Aci 234 R-96

ACI 234R-96
Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete*

Reported byACICommittee 234
Terence C. Holland Rachel Detwiler

Chairman Secretary
Pierre-Claude Atcin Allen J. Hulshizer H. Celik Ozyildirim

Dennis O. Arney Tarif M. Jaber Harry L. Patterson
Bayard M. Call Paul Klieger Michael F. Pistilli
Menashi D. Cohen Ronald L. Larsen Narasimhan Rajendran
Guy Detwiler Mark D. Luther Donald L. Schlegel
Per Fidjestol V. M. Malhotra Woodward L. Vogt
Margaret E. Fiery Bryant Mather Thomas G. Weil
Fouad H. Fouad D. R. Morgan David A. Whiting
William Halczak Jan Olek John T. Wolsiefer
R. D. Hooton
This report describes the physical and chemical properties of silica fume; 1.5Using silica fume in blended cements
how silica fume interacts with portland cement; the effects of silica fume on 1.6World-wide availability of silica fume
the properties of fresh and hardened concrete; recent typical applications
of silica-fume concrete; how silica-fume concrete is proportioned, speci-
1.7Types of silica-fume products available
fied, and handled in the field; and areas where additional research is 1.8Health hazards
needed.
Chapter 2Physical properties and chemical composi-
Keywords: alkali-silica reaction, compressive strength, concrete durability, tion of silica fume, p. 234R-5
corrosion resistance, curing concrete, drying shrinkage, filler effects, fin- 2.1Color
ishing concrete, fresh concrete properties, hardened concrete properties,
high-strength concrete, microstructure, permeability, placing concrete,
2.2Density
plastic-shrinkage cracking, porosity, pozzolanic reactions, proportioning 2.3Bulk density
concrete, shotcrete, silica fume, silica-fume concrete, silica-fume products, 2.4Fineness, particle shape, and oversize material
specifications. 2.5Chemical composition
2.6Crystallinity
CONTENTS 2.7Variability
2.8Relating physical and chemical properties to perfor-
Chapter 1Introduction, p. 234R-2 mance in concrete
1.1General 2.9Quality control
1.2What is silica fume?
1.3Silica fume versus other forms of synthetic silica Chapter 3Mechanism by which silica fume modifies
1.4Using silica fume in concrete cement paste, p. 234R-8
3.1Physical effects
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, Design 3.2Pozzolanic reactions
Handbooks, and Commentaries are intended for guidance in 3.3Pore water chemistry
planning, designing, executing, and inspecting construction. 3.4Reactions in combination with fly ash or blast-fur-
This document is intended for the use of individuals who are nace slag
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its con- 3.5Reactions with different types of portland cements
tent and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for
the application of the material it contains. The American Con-
crete Institute disclaims any and all responsibility for the appli-
ACI 234R-96 supersedes ACI 22Rand becameffective May 1, 1996.
cation of the stated principles. The Institute shall not be liable for * The first version of this document was prepared by our predecessor ACI
any loss or damage arising therefrom. Committee 226, and published in the March-April 1987 issue of theACI Materials
Journal. Rather than working to get that version into the A C I Manual of Conrete
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract docu- Practice, this committee agreed to revise the document to reflect the increasing body
of knowledge and use of silica fume in concrete.
ments. If items found in this document are desired by the Archi- Copyright 1996, American Concrete Institute.
tect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they shall All rights reseved including rights of reproduction and use any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by the Ar- mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
chitect/Engineer. tion or for use in any knowledge or retreval system or device, unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
234R-1
234R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
3.6Heat of hydration 8.4Specifying silica-fume concrete

3.7Reactions with chemical admixtures
Chapter 9Working with silica fume in field concrete, p.
Chapter 4Effects of silica fume on properties of fresh 234R-36
concrete, p. 234R-13 9.1Transporting and handling silica fume and silica-
4.1Water demand fume admixture products
4.2Workability 9.2Producing concrete
4.3Slump loss 9.3Transporting
4.4Time of setting 9.4Placing
4.5Segregation 9.5Finishing
4.6Bleeding and plastic shrinkage 9.6Curing
4.7Color of concrete 9.7Accelerated curing
4.8Air entrainment
4.9Unit weight (mass) of fresh concrete Chapter 10Research needs, p. 234R-39
4.10Evolution of hydrogen gas 10.1Frost resistance
10.2Sulfate attack
Chapter 5Effects of silica fume on properties of hard- 10.3Drying shrinkage and creep
ened concrete, p. 234R-14 10.4Steel corrosion
5.1Microstructure modification 10.5Performance under high-temperature conditions
5.2Mechanical properties 10.6Long-term durability
5.3Durability aspects 10.7Pore structure and permeability
5.4Miscellaneous properties 10.8Rheology and setting properties
5.5Use of silica fume in combination with fibers 10.9Mechanism of strength development
5.6Use of silica fume in conjunction with fly ash 10.10Role of silica fume in special concretes
5.7Property variations with respect to type, source, and 10.11Effect of silica fume on hydration
form of delivery of silica fume 10.12Curing
10.13Recommended field practice
Chapter 6Applications of silica fume, p. 234R-27
6.1Introduction Chapter 11References, p. 234R-41
6.2Abrasion resistance 11.1Recommended references
6.3Alkali-silica reaction 11.2Cited references
6.4Cement replacement
6.5Heat reduction CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
6.6Chemical attack resistance
6.7Corrosion resistance 1.1General
6.8Grout In recent years significant attention has been given to the
6.9High early-strength concrete use of the pozzolan silica fume as a concrete property-en-
6.10High-strength concrete hancing material, as a partial replacement for portland ce-
6.11Lightweight concrete ment, or both. Silica fume has also been referred to as silica
6.12Offshore and marine structures dust, condensed silica fume, microsilica, and fumed silica
6.13Overlays and pavements (this last term is particularly incorrect - see Section 1.3).
6.14Shotcrete The most appropriate term is silica fume (ACI 116R).
6.15Underwater concrete The initial interest in the use of silica fume was mainly
6.16Waste isolation caused by the strict enforcement of air-pollution control
measures in various countries to stop release of the material
Chapter 7Proportioning silica-fume concrete, p. 234R- into the atmosphere. More recently, the availability of high-
32 range water-reducing admixtures (HRWRA) has opened up
7.1General new possibilities for the use of silica fume as part of the ce-
7.2Cement and silica-fume content menting material in concrete to produce very high strengths
7.3Water content or very high levels of durability or both.
7.4Aggregate Investigations of the performance of silica fume in con-
7.5Chemical admixtures crete began in the Scandinavian countries, particularly in
7.6Proportioning Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, with the first paper being
published by Bernhardt in 1952. Other early Scandinavian
Chapter 8Specifications, p. 234R-33 papers included those by Fiskaa, Hansen, and Moum (1971),
8.1General Traetteberg (1977), Jahr (1981), Asgeirsson and Gudmunds-
8.2Specifying silica fume son (1979), Lland (1981), and Gjrv and Lland (1982). In
8.3Specifying silica-fume admixtures 1976 a Norwegian standard permitted the use of silica fume
USE OF SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE 234R-3
in blended cement. Two years later the direct addition of sil- avoided unless data on their favorable performance in con-
ica fume into concrete was permitted by standard in Norway. crete are available.
In South Africa, Oberholster and Westra published re-
search results on using silica fume to control alkali-aggre- 1.3Silica fume versus other forms of synthetic silica
gate reaction in 1981. Several other amorphous silica products are occasionally
In North America, the first paper published was that of confused with silica fume. These products are purposely
Buck and Burkes (1981). Other early research was conduct- made, and while they offer the potential of performing well
ed by CANMET (Malhotra and Carette 1983; Carette and in concrete, they are typically too expensive for such use.
Malhotra 1983a), Sherbrooke University (Atcin 1983), These products are made through three processes:
Norcem (Wolsiefer 1984), and the Waterways Experiment 1.3.1 Fumed silicaFumed silica is produced by a vapor-
Station (Holland 1983). The first major placements of ready- phase hydrolysis process using chlorosilanes such as silicon
mixed silica-fume concrete in the United States were done tetrachloride in a flame of hydrogen and oxygen. Fumed sil-
by Norcem for chemical attack resistance in 1978. The first ica is supplied as a white, fluffy powder.
publicly-bid project using silica-fume concrete was done by 1.3.2 Precipitated silicaPrecipitated silica is produced
the Corps of Engineers in late 1983 (Holland et al. 1986). in a finely divided form by precipitation from aqueous
This report describes the physical and chemical properties alkali-metal silicate solutions. Precipitated silica is supplied
of silica fume; how silica fume interacts with portland ce- as a white powder or as beads or granules.
ment; the effects of silica fume on the properties of fresh and 1.3.3 Gel silicaGel silica is also prepared by a wet pro-
hardened concrete; recent typical applications of silica-fume cess in which an aqueous alkali-metal silicate solution is re-
concrete; how silica-fume concrete is proportioned, speci- acted with an acid so that an extensive three dimensional
fied, and handled in the field; and areas where additional re- hydrated silica structure or gel is formed. It is supplied as
search is needed. granules, beads, tablets, or as a white powder.
As with other concrete constituent materials, potential us- Additional information on these synthetic silicas may be
ers of silica fume should develop their own laboratory data found in ASTM E 1156 or in the work of Dunnom (1984),
for the particular type and brand of cement, aggregates, and Ulrich (1984), or Griffiths (1987).
chemical admixtures to be used with the silica fume. This
testing may be supplemented by observations of silica-fume 1.4Using silica fume in concrete
concrete in the field and by testing of cores taken from Silica fume was initially viewed as a cement replacement
such concrete. material; and in some areas it is still used as such. In general
applications, part of the cement may be replaced by a much
1.2What is silica fume? smaller quantity of silica fume. For example, one part of sil-
Silica fume is a by-product resulting from the reduction of ica fume can replace 3 to 4 parts of cement (mass to mass)
high-purity quartz with coal or coke and wood chips in an without loss of strength, provided the water content remains
electric arc furnace during the production of silicon metal or constant. The reader is cautioned that replacement of cement
ferrosilicon alloys. The silica fume, which condenses from by silica fume may not affect hardened concrete properties
the gases escaping from the furnaces, has a very high content
of amorphous silicon dioxide and consists of very fine spher-
ical particles (Fig. 1.1). The SiO2 content of the silica fume
is roughly related to the manufacture of silicon alloys as fol-
lows:
Alloy type SiO2 content of silica fume

50 percent ferrosilicon 61 to 84 percent
75 percent ferrosilicon 84 to 91 percent
silicon metal (98 percent) 87 to 98 percent
Ferrosilicon alloys are produced with nominal silicon con-

tents of 61 to 98 percent. When the silicon content reaches
98 percent, the product is called silicon metal rather than fer-
rosilicon. As the silicon content increases in the alloy, the
SiO2 content will increase in the silica fume. The majority of
published data and field use of silica fume have been from
production of alloys of 75 percent ferrosilicon or higher.
Limited applications have been made using fume from pro-
duction of 50 percent ferrosilicon alloys.
Fume is also collected as a by-product in the production of
other silicon alloys. Few published data are available on the Fig. 1.1 TEM micrograph of silica fume (courtesy of J.
properties of these fumes. The use of these fumes should be Ng-Yelim, CANMET, Ottawa)
other than strength to the same degree. See Chapter 5 for a Material handling methods have been developed in Norway,
discussion of the effects of silica fume on the properties of the United States, and Canada to use silica fume in its as-pro-
hardened concrete. duced form, densified or compacted form, or slurried form
Silica fume addition usually increases water demand. If it (Jahren 1983; Skrastins and Zoldners 1983). The available
is desired to maintain the same water-to-cementitious mate- forms are described in the following sections.
rials ratio (by mass), water-reducing admixtures or HRWRA 1.7.1 As-produced silica fumeSilica fume as collected is
or both should be used to obtain the required workability. In an extremely fine powder. For this report, this material is re-
order to maintain the same apparent degree of workability, a ferred to as as-produced silica fume. As-produced silica
somewhat higher slump will normally be required for silica- fume may be available in bulk or in bags, depending upon
fume concrete because of the increased cohesion. the willingness of the producer to supply this form.
Because of limited availability and the current high price As-produced silica fume has been handled and transported
(relative to portland cement and other pozzolans or slag), sil- like portland cement or fly ash. However, because of its ex-
ica fume is being used increasingly as a property-enhancing treme fineness and low bulk loose density, as-produced sili-
material. In this role silica fume has been used to provide ca fume may present serious handling problems. Some as-
concrete with very high compressive strength or with very produced silica fumes will flow with great difficulty. Clog-
high levels of durability or both. In the United States it is cur- ging of pneumatic transport equipment, stickiness, and
rently being used predominantly to produce concretes with bridging in storage silos are other problems associated with
reduced permeability for applications such as parking struc- as-produced silica fume. These problems can be partially
tures and bridge decks. Additional applications of silica- overcome with properly designed loading, transport, storage,
fume concrete are presented in Chapter 6. and batching systems.
Bagged as-produced silica fume has been used by dis-
1.5Using silica fume in blended cements charging the material directly into truck mixers. However,
The use of silica fume in blended cements has also attract- this approach has not been popular because of the dust gen-
ed interest. Atcin (1983) reported that one Canadian cement erated and the high labor costs. As-produced silica fume has
manufacturer had been making a blended cement since 1982. not been used extensively in ready-mixed concrete because
At present, several Canadian cement companies are selling of the handling difficulties and higher transportation costs
blended cement containing 7 to 8 percent silica fume. The than for other forms of silica fume (Holland 1989).
use of cement containing 6 to 7 percent silica fume to combat There is at least one area in the United States near a smelt-
alkali-silica reaction in Iceland was described by Asgeirsson er where as-produced silica fume has been used as a cement
and Gudmundsson (1979) and by Idorn (1988). Since 1979, replacement. However, elsewhere, very little silica fume in
all Icelandic cement is blended with silica fume. Lessard, the as-produced state has been used in concrete in the
Atcin, and Regourd (1983) have described the use of a Unite d States.
blended cement containing silica fume to reduce heat of hy- 1.7.2 Slurried silica fumeTo overcome the difficulties
dration. Typically, the properties of cements containing sili- associated with transporting and handling the as-produced
ca fume as a blending material may be expected to be the silica fume, some suppliers have concentrated on marketing
same as if the silica fume were added separately. As with any silica fume as a water-based slurry. Slurried silica fume typ-
blended cement, there will be a loss in flexibility in mixture ically contains 42 to 60 percent silica fume by mass, depend-
proportioning with respect to the exact amount of silica fume ing upon the supplier. Even when the mass of the water is
in a given concrete mixture. Unless otherwise stated, the re- considered, transportation of the slurry is usually more eco-
sults and information presented in this document were de- nomical than transportation of the as-produced silica fume.
rived from concretes made with separately added silica fume. The slurries are available with and without chemical ad-
mixtures such as water reducers, HRWRA, and retarders.
1.6World-wide availability of silica fume The actual amount of chemical admixture in the slurry will
Precise data on the annual output of silica fume in the vary depending upon the supplier. The admixture dosage
world are not readily available because of the proprietary na- typically ranges from that which offsets part of the increased
ture of the alloys industry. Estimates may be found in publi- water demand caused by the silica fume to that which pro-
cations of the U.S. Bureau of Mines (1990) or in the work of vides significant water reduction to the concrete. The slur-
RILEM Technical Committee 73-SBC (1988). ried products offer the major advantage of ease of use over
Silica fume generation from silicon-alloy furnaces is typi- the as-produced silica fume once the required dispensing
cally about 30 percent by mass of alloy produced (Atcin equipment is available at the concrete plant. Slurried prod-
1983). Of the silica fume produced in the world, it is not ucts are typically available in bulk, 55-gal (208-L) drums,
known what percentage is actually collected. and 5-gal (19-L) pails.
1.7.3 Densified (compacted) silica fumeDry, densified
1.7Types of silica-fume products available (or compacted) silica-fume products are also available.
Silica fume is available commercially in the United States These products are dense enough to be transported econom-
in several forms. All of the product forms have positive and ically. They may be handled like portland cement or fly ash
negative aspects that may affect technical performance, ma- at a concrete plant. The densification process greatly reduces
terial handling, efficiency, and product-addition rate. the dust associated with the as-produced silica fume.
One method to produce the densified silica fume is to indicated that the risk of silicosis is very small from expo-
place as-produced silica fume in a silo. Compressed air is sure to this type of amorphous silica.
blown in from the bottom of the silo causing the particles to The committee is not aware of any reported health-related
tumble. As the particles tumble, they agglomerate. The problems associated with the use of silica fume in concrete.
heavier agglomerates fall to the bottom of the silo and are pe- There are no references to the use of silica fume in the con-
riodically removed. Because the agglomerates are held to- crete industry in the publications of either OSHA or ACGIH.
gether relatively weakly, they break down with the mixing The committee recommends that workers handling silica
action during concrete production. The majority of pub- fume use appropriate protective equipment and procedures
lished data and field use of densified silica fume have been which minimize the generation of dust. Users should refer to
from the air-densification process. Unless otherwise stated, the manufacturer's material safety data sheets for the prod-
the densified silica fume referred to in this report was pro- ucts being used for specific health and safety information.
duced by the air-densification process.
Another method for producing densified silica fume is to CHAPTER 2PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND
compress the as-produced material mechanically. Mechani- CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SILICA FUME
cally-densified silica fume is commercially available in the
United States. 2.1Color
The densified (compacted) dry silica-fume products are Most silica fumes range from light to dark gray in color.
available with and without dry chemical admixtures. These Because SiO2 is colorless, the color is determined by the
products are typically available in bulk, in bulk bags [ap- nonsilica components, which typically include carbon and
proximately 2000 lb (907 kg)], and in small bags [approxi- iron oxide. In general, the higher the carbon content, the
mately 50 lb (23 kg)]. darker the color of the silica fume. The carbon content of sil-
1.7.4 Pelletized silica fume As-produced silica fume ica fume is affected by many factors relating to the manufac-
may also be pelletized by mixing the silica fume with a small turing process such as: wood chip composition, wood chip
amount of water, typically on a disk pelletizer. This process use versus coal use, furnace temperature, furnace exhaust
forms pellets of various sizes that can be disposed of in land- temperature, and the type of product (metal alloy) being pro-
fills. Pelletizing is not a reversible process the pellets are duced. The degree of compaction may also affect the color.
too hard to break down easily during concrete production.
Pelletized silica fume is not being used as an admixture for 2.2Density
concrete; however, it may be interground with portland ce- The specific gravity of silica fume is approximately 2.2, as
ment clinker to form a blended cement. The committee is not compared to about 194 lb/ft3 (3100 kg/m3) for normal port-
aware of data comparing the performance of blended cement land cement. However, the density of some silica fumes may
with interground pelletized silica fume with that of directly exceed 137 lb/ft3 (2200 kg/m3). Table 2.1 lists silica fume
added silica fume or blended cement made with as-produced density results from several sources. Variations in density
or densified silica fume. are attributed to the nonsilica components of the various sil-
ica fumes.
1.8Health hazards
Until recently, in the United States, the Occupational Safe- 2.3Bulk density
ty and Health Administration (OSHA) and the American 2.3.1 As-produced silica fume The bulk density of as-
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists produced silica fume collected from silicon metal and ferro-
(ACGIH), classified silica fume in a general category of silicon alloy production usually ranges from 8 to 27 lb/ft3
amorphous silica. In 1992 the ACGIH in its publication, (130 to 430 kg/m3), although it is most common to see values
Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Phys- near the middle of this range.
ical Agents, explicitly listed silica fume with a CAS (Chem- 2.3.2 Slurried silica fume Slurried silica fume will typi-
ical Abstracts Service) number of 69012-64-2. This listing cally have a bulk density of about 11 to 12 lb/gal [83 to 90
included a Time Weighted Average of 2 mg/m3 for the respi- lb/ft3 (1320 to 1440 kg/m3)]. The nominal silica fume con-
rable portion of the dust. Trace amounts (less than one per- tent of most slurries is approximately 50 percent by mass.
cent) of crystalline silica (quartz) may be present in silica The actual silica fume content may vary depending upon the
fume. OSHA (1986) lists amorphous silica and quartz as
hazardous materials whereas ACGIH (1992) lists silica fume
and quartz as hazardous materials. These listings have appar- Table 2.1Silica fume density versus alloy type
ently been developed based upon exposures of workers in Silica fume density,
the ferrosilicon industry. Silicon alloy type Mg/m3 Reference
Papers presented at a symposium entitled the Health Ef- Si 2.23 1
Si and FeSi-75 percent 2.26-2.27 2, 3
fects of Synthetic Silica Particulates (Dunnom 1981) indi- FeSi-75 percent 2.21-2.23 1
cated that there is little health-hazard potential from the FeSi-50 percent 2.3 1
inhalation of amorphous silica fume due to the small particle References:
1. Atcin, Pinsonneault, and Roy, 1984.
size and noncrystalline structure. Jahr (1981) stated that ex- 2. Pistilli, Roy, and Cecher, 1984.
perience in Norwegian ferrosilicon manufacturing plants 3. Pistilli, Wintersteen, and Cechner, 1984.
particular source and whether chemical admixtures have 17,200 m2/kg for Si and FeSi-75 percent silica fumes re-
been added to the slurry. spectively. Because the nitrogen-adsorption result is affect-
2.3.3 Densified (compacted) silica fumeDensification ed by the carbon content of the silica fume (the carbon itself
from an initial bulk density of 12.5 lb/ft3 (200 kg/m3) to a has a high surface area), the carbon content should be report-
densified value of 31.2 lb/ft3 (500 kg/m3) has been reported ed along with the surface area. Often, the loss on ignition
(Elkem 1980; Popovic, Ukraincik, and Djurekovic 1984). (LOI) is reported in lieu of the carbon content.
The bulk density of commercially available densified silica The particle-size distribution of a typical silica fume
fume ranges from approximately 30 to 40 lb/ft3 (480 to 640 shows most particles to be smaller than one micrometer (1
kg/m3). Beyond about the 45 lb/ft3 (720 kg/m3) level, it may m) with an average diameter of about 0.1 m (Fig. 2.1).
become increasingly difficult to disperse densified silica This is approximately 1/100 of the size of an average cement
fume particles within concrete. particle. The particle size distribution of silica fume may
vary depending upon the fume type and the furnace gas ex-
2.4Fineness, particle shape, and oversize material haust temperature.
Silica fume consists primarily of very fine smooth spheri- One of the most common tests conducted upon silica fume
cal glassy particles with a surface area of approximately is the residue (oversize) on the 45-m (No. 325) sieve. In this
20,000 m2/kg when measured by the nitrogen-adsorption test a sample of silica fume is washed through a 45-m sieve,
method. The extreme fineness of silica fume is best illustrat- and the mass and composition (wood, quartz, carbon, coal,
ed by the following comparison with other fine materials rust, and relatively large silica fume agglomerates) of the
(note that the values derived from the different measuring oversize particles are reported.
techniques are not directly comparable): The amount of oversize material is strongly influenced by
the silica-fume collection system; and the amount of over-
Silica fume: 13,000-30,000 m2/kg, nitrogen adsorption size material may vary considerably from one system to an-
Fly ash: 400 to 700 m2/kg, Blaine other. Many silica fumes show oversize amounts less than 6
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag: 350 to 600 m2/kg, percent, although larger values may be seen. Various values
Blaine have been reported for the amount of oversize: 0.3 to 3.5 per-
Portland cement: 300 to 400 m2/kg, Blaine cent (Elkem 1980), 3.7 to 5.6 percent (Pistilli, Rau, and
Cechner 1984), and 1.8 percent and 5.4 percent for Si and
FeSi-75 percent, respectively (Nebesar and Carette 1986).
The nitrogen-adsorption method is currently the most com-
The Canadian Standard, Supplementary Cementing Materi-
mon test used to estimate the surface area of silica fume par-
als (Canadian Standards Association 1986), limits the max-
ticles. The Blaine apparatus is not appropriate for measuring
imum amount retained on the 45-m sieve to 10 percent.
the surface area of silica fume because of difficulties in ob-
taining the necessary 0.50 porosity level to conduct the test. Because many nonsilica components of silica fume are as-
Nitrogen-adsorption surface area results for various silica sociated with the larger particles, some silica fume suppliers
fumes have ranged from 13,000 to 30,000 m2/kg (Malhotra routinely remove oversize particles from the silica fume.
et al. 1987). One study of Si and FeSi-75 percent silica fumes Some oversize removal (beneficiating) processes work with
reported results between 18,000 m2/kg and 22,000 m2/kg the dry fume using various kinds of cyclones or classifiers.
(Elkem 1980). Another study (Nebesar and Carette 1986) re- Other systems run slurried silica fume through screens, usu-
ported average surface area values of 20,000 m2/kg and ally after the silica fume has been passed through one or
more of the dry beneficiating processes.
2.5Chemical composition
Table 2.2 gives the chemical composition of typical silica
fumes from silicon furnaces in Norway and North America.
The silica fumes generally contain more than 90 percent sil-
icon dioxide. The chemical composition of the silica fumes
varies with the type of alloy that is being produced (see Sec-
tion 1.2).
The acid-soluble chloride content of as-produced and den-
sified silica fumes has been found to range between 0.016 to
0.025 percent by mass.* European specifications that address
chlorides have established upper limits for chlorides in silica
fume of 0.1 to 0.3 percent by mass. Assuming a cement con-
tent of 650 lb/yd3 (390 kg/m3), a 10 percent addition of silica
fume by mass, and an acid-soluble chloride content of 0.20
Fig. 2.1Particle size distribution of silica fume (Fiskaa,

