INTRODUCTION

A database is an organized collection of data. It is the collection of schemas, tables, queries,

reports, views, and other objects. The data are typically organized to model aspects of reality in a
way that supports processes requiring information, such as modeling the availability of rooms in
hotels in a way that supports finding a hotel with vacancies.
A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application that interacts with
the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A generalpurpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration
of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL
Server, Oracle, Sybase, SAP HANA, and IBM DB2. A database is not generally portable across
different DBMSs, but different DBMS can interoperate by using standards such
as SQL and ODBC or JDBC to allow a single application to work with more than one DBMS.
Database management systems are often classified according to the database model that they
support; the most popular database systems since the 1980s have all supported the relational
model as represented by the SQL language. Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a
'database'.

TERMINOLOGY AND OVERVIEW

Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. Access to these
data is usually provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of an integrated
set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides
access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit
access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and
retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is
organized.
Because of the close relationship between them, the term "database" is often used casually to
refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it.
Outside the world of professional information technology, the term database is often used to
refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index). This article is
concerned only with databases where the size and usage requirements necessitate use of a
database management system.
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Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data
which can be classified into four main functional groups:
Data definition Creation, modification and removal of definitions that define the
organization of the data.
Update Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data.
Retrieval Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by
other applications. The retrieved data may be made available in a form basically the same
as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing
data from the database.
Administration Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security, monitoring
performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency control, and
recovering information that has been corrupted by some event such as an unexpected
system failure.
Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database
model. "Database system" refers collectively to the database model, database management
system, and database.
Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only
the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with
generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of
data if any of the disks fail. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers
via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments.
DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a
custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely
on a standard operating system to provide these functions from databases before the inception of
Structured Query Language (SQL). The data recovered was disparate, redundant and disorderly,
since there was no proper method to fetch it and arrange it in a concrete structure.
Since DBMSs comprise a significant economical market, computer and storage vendors often
take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans.
Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support
(such as relational or XML), the type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a
mobile phone), the query language(s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery), and
their internal engineering, which affects performance, scalability, resilience, and security.

APPLICATIONS
Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online
interactions with customers and suppliers.
Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as
engineering data or economic models. Examples of database applications include
computerized library systems, flight reservation systems, computerized parts inventory systems,
and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in a
database.

GENERAL-PURPOSE AND SPECIAL-PURPOSE DBMS

A DBMS has evolved into a complex software system and its development typically requires
thousands of human years of development effort. Some general-purpose DBMSs such
as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1970s. General-purpose
DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity.
However, the fact that their development cost can be spread over a large number of users means
that they are often the most cost-effective approach. However, a general-purpose DBMS is not
always the optimal solution: in some cases a general-purpose DBMS may introduce unnecessary
overhead. Therefore, there are many examples of systems that use special-purpose databases. A
common example is an email system that performs many of the functions of a general-purpose
DBMS such as the insertion and deletion of messages composed of various items of data or
associating messages with a particular email address; but these functions are limited to what is
required to handle email and don't provide the user with all of the functionality that would be
available using a general-purpose DBMS.
Many other databases have application software that accesses the database on behalf of endusers, without exposing the DBMS interface directly. Application programmers may use a wire
protocol directly, or more likely through an application programming interface. Database
designers and database administrators interact with the DBMS through dedicated interfaces to
build and maintain the applications' databases, and thus need some more knowledge and
understanding about how DBMSs operate and the DBMSs' external interfaces and tuning
parameters.
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HISTORY
Following the technology progress in the areas of processors, computer memory, computer
storage, and computer networks, the sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their
respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude. The development of database technology
can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational, SQL/relational, and
post-relational.
The two main early navigational data models were the hierarchical model, epitomized by IBM's
IMS system, and the CODASYL model (network model), implemented in a number of products
such as IDMS.
The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by
insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The
relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only
in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide
deployment of relational systems. By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in
all large-scale data processing applications, and as of 2015 they remain dominant : IBM
DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL Server are the top DBMS. The dominant database
language, standardized SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other
data models.
Object databases were developed in the 1980s to overcome the inconvenience of objectrelational impedance mismatch, which led to the coining of the term "post-relational" and also
the development of hybrid object-relational databases.
The next generation of post-relational databases in the late 2000s became known
as NoSQL databases, introducing fast key-value stores and document-oriented databases. A
competing "next generation" known as NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that
retained the relational/SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of NoSQL
compared to commercially available relational DBMSs.

1960s, Navigational DBMS :

Basic structure of navigational CODASYL database model
The introduction of the term database coincided with the availability of direct-access storage
(disks and drums) from the mid-1960s onwards. The term represented a contrast with the tapebased systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing.
The Oxford English Dictionary cites a 1962 report by the System Development Corporation of
California as the first to use the term "data-base" in a specific technical sense.
As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems
emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in
a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data
Store (IDS), founded the "Database Task Group" within CODASYL, the group responsible for
the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971, the Database Task Group delivered their
standard, which generally became known as the "CODASYL approach", and soon a number of
commercial products based on this approach entered the market.
The CODASYL approach relied on the "manual" navigation of a linked data set which was
formed into a large network. Applications could find records by one of three methods:
Use of a primary key (known as a CALC key, typically implemented by hashing)
Navigating relationships (called sets) from one record to another Scanning all the records in a
sequential order, Later systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths.

