms
Characters
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell wall Noncellulosic Present in Present Present

(Polysaccharide some with chitin (cellulose) Absent
+ amino acid)

Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present

membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multiceullar/ Tissue/ Tissue/organ/
organisation loose tissue organ organ system
Autotrophic
Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(chemosyn-
(Photosyn- (Saprophytic/ (Photosyn- (Holoz o ic/
thetic and
Mode of thetic) and Parasitic) thetic) Saprophytic
photosynthetic)
nutrition and Hetero- Hetero- etc.)
trophic (sapro- trophic
phytic/para-
sitic)

R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification.

The kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia. The main criteria for classification used by him
include cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition,
reproduction and phylogenetic relationships. Table 2.1 gives a
comparative account of different characteristics of the five kingdoms.
The three-domain system has also been proposed that divides the Kingdom
Monera into two domains, leaving the remaining eukaryotic kingdoms in
the third domain and thereby a six kingdom classification. You will learn
about this system in detail at higher classes.
Let us look at this five kingdom classification to understand the
issues and considerations that influenced the classification system.
Earlier classification systems included bacteria, blue green algae, fungi,
mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and the angiosperms under ‘Plants’. The
character that unified this whole kingdom was that all the organisms
included had a cell wall in their cells. This placed together groups which
widely differed in other characteristics. It brought together the
prokaryotic bacteria and the blue green algae (cyanobacteria) with other
groups which were eukaryotic. It also grouped together the unicellular
organisms and the multicellular ones, say, for example, Chlamydomonas
and Spirogyra were placed together under algae. The classification did not
differentiate between the heterotrophic group – fungi, and the autotrophic
green plants, though they also showed a characteristic difference in
their walls composition – the fungi had chitin

2024-25
12 BIOLOGY

in their walls while the green plants had a cellulosic cell wall. When
such characteristics were considered, the fungi were placed in a
separate kingdom – Kingdom Fungi. All prokaryotic organisms were
grouped together under Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic
organisms were placed in Kingdom Protista. Kingdom Protista has
brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae
within Plants and both having cell walls) with Paramoecium and Amoeba
(which were earlier placed in the animal kingdom which lack cell wall). It
has put together organisms which, in earlier classifications, were
placed in different kingdoms. This happened because the criteria for
classification changed. This kind of changes will take place in future
too depending on the improvement in our understanding of
characteristics and evolutionary relationships. Over time, an attempt has
been made to evolve a classification system which reflects not only the
morphological, physiological and reproductive similarities, but is also
phylogenetic, i.e., is based on evolutionary relationships.
In this chapter we will study characteristics of Kingdoms Monera,
Protista and Fungi of the Whittaker system of classification. The
Kingdoms Plantae and Animalia, commonly referred to as plant and
animal kingdoms, respectively, will be dealt separately in chapters 3
and 4.

2.1 KINGDOM MONERA

Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera. They are the
most abundant micro-organisms. Bacteria occur almost everywhere.
Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil. They also live in
extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans
where very few other life forms can survive. Many of them live in or on
other organisms as parasites.
Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape:
the spherical Coccus (pl.: cocci), the rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli),
the comma-shaped Vibrium (pl.: vibrio) and the spiral Spirillum (pl.:
spirilla) (Figure 2.1).

Spore Flagellum

Cocci Spirilla
Bacilli Vibrio

Figure 2.1 Bacteria of different shapes

2024-25
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 13

Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very

complex in behaviour. Compared to many other organisms, bacteria
as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Some of the
bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food from
inorganic substrates. They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or
chemosynthetic autotrophic. The vast majority of bacteria are
heterotrophs, i.e., they depend on other organisms or on dead organic
matter for food.

2.1.1 Archaebacteria
These bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh
habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs
(thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens). Archaebacteria
differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and this
feature is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such
as cows and buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of
methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals.