Hansen, and Moum 1971) * Private communication from Michael Pistilli, member A CI Committee 234.
percent by mass in the silica fume, the silica fume would formity from a single source is reasonably similar to the
contribute 0.002 percent chloride ions by mass of cement. In uniformity associated with ground granulated blast-furnace
cases where chloride limits are critical, chlorides contributed slags, and the variations are smaller than those associated
by the silica fume should be included in the overall calcula- with fly ashes (Malhotra et al. 1987). This observation is
tions. not surprising considering that the production of silicon
The pH of silica fume and water slurries may be deter- and alloys containing silicon are well-controlled metallur-
mined. This test may be performed on a sample prepared by gical processes.
adding 20 grams of silica fume to 80 grams of deionized wa- Seasonal, within-source variations occur in silica fume
ter. Typical values at one silicon metal source were between from a particular furnace. Changes in the materials used to
6.0 and 7.0. produce silicon or silicon alloys will cause variations in the
The committee is not aware of data describing effects silica fume collected from these furnaces. If the silicon-alloy
of variations in nonsilicon dioxide components on con- type is changed in a furnace, then the silica fume recovered
crete performance. from this furnace will change.
An approach toward minimizing within-source variations
2.6Crystallinity has been to blend silica fume from several furnaces or from
Testing by X-ray diffraction has shown silica fume to be many days of production or both. One silica fume supplier
essentially amorphous (Nebesar and Carette 1986; Atcin, blends slurried silica fume from four furnaces producing the
Pinsonneault, and Roy 1984). Silicon carbide (SiC), an inter- same alloy in a 400,000-gal (1,520,000 L) tank.
mediate compound occurring during the production of
silicon and ferrosilicon alloys, has been observed (Popovic, 2.8Relating physical and chemical properties to per-
Ukraincik, and Djurekovic 1984). All diffraction patterns formance in concrete
exhibit a broad hump centered around the area where crys- Currently, the relationship between variations in physical
talline cristobalite would normally be found. The absence of and chemical properties of silica fume and performance in
a distinct peak at this location suggests that cristobalite is not concrete is not well established.
present in significant quantities. It is sometimes assumed that the higher the Si02 content of
a silica fume, the more reactive the silica fume will be in con-
2.7Variability crete. However, the committee does not have data to relate
Although silica fume source-to-source variations and performance directly to SiO2 content. Higher SiO2 content
within-source variations have been monitored, only a limited implies that there are fewer of the non-SiO2 components.
amount of this information has been published. The results This concept is reflected in the Canadian Standard (Canadian
of within-source silica-fume variability studies for chemical Standards Association 1986) that limits the use of silica
composition and physical properties are presented in Table fume in Canada to materials recovered from the production
2.2 and Table 2.3. These results indicate that silica-fume uni- of silicon or ferrosilicon alloys containing at least 75 percent
Table 2.2Variations in chemical composition of silica fumes from several sources

Silicon alloy Si and FeSi-75 percent(2)
type Si(1) FeSi-75 percent(1) blend FeSi-75 percent(3) Si(4)
Number of samples (n) 42 42 32 6 28
Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard
Mean deviation Mean deviation Mean deviation Mean deviation Mean deviation
SiO2 93.65 3.84 93.22 1.71 92.1 1.29 91.4 0.92 94.22 0.34
Al2O3 0 .28 0.13 0.31 0.20 0.25 0.12 0.57 0.03 0.36 0.04
Fe2O3 0.58 2.26 1.12 0.86 0.79 0.70 3.86 0.41 0.10 0.01
CaO 0.27 0.07 0.44 0.34 0.38 0.11 0.73 0.08 0.27 0.05
MgO 0.25 0.26 1.08 0.29 0.35 0.10 0.44 0.05 0.20 0.02
Na2O 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.06 0.17 0.04 0.20 0.02
K2O 0.49 0.24 1.37 0.45 0.96 0.22 1.06 0.05
S 0.20(5) 0.16(5) 0.22(5) 0.06(5)
SO3 0.36 0.10 0.36(6) 0.16(6)
C 3.62(5) 0.96(5) 1.92(5) 1.15(5) 3.05 0.25
LOI 4.36(5) 1.48(5) 3.10(5) 0.90(5) 3.20 0.45 2.62(6) 0.42(6) 3.60 0.33
Note:
(1) From Nebesar and Carette, 1986
(2) From Pistilli, Rau, and Cechner, 1984
(3) From Pistillo, Wintersteen, and Cechner, 1984
(4) From Luther, 1989a
(5) n = 24
(6) n = 30
Table 2.3Physical properties of several silica fumes

Si and FeSi-75
Silicon alloy type Si(1) FeSi-75 percent(1) percent(2) FeSi-75 percent(3)
Blend
Number of samples 24 24 32 30
Mean 5.4 1.8 5.62 3.73
Percent retained on 45-m sieve Standard deviation 4.0 1.5 1.69 4.48
Specific surface area using nitrogen adsorption Mean 20,000 17,200
method (m2/kg) Standard deviation 2100
Mean 2.27 2.26
Specific gravity Standard deviation 0.02 0.08
Pozzolanic activity index with portland cement, Mean 102.8 96.5 91.9(4) 95.3(4)
percent Standard deviation 5.1 13.7 10.0 4.0
Mean 8.9 7.0(4) 9.1(4)
Pozzolanic activity index with lime (MPa) Standard deviation 0.8 0.8 0.9
Mean 138.8 139.2 140.1(4) 144.4(4)
Water requirement, percent Standard deviation 4.2 7.2 2.6 2.0
Notes:
(1) from Nebesar and Carette, 1986.
(2) From Pistilli, Rau, and Cechner, 1984.
(3) From Pistilli, Wintersteen and Cechner, 1984.
(4) 8 samples.
silicon. Silicon and ferrosilicon (75 percent) silica fumes 2.9Quality control
contain higher amorphous SiO2 contents than the other silica Since there are few published data available to relate par-
fumes. This standard, however, does allow the use of silica ticular physical or chemical properties of silica fume to its
fume recovered from the production of ferrosilicon alloys performance in concrete, quality-control measures should
containing less than 75 percent silicon if acceptable perfor- aim at assuring uniformity of properties of a particular silica
mance of the material in concrete has been demonstrated. fume in order to minimize variations in the performance of
Among the silica fumes that have been used in North the concrete. Changes in the silica fume or in the silicon al-
America in concrete to date, it has been possible to achieve loy should be reported by the silica-fume supplier. Laborato-
desired entrained air contents, although silica fumes having ry testing to verify performance in concrete is recommended
relatively high carbon contents may require increased air-en- if a change occurs.
training admixture dosages. The Canadian Standard (Cana-
dian Standards Association 1986) limits the loss on ignition, CHAPTER 3MECHANISM BY WHICH SILICA
which relates closely to the carbon content, to a maximum of FUME MODIFIES CEMENT PASTE
6 percent.
Although many project specifications have required a sur-
3.1Physical effects
face-area (fineness) range for the silica fume that will be
Cohen, Olek, and Dolch (1990) have calculated that for a
used in the concrete, no data are currently available to relate
15 percent silica fume replacement of cement, there are ap-
concrete performance to silica fume fineness. Finer particles
will react more quickly or to a greater extent than coarser proximately 2,000,000 particles of silica fume for each grain
ones. However, the increased water demand of finer silica of portland cement in a concrete mixture. It is, therefore, no
fumes may offset, to some degree, the beneficial effects of surprise that silica fume has a pronounced effect on concrete
the increased reactivity of the particles, unless a water-re- properties.
ducing admixture or high-range water-reducing admixture In general, the strength at the transition zone between ce-
(HRWRA) is used. ment paste and coarse aggregate particles is lower than that
It has not been demonstrated to date that the characteristic of the bulk cement paste. The transition zone contains more
pH of a silica-fume slurry is associated with significant voids because of the accumulation of bleed water underneath
changes in concrete properties or performance. the aggregate particles and the difficulty of packing solid
Published data relating delivery form of silica fume (as- particles near a surface. Relatively more calcium hydroxide
produced, slurried, or densified) to performance in concrete (CH) forms in this region than elsewhere. Without silica
are lacking. There may be minor differences in the fresh and fume, the CH crystals grow large and tend to be strongly ori-
hardened concrete properties for concretes made with the ented parallel to the aggregate particle surface (Monteiro,
different available forms. There may also be minor differ- Maso, and Olliver 1985). CH is weaker than calcium silicate
ences in performance resulting from changing sources of sil- hydrate (C-S-H), and when the crystals are large and strong-
ica fume. Laboratory tests to verify performance are ly oriented parallel to the aggregate surface, they are easily
recommended when a change in form or source of silica cleaved. A weak transition zone results from the combination
fume is anticipated during a project. of high void content and large, strongly oriented CH crystals.
According to Mindess (1988), silica fume increases the