IBM also had their own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS
was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was
generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data
navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as
navigational databases due to the way data was accessed, and Bachman's 1973 Turing
Award presentation was The Programmer as Navigator. IMS is classified as a hierarchical
database. IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL database are classified as network databases. IMS
remains in use as of 2014.

1970s, Relational DBMS :

Edgar Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California, in one of their offshoot offices that was
primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems. He was unhappy with the
navigational model of the CODASYL approach, notably the lack of a "search" facility. In 1970,
he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that
eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data
Banks. In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases.
Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL,
Codd's idea was to use a "table" of fixed-length records, with each table used for a different type
of entity. A linked-list system would be very inefficient when storing "sparse" databases where
some of the data for any one record could be left empty. The relational model solved this by
splitting the data into a series of normalized tables (or relations), with optional elements being
moved out of the main table to where they would take up room only if needed. Data may be
freely inserted, deleted and edited in these tables, with the DBMS doing whatever maintenance
needed to present a table view to the application/user.

In the relational model, records are "linked" using virtual keys not stored in the database but
defined as needed between the data contained in the records.
The relational model also allowed the content of the database to evolve without constant
rewriting of links and pointers. The relational part comes from entities referencing other entities
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in what is known as one-to-many relationship, like a traditional hierarchical model, and many-tomany relationship, like a navigational (network) model. Thus, a relational model can express
both hierarchical and navigational models, as well as its native tabular model, allowing for pure
or combined modeling in terms of these three models, as the application requires.
For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name,
login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach, all of this
data would be placed in a single record, and unused items would simply not be placed in the
database. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address
table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables
only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.
Linking the information back together is the key to this system. In the relational model, some bit
of information was used as a "key", uniquely defining a particular record. When information was
being collected about a user, information stored in the optional tables would be found by
searching for this key. For instance, if the login name of a user is unique, addresses and phone
numbers for that user would be recorded with the login name as its key. This simple "re-linking"
of related data back into a single collection is something that traditional computer languages are
not designed for.
IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV, and a production
one, Business System 12, both now discontinued. Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics, and now
there are two new implementations: AlphoraDataphor and Rel. Most other DBMS
implementations usually called relational are actually SQL DBMSs.
In 1970, the University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information
Management System based on D.L. Childs' Set-Theoretic Data model. MICRO was used to
manage very large data sets by the US Department of Labor, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and researchers from the University of Alberta, the University of Michigan, and Wayne
State University. It ran on IBM mainframe computers using the Michigan Terminal System. The
system remained in production until 1998.

Integrated Approach :
In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware
and software. The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher
performance at lower cost. Examples were IBM System/38, the early offering of Teradata, and
the Britton Lee, Inc. database machine.
Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a
hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts
were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the
rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems
nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose
computer data storage. However this idea is still pursued for certain applications by some
companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata).
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1980s, On The Desktop :

The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing. The new computers empowered their users
with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE. The dBASE product was
lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff the
creator of dBASE stated: "dBASE was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and
COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by
dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having
to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space
allocation." dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the 1980s and early 1990s.

1990s, Object-Oriented :
The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a growth in how data in
various databases were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their
databases as objects. That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's
attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that
person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations between data to be relations to
objects and their attributes and not to individual fields.[20] The term "object-relational impedance
mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database
tables. Object databases and object-relational databases attempt to solve this problem by
providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can
use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as objectrelational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve the same problem.

2000s, NoSQL and NewSQL :

XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based
on XML document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in enterprise database
management, where XML is being used as the machine-to-machine data interoperability
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standard. XML database management systems include commercial software Mark

Logic and Oracle Berkeley DB XML, and a free use software Cluster point Distributed
XML/JSON Database. All are enterprise software database platforms and support industry
standard ACID-compliant transaction processing with strong database consistency characteristics
and high level of database security.
NoSQL databases are often very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations
by storing demoralized data, and are designed to scale horizontally. The most
include MongoDB, Couchbase, Riak, Memcached, Redis, CouchDB, Hazelcast, Apache
Cassandra, and HBase, which are all open-source software products.
In recent years, there was a high demand for massively distributed databases with high partition
tolerance but according to the CAP theorem it is impossible for a distributed system to
simultaneously provide consistency, availability, and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed
system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason,
many NoSQL databases are using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability
and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency.
NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable
performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction processing (read-write) workloads while
still using SQL and maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system. Such
database include ScaleBase, Clustrix, EnterpriseDB, MemSQL,NuoDB, and VoltDB.

Research :
Database technology has been an active research topic since the 1960s, both in academia and in
the research and development groups of companies (for example IBM Research). Research
activity includes theory and development of prototypes. Notable research topics have
included models, the atomic transaction concept, and related concurrency control techniques,
query languages and query optimization methods, RAID, and more.
The database research area has several dedicated academic journals (for example, ACM
Transactions on Database Systems-TODS, Data and Knowledge Engineering-DKE) and
annual conferences (e.g., ACM SIGMOD, ACM PODS, VLDB, IEEE ICDE).