2.1.2 Eubacteria fixing nitrogen in legume

There are thousands of different eubacteria or

‘true bacteria’. They are characterised by the
presence of a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a
flagellum. The cyanobacteria (also referred to as
blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a similar to
green plants and are photosynthetic
autotrophs (Figure 2.2). The cyanobacteria are
unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae. The
colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous
sheath. They often form blooms in polluted water
bodies. Some of these organisms can fix
atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells called
heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise
various inorganic substances such as nitrates,
nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy
for their ATP production. They play a great role in
recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous,
iron and sulphur.
Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant
in nature. The majority are important
decomposers. Many of them have a significant
impact on human affairs. They are helpful in
making curd from milk, production of antibiotics,
2024-25
 14 BIOLOGY

Figure 2.2 A filamentous blue-green algae

– Nostoc

2024-25
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 15

roots, etc. Some are pathogens causing

damage to human beings, crops, farm animals
and pets. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus
canker are well known diseases caused by
different bacteria.
Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission
(Figure 2.3). Sometimes, under unfavourable
conditions, they produce spores. They also
reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by
adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from
Figure 2.3 A dividing bacterium one bacterium to the other.
The Mycoplasma are organisms that
completely lack a cell wall. They are the
smallest
living cells known and can survive without oxygen. Many
mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants.

2.2 KINGDOM PROTISTA

All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the

boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined. What may be ‘a
photosynthetic protistan’ to one biologist may be ‘a plant’ to another.
In this book we include Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids,
Slime moulds and Protozoans under Protista. Members of Protista are
primarily aquatic. This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing
with plants, animals and fungi. Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body
contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Some have flagella or cilia. Protists reproduce asexually and sexually
by a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation.

2.2.1 Chrysophytes
This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids). They are
found in fresh water as well as in marine environments. They are
microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton). Most of
them are photosynthetic. In diatoms the cell walls form two thin
overlapping shells, which fit together as in a soap box. The walls are
embedded with silica and thus the walls are indestructible. Thus,
diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their
habitat; this accumulation over billions of years is referred to as
‘diatomaceous earth’. Being gritty this soil is used in polishing,
filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the
oceans.

2024-25
 16 BIOLOGY

2.2.2 Dinoflagellates
These organisms are mostly marine and
photosynthetic. They appear yellow, green, brown, blue
or red depending on the main pigments present in their
cells. The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the
outer surface. Most of them have two flagella; one lies
longitudinally and the other transversely in a furrow
between the wall plates. Very often, red
dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such
rapid multiplication that they make the sea appear
red (red tides). Toxins released by such large numbers
may even kill other marine animals such as fishes. (a)

2.2.3 Euglenoids
Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in
stagnant water. Instead of a cell wall, they have a
protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their body
flexible. They have two flagella, a short and a long
(b)
one. Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of
sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they behave like
heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms.
Interestingly, the pigments of euglenoids are identical
to those present in higher plants. Example: Euglena
(Figure 2.4b).

2.2.4 Slime Moulds

Slime moulds are saprophytic protists. The body
moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing
organic material. Under suitable conditions, they
form an aggregation called plasmodium which may (c)
grow and spread over several feet. During unfavourable
conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips. The spores
possess true walls. They are extremely resistant and
survive for many years, even under adverse conditions.
The spores are dispersed by air currents.

2.2.5 Protozoans
(d)
All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators
or parasites. They are believed to be primitive
Figure 2.4 (a) Dinoflagellates
relatives of animals. There are four major groups of (b) Euglena
protozoans. (c) Slime mould
(d) Paramoecium
Amoeboid protozoans: These organisms live in fresh
water, sea water or moist soil. They move and capture

2024-25
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 17

their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba.

Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as
Entamoeba are parasites.
Flagellated protozoans: The members of this group are either free-
living or parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause
diaseases such as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma.
Ciliated protozoans: These are aquatic, actively moving organisms
because of the presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet)
that opens to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated
movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered
into the gullet. Example: Paramoecium (Figure 2.4d).
Sporozoans: This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious
spore-like stage in their life cycle. The most notorious is Plasmodium
(malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a disease which has a
staggering effect on human population.

2.3 KINGDOM FUNGI

The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.