strength of concrete largely because it increases the strength
of the bond between the cement paste and the aggregate par-
ticles. Wang et al. (1986) found that even small additions (2
to 5 percent) of silica fume produced a denser structure in the
transition zone with a consequent increase in microhardness
and fracture toughness. Detwiler (1990) also found that sili-
ca fume increased the fracture toughness of the transition
zone between cement paste and steel.
The presence of silica fume in fresh concrete generally re-
sults in reduced bleeding and greater cohesiveness, as dis-
cussed in Chapter 4. This is a physical effect, the result of
incorporating extremely fine particles into the mixture. As
Sellevold (1987) pointed out, The increased coherence (co-
hesiveness) will benefit the hardened concrete structure in
terms of reduced segregation and bleed water pockets under Fig. 3.1Wall effect and barrier effect are expressions of
the fact that particles are packed more loosely in the imme-
reinforcing bars and coarse aggregate. Monteiro and Mehta diate vicinity of a surface than in the bulk, and of the fact
(1986) stated that silica fume reduces the thickness of the that there is not room for small particles in the narrow
transition zone between cement paste and aggregate parti- zones between big particles
cles. One reason for this is the reduction in bleeding.
weakest part of a concrete, it is especially important to im-
The presence of silica fume accelerates the hydration of
prove packing in this region.
cement during the early stages. Sellevold et al. (1982) found
Bache (1981) also showed that addition of silica fume
that equal volumes of an inert filler (calcium carbonate) pro-
could reduce water demand because the silica-fume particles
duced the same effect. They concluded that the mere pres-
were occupying space otherwise occupied by water between
ence of numerous fine particles whether pozzolanic or not
the cement grains. This reduction only applies for systems
has a catalytic effect on cement hydration.
with enough admixture to reduce surface forces. Sellevold
Monteiro and Mehta (1986) proposed that the minute sili-
and Radjy (1983) also reported on a decrease in water de-
ca-fume particles provide nucleation sites for CH crystals so mand for silica-fume mixtures and stated that water-reduc-
that the CH crystals are smaller and more randomly oriented. ing admixtures have a greater effect on silica-fume con-
Wang et al. (1986) also found that the mean size and orien- cretes. However, in most concretes used for general con-
tation index of the CH crystals within the transition zone struction purposes, the addition of silica fume will result in
were reduced by the addition of silica fume. At the interface an increase in water demand because of the high surface area
itself, the CH crystals will be oriented parallel to the aggre- of the silica fume and will require the use of a water-reduc-
gate surface whether silica fume is present or not. In a study ing admixture or a high-range water-reducing admixture
of the texture (preferred orientation) of CH crystals in the HRWRA.
transition zone, Detwiler et al. (1988) found that silica fume It is worth emphasizing here that all of these physical
did not affect the orientation. However, within the transition mechanisms depend on thorough dispersion of the silica-
zone (within 50 m of the aggregate surface) both the crystal fume particles in order to be effective. This requires the ad-
size and amount of CH are reduced, thus leading to a dition of sufficient quantities of water-reducing admixture(s)
strengthening of this region. The pozzolanic reaction, dis- to overcome the effects of surface forces and ensure good
cussed in the next section, brings about further improve- packing of the solid particles. The proper sequence of addi-
ments in strength over time. tion of materials to the mixer as well as thorough mixing are
In hardened concrete, silica-fume particles increase the also essential (see section 9.2).
packing of the solid materials by filling the spaces between
the cement grains in much the same way as cement fills the 3.2Pozzolanic reactions
spaces between the fine-aggregate particles, and fine-aggre- In the presence of hydrating portland cement, silica fume
gate fills the spaces between coarse-aggregate particles in will react as any finely divided amorphous silica-rich con-
concrete. This analogy applies only when surface forces be- stituent in the presence of CH the calcium ion combines
tween cement particles are negligible, that is, when there is with the silica to form a calcium-silicate hydrate through the
enough admixture present to overcome the effects of surface pozzolanic reaction. The simplest form of such a reaction oc-
forces. Bache (1981) explained the theory of the packing of curs in mixtures of amorphous silica and calcium hydroxide
solid particles and its effect on the properties of the material. solutions. Buck and Burkes (1981) studied the reactivity of
Because it is a composite, concrete is affected not only by the silica fume with calcium hydroxide in water at 38 C. Silica
packing of particles in the cement paste, but also by their fume to calcium hydroxide ratios (SF:CH) 2:1, 1:1 and
packing near the surfaces of aggregate particles. Fig. 3.1 il- 1:2.25 were included. They found that a well-crystallized
lustrates how the minute silica-fume particles can improve form of CSH-I was formed by 7 days of curing. For the 2:1
packing in the boundary zone. Since this is frequently the mixtures, all CH was consumed by 7 days; for the 1:1 mix-
Fig. 3.2Amount of calcium hydroxide (as CaO) in Fig. 3.3Influence of silica fume on pH values of pore
cement pastes containing different amounts of silica fume water squeezed from cement pastes. Ordinary portland
(Ono, Asaga, and Daimon 1985; as shown in Malhotra cement, water-to-cement plus silica fume ratio of 0.50
et al. 1987) (Page and Vennesland, 1983)
tures, 28 days was required to consume the CH. Kurbus, 3.3Pore water chemistry
Bakula, and Gabrousek (1985) found that reaction rates were The Ca-Si ratio of hydration products has been found to
dramatically increased at higher temperatures. At 90 C, 95 decrease with increased silica fume levels; and as a result of
percent of added CH was reacted after only 2.5 hours in an 4:1 the low Ca-Si ratio, the C-S-H is able to incorporate more
mixture of SF:CH. In cement pastes the reactions are more substitutions such as aluminum and alkalies. Diamond
complex. Grutzeck, Roy, and Wolfe-Confer (1982) suggest a (1983) noted that the alkalies in silica-fume pore solutions
gel model of silica fume-cement hydration. According to were significantly reduced, as did Page and Vennesland
this model, silica fume contacts mixing water and forms a sil- (1983).
ica-rich gel, absorbing most of the available water. Gel then In cement pastes, Page and Vennesland (1983) found that
agglomerates between the grains of unhydrated cement, coat- the pH of pore solutions was reduced by increasing replace-
ing the grains in the process. Calcium hydroxide reacts with ments of portland cement by silica fume (Fig. 3.3). The re-
the outer surface of this gel to form C-S-H. This silica-fume duction in pH could be due to increased reaction of alkalies
gel C-S-H forms in the voids of the C-S-H produced by ce- and calcium hydroxide with silica fume.
ment hydration, thus producing a very dense structure. According to Byfors, Hansson, and Tritthart (1986), silica
Ono, Asaga, and Daimon (1985) studied the cement-silica fume causes a much greater reduction in the hydroxyl con-
fume system in low water-cement ratio (0.23) pastes at 20 C. tent of pore solutions than either slag or fly ash. The reduc-
The amounts of CH present after various periods of hydration in hydroxyl concentration was also found by Diamond
tion at portland cement:silica fume ratios of 100:0, 90:10, (1983). There are conflicting data on the chloride-binding
80:20, and 60:40 are shown in Fig. 3.2. At very high levels capacity of silica fume, with Byfors, Hansson, and Tritthart
of silica fume, almost all CH is consumed by 28 days. At (1986) finding an increase, while Page and Vennesland
lower levels of silica fume, e.g., 10 percent, typical of those (1983) noted a decrease.
used in practice, CH is reduced by almost 50 percent at 28 Concern is frequently raised regarding a reduction in pH
days. These results are supported by those of Huang and of pore water by the consumption of CH by silica fume and
Feldman (1985a) who found that while silica fume acceler- the impact of any such reduction on the passivation of rein-
ates early hydration and leads to increased production of CH forcing steel. At the levels of silica fume usage typically
at times up to 8 hours, at later ages CH is consumed, and for found in concrete, the reduction of pH is not large enough to
a mixture containing 50 percent silica fume, no CH is detect- be of concern. For corrosion protection purposes, the in-
able after 14 days. Hooton (1986) found that with 20 percent creased electrical resistivity (Section 5.4.1) and the reduced
by volume silica-fume replacement, no CH was detectable permeability to chloride ions (Section 5.3.3) are believed
after 91 days moist curing at 23 C, while 10 percent silica more significant than any reduction in pore solution pH.
fume reduced CH by 50 percent at the same age. The exact
constituents of portland cement or silica fume or both that 3.4Reactions in combination with fly ash or blast-fur-
determine the extent of pozzolanic reaction have not been nace slag
well defined, although studies by Traetteberg (1978) indi- A number of researchers have looked at combinations of
cate that alkali and silica contents of the silica fume appear fly ash and silica fume. The primary research objectives
to exert some influence. Silica fumes with lower alkali and were to offset the reduced early strengths typical of fly ash
higher SiO2 contents are able to bind more CH and increase concretes and to evaluate the durability parameters of con-
the extent of the pozzolanic reaction. cretes with combinations of pozzolans. The committee is not
aware of definitive information regarding reaction mecha- 3.5Reactions with different types of portland ce-
nisms when fly ash and silica fume are both present. See also ments
Section 5.6. Silica fume, because of its high surface area, accelerates
Mehta and Gjrv (1982), during an investigation of com- the hydration of alite (Malhotra et al. 1987). The initial
pressive strengths of concretes made with combinations of heat evolution of alite is intensified in the presence of ac-
fly ash and silica fume, also examined free CH and pore-size tive silica (Kurdowski and Nocun-Wczelik 1983). There-
distribution of similar cement pastes. Based on strength de- fore, it might be expected that portland cements with high
velopment and free CH determinations, they concluded that alite contents would benefit from silica fume; more CH is
the combinations of pozzolans showed much greater poz- created which in turn is available to react pozzolanically
zolanic activity, even at 7 and 28 days than did the fly ash with silica fume. However, Hooton (1986) used silica
alone. The combination also showed considerable reduction fume with Type V portland cement and found a reduced
in the volume of large pores at all ages studied. rate of hydration of alite.
Carette and Malhotra (1983b) found that the later-age
strength development of concrete containing silica fume and 3.6Heat of hydration
fly ash was not impaired, indicating the availability of suffi- Most available data on heat development in portland ce-
cient CH for fly ash pozzolanic activity. ment-silica fume systems relate to early age tests. Huang
The commercial use of silica fume in combination with and Feldman (1985a) have studied cement pastes contain-
ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) has been re- ing 0, 10, 20, and 30 percent silica fume using conduction
ported (Bickley et al. 1991). It was found that silica fume calori-metry. Two peaks were discernible (Fig. 3.4), one
helped in obtaining high-early strength and that later-age occurring at 5 hr and one at about 6 to 10 hr. The earlier
strength development of portland cement-silica fume con- peak, attributable to alite hydration, appears to be shifted
crete was enhanced by the addition of GGBFS. However, the to earlier times as the amount of silica fume is increased.
mechanism by which hydration was modified was not stud- The second, more prominent peak, may be due to either
ied. aluminate hydration or a pozzolanic reaction. The intensi-
Regourd, Mortureux, and Hornain (1983) found that silica ty of this peak also increases as silica fume is increased.
fume and GGBFS competed for the available calcium hy- Although the rate of heat liberation, expressed on a cement
droxide and that the microstructure of pastes and the me- basis, is greater as the amount of silica fume increases, the
chanical strengths of mortars were not very different for the total heat liberated, expressed on a total solids basis in the
mixtures containing 5 percent silica fume. They did note that mixture, is somewhat decreased as silica fume is substitut-
the cement paste-aggregate bond seemed better in the pres- ed for cement. Data by Kumar and Roy (1984) indicate
ence of silica fume. Sarkar, Atcin, and Djellouli (1990) re- that total heat may be reduced by 15 to 30 percent depend-
ported on the microstructural development of a high-strength ing upon the particular cement and amount of silica fume
concrete containing 10 percent silica fume and a 30 percent used. Meland (1983) performed isothermal calorimetry on
GGBFS replacement of portland cement. They found that pastes in which portland cement was replaced by 10 or 20
the silica fume began to react within one day. The reaction percent silica fume. Except for the combination of 10 per-
of GGBFS was much slower, probably because of the higher cent silica fume and a lignosulfonate water reducer, all of
CH consumption of the silica fume. the pastes showed a decrease in the total heat of hydration
Fig. 3.4Rate of heat evolution in cement-silica fume pastes (Huang and Feldman 1985a)
when compared to a plain portland cement paste. Meland at- An option when using silica fume in concrete is to in-
tributed the one case of increased total heat to a possible inter- crease the dosage of lignosulfonates, instead of using high
action between the silica fume and the lignosulfonate material. amounts of HRWRA. Lignosulfonates are less expensive
and more readily available in some parts of the world.
3.7Reactions with chemical admixtures However, the use of lignosulfonates is often limited be-
3.7.1 High-range water-reducing admixtures (HRWRA) cause of extensive retardation of setting time and excessive
Since silica fume has a very high surface area, it will increase air-entraining effects. Investigations by Helland and Maage
the water demand when used in concrete. HRWRA are usual- (1988) and by Berg (1989) show that retardation is much
ly recommended in order to lower the water demand to the ap- less in concrete where silica fume has replaced cement
propriate level and to allow for adequate dispersion and (mass by mass). The mixtures made by Helland and by
proper packing of the silica-fume particles. Berg do not have the same proportions; thus the results
The two most common HRWRA are sulfonated melamine from the two series cannot be compared directly. The retar-
formaldehyde condensate and sulfonated naphthalene formal- dation may diminish in the presence of silica fume because
dehyde condensate. It is believed that adsorption of the mo- of the large surface area of the material and consequent ad-
lecular polymer chain on the surface of cement grains sorption of a portion of the chemical admixture.
accounts for dispersion of cement (Andersen and Roy 1988). 3.7.2 Calcium chlorideAt this time the committee is
This also accounts for dispersion of silica fume in cement or not aware of published data on the interaction of calcium
concrete mixtures. The polymer adsorbs on the surface of the chloride and silica fume.
cement and silica fume, producing a negatively charged sur- 3.7.3 Nonchloride acceleratorsThe addition of silica
face (the negative functional group facing the liquid phase). fume to concrete containing nonchloride accelerator does
The resulting repulsion between the cement and silica fume not appear to influence the accelerating effect. The combi-
particles prevents flocculation and causes the observed plasti- nation of the two has been used successfully in commercial
cizing effects. applications, including high-strength concrete and concrete
The use of HRWRA in silica-fume concrete exposes more required to have a high degree of durability.
particle surface area for the pozzolanic reaction between cal- 3.7.4 Corrosion inhibitorsCalcium nitrite is used as a
cium ion and silicon dioxide with a potential for increased corrosion inhibitor in reinforced concrete. Calcium nitrite
production of C-S-H gel. This is probably due to dispersion of in combination with silica fume has been successfully used
agglomerated silica fume particles. Rosenberg and Gaidis in several commercial applications (Berke, Pfeifer, and
(1989) showed chemical and physical evidence that silica Weil 1988; Berke and Roberts 1989). Calcium nitrite is
fume with HRWRA does not densify concrete in the usual also a set accelerator. However, it is usually used along
sense; it enhances the paste-aggregate bond to produce a with a retarder to offset this accelerating effect. The biggest
strength increase and that strength increase does not appear to benefit is in the area of corrosion protection, where it has
be related to reduced porosity. Porosity is primarily controlled been shown that silica fume reduces chloride ingress, while
by the water-cementitious materials ratio which can be low- calcium nitrite will inhibit corrosion once the chloride ions
ered by use of a HRWRA. reach the reinforcing steel.
There is disagreement as to whether the mechanisms under- 3.7.5 Air-entraining admixturesExperience indicates
lying improved mechanical properties of concrete containing that the use of silica fume requires that the amount of air-
both silica fume and HRWRA are physical or pozzolanic in entraining admixture generally must be increased in order
nature. According to Bache (1981), when sufficient HRWRA to produce a specified air content in the concrete. However,
is present to overcome surface forces, silica fume in concrete once a proper air content is achieved in the fresh concrete,
can fit into spaces between cement grains in the same way that the air-void distribution is good (Pigeon, Plante, and Plante
fine aggregate occupies the space between particles of coarse 1989).
aggregate and as cement grains occupy space among the The production of air-entrained, high-strength, flowing
fine aggregate. concrete using a HRWRA based on a combination of sul-
Recent data (Detwiler and Mehta 1989) show that at age 7 fonated melamines and sulfonated naphthalenes showed
days, the influence of silica fume on the compressive strength that the addition of two percent silica fume did not affect
may be attributed mainly to physical effects. By an age of 28 the size distribution of the air-voids. The air-entraining ad-
days, both physical and chemical effects become significant. mixture was based on a sulfonated alkyl polyglycol ether
Testing was conducted by comparing silica fume with a non- (Ronneberg and Sandvik 1990). The dosage of the air-en-
pozzolanic material (carbon black) having a similar surface training admixture was the same whether or not silica fume
area. Both concretes contained HRWRA. was present, probably because of the small amount of silica
Malhotra et al. (1987) reported extensive information on fume used. See also Section 4.8.
chemical reactions in the cement-silica fume water system. 3.7.6 Compatibility with admixture combinations
The authors compiled all known published information re- There are no published data describing incompatibility of
garding the most important aspects of the hydration reactions silica fume with admixture combinations normally used in
in this system. concrete. However, it is advisable to conduct laboratory
testing of concrete using the proposed admixtures to as- 4.6Bleeding and plastic shrinkage
sure that all materials are compatible. Concrete containing silica fume shows significantly re-
duced bleeding. This effect is caused primarily by the
CHAPTER 4EFFECTS OF SILICA FUME ON high surface area of the silica fume to be wetted; there is
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE very little free water left in the mixture for bleeding
(Grutzeck, Roy, and Wolfe-Confer 1982). Additionally,
4.1Water demand the silica fume reduces bleeding by physically blocking
The water demand of concrete containing silica fume the pores in the fresh concrete.
increases with increasing amounts of silica fume (Scali, Plastic shrinkage cracks generally occur when the water
Chin, and Berke 1987; Carette and Malhotra 1983a). This evaporation rate from the concrete surface exceeds the
increase is due primarily to the high surface area of the rate at which water appears at the surface due to bleeding,
silica fume. In order to achieve a maximum improvement or when water is lost into the subgrade. Since silica fume
in strength and permeability, silica-fume concrete should concrete exhibits significantly reduced bleeding, the po-
generally be made with a water-reducing admixture, a tential for plastic shrinkage cracking is increased. Both
high-range water-reducing admixture (HRWRA), or laboratory and field experience indicate that concrete in-
both. The dosage of the HRWRA will depend upon the corporating silica fume has an increased tendency to de-
amount of silica fume and the type of water reducer used velop plastic shrinkage cracks (Atcin, Pinsonneault, and
(Jahren 1983). Rau 1981). Therefore, care should be exercised to prevent
early moisture loss from freshly placed silica-fume con-
4.2Workability crete, particularly under conditions which promote rapid
Fresh concrete containing silica fume is more cohesive surface drying from one or more factors such as high con-
and less prone to segregation than concrete without silica crete temperature, low humidity, low ambient tempera-
fume. As the silica-fume content is increased, the concrete tures combined with higher concrete temperatures, and
may appear to become sticky. To maintain the same appar- high wind. Thus, it is necessary to protect the surfaces of
ent workability, industry experience has shown that it is freshly placed silica-fume concrete to prevent rapid water
necessary to increase the initial slump of the concrete with evaporation (Jahren 1983). Fogging, using evaporation
silica fume by about 2 in. (50 mm) (Jahren 1983) above that retarders, erecting windbreaks, and immediate curing
required for conventional portland-cement concretes. have been used successfully to eliminate plastic shrinkage
cracking during placing of silica-fume concrete flatwork.
4.3Slump loss See the reports prepared by ACI Committees 305 and 308
The presence of silica fume by itself will not significant- as well as Section 9.5.1 of this report for additional infor-
ly change the rate of slump loss of a given concrete mix- mation regarding prevention of plastic shrinkage cracking.
ture. However, since silica fume is typically used in
conjunction with water-reducing admixtures, or HRWRA, 4.7Color of concrete
or both, there may be a change in slump-loss characteristics Fresh and hardened concretes containing silica fume are
which is actually caused by the chemical admixtures select- generally darker than conventional concrete. This is particu-
ed. Different chemical admixtures produce differing rates larly apparent for concretes containing higher percentages of
of slump loss. Trial batches using project materials are rec- silica fume as well as those silica fumes that have a high per-
ommended to establish slump loss characteristics for a par- centage of carbon. The color difference may lessen and virtu-
ticular situation. ally disappear after some time (Gjrv and Lland 1982).
4.4Time of setting 4.8Air entrainment

Silica-fume concrete usually includes chemical admix- The dosage of air-entraining admixture to produce a re-
tures that may affect the time of setting of the concrete. Ex- quired volume of air in concrete usually increases with in-
perience indicates that the time of setting is not creasing amounts of silica fume due to the very high surface
significantly affected by the use of silica fume by itself. area of silica fume and to the effect of carbon when the latter
Practical control of the time of setting may be achieved by is present (Carette and Malhotra 1983a).
using appropriate chemical admixtures.
4.9Unit weight (mass) of fresh concrete
4.5Segregation The use of silica fume will not significantly change the
Concrete containing silica fume normally does not segre- unit weight of concrete. Any changes in unit weight are
gate appreciably because of the fineness of the silica fume the result of other changes in concrete proportions made
and the use of HRWRA. Segregation may occur in many to accommodate the use of the silica fume. It is frequently
types of concrete (with and without silica fume) with ex- stated that silica fume will increase the density of con-
cessive slump, improper proportioning, improper handling, crete. Silica fume will produce a much less permeable
or prolonged vibration. The use of silica fume will not concrete, but it will not produce a concrete with a higher
overcome poor handling or consolidation practices. mass per unit volume.
CHAPTER 5EFFECTS OF SILICA FUME ON

PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
5.1Microstructure modification
5.1.1 PorosityMercury intrusion porosimetry has
shown that silica fume makes the pore structure of paste
(Mehta and Gjrv 1982) and mortar (Huang and Feldman
1985b, Yamato, Emoto, and Soeda 1986) more homoge-
neous by decreasing the number of large pores, Fig. 5.1. To-
tal porosity, however, appears to remain largely unaffected
by silica fume.
Bentur, Goldman, and Cohen (1988) illustrated this refin-
ing effect of silica fume by the slower rate of water loss dur-
ing drying of paste and concrete, Fig. 5.2. Here too, the total
Fig. 5.1Pore size distribution in pastes of neat portland
cement with silica fume (Mehta and Gjrv 1982) porosity remained nearly the same for pastes and concretes
with and without silica fume. Tazawa and Yonekura (1986)
reported that under the same drying conditions, water will
evaporate more rapidly from large pores than small pores.
The slower evaporation rate from paste and concrete con-
taining silica fume is due to their having a larger proportion
of fine pores than do conventional paste and concrete.
5.1.2 PermeabilityThe permeability of concrete is de-
termined by the measurement of the liquid or vapor flow rate
through the medium. High concrete permeability is closely
linked to poor durability. These types of concretes have pore
structures that allow freezing and thawing damage by water,
cement paste deterioration due to the penetration of aggres-
sive chemicals, and corrosion of embedded steel reinforce-
ment by ingress of chloride ions.
The reduction in the size of capillary pores, as explained
in Section 5.1.1, increases the probability of transforming
Fig. 5.2Water loss curves during drying of pastes and the continuous pores into discontinuous ones (Philleo 1986).
concretes with and without silica fume at a water-cementi- Since capillary porosity is related to permeability (Powers et
tious materials ratio of 0.33. Water loss is presented as al. 1954), the permeability to liquids and vapors is reduced
volume of water lost relative to paste volume (Bentur, by silica fume addition. Hootons (1986) data for cement
Goldman, and Cohen 1988)
pastes of 0.25 water-to-cementitious materials ratio indicat-
4.10Evolution of hydrogen gas ed water permeability of 0.9 x 10-13 m/s and < 0.1 x 10-13 m/s
for 28-day cured pastes containing 10 and 20 percent by vol-
Buil, Witier, and Paillere (1988) have reported on the
ume of silica fume respectively. When no silica fume was
evolution of hydrogen gas from a mixture of silica fume
added, permeability was higher, 3.8 x 10-13 m/s.
and lime. The reaction involves free silicon which may be
Data for mortar and concrete show a similar trend in that
present in very small quantities in some silica fumes and
silica fume reduces permeability (Sheetz, Grutzek, and
is similar to that which takes place when aluminum is
Strickler 1981; Mehta and Gjrv 1982; Delage and Atcin
placed in concrete. Research on this phenomenon is cur-
1983) by about one order of magnitude (Maage 1984; Maage
rently underway. Because hydrogen gas rather than atom- and Sellevold 1987). Measurement of the water permeability
ic hydrogen is produced, this reaction does not indicate a for high-strength concrete [>40 MPa (5,800 psi)] is often im-
risk of hydrogen embrittlement for prestressing steel possible because of the measuring equipment limitations and
(Warren 1987). leakage around the permeability cells (Hustad and Lland
The evolution of hydrogen gas has raised concerns over 1981; Hooton 1986; Hooton 1993). Sellevold and Nilsen
possible explosion hazards. One case involving hydrogen (1987) concluded that silica fume is more effective in reduc-
gas trapped in the voids of extruded hollow core elements ing permeability than it is in enhancing strength and suggest-
which were cured under accelerated conditions has been ed that it is the improved quality of the cement paste-
reported. The committee believes this reaction may be a aggregate transition zone (see Section 5.1.4) which is largely
concern only in confined areas with extremely poor ven- responsible.
tilation. For typical construction applications, it will not The committee believes that the low permeability charac-
be possible to develop a situation with enough hydrogen teristics of silica-fume concrete and the corresponding im-
gas present in the atmosphere to cause an explosion. provements in long-term durability will provide the single
Fig. 5.3Relationship between rapid chloride permeability as determined by the AASHTO T 277 (ASTM C 1202)
test method and silica fume content. Scatter in the data is caused by differences in the mixture proportions, water-
cementitious materials ratio, total cementitious materials content, specimen curing method and duration, age at
testing, inherent variability of the test method, and laboratory-to-laboratory variations. Data are from Perraton,
Atcin, and Vezina (1988); Berke (1989); Plante and Bilodeau (1989); Ozyildirim and Halstead (1988); and Wol-
siefer (1991)
most significant improvement to the concrete construction that the transition zone is about 50 m thick. They described
industry. The resistance of silica-fume concrete to the pene- the hydration process in this zone for pastes with fly ash,
tration of chloride ions is discussed in Section 5.3.3. slag, or silica fume. They conclude that all of these materials
5.1.3 Water absorptionData on water absorption of sil- affect the morphology of the transition zone and particularly
ica-fume concrete are scarce. Ramakrishnan and Srinivasan decrease the thickness and degree of orientation of calcium
(1983) reported that the water absorption coefficient of silica- hydroxide crystals that form adjacent to aggregate particles.
fume fiber-reinforced concrete is lower than that of an ordinary Further data suggest that the performance of high quality
fiber-reinforced concrete. Similarly, Morgan (1988a) has concretes achieved with the use of silica fume is, at least in
shown that the water absorption of silica-fume shotcrete is part, the result of interfacial effects (Regourd 1985; Bentur,
lower than that of ordinary shotcrete when tested using Goldman, and Cohen 1988; Sellevold and Nilsen 1987;
ASTM C 642. Sarkar, Diatta, and Atcin 1988).
Sellevold and Nilsen (1987) reported from work by Vir- Bentur, Goldman, and Cohen (1988) have shown that sili-
tanen (1985) that the absorption of water in concretes con- ca fume does not show the same strengthening effects in
taining silica fume was much lower than that in a reference paste that it exhibits in concrete, Fig. 5.4. For the same wa-
concrete. They also reported on the work of Lehtonen (1985) ter-to-cementitious materials ratio, pastes, with and without
regarding the wetting behavior of reference and silica-fume silica fume, have the same strength. This paper concludes
concretes. The silica-fume concrete showed a more gradual that only in concrete does the addition of silica fume lead to
rate of water absorption despite the fact that both types of an increase in strength.
concrete had attained a similar degree of saturation. Bentur and Cohen (1987), working with portland cement-
5.1.4 Cement paste-aggregate transition zoneThe mi- mortars, found that the microstructure of the transition zone
crostructure of the cement paste-aggregate transition zone in is characterized by a massive calcium hydroxide layer en-
concrete is significantly different from that of the bulk paste gulfing the sand grain and by some channel-like gaps as
(Hadley 1972; Barnes, Diamond, and Dolch 1978, 1979; shown in Fig. 5.5. When silica fume was added, the transi-
Winslow and Liu 1990; Bentur and Cohen 1987; and Bentur tion zone had a homogeneous and dense microstructure
1988). Carles-Giburgues, Grandet, and Ollivier (1982) wrote much more similar to that of the bulk paste; the massive
calcium hydroxide layer was absent and there were no gaps.

Quantitative measurements by back scattered electron mi-
croscopy have confirmed the reduction in porosity in the
transition zone due to silica fume addition (Scrivener, Ben-
tur, and Pratt 1988).
Much of the improvement in concrete properties is thus at-
tributed to interfacial modification caused by the addition of
silica fume. Because of their small size, the silica fume par-
ticles, when there is enough high-range water-reducing ad-
mixture (HRWRA) present to overcome the effects of
surface forces, are better able to pack around the aggregate
particles during mixing and placing, thus reducing bleeding
(Bentur and Cohen 1987). The weak-link effect is apparently
eliminated and the improved bond may facilitate a true com-
posite effect where the aggregate particles act as reinforcing
fillers rather than inert fillers. This may lead to an increase in
the concrete strength over that of its paste matrix, Fig. 5.4
(Bentur, Goldman, and Cohen 1988; Bentur 1989).
Fig. 5.4Compressive strength of pastes and concretes
with and without silica fume at the same water-cementi- 5.2Mechanical properties
tious materials ratio (Bentur, Goldman, and Cohen 1988) Since silica fume improves the bond between the paste and
aggregate (see Section 5.2.6), the influence of the quality of
the aggregate on the mechanical properties of concrete be-
comes more important in silica-fume concrete. The dimen-
sions, durability, and engineering properties (strength,
modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio) become important
factors to be considered in selecting the appropriate aggre-
gate for the concrete.
5.2.1 Modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratioWolsief-
er (1984) reported, for a high-strength silica-fume concrete
cured for 28 days, a static modulus of 6.25 x 106 psi (43.1
GPa) and a compressive strength of 14,220 psi (98 MPa).
The static modulus of elasticity of silica-fume concrete is ap-
parently similar to that of portland-cement concrete of simi-
lar strength (Luther and Hansen 1989; Loland 1983).
Sellevold et al. (1982) found the dynamic modulus of elas-
ticity increases with increasing silica-fume content in pastes.
Helland, Hoff, and Einstabland (1983) concluded that the
stress-strain behavior of silica-fume concrete was similar to
that of portland-cement concrete.
Wolsiefer (1984) reported a Poisson's ratio of 0.21 for a
14,220-psi (98-MPa) silica-fume concrete. Saucier (1984)
studied five silica-fume concretes and found Poissons ratio
ranging in value from 0.208 for 13,350-psi (92-MPa) con-
crete to 0.256 for 16,440-psi (113-MPa) concrete. These
variations in Poissons ratio are not believed by the commit-
tee to be significant.
5.2.2 CreepSaucier (1984) tested concretes with com-
pressive strength in the 11,600 to 14,500 psi (80 to 100 MPa)
range. He found essentially no difference in creep between
mixtures with and without silica fume (up to 15 percent by
mass of cement). The same conclusion was reached by Buil
and Acker (1985) for cement replacement of 25 percent (i.e.,
Fig. 5.5Typical structure of transition zone between the 33.33 percent silica fume by mass of cement) and compres-
cement paste matrix and aggregate, characterized by scan- sive strength of 7250 to 11,600 psi (50 to 80 MPa).
ning electron microscopy (Bentur and Cohen, 1987) a) 28-
day system without silica fume; b) 28-day system with silica Luther and Hansen (1989) found a negligible change in
fume. 1) aggregate surface; 2) cement paste; 3) voids; 4) creep when silica fume was added in high-strength mixtures,
calcium hydroxide; and 5) microcracks whereas Tomaszewicz (1985) found a reduction of 27 percent
Fig. 5.6Drying shrinkage of silica-fume concrete with a water-cementitious materi-

als ratio of 0.40 (Malhotra et al. 1987)
when comparing normal-strength concrete without silica strength of 16,170 psi (111.4 MPa). Shrinkage specimens
fume and high-strength concrete with 15 percent silica fume. moist cured for 1 and 14 days showed shrinkage of 0.073
Limited published data and the different nature of the percent and 0.053 percent, respectively. The shrinkage val-
creep tests used by various investigators makes it difficult to ues for the specimens moist cured for 14 days were 24.3 per-
draw specific conclusions on the effect of silica fume on the cent lower than those of high-strength [11,000 psi (79 MPa)]
creep of concrete. The only statement that can be made with concrete made without silica fume.
certainty is that creep of silica-fume concrete is not higher 5.2.4 Compressive strengthThe main contribution of
than that of concrete of equal strength without silica fume. silica fume to concrete strength development at normal cur-
5.2.3 Drying shrinkageData shown in Fig. 5.6 indicate ing temperatures (i.e., other than accelerated curing condi-
that the drying shrinkage of silica-fume concrete (after 28 tions) takes place from about three to 28 days. Typical
days of moist curing) is generally comparable to that of the strength development characteristics of silica-fume concrete
control concrete for a water-cementitious materials ratio of are shown in Fig. 5.7 and 5.8. Fig. 5.7 shows data for con-
0.40 and silica fume contents of 15 and 30 percent. Carette crete with silica fume as a direct replacement by mass for
and Malhotra (1983a) reported that the drying shrinkage of portland cement, and Fig. 5.8 refers to concrete with silica
silica-fume concrete after 28 days of moist curing is general- fume as an addition to portland cement-fly ash concrete. The
ly comparable of the control concrete regardless of the wa- one-day compressive strength of silica-fume concrete is
ter-to-cementitious materials ratio (w/c + m). about equal to that of the control concrete when the silica
The amount of silica fume and duration of curing prior to fume is used as a direct replacement. When silica fume is
drying are important factors in the drying shrinkage of con- used as an addition to the portland cement-fly ash blend, the
crete. Sellevold and Nilsen (1987) reported that concrete one-day strengths may be substantially higher than the con-
shrinkage is influenced little by silica-fume content up to trol, depending upon the amount of silica fume added. At 28
10 percent by mass of cement. Early drying increases days the compressive strength of silica-fume concrete is al-
shrinkage for lean silica-fume mixtures (w/cm greater than ways higher and in some instances significantly so, as shown
0.60) and for high silica-fume contents (greater than 10 in Fig. 5.7 and 5.8.
percent by mass of cement) because early drying inhibits The contribution of silica fume to strength development
pozzolanic reaction. after 28 days is minimal. This situation is unlike concrete
Hansen (1987) and Luther and Hansen (1989) reported made with ASTM C 618 class F fly ash in which case the
that drying shrinkage of high-strength silica-fume concrete pozzolanic reactions are very slow at early ages, and the con-
is either equal to or somewhat lower than that of concretes of tributions to concrete strength development are usually evi-
equal strength without silica fume. Tazawa and Yonekura dent after 28 days and then continue for more than one year.
(1986) also found reduced shrinkage, but for equal strength, A limited amount of data suggest there is a retrogression
the shrinkage per unit volume of paste was similar. of strength at later ages (91 days to 2 years) (Carette, Mal-
Drying shrinkage data on concrete containing 20 percent hotra, and Atcin 1987); however, more recent data (Atcin
silica fume and a HRWRA and having a water-to-cementi- and Laplante 1990) indicated no tendency for long-term (4 to
tious materials ratio of 0.22 have been published by Wol- 6 years) strength loss in silica-fume concrete. Based upon its
siefer (1984). This concrete achieved a 28-day compressive review of the available data, the committee does not believe that
Fig. 5.7Effect of silica fume on compressive strength of concrete (Malhotra et al.

1987)
Fig. 5.8Effect of silica fume on compressive strength of concrete containing fly ash
(Carette and Malhotra 1983b)
strength retrogression is a concern with silica-fume concrete. both 28 and 91 days. With higher curing temperatures, 20,
The effects of temperature on compressive strength have 30, and 65 C (68, 86, and 149 F), the presence of silica fume
been studied by several investigators. Yamato, Emoto, and substantially improved the 7-day strength, as well as
Soeda (1986) reported that when concrete is cured at 10 C strengths after longer curing periods. Maage (1986) reported
(50 F), the presence of silica fume did not essentially im- that the pozzolanic action in general is very temperature sen-
prove the strength of concrete at 7 days; however, it did at sitive, but less so for silica fume than for fly ash.
5.2.5 Flexural and splitting tensile strengthsThe devel- Wang et al. (1986) reported that adding 5 percent or more
opment of flexural and splitting tensile strengths of concrete silica fume by mass of cement to concrete significantly in-
incorporating silica fume is similar to that observed in con- creases the effective fracture energy of the paste-aggregate
cretes without silica-fume addition. For both types of con- transition zone. The improved fracture energy was also re-
crete, as the compressive strength increases the tensile ported by Wu and Zhou (1988).
strength also increases, but at a gradually decreasing rate The cleavage strength of pure zinc plate-to-cement paste
(Goldman 1987). However, because in hardened concrete boundary was studied by Chen and Zhang (1986b). The re-
the ratio of tensile to compressive strength is strongly affect- sults showed that by adding 5 percent silica fume, the 28-day
ed by the properties of the materials used, a unique relation- cleavage strength was increased by about 50 percent. Burge
ship among the various types of strengths does not exist. If (1983) showed that concrete-to-steel reinforcement bond
tensile strength is important for design, it must be tested for strength in a high strength, lightweight concrete containing
individual concretes. silica fume increased 3 to 5 times, depending upon the pro-
Wolsiefer (1984) reported that for 14,220-psi (98-MPa) portion of cement replaced by silica fume. A similar im-
concrete containing 1000 lb/yd3 (593 kg/m3) of cement and provement in ultimate bond strength for lightweight
20 percent silica fume, the ratio of flexural to compressive aggregate concrete containing silica fume was reported by
strength varied between 0.13 to 0.15. Luther and Hansen Robins and Austin (1986).
(1989) found the modulus of rupture of silica-fume concrete The improved bond strength of silica-fume concrete to
made with dolomite coarse aggregate and having compres- steel reinforcing bars is reported in numerous papers in the
sive strength between 7400 and 15,500 psi (51 to 107 MPa) review by Sellevold and Nilsen (1987). Ezeldin and Balagu-
to be about 12.3 times the square root of compressive ru (1989) performed a reinforcing bar pull-out test on con-
strength (psi) [1.02 times the square root of compressive cretes containing up to 20 percent silica fume. They con-
strength (MPa)]. cluded that the addition of silica fume resulted in bond
McDonald (1991) reported that splitting tensile strength at strength increases which were proportional to the square root
various ages ranged from 5.8 to 8.2 percent of the compres- of compressive strength, but the use of silica fume led to
sive strength at the same age. The higher percentages, 8.2 more brittle behavior.
and 8.0 percent, were at ages of 1 and 3 days, respectively. The positive influence of silica fume on a concrete-to-con-
Splitting tensile strength ranged from 500 psi (3.4 MPa) at an crete bond strength was reported by Sellevold and Nilsen
age of 1 day [compressive strength 6080 psi (42 MPa)] to a (1987) who based their conclusions on work by Johansen
maximum of 1015 psi (7.0 MPa) at the age of 90 days [com- and Dahl (1983). The improvements were attributed to mod-
pressive strength 14,280 psi (98 MPa)]. Luther and Hansen ification of the transition zone.
(1989) found the splitting tensile strength of fly ash and
silica-fume concretes to be similar, ranging between 9.7 and 5.3Durability aspects
10.6 percent of the compressive strength. One 15,500-psi 5.3.1 Freezing and thawing resistance and scaling resis-
(107-MPa) silica-fume concrete developed a splitting tensile tanceFor properly air-entrained concretes, silica fume
strength of 1110 psi (7.7 MPa). should have no detrimental effects on resistance to freezing
5.2.6 Bond strengthUsing silica fume as a component of and thawing and related scaling (Sorensen 1983; Atcin and
concrete has been shown to improve bond strength at three Vezina 1984; Malhotra 1986) (Fig. 5.9). One exception was
types of interfaces: cement paste to aggregate, cement paste reported (Malhotra, Painter, and Bilodeau 1987) but in this
to steel reinforcement, and new to old concrete. study, unsatisfactory air-void spacing factors were obtained
Chen and Zhang (1986a) have studied the effect of silica- (0.269 to 0.502 mm). They suggest that for very low water-
fume addition on the properties of a transition zone be- to-cementitious materials ratios, it is difficult to entrain air in
tween marble and cement paste. An addition of 5 percent silica-fume concrete, particularly with high dosages of
silica fume increased the 28-day splitting-bond strength ap- silica fume.
proximately twice that of a sample without silica fume. Pigeon, Pleau, and Atcin (1986) reported that critical val-
Odler and Zurz (1988) measured the splitting-bond ues of spacing factor for good freezing and thawing resis-
strength between five different kinds of rocks and cement tance are smaller for silica-fume concretes. Procedure A of
paste containing up to 10 percent silica fume. The results ASTM C 666 was used, but durability factors were not deter-
showed that in every case the bond strength of the samples mined. Surface scaling was less severe for silica-fume con-
containing silica fume was higher than that of samples cretes. In a test program following ASTM C 672, scaling
without silica fume. The improved cement-aggregate bond resistance was reduced as silica fume replacement exceeded
resulting from the use of silica fume was also reported by 5 percent (Pigeon, Perraton, and Pleau 1987). Other scaling
other investigators. Chen and Wang (1988) found that the tests showed similar results for silica-fume contents exceed-
splitting-bond strength increased from 2.0 MPa (290 psi) ing 10 percent, if the water-cementitious materials ratio was
for cement paste without silica fume to 2.4 MPa (345 psi) greater than 0.38 (Sorensen 1983).
for cement paste containing 30 percent silica fume. Wu and For non-air-entrained concrete, the data are mixed. Tra-
Zhou (1988) also reported increased splitting bond etteberg (1980) found improved frost resistance of silica-
strength, but the data in this paper are presented in such a fume mortars, which was attributed to altered pore size dis-
way that it is impossible to provide a single numerical val- tributions, that reduced the frequency of large pores capable
ue to solely characterize the bond improvement. of accommodating freezable water. Similar results were
Fig. 5.9Summary of durability factors for air-entrained concretes (Malhotra 1986)
reported by Huang and Feldman (1985c). Good results were showed that for non-air-entrained silica-fume concrete with
obtained with a low water-cementitious materials ratio a water-to-cementitious materials ratio of 0.25, there was
(0.38) in non-air-entrained concretes with 10 and 20 percent good resistance to freezing and thawing regardless of the sil-
silica fume (Sorensen 1983). Hooton (1993) also obtained ica-fume content (up to 30 percent). For a water-to-ce-
good results at a water-to-cementitious materials ratio of mentitious materials ratio of 0.35, 0.45, and 0.55, the frost
0.35. His results were explained by self desiccation resulting resistance was poor. Luther and Hansen (1989) found the du-
in reductions in internal relative humidity (McGrath and rability factor to be 98 and 96 percent for non-air-entrained
Hooton 1991). 10,000-psi (69-MPa) fly ash and silica-fume concretes, re-
Saucier (1984) found that non-air-entrained, high-strength spectively. On the other hand, Malhotra, Painter, and Bilo-
concrete with 15 percent silica fume and cured for 28 days, deau (1987) found that all non-air-entrained concretes failed
gave a durability factor of 95 percent when tested according at less than 50 cycles regardless of water-to-cementitious
to ASTM C 666, Procedure A. Hooton (1993) found similar materials ratio or silica-fume content when moist cured 14
results for 10, 15, and 20 percent silica fume, high-strength days prior to freezing.
concretes at water-to-cementitious materials ratio of 0.35 The quality of the silica fume and cement, the mixture pro-
and cured for 14 days. Although the control concrete failed portions, and the curing time to first freezing may account
in 56 cycles, the durability factor of the silica-fume concretes for the wide difference in results between the studies. Further
exceeded 90 percent. Yamato, Emoto, and Soeda (1986) research is required (Philleo 1986; Philleo 1987). The critical
dilation test, ASTM C 671, may be a more realistic alterna-