DESIGN AND MODELING

The first task of a database designer is to produce a conceptual data model that reflects the
structure of the information to be held in the database. A common approach to this is to develop
an entity-relationship model, often with the aid of drawing tools. Another popular approach is
the Unified Modeling Language. A successful data model will accurately reflect the possible
state of the external world being modeled: for example, if people can have more than one phone
number, it will allow this information to be captured. Designing a good conceptual data model
requires a good understanding of the application domain; it typically involves asking deep
questions about the things of interest to an organization, like "can a customer also be a
supplier?", or "if a product is sold with two different forms of packaging, are those the same
product or different products?", or "if a plane flies from New York to Dubai via Frankfurt, is that
one flight or two (or maybe even three)?". The answers to these questions establish definitions of
the terminology used for entities (customers, products, flights, flight segments) and their
relationships and attributes.
Producing the conceptual data model sometimes involves input from business processes, or the
analysis of workflow in the organization. This can help to establish what information is needed
in the database, and what can be left out. For example, it can help when deciding whether the
database needs to hold historic data as well as current data.
Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with, the next stage is to translate
this into a schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database. This process
is often called logical database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the
form of a schema. Whereas the conceptual data model is (in theory at least) independent of the
choice of database technology, the logical data model will be expressed in terms of a particular
database model supported by the chosen DBMS. (The terms data model and database model are
often used interchangeably, but in this article we use data model for the design of a specific
database, and database model for the modeling notation used to express that design.)
The most popular database model for general-purpose databases is the relational model, or more
precisely, the relational model as represented by the SQL language. The process of creating a
logical database design using this model uses a methodical approach known as normalization.
The goal of normalization is to ensure that each elementary "fact" is only recorded in one place,
so that insertions, updates, and deletions automatically maintain consistency.
The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance, scalability,
recovery, security, and the like. This is often called physical database design. A key goal during
this stage is data independence, meaning that the decisions made for performance optimization
purposes should be invisible to end-users and applications. Physical design is driven mainly by
performance requirements, and requires a good knowledge of the expected workload and access
patterns, and a deep understanding of the features offered by the chosen DBMS.
Another aspect of physical database design is security. It involves both defining access control to
database objects as well as defining security levels and methods for the data itself.
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MODELS

Collage of five types of database models

A database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database and
fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organized, and manipulated. The
most popular example of a database model is the relational model (or the SQL approximation of
relational), which uses a table-based format.
Common logical data models for databases include:
o Navigational databases
o Hierarchical database model
o Network model
o Graph database
o Relational model
o Entityrelationship model
o Enhanced entityrelationship model
o Object model
o Document model
o Entityattributevalue model
o Star schema
o An object-relational database combines the two related structures.
o Physical data models include:
o Inverted index
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o Flat file

EXTERNAL, CONCEPTUAL, AND INTERNAL VIEWS

Traditional view of data :

A database management system provides three views of the database data:
The external level defines how each group of end-users sees the organization of data in the
database. A single database can have any number of views at the external level.
The conceptual level unifies the various external views into a compatible global view. It
provides the synthesis of all the external views. It is out of the scope of the various database endusers, and is rather of interest to database application developers and database administrators.
The internal level (or physical level) is the internal organization of data inside a DBMS. It is
concerned with cost, performance, scalability and other operational matters. It deals with storage
layout of the data, using storage structures such as indexes to enhance performance. Occasionally
it stores data of individual views (materialized views), computed from generic data, if
performance justification exists for such redundancy. It balances all the external views'
performance requirements, possibly conflicting, in an attempt to optimize overall performance
across all activities.
While there is typically only one conceptual (or logical) and physical (or internal) view of the
data, there can be any number of different external views. This allows users to see database
information in a more business-related way rather than from a technical, processing viewpoint.
For example, a financial department of a company needs the payment details of all employees as
part of the company's expenses, but does not need details about employees that are the interest of
the human resources department. Thus different departments need different views of the
company's database.
The three-level database architecture relates to the concept of data independence which was one
of the major initial driving forces of the relational model. The idea is that changes made at a
certain level do not affect the view at a higher level. For example, changes in the internal level
do not affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces, which reduces the
impact of making physical changes to improve performance.
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The conceptual view provides a level of indirection between internal and external. On one hand
it provides a common view of the database, independent of different external view structures,
and on the other hand it abstracts away details of how the data are stored or managed (internal
level). In principle every level, and even every external view, can be presented by a different data
model. In practice usually a given DBMS uses the same data model for both the external and the
conceptual levels (e.g., relational model). The internal level, which is hidden inside the DBMS
and depends on its implementation, requires a different level of detail and uses its own types of
data structure types.
Separating the external, conceptual and internal levels was a major feature of the relational
database model implementations that dominate 21st century databases.

Languages :
Database languages are special-purpose languages, which do one or more of the following:
Data definition language defines data types and the relationships among them
Data manipulation language performs tasks such as inserting, updating, or deleting data
occurrences
Query language allows searching for information and computing derived information
Database languages are specific to a particular data model. Notable examples include:
SQL combines the roles of data definition, data manipulation, and query in a single language. It
was one of the first commercial languages for the relational model, although it departs in some
respects from the relational model as described by Codd (for example, the rows and columns of a
table can be ordered). SQL became a standard of the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1987. The standards have been regularly enhanced since and is supported (with varying degrees
of conformance) by all mainstream commercial relational DBMSs.
OQL is an object model language standard (from the Object Data Management Group). It has
influenced the design of some of the newer query languages like JDOQL and EJB QL.
XQuery is a standard XML query language implemented by XML database systems such
as MarkLogic and eXist, by relational databases with XML capability such as Oracle and DB2,
and also by in-memory XML processors such as Saxon.
SQL/XML combines XQuery with SQL.
A database language may also incorporate features like:
DBMS-specific Configuration and storage engine management
Computations to modify query results, like counting, summing, averaging, sorting,
grouping, and cross-referencing
Constraint enforcement (e.g. in an automotive database, only allowing one engine type
per car)
Application programming interface version of the query language, for programmer
convenience.
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 Performance, Security & Availability

Because of the critical importance of database technology to the smooth running of an enterprise,
database systems include complex mechanisms to deliver the required performance, security, and
availability, and allow database administrators to control the use of these features.