They show a great diversity in morphology and habitat. You must
have seen fungi on a moist bread and rotten fruits. The common
mushroom you eat and toadstools are also fungi. White spots seen on
mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus. Some unicellular fungi,
e.g., yeast are used to make bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases
in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing Puccinia is an important
example. Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium. Fungi are
cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants.
They prefer to grow in warm and humid places. Have you ever
wondered why we keep food in the refrigerator ? Yes, it is to prevent
food from going bad due to bacterial or fungal infections.
With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are
filamentous. Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like
structures called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated
cytoplasm – these are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae
or cross walls in their hyphae. The cell walls of fungi are composed of
chitin and polysaccharides. Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb
soluble organic matter from dead substrates and hence are called
saprophytes. Those that depend on living plants and animals are
called parasites. They can also live as symbionts – in association with
algae as lichens and with roots of higher
plants as mycorrhiza.
Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means –
fragmentation, fission and budding. Asexual reproduction is by spores

2024-25
 18 BIOLOGY

called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores, and sexual

reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The
various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting
bodies. The sexual cycle involves the following three steps:
(i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes
called plasmogamy.
(ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid
hyphae of compatible mating types come together and
fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells
immediately results in diploid cells (2n). However, in
other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an
intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per
cell) occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and
the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the
parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid. The
fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division (a)
occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores.
The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore
formation and fruiting bodies form the basis for the
division of the kingdom into various classes.

2.3.1 Phycomycetes
Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic
habitats and on decaying wood in moist and damp
places or as obligate parasites on plants. The (b)
mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic. Asexual
reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by
aplanospores (non-motile). These spores are
endogenously produced in sporangium. A zygospore is
formed by fusion of two gametes. These gametes are
similar in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar
(anisogamous or oogamous). Some common examples
are Mucor (Figure 2.5a), Rhizopus (the bread mould
mentioned earlier) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on
mustard).

2.3.2 Ascomycetes
(c)
Commonly known as sac-fungi, the ascomycetes are
mostly multicellular, e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, Figure 2.5 Fungi: (a) Mucor
e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces). They are saprophytic, (b) Aspergillus (c) Agaricus
decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on
dung). Mycelium

2024-25
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 19

is branched and septate. The asexual spores are conidia produced

exogenously on the special mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia
on germination produce mycelium. Sexual spores are called
ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular
ascus). These asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies
called ascocarps. Some examples are Aspergillus (Figure 2.5b),
Claviceps and Neurospora. Neurospora is used extensively in
biochemical and genetic work. Many members like morels and truffles
are edible and are considered delicacies.

2.3.3 Basidiomycetes
Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi
or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living
plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched
and septate. The asexual spores are generally not found, but
vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common. The sex organs
are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two
vegetative or somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The
resultant structure is dikaryotic which ultimately gives rise to
basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium
producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores are exogenously
produced on the basidium (pl.: basidia). The basidia are arranged in
fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Some common members are
Agaricus (mushroom) (Figure 2.5c), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust
fungus).

2.3.4 Deuteromycetes
Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or
vegetative phases of these fungi are known. When the sexual forms of
these fungi were discovered they were moved into classes they rightly
belong to. It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage
have been given one name (and placed under deuteromycetes) and the
sexual stage another (and placed under another class). Later when the
linkages were established, the fungi were correctly identified and
moved out of deuteromycetes. Once perfect (sexual) stages of
members of dueteromycetes were discovered they were often moved
to ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. The deuteromycetes reproduce only
by asexual spores known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and
branched. Some members are saprophytes or parasites while a large
number of them are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.
Some examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

2024-25
 20 BIOLOGY

2.4 KINGDOM PLANTAE

Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing

organisms commonly called plants. A few members are partially
heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites. Bladderwort
and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is
a parasite. The plant cells have an eukaryotic structure with
prominent chloroplasts and cell wall mainly made of cellulose. You
will study the eukaryotic cell structure in detail in Chapter 8. Plantae
includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid
sporophytic and the haploid gametophytic – that alternate with each
other. The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and whether
these phases are free– living or dependent on others, vary among
different groups in plants. This phenomenon is called alternation of
generation. You will study further details of this kingdom in Chapter
3.

2.5 KINGDOM ANIMALIA

This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms

that are multicellular and their cells lack cell walls. They directly or
indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest their food in an
internal cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or fat. Their mode of
nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food. They follow a definite
growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite shape and
size. Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor
mechanism. Most of them are capable of locomotion.
The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female
followed by embryological development. Salient features of various
phyla are described in Chapter 4.

2.6 VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS

In the five kingdom classification of Whittaker there is no mention of

lichens and some acellular organisms like viruses, viroids and prions.
These are briefly introduced here.
All of us who have suffered the ill effects of common cold or ‘flu’
know what effects viruses can have on us, even if we do not associate it
with our condition. Viruses did not find a place in classification since
they are not considered truly ‘living’, if we understand living as those
organisms that have a cell structure. The viruses are non-cellular
organisms that are characterised by having an inert crystalline
structure outside the living cell.