tive test to ASTM C 666 (Philleo 1987). At this time, it is Table 5.1Chloride permeability according to
recommended that currently recommended values of air en- AASHTO T 277 or ASTM C 1202 (silica-fume concrete
trainment be used to provide adequate resistance to freezing added by committee for this report). (Table originally
appeared in Whiting 1981)
and thawing.
5.3.2 Chemical attack resistanceBecause of its low per- Charged passed Chloride
(coulombs) permeability Typical of
meability, the resistance of silica-fume concrete to attack by
Greater than 4000 High High water-cement ratio (0.6) con-
various chemicals has been investigated by several researchers. ventional concrete
Feldman and Huang (1985) investigated the resistance of 2000 to 4000 Moderate Moderate water-cement ratio (0.4 to
0.5) conventional concrete
mortars to attack by 4 percent MgC12 solution for 150-170 1000 to 2000 Low Low water-cement ratio (0.4) con-
days followed by exposure to solution containing a mixture ventional concrete
of magnesium, calcium, and sodium chlorides. The water-to- 100 to 10000 Very low Latex-modified concrete, low water-
cementitious materials ratio silica-
cementitious materials ratio of the mortars was of 0.45 and fume concrete (5 to 15 percent), and
0.60, and they contained silica fume at 0, 10 and 30 percent internally sealed concrete
by mass of cement. The properties measured included stiff- Less than 100 Negligible Polymer impregnated concrete;
polymer concrete; low water-cemen-
ness, pore-size distribution, Ca(OH)2 content, and non-evap- titious materials ratio, high silica-
orable water content. The results showed that addition of fume content concrete (15 to 20 per-
cent)
silica fume substantially increased the durability of the mortars.
Mehta (1985) tested the chemical resistance of low water- traditional tests of concrete permeability.
to-cement ratio concretes to 1 percent hydrochloric acid so- The permeability of all concrete and its resistance to chlo-
lution, 5 percent acetic acid solution, 1 percent lactic acid so- ride ion penetration, especially that of silica-fume concrete
lution, and 1 percent sulfuric acid solution. The specimens depends upon the curing method and the length of time cured
were seven weeks old before the exposure and included plain (Whiting and Khulman 1987), as well as other factors. Per-
concrete with a water-to-cement ratio of 0.35, latex-modi- meability decreases with time, and this decrease is propor-
fied concrete with a water-to-cement ratio of 0.33, and silica- tional to the degree of cement hydration. As the ambient
fume concrete containing 15 percent of silica fume by mass curing temperature has great influence on the rate of cement
of cement with a water-to-cementitious material ratio of hydration, field cores taken in winter conditions will not be-
0.33. Mehta concluded that concrete containing silica fume come resistant to chloride ion penetration until adequately
showed better resistance to the chemical attack than did the cured. Typical values obtained using the ASTM C 1202 for
other two types of concrete. various types of concretes are shown in Table 5.1. When
The improved resistance of silica-fume concrete to a num- tested using ASTM C 1202 (AASHTO T 277), the electrical
ber of other aggressive chemicals, including nitrates and ac- charge passed through concrete was reduced with increasing
ids, has been reported in various papers presented in a review silica fume replacement levels, as shown in Fig. 5.3
by Sellevold and Nilsen (1987). (Hooton 1993).
5.3.3 Chloride ion penetration resistanceConcrete 5.3.4 Abrasion-erosion resistanceThe excellent resis-
structures in hostile chloride environments are some of the tance of silica-fume concrete to abrasion-erosion damage
most logical candidates for silica-fume concrete. A great was reported by Holland (1983, 1986a, 1986b) and Mc-
amount of testing to determine the resistance of silica fume Donald (1991) based upon work done at the Waterways Ex-
concrete to chloride ion penetration has been performed. periment Station. Testing was done using an underwater
Byfors (1987) reported that addition of silica fume up to procedure (CRD-C 63) which simulates the abrasion erosion
20 percent by mass of cement considerably reduced the dif- which occurs in a hydraulic structure. High-strength silica-
fusion rate of chloride ion compared with the performance of fume concrete with limestone aggregate was shown to have
ordinary portland-cement paste of the same water-cementi- abrasion-erosion resistance similar to that of a conventional
tious materials ratio. By increasing the water-to-cementi- concrete with a water-cement ratio of 0.40 and containing
tious materials ratio, the resistance to chloride ion hard chert aggregates. The improved abrasion-erosion resis-
diffusion decreases. tance was attributed to the very high compressive strength of
While testing such as that described above is valuable, de- the paste fraction of the concrete.
sign engineers and specifiers have required a faster and more Neely (1988) has also reported on abrasion-erosion resis-
practical method of specifying and evaluating the resistance tance of silica-fume concrete used for underwater place-
of concrete to chloride ion penetration. The use of ASTM C ments. He found insufficient data to reach a conclusion
1202 (AASHTO T 277), for evaluating the resistance of con- concerning the effects of silica fume on the abrasion-erosion
crete to chloride ions, has become a standard and routine test. characteristics of the concrete. There was some evidence that
This test measures the electrical charge passed through the silica fume improved the washout resistance, but since only
concrete, which is then related to the chloride penetration. a small number of concretes tested did not include silica
The method is fast, low in cost, and is becoming widely used fume, the evidence was not conclusive.
by design engineers in the specifications of concrete struc- 5.3.5 Fire resistanceShirley, Burg, and Fiorato (1988)
tures in chloride environments. Work by Whiting (1981, reported a silica-fume concrete that exploded from heat, as
1988) has shown that this rapid test does correlate with reported by Hertz (1982), was an isolated specialized mortar
Fig. 5.10Expansion of ASTM C 441 pyrex mortar bars with various volume replacements of
silica fume, made to a flow of 110 15, with HRWRA (Hooton 1993)
mixture that had over 20 percent silica fume by weight of ce- escape of steam. Testing to simulate project conditions is
ment, had a water-to-cement ratio less than 0.35, a unit recommended in these cases.
weight in excess of 165 lb/ft3 (2640 kg/m3), and a strength in 5.3.6 Alkali-aggregate reaction expansionThe benefi-
excess of 25,000 psi (170 MPa). They reported on the results cial effects of silica fume on alkali-silica reactivity (ASR)
of fire tests of two more typical silica-fume structural mix- are thought to be largely due to the ability of silica fume to
tures, as compared with two fly-ash mixtures and a conven- rapidly combine with alkalies in the pore solutions (Dia-
tional concrete, and found little difference in performance. mond 1983; Page and Vennesland 1983) and incorporate the
The two silica-fume mixtures contained about 140 fl oz/yd3 alkalies as substitutes for calcium in the CSH matrix. The al-
(5.46 L/m3) of a HRWRA and each had approximately a 9- kalies in solution are then not of sufficient concentration to
in. (230-mm) slump. No air-entraining admixture was used raise the pH of the pore solution high enough to cause dele-
in any of the concretes tested. All concrete slabs were moist terious expansion by attacking the reactive silica in the ag-
cured 7 days at room temperature and then air dried to a mid- gregates. Uchikawa, Uchida, and Hanehara (1989) showed
depth relative humidity of 80 percent before test time. Test that 10 percent by mass replacement with silica fume ties up
results showed that the silica-fume concretes had a slightly almost three times more alkali in the CSH than did plain
longer fire endurance than the others; all slabs sustained only portland cement. They also found that the diffusion rates of
random hairline cracks; and all slabs performed very well. alkalies through the pores of concretes incorporating silica
Malhotra et al. (1987) reviewed the paper by Sellevold fume have been found to be approximately an order of mag-
(1984) reporting on the high-temperature exposure tests of nitude lower which would restrict the ability of dissolved al-
plain concrete elements and concrete elements containing kalies to migrate to reactive aggregate sites.
silica fume according to ISO standards. These elements were Reduction in expansion of ASTM C 441 Pyrex mortar bars
3 months old and had compressive strengths ranging from is shown in Fig. 5.10 (Hooton 1993). A 10-percent replace-
4640 psi (32 MPa) to 5075 psi (35 MPa). All elements met ment by mass of the high-alkali cement with silica fume was
the test temperature requirements for the unexposed face, but required to reduce expansion to 0.020 percent at 14 days.
more extensive spalling was noticed on the exposed face for Buck (1988) reported expansion values at 14 days of 0.43
the elements containing silica fume. percent, 0.12 percent, 0.01 percent, and 0.01 percent for 0
The committee is aware of concerns regarding the fire percent, 5 percent, 10 percent, and 15 percent silica fume re-
safety of high-strength, low-permeability concretes (particu- placements, respectively. At 365 days the corresponding ex-
larly those containing lightweight aggregates) in applica- pansion values were 0.51, 0.21, 0.05, and 0.04 percent.
tions where the concrete may not be dry in service. Reductions in expansion of a reactive rhyolitic sand to less
Explosive spalling may occur during rapid fire loadings such than 10 percent at one year were obtained with 5 percent sil-
as a hydrocarbon fire as might be experienced in an offshore ica fume (Fig. 5.11, Asgeirsson and Gudmundsson 1979).
oil production structure. The spalling is believed to be the re- Less positive results were obtained elsewhere (Soles, Mal-
sult of the low permeability of the concrete that prevents the hotra, and Suderman 1987), but the experimental results are
suspect since the aggregates known to be reactive did not ap-

proach 0.10 percent expansion in one year in the ASTM C
227 test. Perry and Gillott (1985), working with Beltane
opal, concluded that silica fume is effective in controlling
expansion but that relatively high amounts, on the order of
20 percent by mass replacement, were required. They also
found that small additions of silica fume (5 percent by mass)
increased expansion with this highly reactive aggregate.
Further, they found that the chemical type of the HRWRA
used played a role in determining the amount of expansion.
In another study Davies and Oberholster (1987) compared
the effectiveness of various mineral admixtures for reducing
alkali-silica reaction expansion using several different test-
ing methods. First, they tested in accordance with ASTM C
227 using a South African Malmesbury graywacke/hornfels
aggregate and a cement with a total alkali content of 0.97
percent. A 5 percent by volume silica-fume replacement was
not sufficient to control expansion below 0.05 percent. A 10
percent by volume silica-fume replacement resulted in ap-
proximately 0.05 percent expansion at 365 days. Higher sil-
ica-fume replacements maintained the expansion below the
0.05 percent limit for the entire test period. Next, they used
the same aggregate with a cement with a total alkali content
Fig. 5.11Expansion of mortar prisms made with high-
of 1.12 percent in concrete cubes in field trials. Here, a 5 per- alkali cement, reactive sand, and three silica fume contents
cent by volume silica-fume replacement delayed expansion (Asgiersson and Gudmundsson 1979)
above the 0.05 percent limit for approximately 1250 days
whereas a 10 percent by volume replacement showed essen-
sulfate ion concentrations reach 4 g/L with pH 2.5 to 7.0. In
tially no expansion through 1500 days. Of all of the mineral
this case, the performance of concrete with a conventional
admixtures tested, they found silica fume to be the most ef-
fective in controlling expansion. portland cement and a 15 percent silica-fume addition with a
Kawamura, Takemoto, and Hasaba (1987) found that four water-to-cementitious materials ratio of 0.62 was equal to
silica fumes varied widely in their effect on alkali-silica ex- that of a sulfate-resistant portland cement concrete with a
pansion of mortars containing a reactive aggregate (Beltane water-cement ratio of 0.50.
opal). They found that the addition of relatively small When exposed to sodium sulfate solution, durability of
amounts of these silica fumes increased expansion while ad- concrete is enhanced by addition of silica fume (Mather
dition of larger amounts of some of these silica fume com- 1982, Mehta 1985, Hooton 1993, Cohen and Bentur 1988).
pletely prevented expansion of the mortars. They also Mather (1982) reported tests using mortar bars exposed to
concluded that the ability of the silica fumes did not neces- sodium sulfate. Three high C3A cements (14.6, 13.1, and 9.4
sarily correlate with their pozzolanic activity as measured by percent C3A) were used alone and with 30 percent replace-
the amount of calcium hydroxide consumed in paste samples. ment of various pozzolans. The greatest sodium sulfate resis-
In summary, silica fume in sufficient quantity and proper- tance was obtained with silica fume. Use of silica fume with
ly dispersed in concrete will likely be effective in ameliorat- ASTM type I portland cement has the effect of improving its
ing the deleterious effects of alkali-silica reactivity. performance to levels similar to those of ASTM type V port-
However, it is recommended that each source of silica fume land cement (Mather 1982, Hooton 1993, Cohen and Bentur
be tested with the particular reactive aggregate before use. 1988). In Fig. 5.12, mortar bars containing 10 percent silica
Perry and Gillott (1985) reported that silica fume was fume tested using ASTM C 1012 employing sodium sulfate
much less effective in controlling expansion caused by alka-
as the sulfate source are shown to be as resistant as those
li-carbonate reaction (ACR) than that caused by alkali-silica
containing a sulfate resistant portland cement even though
reaction. However, neither low-alkali cement or other min-
the C3A content of the cement was 11.8 percent (Hooton
eral admixtures are effective in combating ACR (Rogers and
Hooton 1992). 1993). Similar results were obtained by Buck (1988) for a
5.3.7 Sulfate resistanceThe reduced permeability of sil- cement containing 15 percent C3A.
ica-fume concrete would be expected to reduce the transport Carlsson, Hope, and Pedersen (1986) examined the use of
of sulfate ions into concrete. Since silica fume replacement 5 percent silica fume in concrete mixtures intended for use in
levels are generally 15 percent or less, the dilution effect on pipes. They exposed the specimens to a 10-percent sodium
C3A would be small. Sellevold and Nilsen (1987) cite 20- sulfate solution for 92 weeks. The silica fume concrete ex-
year field performance results from Norway. Specimens hibited less mass loss leading the authors to conclude that
were placed in a tunnel in alum shale where ground water pipes made from the silica-fume concrete would have 2 to 3
Fig. 5.12ASTM C 1012 sulfate resistance of silica fume mortar bars, flow 115 5
[(Hooton 1993), SRPC = sulfate resisting portland cement; NPC = normal portland
cement; SF = silica fume; SP = superplasticizer HRWRA]
times the life expectancy of the same concrete without sil- calculated by determination of the cell constant of the test
ica fume. setup, and calibrations with the 4-pin platinum wire test
The results are conflicting for ammonium sulfate. Popov- method. Fig. 5.13 shows electrical resistivity data, as mea-
ic, Ukraincik, and Djurekovic (1984) showed improved re- sured by the rapid chloride permeability test, for a silica-
sistance of silica-fume mortars whereas Mehta (1985) fume concrete at 11 percent and 20 percent addition of silica
showed no improvement in concrete. fume by mass of cement. The 20 percent silica fume dosage
In very high concentrations of magnesium sulfate (equiv- showed a resistivity of 110,000 ohm-cm (Wolsiefer 1991).
alent to a 4.5 percent SO3 solution), silica fume impaired the Data indicate that silica-fume concrete has high electrical
performance of the pastes made with both ASTM type I and resistance to the passage of corrosion current (Berke and
type V portland cements (Cohen and Bentur 1988). Calcium Roberts 1989; Berke 1989; Berke and Weil 1988). Berke et
silicate hydrate (CSH) was found to have decomposed and al. (1991) presented resistivity data for concrete containing
there was an absence of magnesium hydroxide which tends silica fume or silica fume and fly ash. At 28 days, a concrete
to block pores and give protection to CSH from further at- with 600 lb/yd3 (355 kg/m3) of cement, 75 lb/yd3 (44.5
tack. There was not much of a difference between the extent kg/m3) of silica fume (12.5 percent) and a water-to-cement
of damage in the two types of cements. In both instances, ad- ratio of 0.47 had a resistivity of 51.75 kohm-cm. They also
dition of silica fume reduced the strength and increased mass presented data on resistivity changes over 3 years of ponding
loss by a factor of 5 to 10. with a 3 percent sodium chloride solution. From corrosion
testing they concluded low rapid chloride permeability test
5.4Miscellaneous properties readings and high resistivity are indicators of good corrosion
5.4.1 Electrical resistivityElectrical resistivity and al- resistance performance.
ternating current (AC) resistance are measures of the ability Vennesland and Gjrv (1983) measured electrical resis-
of concrete to resist corrosion currents. Corrosion currents tivity by embedding an isolated steel plate in the middle of
are encountered in steel-reinforced concrete under chloride an insulated concrete cylinder. The test cylinder was im-
attack in deicing and marine environments. An increased mersed in water with counter electrodes and an AC bridge
electrical resistivity makes reinforced concrete more resis- was employed to measure electrical resistivity. Fig. 5.14
tant to galvanic corrosion currents by reducing the rate shows the resistivity data for three concrete mixtures each
of corrosion. with 0, 10 and 20 percent silica fume addition by mass of ce-
Electrical resistivity (expressed in ohm-cm) has been mea- ment. Correlation with Vennesland and Gjrvs data is seen
sured in non-standard laboratory tests, and also during the with an electrical resistivity of 127,000 ohm-cm for a com-
ASTM C 1202 (AASHTO T 277) rapid chloride permeabil- parable mixture [675 lb/yd3 (400 kg/m3) cement, 143 lb/yd3
ity test. Data have shown that resistivity is inversely propor- (85 kg/m3) silica fume; 21 percent by mass of cement.] Elec-
tional to the ASTM C 1202 (AASHTO T 277) permeability trical resistivity is improved and the increased resistivity is
values (Berke and Roberts 1989). The resistivity values are more pronounced at high strengths. The improvement is due
*ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY LEVEL ABOVE WHICH REIN-

150,000
FORCED STEEL CORROSION HAS NOT OCCURRED EVEN IN
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY (OHMS-CM) (VACUUM SATURATION)

CHLORIDE CONTAMINATED CONCRETE
125,000
110,000
100,000
75,000
70,000
*
60,000
ORDINARY CONCRETE
50,000
SILICA FUME 20 PERCENT
SILICA FUME 11 PERCENT