Storage
Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database. It comprises
the internal (physical) level in the database architecture. It also contains all the information
needed (e.g., metadata, "data about the data", and internal data structures) to reconstruct
the conceptual level and external level from the internal level when needed. Putting data into
permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a.k.a. "storage engine".
Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system (and often
utilizing the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage
properties and configuration setting are extremely important for the efficient operation of the
DBMS, and thus are closely maintained by database administrators. A DBMS, while in
operation, always has its database residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external
storage). The database data and the additional needed information, possibly in very large
amounts, are coded into bits. Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look
completely different from the way the data look in the conceptual and external levels, but in
ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by
users and programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the
data (e.g., when querying the database).
Some DBMSs support specifying which character encoding was used to store data, so multiple
encodings can be used in the same database.
Various low-level database storage structures are used by the storage engine to serialize the data
model so it can be written to the medium of choice. Techniques such as indexing may be used to
improve performance. Conventional storage is row-oriented, but there are also columnoriented and correlation databases.
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 Materialized Views
Often storage redundancy is employed to increase performance. A common example is
storing materialized views, which consist of frequently needed external views or query results.
Storing such views saves the expensive computing of them each time they are needed. The
downsides of materialized views are the overhead incurred when updating them to keep them
synchronized with their original updated database data, and the cost of storage redundancy.

Replication
Occasionally a database employs storage redundancy by database objects replication (with one or
more copies) to increase data availability (both to improve performance of simultaneous multiple
end-user accesses to a same database object, and to provide resiliency in a case of partial failure
of a distributed database). Updates of a replicated object need to be synchronized across the
object copies. In many cases, the entire database is replicated.

Security
Database security deals with all various aspects of protecting the database content, its owners,
and its users. It ranges from protection from intentional unauthorized database uses to
unintentional database accesses by unauthorized entities (e.g., a person or a computer program).
Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) is
allowed to access what information in the database. The information may comprise specific
database objects (e.g., record types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over
certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific queries), or utilizing specific access paths to the
former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to access information). Database
access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel that uses
dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces.
This may be managed directly on an individual basis, or by the assignment of individuals
and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals
and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements. Data security prevents unauthorized
users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the
entire database or subsets of it called "subschemas". For example, an employee database can
contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to
view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data. If
the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it,
this capability allows for managing personal databases.
Data security in general deals with protecting specific chunks of data, both physically (i.e., from
corruption, or destruction, or removal; e.g., see physical security), or the interpretation of them,
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or parts of them to meaningful information (e.g., by looking at the strings of bits that they
comprise, concluding specific valid credit-card numbers; e.g., see data encryption).
Change and access logging records who accessed which attributes, what was changed, and when
it was changed. Logging services allow for a forensic database audit later by keeping a record of
access occurrences and changes. Sometimes application-level code is used to record changes
rather than leaving this to the database. Monitoring can be set up to attempt to detect security
breaches.

Transactions & Concurrency

Database transactions can be used to introduce some level of fault tolerance and data
integrity after recovery from a crash. A database transaction is a unit of work, typically
encapsulating a number of operations over a database (e.g., reading a database object, writing,
acquiring lock, etc.), an abstraction supported in database and also other systems. Each
transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code executions are included
in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction
commands).
The
acronym ACID describes
some
ideal
properties
of
a
database
transaction: Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.

Migration
A database built with one DBMS is not portable to another DBMS (i.e., the other DBMS cannot
run it). However, in some situations, it is desirable to move, migrate a database from one DBMS
to another. The reasons are primarily economical (different DBMSs may have different total
costs of ownership or TCOs), functional, and operational (different DBMSs may have different
capabilities). The migration involves the database's transformation from one DBMS type to
another. The transformation should maintain (if possible) the database related application (i.e., all
related application programs) intact. Thus, the database's conceptual and external architectural
levels should be maintained in the transformation. It may be desired that also some aspects of the
architecture internal level are maintained. A complex or large database migration may be a
complicated and costly (one-time) project by itself, which should be factored into the decision to
migrate. This in spite of the fact that tools may exist to help migration between specific DBMSs.
Typically, a DBMS vendor provides tools to help importing databases from other popular
DBMSs.

16

 Building, Maintaining & Tuning

After designing a database for an application, the next stage is building the database. Typically,
an appropriate general-purpose DBMS can be selected to be utilized for this purpose. A DBMS
provides the needed user interfaces to be utilized by database administrators to define the needed
application's data structures within the DBMS's respective data model. Other user interfaces are
used to select needed DBMS parameters (like security related, storage allocation parameters,
etc.).
When the database is ready (all its data structures and other needed components are defined), it is
typically populated with initial application's data (database initialization, which is typically a
distinct project; in many cases using specialized DBMS interfaces that support bulk insertion)
before making it operational. In some cases, the database becomes operational while empty of
application data, and data are accumulated during its operation.
After the database is created, initialized and populated it needs to be maintained. Various
database parameters may need changing and the database may need to be tuned (tuning) for
better performance; application's data structures may be changed or added, new related
application programs may be written to add to the application's functionality, etc.