2024-25
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 21

Head

Collar
Sheath

RNA Capsid
Tail fibres

(a) (b)

Figure 2.6 (a) Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) (b) Bacteriophage

Once they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the host cell to
replicate themselves, killing the host. Would you call viruses living or
non-living?
Virus means venom or poisonous fluid. Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892)
recognised certain microbes as causal organism of the mosaic disease
of tobacco (Figure 2.6a). These were found to be smaller than bacteria
because they passed through bacteria-proof filters. M.W. Beijerinek
(1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco
could cause infection in healthy plants and named the new pathogen
“virus” and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious
living fluid). W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be
crystallised and crystals consist largely of proteins. They are inert
outside their specific host cell. Viruses are obligate parasites.
In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could
be either RNA or DNA. No virus contains both RNA and DNA. A virus
is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious. In general,
viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect
animals have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded
DNA. Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the
bacteria) are usually double stranded DNA viruses (Figure 2.6b). The
protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres,
protects the nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or
polyhedral geometric forms. Viruses cause diseases like mumps,
small pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans is also caused by a
virus. In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling
and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted
growth.
2024-25
 22 BIOLOGY

Viroids : In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that

was smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease. It
was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in
viruses, hence the name viroid. The RNA of the viroid was of low
molecular weight. Prions : In modern medicine certain infectious
neurological diseases were found to be transmitted by an agent
consisting of abnormally folded protein. The agent was similar in size to
viruses. These agents were called prions. The most notable diseases
caused by prions are bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and its analogous variant
Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
Lichens : Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e. mutually useful
associations, between algae and fungi. The algal component is known
as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont, which are
autotrophic and heterotrophic, respectively. Algae prepare food for
fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and
water for its partner. So close is their association that if one saw a
lichen in nature one would never imagine that they had two different
organisms within them. Lichens are very good pollution indicators –
they do not grow in polluted areas.

SUMMARY

Biological classification of plants and animals was first proposed by Aristotle on

the basis of simple morphological characters. Linnaeus later classified all living
organisms into two kingdoms – Plantae and Animalia. Whittaker proposed an
elaborate five kingdom classification – Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia. The main criteria of the five kingdom classification were cell
structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition and reproduction, and
phylogenetic relationships.
In the five kingdom classification, bacteria are included in Kingdom
Monera. Bacteria are cosmopolitan in distribution. These organisms show the most
extensive metabolic diversity. Bacteria may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in
their mode of nutrition. Kingdom Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes
such as Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime-moulds and Protozoans.
Protists have defined nucleus and other membrane bound organelles. They
reproduce both asexually and sexually. Members of Kingdom Fungi show a
great diversity in structures and habitat. Most fungi are saprophytic in their
mode of nutrition. They show asexual and sexual reproduction.
Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes are the four
classes under this kingdom. The plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-
containing organisms. Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms are included in this group. The life cycle of plants exhibit
alternation of generations – gametophytic and sporophytic generations. The
heterotrophic eukaryotic, multicellular organisms lacking a cell wall are
included in the Kingdom Animalia. The mode of nutrition of these organisms is
holozoic. They reproduce mostly by the sexual mode. Some acellular organisms

2024-25
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 23

like viruses and viroids as well as the lichens are not included in the five
kingdom system of classification.

2024-25
24 BIOLOGY

EXERCISES

1. Discuss how classification systems have undergone several changes over a

period of time?
2. State two economically important uses of:
(a) heterotrophic bacteria
(b) archaebacteria
3. What is the nature of cell-walls in diatoms?
4. Find out what do the terms ‘algal bloom’ and ‘red-tides’ signify.
5. How are viroids different from viruses?
6. Describe briefly the four major groups of Protozoa.
7. Plants are autotrophic. Can you think of some plants that are partially
heterotrophic?
8. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify?
9. Give a comparative account of the classes of Kingdom Fungi under the following:
(i) mode of nutrition
(ii) mode of reproduction
10. What are the characteristic features of Euglenoids?
11. Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their structure and nature of
genetic material. Also name four common viral diseases.
12. Organise a discussion in your class on the topic – Are viruses living or non-
living?

2024-25