25,000
4200
CONCRETE TYPE
Fig. 5.13Electrical resistivity as measured during AASHTO T 277

(ASTM C 1202) testing for various silica fume contents (Wolsiefer 1991)
to the effect of silica fume in lowering the ion concentration

in the pore solutions and providing a more discontinuous
capillary pore structure (Sellevold and Nilsen 1987).
AC resistance, in ohms, has been measured in the FHWA
time-to-corrosion NCHRP Southern Exposure Slab test.
This laboratory test is a scaled down steel reinforced deck in
which macro cell (mat to mat) AC resistance, corrosion cur-
rent, half-cell potential, and chloride absorption are mea-
sured, during 48 weeks of sodium chloride (15 percent
solution) ponding in alternate soak/dry cycles. Fig. 5.15
shows that the AC resistance for a silica-fume concrete sam-
ple (prepared with a dry silica-fume admixture, at 20 percent
addition by mass of cement), increased from 5000 ohms to
25,000 ohms during the course of the test. The correspond-
ing control concrete was flat at 890 ohms. These data, along
with simultaneous corrosion current measurements, tend to
indicate that the silica-fume concrete was not a conductor of
corrosion current (Wolsiefer 1991).
5.4.2 Thermal propertiesPublished data on thermal
properties are scarce. The committee is not aware of any ef-
fect of silica fume on thermal properties, since such proper- Silica fume content (weight percent of cement)
ties depend primarily on the thermal characteristics of the
aggregate. The committee is not aware of data on thermal re-
Fig. 5.14Effect of silica fume on the electrical resistivity
sistivity. Heat of hydration is covered in Chapter 3. of concrete (Vennesland and Gjrv 1983)
25,000
0.22
20,000
w/c
TE
C RE
ON
AC RESISTANCE, OHMS
C
ME
15,000 FU
A
IC
SIL
10,000
5000
CONCRETE CONTROL w/c 0.32 890 OHMS

0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48
Number of weekly cycles
Fig. 5.15Alternating-current resistance of concrete containing 20 percent addition of
silica fume (Wolsiefer 1991)
5.5Use of silica fume in combination with fibers Various studies have shown that addition of silica fume to
The use of silica fume in combination with various types glass-fiber-reinforced concrete (GFRC) made with alkali-re-
of fibers has been studied by several researchers. This work sistant glass fibers and sometimes high-alumina cement can
has covered bonding characteristics of the paste to the fibers, reduce or eliminate the loss of ductility and strength associ-
the influence of a combination of fibers and silica fume on ated with increasing age (Bentur and Diamond 1985; Ha-
the bond strength to reinforcing steel, and the use of silica yashi, Sato, and Fujii 1985; Bijen 1985).
fume in glass-fiber reinforced concrete.
The improved bond strength of silica fume concrete to var- 5.6Use of silica fume in conjunction with fly ash
ious types of fiber reinforcement is reported in numerous pa- A number of researchers have looked at combinations of
pers in the review by Sellevold and Nilsen (1987). Paillere, fly ash and silica fume. The primary research objectives have
Buil, and Serrano (1989) examined the use of steel fibers to been to offset the reduced early strength typical of fly-ash
reduce autogenous cracking of low water-cement ratio sili- concretes and to evaluate the durability of concretes with
ca-fume concretes. Bayasi and Soroushian (1989) showed combinations of pozzolans. The committee is not aware of
that replacement of cement with silica fume at 5 to 20 per- definitive information regarding reaction mechanisms when
cent enhanced the effectiveness of steel fibers in concrete. fly ash and silica fume are both present. See also Section 3.4.
This improvement was attributed to the improved fiber inter- Mehta and Gjrv (1982), during an investigation of com-
facial bond strength. pressive strength of concretes made with combinations of fly
Ezeldin and Balaguru (1989) looked at the bond to rein- ash and silica fume, also examined CH and pore-size distri-
forcing steel behavior of normal-strength and high-strength bution of similar cement pastes. Based on strength develop-
steel-fiber reinforced concrete using a pullout test method. ment and CH determinations, they concluded that the
They found that silica fume increased bond strength but re- combination of pozzolans showed much greater pozzolanic
sulted in brittle bond failure. Use of the steel fibers increased activity, even at 7 and 28 days than did the fly ash alone. The
ductility. Horiguchi, Saeki, and Fujita (1988) have shown combination also showed considerable reduction in the vol-
that the pullout strength of reinforcing steel in steel-fiber re- ume of large pores at all ages studied.
inforced concrete with 30 percent silica fume was about 2.1 Carette and Malhotra (1983b), also during a strength in-
times that of conventional concrete. vestigation, found that the later-age strength development of
Krenchel and Shah (1985) have described using silica concrete containing silica fume and fly ash was not impaired,
fume and high volumes (2 to 5 percent) of polypropylene fi- indicating the availability of sufficient CH for fly ash poz-
bers together in Scandinavia. They reported that the reinforc- zolanic activity.
ing performance of polypropylene fibers can be substantially Mehta and Gjrv (1982) and Carette and Malhotra
improved by using silica fume in the matrix. Ohama, (1983b) found that the combination of pozzolans could off-
Amano, and Endo (1985), working with carbon fibers, re- set the reduction of early strength caused by the use of fly ash
ported that adding silica fume and water-reducing admix- alone. Seabrook and Wilson (1988) reported on work using
tures was very effective for dispersing the carbon fibers. combinations of fly ash and silica fume in lightweight-aggre-
They also reported that the use of silica fume improved the gate concrete for offshore applications in the Arctic. They
physical properties of the composite by increasing the paste- achieved 91-day compressive strength of 9400 psi (65 MPa)
to-fiber bond. at unit weight of 125 lb/ft3 (2000 kg/m3.)
Fig. 5.1628- and 56-day compressive strengths of plain concrete and concretes
containing various forms of silica fume (Cohen and Olek 1989)
Maage (1986) examined combinations of portland ce- mance with the different ashes, but concluded that the
ment, fly ash, and silica fume for influence on strength and properties of the grouts were markedly similar. Seabrook
heat development. He also investigated the effect of these (1987) has described the use of fly ash and silica fume in a
combinations on the maturity functions of the concretes. grout for use in ducts in post-tensioned concrete. He devel-
Silica fume was used as a replacement material in concretes oped a grout which was superior in absorption, shrinkage,
in which the cement content was reduced to maintain es- bleeding, and corrosion resistance over the neat cement grout.
sentially constant 28-day compressive strengths. He report-
ed that the early-age strength of the concretes containing 5.7Property variations with respect to type, source,
silica fume was reduced with increasing fly ash contents re- and form of delivery of silica fume
sulting in greater early-age strength reductions. For con- Effects of the form of silica fume (as-produced, slur-
cretes with silica fume, heat generation per kilogram of ried, densified) on properties of unreinforced concrete
cement plus silica fume was higher than without silica have been studied for concretes containing 9 percent sili-
fume. For concretes cured at 20 C, maturity calculations ca fume (Cohen and Olek 1989) and 11 and 15 percent sil-
were found to be valid for up to 2 to 3 days of equivalent ica fume (Fidjestl et al. 1989) by mass of portland
curing time. Concerning the durability of these concretes, cement. Results from both studies indicated that at the age
Maage (1987) investigated water permeability, frost resis- of 28 days, the slurried and as-produced silica fumes pro-
tance, sulfate attack, carbonation, chloride diffusion, pH- vided somewhat more compressive strength than did the
level of pore water, and electrical resistivity. He concluded densified material. The 56-day compressive strength of
that silica fume worked in combination with the blended the concrete containing the densified silica fume some-
cements in approximately the same manner as with con- what exceeded those of the concretes containing the other
cretes containing only portland cement. forms of silica fume as shown in Fig. 5.16 (Cohen and
Gautefall (1986) examined the chloride-diffusion rates in Olek 1989).
pastes made from ordinary portland cement and a blended Results from rapid chloride permeability measurements
cement containing 10 percent fly ash, both with silica fume made in accordance with ASTM C 1202 (AASHTO T
contents ranging from 0 to 15 percent. He found that the ad- 277) indicate that all forms of silica fume tend to increase
dition of silica-fume led to a marked decrease in chloride resistance to chloride permeability to about the same level
diffusivity, more so for the ordinary portland cement than as shown in Fig. 5.17 (Cohen and Olek 1989; Fidjestl
for the blended cement. et al. 1989).
Wakeley and Buck (1986) examined grouts containing In the investigation by Cohen and Olek (1989) the frost
Class H cement, an expansive agent, fly ash (a Class C and resistance of air-entrained concrete did not seem to be af-
a Class F ash were tested), and silica fume. They examined fected by the form of silica fume used. In that investi-
compressive strength, volume change, phase composition, gation all silica-fume concrete specimens performed well
and microstructure. They found some differences in perfor- when tested using ASTM C 666, Procedure A.
Fig. 5.17Total electrical charge passed during AASHTO T-277 (ASTM C 1202)
testing of plain concrete and concretes containing various forms of silica fume
(Cohen and Olek 1989)
CHAPTER 6APPLICATIONS OF SILICA FUME 1990 indicated that a small amount of abrasion-erosion wear
had occurredsignificantly less than seen in concretes used
6.1Introduction in the stilling basin previously.
This chapter describes the uses of silica fume, primarily in The Corps of Engineers also specified silica-fume con-
concrete. Other applications in grout or mortar are also men- crete as the repair material for the concrete in the invert of
tioned. Many different types of projects that have been ac- the Los Angeles River Channel. The existing concrete had
complished since silica fume has been commercially been damaged primarily by abrasion erosion. Almost 27,000
available are included. yd3 (20,600 m3) of silica-fume concrete were placed in the
invert during 1983, 1984, and 1985. Various mixture propor-
6.2Abrasion resistance tions and repair approaches were used over the life of the
Silica-fume concrete has been used in industrial floors in project. Compressive strength of 8000 to 10,500 psi (55 to 72
North America and Europe to provide increased abrasion re- MPa), depending upon the mixture used, was achieved (Hol-
sistance. Silica-fume concrete was placed in an abrasion-re- land and Gutschow 1987). As of the writing of this Guide,
sistant application for the floor of Fire Station 16 in Pitts- this concrete has performed well.
burgh, Pennsylvania, in 1986. The Corps of Engineers also specified 8000-psi (72-MPa)
One dry-bagged silica-fume concrete product that silica-fume concrete to line a 150-ft (46-m) section of the
achieves a 28-day compressive strength of 20,000 psi (138 Lowell Creek Tunnel, located near Seward, Alaska. The tun-
MPa) was used to provide increased abrasion resistance nel invert had experienced severe abrasion-erosion damage.
against the action of arresting-gear cables at the ends of run- Hard igneous coarse aggregate was used in the repair con-
ways at two United States Air Force bases. crete, and tests upon the same mixture that was placed
Use of silica-fume concrete to resist abrasion in pave- achieved a 2.8 percent mass loss during the Corps of Engi-
ments is described in Section 6.13. neers abrasion-erosion test method (CRD-C 63). A mass loss
6.2.1 Abrasion-erosion resistanceThe first major applica- below 7 percent was specified. The concrete achieved an
tion of silica-fume concrete in the United States was for repair 8950-psi (62-MPa) compressive strength (Luther 1989b).
of hydraulic structures subjected to abrasion-erosion damage. After one year, an estimated 1/8 in. (3 mm) of wear had oc-
The concrete in the stilling basin slab of Kinzua Dam in curred, less than had been observed for previously used re-
western Pennsylvania was severely damaged by abrasion pair materials.
erosion. After extensive laboratory testing at the Waterways The Bureau of Reclamation used 13,000-psi (90-MPa) sil-
Experiment Station, the Corps of Engineers specified silica- ica-fume concrete in 1985 during a spillway repair for the
fume concrete as the repair material. The project required American Falls Dam, located near American Falls, Idaho. As
over 2000 yd3 (1530 m3) of concrete with a compressive of summer 1988, the concrete has performed well. In No-
strength of 12,500 psi (86 MPa) at 28 days. The 18-percent vember 1987, the Bureau of Reclamation used silica-fume
silica-fume concrete achieved a compressive strength over concrete to repair portions of the spillway and sidewall for
13,000 psi (90 MPa) at 28 days (Holland et al. 1986) and the Navajo Dam, located near Farmington, New Mexico.
over 16,000 psi (110 MPa) at three years. This concrete was As part of an erosion control system, in 1987 over 2700
placed in late 1983. Divers inspections in the summer of high-strength precast silica-fume concrete dolosses were
placed along a portion of the Lake Erie shoreline owned by processing area where the concrete is exposed to organic ac-
Diamond Shamrock Corporation. The 7.7 percent silica- ids and routine floor cleaning. This floor has also performed
fume concrete was used for improved durability in the abra- satisfactorily. In an application for Union Carbide, Colum-
sive coastal environment. bus, Ohio, an underground chemical storage tank was fabri-
cated from 72-in. (1.8-m) diameter precast pipe elements
6.3Alkali-silica reaction made with silica-fume concrete (Holland and Luther 1987).
As described in Section 5.3.6 of this Guide, silica fume has
been shown, in some instances, to prevent deleterious expan- 6.7Corrosion resistance
sion due to the alkali-silica reaction in concrete. No scientif- One of the largest uses of silica-fume concrete is in appli-
ically documented case histories in the use of silica fume to cations where the intent is to reduce the permeability of the
control alkali-silica reaction in concrete in North America concrete to the intrusion of chloride ions. In recent years,
are available. Silica fume has been used in blended cement concrete bridge decks and parking structures in many coun-
to prevent excessive expansion caused by the alkali-silica re- tries have shown distress and damage due to the effects of
action in Iceland. Olafsson (1989) reported that since 1979, chloride-based deicing chemicals. Because of its low perme-
no serious expansion due to alkali-silica reaction has been ability, silica-fume concrete offers possible benefits by re-
found in the concrete. No other long-term data on the perfor- ducing the rate of penetration of chloride ions (Sorensen
mance of silica fume in this role are available. 1983).
One of the largest applications of silica fume for corrosion
6.4Cement replacement protection has been in parking structures, both for cast-in-
Because of its high pozzolanic activity, silica fume can replace and precast concrete. By 1991, over 200 parking struc-
place portland cement while maintaining essentially the tures had been constructed using silica-fume concrete. In
same level of concrete performance. Skrastins and Zoldners many cases, the specifications for these structures have been
(1983) provided some data on cost savings in Canada where written to include a requirement for a given level of perfor-
silica fume was substituted for cement in concretes of differ- mance on the rapid chloride ion permeability test (Whiting
ent strength levels. Their work was based upon using as-pro- 1981; ASTM C 1202; AASHTO T 277). Typical mixture
duced silica fume with a cost of about $65/ton ($70/Mg) in proportions for these projects have included 650 lb/yd3 (385
1982. However, since silica fume is usually significantly kg/m3) cement, an addition of 7.5 to 10 percent silica fume
more expensive than cement, its use as a replacement for by mass of portland cement, and a maximum water-to-
portland cement is governed by transportation costs and the cementitious materials ratio of 0.40.
location of a source of silica fume readily accessible to users. Silica-fume concrete is also being used for rehabilitation
Silica fume has also been used as a cement replacement ma- of parking structures. One such project at OHare Plaza, Chi-
terial in Norway (Lland 1984), Australia (Tasmania), the cago, involved restoration of four parking areas. After re-
United States (Alabama), Canada (Quebec), and South Africa. moval of the deteriorated concrete, silica-fume concrete was
used as a bonded overlay material with an average thickness
6.5Heat reduction of 3 in. (76 mm).
Silica fume has been used to replace cement for the pur- Silica fume has also been used to provide corrosion pro-
pose of reducing the amount of heat generated in concrete. tection for marine structures. This application is discussed in
This was one motive for using silica-fume concrete in the Section 6.12.
Tjorn bridge, near Gothenburg, Sweden, and the Alta Dam
in northern Norway (Fidjestl 1987). In January 1988, the 6.8Grout
Maine Department of Transportation also used silica fume A grout consisting of portland cement, silica fume, water,
for this reason in piers for the Fairfax Bridge near Farming- and water-reducing admixtures was used to anchor post-ten-
ton, Maine. sioned tie-back cables in Baltimore during 1985. The silica-
fume grout exhibited longer pot life, the grout pumped more
6.6Chemical attack resistance easily, and the cables were tensioned significantly earlier (by
The reduced permeability of silica-fume concrete provides several days) and with fewer failures (tendon pullouts) than
protection against a variety of forms of chemical attack. with the non-silica-fume grout that was used earlier during
While the use of silica fume does not eliminate deterioration the project.
caused by chemical attack, it may lengthen the time between During 1987, a 20-percent silica-fume grout mixture was
repairs. Typically, such placements have been relatively used to provide improved corrosion protection of tie-back
small and the concretes have contained high silica fume dos- anchors for the Virginia Department of Transportation
ages (10 to 18 percent by mass of cement). In July 1986, sil- Kings Highway retaining wall project, located in Fairfax
ica-fume concrete was used by the U.S. Borax Company for County, Virginia.
an industrial floor in Death Valley, California. The floor is Silica-fume bonding grouts have been used by several
exposed to 5 percent sulfuric acid and borax. As of 1989, the state transportation agencies that have placed silica-fume
field performance of this concrete has been acceptable. In overlays (Luther 1988). The Illinois Department of Trans-
another example, the Redwing Company, Dunkirk, New portation uses silica-fume bonding grout even for non-silica-
York, used silica-fume concrete in a floor in a tomato fume concrete bridge deck overlays (Illinois Department of
Transportation 1988). Several manufacturers offer prepack- silica-fume concrete was used for 3000 elements subjected
aged nonshrink grouts containing silica fume. to accelerated curing. Here, the precaster took advantage of
the rapid strength gain of heat-cured silica-fume concrete to
6.9High early-strength concrete achieve rapid reuse of forms. Precast parapet wall elements
Use of silica fume can improve the early-age strength of have been used routinely since 1984 by one parking garage
concretes containing fly ash and blast-furnace slag cement designer (Holland 1987a).
(Mehta and Gjrv 1982; Carette, Malhotra, and Atcin 1984). Bank-vault manufacturers have used very high strength
The Tennessee Department of Transportation used silica- silica-fume concrete in precast vault panels (Bauer 1988;
fume concrete as a bridge deck overlay material to take ad- Luther 1989b). Bank-vault panel concretes typically use
vantage of the high-early strength of the concrete to allow hard specialty aggregates, and they develop compressive
rapid reopening of the Landen B. Hassler Memorial Bridge. strength ranging between 12,000 psi (83 MPa) and 20,000
The specified compressive strength at three days was 4500 psi (138 MPa), or higher, depending upon the mixture.
psi (31 MPa) and a strength of 5220 psi (36 MPa) was Some artists have used silica-fume concrete. One sculp-
achieved (Luther 1988). ture which was made using ferrocement is located in the
In May 1987, the Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority courtyard of the Waterfront Office Tower in Stockton, Cali-
used silica-fume concrete to repair pile caps for a railroad fornia (Ernst 1987; Hatch 1987).
bridge in Sandwich, Massachusetts. The specified compres- Precast parking curbs have been made in northeastern
sive strength at three days was 5000 psi (34 MPa), and the United States since 1986. One precaster offers a 15 percent
concrete achieved 6000 psi (41 MPa), even though the air silica-fume concrete curb that achieves compressive
temperature was unseasonably cool and the concrete was strengths of approximately 14,000 psi (97 MPa). This prod-
partially submerged in cool seawater when the tide was in uct looks like and competes with granite curb (Blaha 1987).
(Luther 1988).
Eighteen-hour compressive strength between 3000 psi (21 6.11Lightweight concrete
MPa) and 7000 psi (48 MPa) depending on ambient temper- Lightweight concrete containing silica fume to provide
atures, has been reported when silica-fume concrete was higher compressive strength has been evaluated extensively
used to produce high-strength [up to 10,000 psi (69 MPa)] for use in offshore concrete structures. To date, a silica-fume
precast elements (Luther and Bauer 1987). mixture has been used on one structure, the Super CIDS
structure located in the Beaufort Sea. For this structure,
6.10High-strength concrete lightweight silica-fume concrete with a unit weight of 110
6.10.1 Cast-in-placeSilica fume with high-range water- lb/ft3 (1760 kg/m3) and a compressive strength of 8200 psi
reducing admixture (HRWRA) has been used to produce (57 MPa) was used for the exterior walls (Anon. 1986).
very-high-strength concrete. Compressive strength as high After an extensive laboratory investigation, 6000 psi (41
as 20,000 psi (138 MPa) has been reported. MPa) specified compressive strength lightweight silica-
The Gallery Project, an office structure in Baltimore re- fume concrete was used in a parking deck overlay on the roof
quired approximately 4000 yd3 (1200 m3) of 10,000-psi (69- of Cobo Hall Convention Center, Detroit.
MPa) silica-fume concrete for use in columns and in post- Lightweight silica-fume concrete roof tiles are being made
tensioned beams. For the 225 West Wacker project in Chica- in Norway and the United States.
go, 14,000-psi (97-MPa) concrete was used in the lower lev-
el columns (Moreno 1990). Silica-fume concrete was used to 6.12Offshore and marine structures
provide 12,000-psi (83-MPa) specified compressive strength The resistance of silica-fume concrete to the penetration of
concrete for the 959-ft (292-m) tall 311 South Wacker Drive chloride ions is also attracting interest for marine applica-
office building in Chicago and some of the 10,000-psi (69- tions. The Southern Pacific Railroad used silica fume in con-
MPa) concrete used silica fume also (Robison 1988). The crete for 192 precast, prestressed elements for three bridges
62-story Two Union Square building in Seattle used silica- over the Great Salt Lake. Shotcrete containing silica fume
fume concrete in the 10-ft (3-m) diameter circular columns. has been used for repairs in a marine environment.
The specified compressive strength was 12,000 psi (83 MPa) During 1986 and 1987, two 755-ft (230-m) long precast
and the specified modulus of elasticity was 7,000,000 psi (48 silica-fume concrete segments were constructed in dry dock,
GPa). In order to meet the modulus requirement, the com- floated into place, sunk into position, and connected under-
pressive strength averaged 19,000 psi (131 MPa) with some water to form an underwater tunnel connecting Lolland and
values exceeding 20,000 psi (138 MPa) (Bauer 1988). Falsten Islands, in Denmark (Fidjestl 1987). The Karst
6.10.2 PrecastPrecast elements containing silica-fume Shore Approach subsea tunnel was also constructed with sil-
concrete were used for a 21-story condominium structure in ica-fume concrete. This tunnel, built using similar construc-
Wilmington, Delaware. By using 10,000-psi (69-MPa) sili- tion techniques as the previously mentioned sub-sea tunnel,
ca-fume concrete, the precaster was able to reduce section houses pipelines that bring offshore oil to the mainland near
size for some elements, making transportation and erection Karst, Norway (Fidjestl 1987).
simpler (Halmos 1986; Luther and Bauer 1987). In another In western Norway, portions of the Norwave electrical
precast application, the Montreal Airport Parking Structure, generating power plant were constructed with silica-fume
concrete. Silica-fume concrete walls that are mostly sub- performed well. In January 1983, silica-fume concrete over-
merged in ocean water redirect wave motion energy such lays were placed on approach lanes to a weighing platform
that water is lifted and deposited into reservoirs. As water at the New Enterprise Stone and Lime Co., located in Roar-
from the reservoirs returns to the sea, it is used to generate ing Spring, Pennsylvania. This concrete has already lasted
power. An adjacent power plant also used silica-fume con- over four times as long as that previously used.
crete (Fidjestl 1987). Full-depth decks or approach slabs for at least eight bridg-
The first offshore structure using normal weight silica- es have been constructed in the United States with silica-
fume concrete extensively was the Gulfaks C platform, lo- fume concrete (Luther 1988), and in Norway several bridges
cated in the North Sea (Fidjestl 1987). have been constructed with full-depth silica-fume concrete
State agencies and other owners along the eastern sea- decks (Fidjestl 1987).
board of the United States have investigated using silica- In Norway, silica-fume concrete pavements have been
fume concrete in marine environments. The Florida Depart- placed in areas where steel-studded tires abrade convention-
ment of Transportation made silica-fume concrete piles that al concrete quickly. These silica-fume pavements have last-
showed significantly better corrosion protection of the rein- ed significantly longer than previously-used materials.
forcing steel than the conventional concrete previously used Experimental silica-fume concrete roadway pavements
(Anon. 1987). Reportedly, the Texas State Department of placed in more than 12 miles (20 km) of the European high-
Highways and Public Transportation has conducted experi- way network in Norway have performed well, showing wear
mental work with silica-fume concrete piles, and the Ala- resistance between two and three times better than that of
bama Department of Highways has used silica-fume reference high-quality asphaltic cement pavements. Other
concrete in portions of the Perdido Pass Bridge, located near silica-fume roadway pavements have been placed in Den-
Mobile, Alabama, that are exposed directly to seawater mark (Fidjestl 1987).
(Luther 1988). The Maine Department of Transportation has
also used silica-fume concrete in bridges and piers, and pre- 6.14Shotcrete
cast silica-fume concrete sea wall elements have been placed Shotcrete containing silica fume is being placed using
along the oceanfront in New Jersey. Precast floating dock both the wet and dry processes to reduce rebound, to increase
modules made with fiber-reinforced silica-fume concrete application thickness per pass, improve resistance to wash-
and having a mass as great as 6500 lb (3.0 Mg) have been out in marine construction or wet areas, and to improve prop-
made and used in Scituate, Massachusetts (Blaha 1987). erties of the hardened shotcrete.
A marine terminal for the New York Department of Sani- The first major placement in the United States was a wet-
tation was rehabilitated in 1986. This project included the process trial conducted by the Bureau of Mines at its Lake
encapsulation of piles and pile caps underwater by tremie, Lynn test facility in Pennsylvania. There, shotcrete contain-
overlaying of a bridge to the marine structure, and the con- ing steel fibers and silica fume was used to stabilize a mine
struction of new piles and bridge beam supports using silica- head wall (Krantz 1984; Opsahl 1983). On the Bad Creek
fume concrete. The compressive strength of the concrete av- Project in South Carolina, the Duke Power Company has
eraged over 11,000 psi (76 MPa) at 56 days and the rapid used silica-fume steel-fiber-reinforced concrete during con-
chloride permeability measurements averaged less than struction of an underground power plant and associ-
200 coulombs. ated tunnels.
The use of silica fume in dry-process shotcrete has been
6.13Overlays and pavements largely developed in western Canada. Bagged dry shotcrete
Several state transportation agencies have tested and ap- materials are being used for a variety of applications. For the
proved silica-fume concrete for use as a bridge deck overlay Pier B-C rehabilitation project in Vancouver, silica-fume
material. In this type of application, the silica-fume concrete shotcrete was used to repair piles, pile caps, and sea walls.
is used as an alternative to latex-modified concrete or low- Other applications have been the Canadian National Rail-
slump concrete. Objectives for using silica-fume concrete roads use to stabilize a rock cut, Fraser Canyon, British Co-
include retarding access of chlorides to the deck reinforcing lumbia; Westin Mine's use of silica-fume steel-fiber-rein-
steel, achieving a more abrasion-resistant surface, develop- forced shotcrete to support underground openings in new
ing good bond strength to the base, and increasing both early mine development in British Columbia; and the Canadian
and ultimate strength (Luther 1988). Pacific Railroads use of silica-fume steel-fiber-reinforced
The first bridge deck overlay using silica fume was placed shotcrete for ground support in a 10-mi (16.1-km) long tun-
in the United States by the Ohio Department of Transporta- nel at Rodgers Pass, British Columbia (Morgan 1988b).
tion in October 1984 (Bunke 1988). Over 100 silica-fume
bridge deck overlays have been placed, including in Ala- 6.15Underwater concrete
bama, Kentucky, Illinois, Ohio, Maine, Michigan, New Underwater silica-fume concrete placements were made
York, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wisconsin (Luther 1988; in 1988 for Corps of Engineers rehabilitation work on the
Ozyildirim 1988). Dashields Lock and Dam on the Ohio River. The project re-
The wearing surface of the truck scale weighing platform quired approximately 3500 yd3 (2700 m3) of silica-fume
at the Aalborg Portland Cement plant in Aalborg, Denmark concrete. Then, later in 1988, underwater silica-fume con-
was constructed with silica-fume concrete. This concrete has crete was placed during rehabilitation work on the Point
Marion Lock and Dam No. 8 on the Monongahela River in 7.4Aggregate