Backup & Restore

Sometimes it is desired to bring a database back to a previous state (for many reasons, e.g., cases
when the database is found corrupted due to a software error, or if it has been updated with
erroneous data). To achieve this, a backup operation is done occasionally or continuously, where
each desired database state (i.e., the values of its data and their embedding in database's data
structures) is kept within dedicated backup files (many techniques exist to do this effectively).
When this state is needed, i.e., when it is decided by a database administrator to bring the
database back to this state (e.g., by specifying this state by a desired point in time when the
database was in this state), these files are utilized to restore that state.

Static Analysis
Static analysis techniques for software verification can be applied also in the scenario of query
languages. In particular, the *Abstract interpretation framework has been extended to the field of
query languages for relational databases as a way to support sound approximation
techniques. The semantics of query languages can be tuned according to suitable abstractions of
the concrete domain of data. The abstraction of relational database system has many interesting
applications, in particular, for security purposes, such as fine grained access control,
watermarking, etc.
17

I.

HIERARCHICAL DATABASES

In the Hierarchical Database Model we have to learn about the databases. It is very fast and
simple. In a hierarchical database, records contain information about there groups of parent/child
relationships, just like as a tree structure. The structure implies that a record can have also a
repeating information. In this structure Data follows a series of records, It is a set of field values
attached to it. It collects all records together as a record type. These record types are the
equivalent of tables in the relational model, and with the individual records being the equivalent
of rows. To create links between these record types, the hierarchical model uses these type
Relationships.

Advantage : Hierarchical database can be accessed and updated rapidly because in this
model structure is like as a tree and the relationships between records are defined in
advance. This feature is a two-edged.
Disadvantage : This type of database structure is that each child in the tree may have
only one parent, and relationships or linkages between children are not permitted, even if
they make sense from a logical standpoint. Hierarchical databases are so in their design. it
can adding a new field or record requires that the entire database be redefined.

18

II.

NETWORK DATABASES

A network databases are mainly used on a large digital computers. It more connections can be
made between different types of data, network databases are considered more efficiency It
contains limitations must be considered when we have to use this kind of database. It is Similar
to the hierarchical databases, network databases .Network databases are similar to hierarchical
databases by also having a hierarchical structure. A network database looks more like a cobweb
or interconnected network of records.
In network databases, children are called members and parents are called occupier. The
difference between each child or member can have more than one parent.

19

III.

RELATIONAL DATABASES

In relational databases, the relationship between data files is relational. Hierarchical and network
databases require the user to pass a hierarchy in order to access needed data. These databases
connect to the data in different files by using common data numbers or a key field. Data in
relational databases is stored in different access control tables, each having a key field that
mainly identifies each row. In the relational databases are more reliable than either the
hierarchical or network database structures. In relational databases, tables or files filled up with
data are called relations (tuples) designates a row or record, and columns are referred to as
attributes or fields.
Relational databases work on each table has a key field that uniquely indicates each row, and that
these key fields can be used to connect one table of data to another.

The relational database has two major reasons:

o Relational databases can be used with little or no training.
o Database entries can be modified without specify the entire body.
Properties of Relational Tables:
In the relational database we have to follow some properties which are given below:
o It's Values are Atomic
o In Each Row is alone.
o Column Values are of the Same thing.
o Columns is undistinguished.
o Sequence of Rows is Insignificant.
o Each Column has a common Name.

20

IV.

OBJECT-ORIENTED MODEL

In this Model we have to discuss the functionality of the object oriented Programming .It takes
more than storage of programming language objects. Object DBMS's increase the semantics of
the C++ and Java .It provides full-featured database programming capability, while containing
native language compatibility. It adds the database functionality to object programming
languages. This approach is the analogical of the application and database development into a
constant data model and language environment. Applications require less code, use more natural
data modeling, and code bases are easier to maintain. Object developers can write complete
database applications with a decent amount of additional effort.
The object-oriented database derivation is the integrity of object-oriented programming language
systems and consistent systems. The power of the object-oriented databases comes from the
cyclical treatment of both consistent data, as found in databases, and transient data, as found in
executing programs.

Object-oriented databases use small, recyclable separated of software called objects. The objects
themselves are stored in the object-oriented database. Each object contains of two elements:
i.
Piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text, or graphics).
ii.
Instructions, or software programs called methods, for what to do with the data.
Object-oriented databases have these disadvantages :
o Object-oriented database are more expensive to develop.
o In the Most organizations are unwilling to abandon and convert from those databases.
o They have already invested money in developing and implementing.
o The benefits to object-oriented databases are compelling. The ability to mix and match
reusable objects provides incredible multimedia capability.
21

ADVANTAGES OF DBMS
1. Improved data sharing :
The DBMS helps create an environment in which end users have better access to more and
better-managed data. Such access makes it possible for end users to respond quickly to changes
in their environment.
2. Improved data security :
The more users access the data, the greater the risks of data security breaches. Corporations
invest considerable amounts of time, effort, and money to ensure that corporate data are used
properly. A DBMS provides a framework for better enforcement of data privacy and security
policies.
3. Better data integration :
Wider access to well-managed data promotes an integrated view of the organizations operations
and a clearer view of the big picture. It becomes much easier to see how actions in one segment
of the company affect other segments.
4. Minimized data inconsistency :
Data inconsistency exists when different versions of the same data appear in different places. For
example, data inconsistency exists when a companys sales department stores a sales
representatives name as Bill Brown and the companys personnel department stores that same
persons name as William G. Brown, or when the companys regional sales office shows the
price of a product as $45.95 and its national sales office shows the same products price as
$43.95. The probability of data inconsistency is greatly reduced in a properly designed database.
5. Improved data access :
The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc queries. From a database
perspective, a query is a specific request issued to the DBMS for data manipulationfor
example, to read or update the data. Simply put, a query is a question, and an ad hoc query is a
spur-of-the-moment question. The DBMS sends back an answer (called the query result set) to
the application. For example, end users, when dealing with large amounts of sales data, might
want quick answers to questions (ad hoc queries) such as:
What was the dollar volume of sales by product during the past six months?
What is the sales bonus figure for each of our salespeople during the past three months?
22

How many of our customers have credit balances of 3,000 or more?