West Virginia. Silica fume was added to these concretes to in- For proportioning concrete with increased durability or re-
crease the cohesiveness to prevent washing out the cement duced permeability, the recommendations regarding coarse
during the underwater placements. aggregate contained in ACI 211.1 are valid. For high-
strength concrete, the recommendations for coarse aggregate
6.16Waste isolation content in Table 3.1 of ACI 363R should be followed.
Research suggests that silica-fume concrete is a potential
sealing material for use in waste isolation (Kumar, Komar- 7.5Chemical admixtures
nene, and Roy 1987), and experimental precast silica-fume Information contained in ACI 211.1 regarding chemical
concrete waste isolation chambers have been made in Europe. admixtures is generally valid for silica-fume concrete for re-
Silica-fume concrete was used in a chemical storage tank in duced permeability or improved durability applications. In-
Columbus, Ohio. formation contained in ACI 363R regarding chemical
In 1986, forty-seven large concrete dry storage canisters admixtures is valid for high-strength concrete containing sil-
were cast by Ontario Hydro under contract to Atomic Energy ica fume.
of Canada Limited. These self-shielding canisters were used
to store all of the irradiated fuel bundles from the shutdown 7.6Proportioning
Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station (Lin 1988). Ten of
The committee is not aware of a published step-by-step
these canisters were cast at a water-to-cementitious materials
procedure for proportioning silica-fume concrete. The best
ratio of 0.40 using 11.5 percent by mass silica-fume replace-
approach is to start with mixture proportions that have been
ment of the low-heat portland cement. These concretes were
used successfully on other projects with similar require-
air-entrained and contained HRWRA. The average 28-day
ments. Given this starting point, trial mixtures should be
compressive strength was 7500 psi (52 MPa).
made in the laboratory and under field conditions to verify
performance with project materials. Examples of silica-fume
CHAPTER 7PROPORTIONING SILICA-FUME
concrete mixture proportions are shown in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
CONCRETE
CHAPTER 8SPECIFICATIONS
7.1General
Most silica-fume concrete is used for enhancement of con-
crete properties. In such applications, silica fume is usually 8.1General
used to provide concrete with very high strength or very low Specifying concrete that will contain silica fume as a poz-
permeability or both. To achieve the desired properties of the zolanic admixture requires attention to detail. The quality of
concrete, significant modifications of the proportioning meth- the silica fume and the other admixtures, cements, and ag-
ods outlined in ACI 211.1 are required when silica fume is gregates should be closely monitored and controlled, but,
used. due to some of the problems noted with the placement of sil-
ica-fume concretes, additional care must be taken when
7.2Cement and silica-fume content specifying this concrete and the conditions under which it
Mixture proportions for high-strength concrete typically will be placed. Specifying silica-fume concrete for long-
contain 600 to 950 lb/yd3 (355 to 565 kg/m3) of cement plus 5 term performance of the structure is no more difficult than
to 15 percent silica fume by mass of cement. These concretes selecting or specifying any other high-performance concrete.
may have a water-to-cementitious materials ratio as low as
0.20. Concretes for increased durability and reduced perme- 8.2Specifying silica fume
ability in parking structures and bridge decks typically have 8.2.1 Properties of silica fumeAt this time there are no
cement contents from 546 to 658 lb/yd3 (324 to 390 kg/m3) universally accepted requirements for specifying silica fume
with water-to-cementitious materials ratio of 0.35 to 0.45. for use in concrete. Generally, standards for silica fume in
These concretes typically contain 3.5 to 10.0 percent silica concrete have been developed for project requirements
fume by mass of cement, as an addition. Fly ash or blast-fur- based primarily on recommendations from the suppliers. A
nace slag may also be included in these concretes. RILEM report (RILEM Technical Committee 73-SBC
1988) states that, to assure quality mineral additions* for use
7.3Water content in concrete it is necessary to test the following: ignition loss,
The use of silica fume will typically increase the water de- moisture content, fineness, water requirement for standard
mand of the concrete in proportion to the amount of silica consistency, and activity index. At present, the only stan-
fume added. Therefore, the recommendations for approximate dards available specify silica fume in a manner similar to that
mixing water requirements contained in ACI 211.1 are in-
valid. Typically the entire mass of the silica fume is added to * The term mineral addition is used for inorganic materials, both natural minerals
and industrial by-products, that are used in quantities of five percent or more by mass
the mass of all other cementitious materials present to deter- of the cement. Mineral additions may be blended or interground with portland
cement, or added directly to concrete before or during mixing (RILEM Technical
mine the water-to-cementitious materials ratio. Committee 73-SBC 1988). In ACI, these materials are called admixtures.
Table 7.1Representative silica-fume concrete mixture proportions

Mixture proportions (lb/yd3) Compressive strength
35-day rapid
chloride
HRWRA permea-
Silica Fine Coarse (fluid w/(c + p) Slump, Air, 28 day, 56 day, 90 day, bility,
Mix ID Cement fume Fly ash aggregate aggregate Water oz/yd3) (by mass) in. percent 7 day, psi psi psi psi coulombs
Kinzua1 650 118 0 1194 1637 219 115 0.29 9.75 3.2 9970 13,720 14,970
Pac first2 900 68 100 1050 1802 220 250 0.21 17,980
Mom
840 50 0 1180 1850 227 362 0.26 10 10,270 12,380 13,0107
column3
LAR-
19831
600 90 90 1350 1870 187 96 0.24 10,520
LAR- Un-
641 71 0 1275 1840 247 0.35 3.25 1.5 8000
19841 known
LAR-
600 85 110 1070 1940 228 7-148 0.29 5 2.0 6180 8700
19851
MP14 658 50 0 1155 1625 263 79 0.37 4 6.8 8780 468
4 658 66 0 1155 1625 270 86 0.37 5.25 7.0 9330 471
MP2
4
MP3 658 33 0 1155 1625 257 86 0.37 6.5 8.7 8500 592
Notes:
1) Holland and Gutschow 1987.
2) Randall and Foot 1989.
3) Atcin and Riad 1989.
4) Unpublished data from a Minneapolis parking structure, from Braun Engineering and Testing, Minneapolis, MN.
5) The silica fume was added via a slurry that contained 11 lb of water reducing admixture solids per yd3.
6) 9 lb/yd3 of admixture solids.
7) Compressive strength results at 1 year of 14,150 psi, and at 2 years of 13,660 psi.
8) 7-14 lb/yd3 of admixture solids.
Table 7.1Representative silica-fume concrete mixture proportions (SI units)

Mixture proportions (kg/m3) Compressive strength
35-day rapid
chloride
permea-
Silica Fine Coarse HRWRA w/(c + p) Slump, Air, 7 day, 28 day, 56 day, 90 day, bility,
Mix ID Cement fume Fly ash aggregate aggregate Water (L/m3) (by mass) mm percent MPa MPa MPa MPa coulombs
Kinzua1 386 70 0 708 971 130 6.55 0.29 250 3.2 68.7 94.6 103.2
Pac first2 534 40 59 623 1069 131 9.7 0.21 124.0
Mom 7
498 30 0 700 1098 135 14.0 0.26 255 70.8 85.4 89.7
column3
LAR-
356 53 53 801 1109 111 5.36 0.24 72.5
19831
LAR-
380 42 0 756 1092 147 Unknown 0.35 85 1.5 55.2
19841
LAR-
19851
356 50 65 635 1151 135 4-88 0.29 125 2.0 42.6 60.0
MP14 390 30 0 685 964 156 3.1 0.37 100 6.8 60.5 468
MP24 390 39 0 685 964 160 3.3 0.37 135 7.0 64.3 471
MP34 390 20 0 685 964 152 3.3 0.37 165 8.7 58.6 592
Notes:
1) Holland and Gutschow 1987.
2) Randall and Foot 1989.
3) Atcin and Riad 1989.
4) Unpublished data from a Minneapolis parking structure, from Braun Engineering and Testing, Minneapolis, MN.
5) The silica fume was added via a slurry that contained 6.5 kg/m3 of water reducing admixture solids.
6) 5.3 kg/m3 of admixture solids.
7) Compressive strength results at 1 year of 97.6 MPa and at 2 years of 94.2 MPa.
8) 4-8 kg/m3 of admixture solids.
used for other pozzolanic materials. The standards available minimum cement content of 405 lb/yd3 (240 kg/m3), and a
for specifying silica fume include: maximum water-cement ratio of 0.7 (Isabelle 1987).
8.2.2 Norwegian standardsThe Norwegian standard for 8.2.3 United States standardsUntil recently there have
silica-fume concrete requires the silica fume to have a mini- been no recognized standards in the United States for silica
mum SiO2 content of 85 percent, the concrete to have a fume for use in concrete. The first standards were those
Table 7.2Additional silica-fume concrete mixture proportions (Berke, Pfeifer, and Weil 1988)
Mixture proportions (lbyd3)
28-day
28-day rapid
compres- chloride 300 cycles
Silica fume by sive permea- freeze- 10-month total
mass of cement, Silica Fine Coarse w/c, Slump, Air, strength, bility, thaw, Scale chlorides at 0.5 to 1.0-
Mix ID percent Cement fume aggregate aggregate mass in. percent psi coulombs RDME1 factor2 in. depth (lb/yd3)
1 0 587 0 1194 1819 0.48 6 7.0 5160 3663 105 1 4.9
2 3.75 588 22 1197 1822 0.48 5.5 7.0 5420 3175
3 7.5 585 45 1268 1813 0.48 6.75 9.0 6350 348 100 0
4 15 591 89 1204 1834 0.48 5.75 7.0 7360 198 102 1 0.43
5 0 556 0 1205 1723 0.43 9.75 10.5 5260 2585
6 3.75 593 22 1261 1838 0.43 4 7.4 6550 2210
7 7.5 573 43 1167 1779 0.43 8.25 8.0 7210 213 100 0 0.54
8 7.5 575 43 1246 1782 0.43 9 1.0 6750
9 15 598 91 1295 1853 0.43 7 6.0 8580 98
10 0 571 0 1312 1770 0.38 8.75 8.0 5780 3485 104 1 1.633
11 3.75 585 22 1344 1814 0.38 3.50 8.0 9310 736
12 7.5 591 44 1358 1832 0.38 8.25 7.0 9290 132 104 1 0.41
13 15 599 90 1377 1858 0.38 6 6.0 12,120 75 102 1 0.533
Notes:
1) RDME is the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity.
2) Scale factor ratings: 0 = no scaling, 1 = very slight scaling (no coarse aggregate visible), 2 = slight scaling, 3 = moderate scaling (some coarse aggregate visible).
3) Chloride values measured at 18 months.
Table 7.2Additional silica-fume concrete mixture proportions (SI units) (Berke, Pfeifer, and Weil 1988)
Mixture proportions (kg/m3)
28-day
28-day rapid
compres- chloride 300 cycles
Silica fume by sive permea- freeze- 10-month total
mass of cement, Silica Fine Coarse w/c, Slump, Air, strength, bility, thaw, Scale chlorides at 13 to 25
Mix ID percent Cement fume aggregate aggregate mass mm percent MPa coulombs RDME1 factor2 mm depth (kg/m3)
1 0 348 0 708 1079 0.48 150 7.0 35.6 3663 105 1 2.91
2 3.75 349 13 710 1081 0.48 140 7.0 37.4 3175
3 7.5 347 27 752 1076 0.48 170 9.0 43.8 348 100 0
4 15 351 53 714 1088 0.48 145 7.0 50.7 198 102 1 0.26
5 0 330 0 715 1022 0.43 250 10.5 36.3 2585
6 3.75 352 13 748 1090 0.43 100 7.4 45.2 2210
7 7.5 340 26 692 1055 0.43 210 8.0 49.7 213 100 0 0.32
8 7.5 341 26 739 1057 0.43 230 1.0 46.5
9 15 355 54 768 1099 0.43 180 6.0 59.2 98
10 0 339 0 778 1050 0.38 220 8.0 39.9 3485 104 1 0.973
11 3.75 347 13 797 1076 0.38 90 8.0 64.2 736
12 7.5 351 26 806 1087 0.38 210 7.0 64.1 132 104 1 0.24
13 15 355 53 817 1102 0.38 150 6.0 83.6 75 102 1 0.313
Notes:
1) RDME is the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity.
2) Scale factor ratings: 0 = no scaling, 1 = very slight scaling (no coarse aggregate visible), 2 = slight scaling, 3 = moderate scaling (some coarse aggregate visible).
3) Chloride values measured at 18 months.
developed for specific projects. Typically, these standards by the ASTM subcommittee and silica fume is covered in a sep-
called for the use of silica fume which met a certain minimum arate standard. The requirements established by this standard
number of physical parameters, SiO2 content, loss on ignition, are shown in Table 8.3.
and surface area. A typical set of project requirements is shown 8.2.4 Canadian standardsThe Canadian standard issued in
in Table 8.1. 1986 (Canadian Standards Association 1986) is a much more
AASHTO has published the first standard in the United coordinated standard for use of silica fume in concrete. This
States for silica fume. The requirements established by this stan- standard covers natural pozzolans (N), low calcium fly-ash (F),
dard are shown in Table 8.2. high calcium fly-ash (C), ground granulated blast-furnace slag
In 1993 ASTM Committee C-9 developed a standard for sil- (G), and silica fume (U) in a common standard (Isabelle 1987;
ica fume, C 1240. The original thought was that silica fume RILEM Technical Committee 73-SBC 1988). Extracts from
would become a part of ASTM C 618. This idea was rejected this standard are included in Table 8.4.
Table 8.1Silica fume specification established for Los