6. Improved decision making :

Better-managed data and improved data access make it possible to generate better-quality
information, on which better decisions are based. The quality of the information generated
depends on the quality of the underlying data. Data quality is a comprehensive approach to
promoting the accuracy, validity, and timeliness of the data. While the DBMS does not guarantee
data quality, it provides a framework to facilitate data quality initiatives.
7. Increased end-user productivity :
The availability of data, combined with the tools that transform data into usable information,
empowers end users to make quick, informed decisions that can make the difference between
success and failure in the global economy.

DISADVANTAGES OF DBMS
Although the database system yields considerable advantages over previous data management
approaches, database systems do carry significant disadvantages.
1. Increased costs :
Database systems require sophisticated hardware and software and highly skilled personnel. The
cost of maintaining the hardware, software, and personnel required to operate and manage a
database system can be substantial. Training, licensing, and regulation compliance costs are often
overlooked when database systems are implemented.
2. Management complexity :
Database systems interface with many different technologies and have a significant impact on a
companys resources and culture. The changes introduced by the adoption of a database system
must be properly managed to ensure that they help advance the companys objectives. Given the
fact that database systems hold crucial company data that are accessed from multiple sources,
security issues must be assessed constantly.

23

3. Maintaining currency :
To maximize the efficiency of the database system, you must keep your system current.
Therefore, you must perform frequent updates and apply the latest patches and security measures
to all components. Because database technology advances rapidly, personnel training costs tend
to be significant.
4. Vendor dependence :
Given the heavy investment in technology and personnel training, companies might be reluctant
to change database vendors. As a consequence, vendors are less likely to offer pricing point
advantages to existing customers, and those customers might be limited in their choice of
database system components.
5. Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles :
DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their products by adding new functionality. Such new
features often come bundled in new upgrade versions of the software. Some of these versions
require hardware upgrades. Not only do the upgrades themselves cost money, but it also costs
money to train database users and administrators to properly use and manage the new features.

FUNCTIONS OF DBMS
The most important functions of Database Management System are :
1) Data Dictionary Management
2) Data Storage Management
3) Data Transformation and Presentation
4) Security Management
5) Multi user Access Control
6) Backup and Recovery Management
7) Data Integrity Management
8) Database Access Languages
9) Application Programming Interfaces and Database Communication interfaces.

24

COMPONENTS OF DBMS
The term database system refers to an organization of components that define and regulate the
collection, storage, management, and use of data within a database environment.
The five major components of database management system are shown in the following figure:
Hardware
Software
People
Procedures
Data

Hardware
Hardware is the one of the most important component of DBMS system. It refers to all of the
systems physical devices like computers (PCs, workstations, servers, and supercomputers),
storage devices, printers, network devices (hubs, switches, routers, fiber optics),and other
devices
(automated
teller
machines,
ID
readers,
and
so
on).

Software
25

Although the most readily identified software is the DBMS itself, to make the database system
function fully, three types of software are needed: operating system software, DBMS software,
and application programs and utilities.
a) Operating System Software :
It manages all hardware components and makes it possible for all other software to run on the
computers. Examples of operating system software include Microsoft Windows, Linux, MacOS,
UNIX, and MVS.
b) DBMS Software :
It manages the database within the database system. Some examples of DBMS software include
Microsofts SQL Server, Oracle Corporations Oracle, Suns MySQL, and IBMs DB2.

c) Application programs and utility software :

These are used to access and manipulate data in the DBMS and to manage the computer
environment in which data access and manipulation take place. Application programs are most
commonly used to access data found within the database to generate reports, tabulations, and
other information to facilitate decision making. Utilities are the software tools used to help
manage the database systems computer components. For example, all of the major DBMS
vendors now provide graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to help create database structures, control
database access, and monitor database operations.

DBMS Users (People)

This component includes all DBMS users. On the basis of primary job functions, five types of
users can be identified in a database system: system administrators, database administrators,
database designers, system analysts and programmers, and end users. Each user type, described
below, performs both unique and complementary functions.
o System administrators oversee the database systems general operations.
o Database administrators, also known as DBAs, manage the DBMS and ensure that the
database is functioning properly.
o Database designers design the database structure. They are, in effect, the database
architects. If the database design is poor, even the best application programmers and the
most dedicated DBAs cannot produce a useful database environment. Because
organizations strive to optimize their data resources, the database designers job
description has expanded to cover new dimensions and growing responsibilities.
26

o System analysts and programmers design and implement the application programs. They
design and create the data entry screens, reports, and procedures through which end users
access and manipulate the databases data.
o End users are the people who use the application programs to run the organizations daily
operations. For example, salesclerks, supervisors, managers, and directors are all
classified as end users. High-level end users employ the information obtained from the
database to make tactical and strategic business decisions.

THE ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL IN DBMS

The conceptual simplicity of relational database technology triggered the demand for RDBMSs.
In turn, the rapidly increasing requirements for transaction and information created the need for
more complex database implementation structures, thus creating the need for more effective
database design tools.
Although the relational model was a vast improvement over the hierarchical and network
models, it still lacked the features that would make it an effective database design tool. Because
it is easier to examine structures graphically than to describe them in a text, database designers
prefer to use a graphical tool in which entities and their relationships are pictured. Thus, the
entity -relationship (ER) model, or ERM, has become a widely accepted standard for data
modeling.
The ER model is based on the following components:
Entity:
An entity was defined as anything about which data are to be collected and stored. An entity is
represented in the ERD by a rectangle, also known as an entity box. The name of the entity, a
noun, is written in the center of the rectangle. The entity name is generally written in capital
27

letters and is written in the singular form: PAINTER rather than PAINTERS, and EMPLOYEE
rather than EMPLOYEES.
Relationships:
Relationships describe associations among data. Most relationships describe associations
between two entities. when the basic data model components were introduced, three types of
relationships among data were illustrated: one-to-many (1:M), many-to-many (M:N), and one-toone (1:1).
The ER model uses the term connectivity to label the relationship types. The name of the
relationship is usually an active or passive verb. For example, a PAINTER paints many
PAINTINGs; an EMPLOYEE learns many SKILLs; an EMPLOYEE manages a STORE.
The following figure the different types of relationships using two ER notations: the original
Chen notation and the more current Crows Foot notation. The left side of the ER diagram shows
the Chen notation, based on Peter Chens landmark paper. In this notation, the connectivities are
written next to each entity box. Relationships are represented by a diamond connected to the
related entities through a relationship line.

The advantages of ER model are as follows:

1. Exceptional conceptual simplicity
2. Visual representation
3. Effective communication tool
4. Integrated with the relational database model
The disadvantages of ER Model are as follows:
1. Limited constraint representation
28

2. Limited relationship representation

3. No data manipulation language
4. Loss of information content

DIFFERENT LEVELS OF DATA AND PROCESS

DISTRIBUTION
Current database systems can be classified on the basis of how process distribution and data
distribution are supported.
For example, a DBMS may store data in a single site (centralized DB) or in multiple sites
(distributed DB) and may support data processing at a single site or at multiple sites. The
different types of Data and Process distribution methods are as follows.
Single-Site Processing, Single-Site Data (SPSD) :
In the single-site processing, single-site data (SPSD) scenario, all processing is done on a single
host computer (single-processor server, multiprocessor server, mainframe system) and all data
are stored on the host computers local disk system. Processing cannot be done on the end users
side of the system. Such a scenario is typical of most mainframe and midrange server computer
DBMSs. The DBMS is located on the host computer, which is accessed by dumb terminals
connected to it.

In the above figure you can see that the functions of the TP and the DP are embedded within the
DBMS located on a single computer. The DBMS usually runs under a time-sharing, multitasking
operating system, which allows several processes to run concurrently on a host computer
accessing a single DP. All data storage and data processing are handled by a single host
computer.
29

 Hierarchical Data Model in DBMS

The hierarchical model was developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of data for complex
manufacturing projects such as the Apollo rocket that landed on the moon in 1969. Its basic
logical structure is represented by an upside-down tree. The hierarchical structure contains
levels, or segments.
A segment is the equivalent of a file systems record type. Within the hierarchy, a higher layer is
perceived as the parent of the segment directly beneath it, which is called the child. The
hierarchical model depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships between a parent and its
children segments. (Each parent can have many children, but each child has only one parent.)

The different advantages of Hierarchical Architecture are as follows:

1. Conceptual simplicity
2. Database security
3. Data independence
4. Database integrity
5. Efficiency dealing with a large database
The different disadvantages of Hierarchical Data Model are as follows:
1. Complex implementation
2. Difficult to manage
3. Lacks structural independence
4. Applications programming and use complexity
5. Implementation limitations
6. Lack of standards

Transaction Transparency
30

Transaction transparency is a DDBMS property that ensures that database transactions will
maintain the distributed databases integrity and consistency. Remember that a DDBMS database
transaction can update data stored in many different computers connected in a network.
Transaction transparency ensures that the transaction will be completed only when all database
sites involved in the transaction complete their part of the transaction.

Distributed Requests and Distributed Transactions:

Whether or not a transaction is distributed, it is formed by one or more database requests. The
basic difference between a non-distributed transaction and a distributed transaction is that the
latter can update or request data from several different remote sites on a network.
A remote request, illustrated in the following figure lets a single SQL statement access the data
that are to be processed by a single remote database processor. In other words, the SQL statement
(or request) can reference data at only one remote site. Distributed database systems require
complex mechanisms to manage transactions and to ensure the databases consistency and
integrity. To understand how the transactions are managed, you should know the basic concepts
governing remote requests, remote transactions, distributed transactions, and distributed requests.

A remote transaction, composed of several requests, accesses data at a single remote site. A
remote transaction is illustrated in the following figure.

The features of Remote Transaction are as follows:

31

The transaction updates the PRODUCT and INVOICE tables (located at site B).
The remote transaction is sent to and executed at the remote site B.
The transaction can reference only one remote DP.
Each SQL statement (or request) can reference only one (the same) remote DP at a time,
and the entire transaction can reference and be executed at only one remote DP.
A distributed transaction allows a transaction to reference several different local or remote DP
sites. Although each single request can reference only one local or remote DP site, the transaction
as a whole can reference multiple DP sites because each request can reference a different site.
The distributed transaction process is illustrated in the following Figure.

32

CONCULSION
One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents, for example: bibliographic,
document-text, statistical, or multimedia objects. Another way is by their application area, for
example: accounting, music compositions, movies, banking, manufacturing, or insurance. A third
way is by some technical aspect, such as the database structure or interface type. This section
lists a few of the adjectives used to characterize different kinds of databases. An in-memory
database is a database that primarily resides in main memory, but is typically backed-up by nonvolatile computer data storage.
Main memory databases are faster than disk databases, and so are often used where response
time is critical, such as in telecommunications network equipment. SAP HANA platform is a
very hot topic for in-memory database. By May 2012, HANA was able to run on servers with
100TB main memory powered by IBM. The co founder of the company claimed that the system
was big enough to run the 8 largest SAP customers.
An active database includes an event-driven architecture which can respond to conditions both
inside and outside the database. Possible uses include security monitoring, alerting, statistics
gathering and authorization. Many databases provide active database features in the form
of database triggers. A cloud database relies on cloud technology. Both the database and most of
its DBMS reside remotely, "in the cloud", while its applications are both developed by
programmers and later maintained and utilized by (application's) end-users through a web
browser and Open APIs. Data warehouses archive data from operational databases and often
from external sources such as market research firms. The warehouse becomes the central source
of data for use by managers and other end-users who may not have access to operational data.
For example, sales data might be aggregated to weekly totals and converted from internal
product codes to use UPCs so that they can be compared with ACNielsen data. Some basic and
33

essential components of data warehousing include extracting, analyzing, and mining data,
transforming, loading, and managing data so as to make them available for further use.
A deductive database combines logic programming with a relational database, for example by
using the Datalog language.
A distributed database is one in which both the data and the DBMS span multiple computers.
A document-oriented database is designed for storing, retrieving, and managing documentoriented, or semi structured data, information. Document-oriented databases are one of the main
categories of NoSQL databases.
An embedded database system is a DBMS which is tightly integrated with an application
software that requires access to stored data in such a way that the DBMS is hidden from the
applications end-users and requires little or no ongoing maintenance.
End-user databases consist of data developed by individual end-users. Examples of these are
collections of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, multimedia, and other files. Several
products exist to support such databases. Some of them are much simpler than full-fledged
DBMSs, with more elementary DBMS functionality.
A federated database system comprises several distinct databases, each with its own DBMS. It is
handled as a single database by a federated database management system (FDBMS), which
transparently integrates multiple autonomous DBMSs, possibly of different types (in which case
it would also be a heterogeneous database system), and provides them with an integrated
conceptual view. Sometimes the term multi-database is used as a synonym to federated database,
though it may refer to a less integrated (e.g., without an FDBMS and a managed integrated
schema) group of databases that cooperate in a single application. In this case,
typically middleware is used for distribution, which typically includes an atomic commit
protocol (ACP), e.g., the two-phase commit protocol, to allow distributed (global)
transactions across the participating databases.
A graph database is a kind of NoSQL database that uses graph structures with nodes, edges, and
properties to represent and store information. General graph databases that can store any graph
are distinct from specialized graph databases such as triplestores and network databases.
An array DBMS is a kind of NoSQL DBMS that allows to model, store, and retrieve (usually
large) multi-dimensional arrays such as satellite images and climate simulation output.
In a hypertext or hypermedia database, any word or a piece of text representing an object, e.g.,
another piece of text, an article, a picture, or a film, can be hyperlinked to that object. Hypertext
databases are particularly useful for organizing large amounts of disparate information. For
example, they are useful for organizing online encyclopedias, where users can conveniently jump
around the text. The World Wide Web is thus a large distributed hypertext database.
A knowledge base (abbreviated KB, kb or ) is a special kind of database for knowledge
management, providing the means for the computerized collection, organization,
and retrieval of knowledge. Also a collection of data representing problems with their solutions
and related experiences.
34

A mobile database can be carried on or synchronized from a mobile computing device.

Operational databases store detailed data about the operations of an organization. They typically
process relatively high volumes of updates using transactions. Examples include customer
databases that record contact, credit, and demographic information about a business' customers,
personnel databases that hold information such as salary, benefits, skills data about
employees, enterprise resource planning systems that record details about product components,
parts inventory, and financial databases that keep track of the organization's money, accounting
and financial dealings.
A parallel database seeks to improve performance through parallelization for tasks such as
loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries.
The
major
parallel
DBMS
architectures
which
are
induced
by
the
underlying hardware architecture are:
Shared memory architecture, where multiple processors share the main memory space, as
well as other data storage.
Shared disk architecture, where each processing unit (typically consisting of multiple
processors) has its own main memory, but all units share the other storage.
Shared nothing architecture, where each processing unit has its own main memory and
other storage.
Probabilistic databases employ fuzzy logic to draw inferences from imprecise data.
Real-time databases process transactions fast enough for the result to come back and be acted on
right away.
A spatial database can store the data with multidimensional features. The queries on such data
include location-based queries, like "Where is the closest hotel in my area?".
A temporal database has built-in time aspects, for example a temporal data model and a temporal
version of SQL. More specifically the temporal aspects usually include valid-time and
transaction-time.
A terminology-oriented database builds upon an object-oriented database, often customized for a
specific field.
An unstructured data database is intended to store in a manageable and protected way diverse
objects that do not fit naturally and conveniently in common databases. It may include email
messages, documents, journals, multimedia objects, etc.

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36