Angeles River Channel Rehabilitation project (Corps of Table 8.3ASTM standard for silica fume (the
Engineers 1983) following requirements are taken verbatim from ASTM
C 1240-93)
Requirements and test methods
Chemical requirements
SiO2, minimum of 85 percent, ASTM C 311, Section 13
Silicon dioxide (SiO2), minimum 85.0 percent
Loss on ignition, maximum of 6.0 percent, ASTM C 311
Moisture content, maximum 3.0 percent
Moisture content, maximum of 3.0 percent, ASTM C 311, Sections 9 and
10 Loss on ignition, maximum 6.0 percent
Surface area, minimum of 10,000 m2/kg, ASTM C 204 (at a bed porosity Optional chemical requirement*
of 0.50) Available alkalies, as Na2O, maximum 1.50 percent
* Applicable only when specifically required by the purchaser.

Applicable for silica fume to be used in concrete containing reactive aggregate
Table 8.2AASHTO standard for silica fume (the with cement required to meet a limitation on alkali content.
following requirements are taken verbatim from Phsyical requirements
AASHTO M 307-90) Oversize:
Amount retained on 45 m (No 325) sieve, maximum of 10 percent*
Chemical requirements
Accelerated pozzolanic activity index:
Silicon dioxide (SiO2), minimum 85 percent
With portland cement at 7 days, minimum 85 percent of control
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), maximum 3.0 percent Uniformity requirements:
Loss on ignition, maximum 7.0 percent The density and oversize of individual samples shall not vary from the
Optional chemical requirements average established by the ten preceding tests or by all preceding tests if
Moisture content of dry silica fume, maximum 3.0 percent the number is less than ten, by more than:
Available alkalies, as Na2O, maximum 1.5 percent Density, maximum variation from average, 5 percent
Note: Applicable only when specifically required for mineral admixture to Oversize, percent retained on 45 m (No. 325) sieve, maximum of 5 per-
be used in concrete containing reactive aggregate and cement to meet a centage points from average
limitation on content of alkalies. * Care should be taken to avoid retaining agglomerations of extremely fine mate-
rial.
Physical requirements Accelerated pozzolanic activity index is not to be considered a measure of the
Fineness: Amount retained when wet sieved on No. 500 sieve, 0 percent
compressive strength of concrete containing the silica fume. This is a measure of the
Note: There is no fineness determination procedure for microsilica with reactivity of a given silica fume with a given cement and may vary with the source of
established performance history. Microsilica is expected to meet this both the silica fume and the cement.
requirement; however, negligible amounts of impurities (up to 0.5 percent) Optional physical requirements*
are permitted under this requirement.
Increase over control of drying shrinkage of mortar bars at 28 days, maxi-
Pozzolanic activity index: With portland cement, determine at 7 and 28 mum of 0.10 percent
days, minimum 100 percent of control
Soundness: Autoclave expansion or contraction, maximum of 0.8 percent Specific surface area, 15-30 m2/g
Uniformity requirements: The specific gravity and fineness of individual Uniformity requirements:
samples from a given source shall not vary from the average established by When air-entraining concrete is specified, the quantity of air-entraining
the ten preceding tests, or by all preceding tests if the number is less than agent required to produce air content of 18 volume percent of mortar shall
ten, by more than 5 percent not vary from the average established by the ten preceding tests or by all
Optional physical requirements preceding tests if less than ten, by more than 20 percent
Increase of drying shrinkage of mortar bars at 28 days, maximum of 0.03 Reactivity with cement alkalies:
percent Reduction of mortar expansion at 14 days, minimum of 80 percent
Uniformity requirements: In addition, when air-entrained concrete is speci-
fied, the quantity of air-entraining admixture required to produce an air Sulfate resistance expansion
content volume of 18 percent of the mortar shall not vary by the average (moderate resistance) 6 months, maximum of 0.10 percent
established by the ten preceding tests, or by all preceding tests if less than (high resistance) 6 months, maximum of 0.05 percent
ten, by more than 20 percent (very high resistance) 1 year, maximum of 0.05 percent
Reactivity with cement alkalies: Reduction of mortar expansion at 14 days, * Will be made only at request of purchaser.
minimum of 80 percent The indicated tests for reactivity with cement alkalies shall not be requested
Note: The indicated tests for reactivity with cement alkalies should not be unless the material is to be used with an aggregate that is regarded as deleteriously
requested unless the material is to be used with an aggregate that is reactive with alkalies in hydraulic cement. The test for reduction of mortar expansion
regarded as deleteriously reactive with alkalies in cement. The test for may be made using any high-alkali cement in accordance with ASTM C 311, if the
reduction of mortar expansion may be made using any high-alkali cement cement to be used in the work is not known or is not available at the time of the test.
in accordance with ASTM C 311, if the portland cement to be used in the The test for mortar expansion should be performed by each of the high-alkali cements
mix is not known or not available at the time of the test. to be used in the work.
Sulfate expansion, 14 days, maximum of 0.045 percent
Only one limit shall be specified.
8.3Specifying silica-fume admixtures

As described in Chapter 1, silica fume is commercially avail- To prevent minor variations in fresh or hardened concrete
able in three forms: a solid (or powdered), a densified solid, and performance that may result from changes in silica-fume
in a slurry. Each of these forms may or may not be marketed admixture source or product form, Holland (1989) has
in conjunction with chemical admixtures. Typically, specifi- recommended that changing products during a project be
cations have tended to treat these products as individual avoided unless appropriate testing has been done to verify
components. The silica fume has been required to meet re- mixture proportions and concrete performance using the al-
quirements as outlined above and the chemical admixtures, ternate material.
if present, have been required to meet the requirements of
ASTM C 494. Until there is activity directed toward prepar- 8.4Specifying silica-fume concrete
ing a standard specification for silica-fume admixtures, this Silica-fume concrete has usually been specified as a sepa-
separate approach seems to be prudent. rate section within Division 3 of a project specification
Table 8.4Requirements for silica fume from the Project specifications must be clear regarding the quanti-
Canadian Standard for Supplementary Cementing ty of silica fume that is being specified. Because of the va-
Materials (Canadian Standards Association 1986) riety of forms of silica-fume admixtures that are available,
Chemical requirements there must not be any question whether the quantity refers
Silicon dioxide (SiO2), minimum 85 percent to silica fume or an admixture containing silica fume.
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), maximum 1.0 percent Project specifications for silica-fume concrete may re-
This limit may be exceeded, provided that the supplementary cementing quire extra mixing of the concrete to assure uniform disper-
material when tested in combination with the particular portland cement
with which it is to be used, exhibits expansion not in excess of 0.020 persion of the silica fume. If there is a question of whether
cent at 14 days when tested in accordance with Clause 7.5.5 of CAN3-A5. mixing is adequate, mixer uniformity testing as outlined in
In the test mixture, replace a mass of portland cement by an equal mass of
supplementary cementing material in the amount of 20 percent, generally, ASTM C 94 should be specified.
or for Type U in the amount of 10 percent, or the anticipated maximum 8.4.2 Placing and consolidatingPlacing and consoli-
field replacement percentage, whichever shall be greater.
Loss on ignition, maximum 6.0 percent
dating silica-fume concrete can be accomplished with any
Optional chemical requirements of the currently available techniques as described in ACI
Moisture content, maximum of 3 percent 304R. Effective consolidation of silica-fume concrete is
Physical requirements critical to performance and requires special attention (see
Accelerated pozzolanic activity index, with portland cement, at 7 days, ACI 309R). Even at slump as high as 8 to 10 in. (200 to 250
minimum 85 percent of control.
Fineness, maximum of 10 percent retained on 45 m (No. 325) sieve mm), excessive air has been entrapped in the concrete. This
Soundness: Autoclave expansion or contraction, maximum 0.2 percent entrapment is a result of the cohesive nature of the silica-
Uniformity requirements: fume concrete and can be removed only by effective vibra-
a) Relative density: maximum 5 percent variation from average
b) Fineness, maximum 5 percent variation from average tion (Holland 1988).
Optional physical requirements 8.4.3 FinishingProcedures for finishing silica-fume
Increase of drying shrinkage, maximum 0.03 percent of control concrete are similar to those used for finishing other con-
Uniformity of addition rate of an air entraining agent, maximum 20 percent
variation from average crete. However, because silica fume concrete does not
Reactivity with cement alkalies, minimum 80 percent reduction. bleed, the timing of finishing operations will usually have
to be adjusted. Silica-fume concrete is also highly suscep-
following the format established by the Construction Spec- tible to plastic shrinkage cracking. All of these factors need
to be taken into account in the finishing portion of the
ifications Institute. The section of the project specification
project specifications. Additional information on finishing
on silica-fume concrete usually contains requirements for
and preventing plastic shrinkage cracking may be found
the silica fume itself, requirements for the silica-fume con-
in Chapter 9.
crete, and any procedural requirements that differ from 8.4.4 Curing and protectingProcedures for curing and
those for concrete not containing silica fume. Sections protecting silica-fume concrete are similar to those used for
8.4.1 through 8.4.5 of this Guide address procedural topics other concretes. However, because of the potential for plas-
that should be covered in the project specifications for sili- tic shrinkage cracking, it is more critical that protective
ca-fume concrete. measures be taken during placement and that curing proce-
8.4.1 Measuring, batching, and mixingConcrete con- dures begin immediately after the finishing process is com-
taining silica fume has been batched in all of the accept- pleted (see ACI 308). Project specifications must
able methods currently available for production of emphasize this point. Additional information on curing sil-
concretes. In some cases, the dry powder has been added ica-fume concrete may be found in Chapter 9. Winter pro-
to the mixer after mixing the other materials. In other cas- tection procedures for silica-fume concrete do not differ
es, the dry powder has been premixed with portland ce- from those used for any other concrete (see ACI 306R).
ment prior to batching. Generally, the slurried admixtures 8.4.5 Preconstruction testingPreconstruction testing
have been added at the time and manner in which other of silica fume, cements, aggregates, and admixtures is es-
liquid admixtures have been added. It should be noted that sential to assure that the desired properties can be obtained
the volume of silica-fume slurry used per unit volume of with the most economical concrete mixtures. Mixture pro-
portions should be developed to obtain optimum cement
concrete is generally much greater than other liquid ad-
and silica fume contents. Testing should include slump, air
mixtures. For example, a typical water-reducing admix-
content, compressive strength, resistance to abrasion, chlo-
ture may require use of 12 fl oz/yd3 (645 mL/m3), a
ride permeability, resistance to freezing and thawing, and
typical high-range water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) scaling, as appropriate to meet project requirements.
may require use of 135 fl oz/yd3 (5.2 L/m3), whereas a sil- On many projects preconstruction testing may include a
ica-fume slurry may require use of 11 gal/yd3 (55 L/m3) demonstration of placing, finishing, and curing techniques
(Holland 1988). Automated dispensing equipment is com- during a trial placement. Such testing should be included in
monly used for efficient handling of large volumes of sil- the project specifications and the contractor should be
ica-fume slurry. All dispensing equipment for silica fume warned that placing silica-fume concrete in the actual
should be required to meet the accuracy requirements of structure will not be allowed until successful completion of
ACI 304R and ASTM C 94. these trial placements.
CHAPTER 9WORKING WITH SILICA FUME IN produced silica fume during unloading and handling within
FIELD CONCRETE a concrete plant. Use of rubber hoses rather than steel pipe
has been shown to reduce unloading times for as-produced
9.1Transporting and handling silica fume and silica- and compacted bulk silica fume.
fume admixture products As silica-fume concrete mixtures are usually proportioned
Handling procedures for silica-fume materials depend by mass of cement (typically 5 to 20 percent), the compacted
upon the form of the product being used, dry or slurry. With- silica-fume silo can be smaller than the concrete producer's
in these two general product forms, silica fume can be pro- normal cement silo. However, the silo should be at least
vided as plain silica fume (without chemical admixtures) 3000 ft3 (85 m3) in capacity so it holds at least two full truck-
and as a silica-fume product containing high-range water- loads [50 tons (45.4 Mg) of compacted fume] so that the
reducing admixtures (HRWRA) and, possibly, other chemi- schedule of silica-fume deliveries is not critical to the
cal admixtures. Since silica-fume products are available in concrete volume requirements for large placements. Stor-
dry bulk, dry super sack, dry paper sack, liquid bulk, and age silos for undensified silica fume are much larger, as the
liquid drums, the material handling systems and the equip- bulk densities are one third to one half that of compacted sil-
ment used in transportation, discharge, storage, batching, ica fume.
and mixing of the silica fume depend upon the specific prod- The dry compacted form can also be packaged in large 70-
uct form. ft3 (2-m3) polypropylene bags or super sacks holding ap-
Transportation of silica fume depends on the product proximately 1 ton (900 kg) of compacted silica fume. A 40-
form and consequently the economics of transportation and ft (12-m) truck trailer can haul approximately 22 tons (20
material handling are determined by the products weight Mg) when using these super sacks. Super sacks are usually
(mass), density, available handling equipment, and ap- packaged on skids for easy removal from closed trailers.
plicable regulations. These bags are manufactured with slings or sleeves for lift-
9.1.1 Dry silica fumeDry silica-fume products may be ing purposes. The bags are either one use, where the mate-
further categorized into two forms, as-produced silica fume rial is discharged by piercing the bottom with a bag breaker
with a typical bulk loose density of 8 to 27 lb/ft3 (130 to 430 mounted in the receiving hopper, or reusable incorporating a
kg/m3) and compacted silica fume with a typical bulk loose pouring spout in the bottom of the sack. Super sacks can be
density of 30 to 45 lb/ft3 (480 to 720 kg/m3). emptied into a receiving hopper and transferred pneumati-
Silica fume in the as-produced form tends to be dusty, cally or by bucket elevator into bulk storage silos. These
prone to lumping, and difficult to move in cement handling polypropylene sacks can also be custom sized and filled,
equipment. Bulk silica fume in the as-produced form is being with any mass [typically 1/2 to 1 ton (500 to 900 kg)], to be
used in some parts of the United States and Canada. consistent with a convenient multiple of the silica fume con-
Silica fume in the compacted form is virtually dustless, tent in a concrete mixture and thus be field batched directly
free of lumps, and flows readily. In bulk form it can be trans- into a truck mixer.
ported in bulk cement tankers (both truck or rail), and stored Dry silica fume (both as-produced and compacted) is also
in ordinary cement silos. The bulk product is moved into available in small paper bags [50 or 55 lb (22.7 or 24.9 kg)],
storage silos by pneumatic lines or bucket elevators. plain or with dry chemical admixtures. They are normally
In cement tankers, bulk compacted silica fume load size is shipped on shrink wrapped pallets, and depending on the
12 to 17 tons (10.9 to 15.4 Mg) for a 1000-ft3 (28.3-m3) tank density of the product, 18 to 22 tons (16.3 to 20.0 Mg) of ma-
truck and 18 to 25 tons (16.3 to 22.7 Mg) for a 1400-ft3 terial can be shipped on a standard truck trailer. The advan-
(39.4-m3) tank truck. A 100-ton (90.7-Mg) cement rail car tage of this product form is that it lends itself to relatively
can typically hold 60 to 80 (54.4 to 72.6 Mg) tons of com- small projects or remote locations. The product form that
pacted material. The bulk load size for as-produced fume is contains HRWRA may eliminate the need to handle the HR-
significantly less, at 7 to 10 tons (6.4 to 9.1 Mg) for a 1400- WRA separately, thus simplifying batching and mixing of
ft3 (39.4-m3) tanker because of decreased density and fluff- silica-fume concrete for applicable field projects.
ing. Skrastins and Zoldners (1983) reported that a ready- 9.1.2 Slurried silica fumeSeveral manufacturers supply
mixed concrete company in Canada had built a special van silica-fume-water slurries. This is done to enable the silica
truck for transporting as-produced silica fume in load sizes fume to be stored and dispensed in liquid form. Trans-
of 20 tons (18 Mg). portation costs are reduced relative to those of as-produced
Loading of compacted silica fume is accomplished with an silica fume because over twice as much silica fume can be
air slide or gravity feed and normally requires 15 to 20 min shipped in a given container volume. However, slurry trans-
to transfer 25 tons (22.7 Mg) to a bulk tank truck. As-pro- portation cost is typically higher than that of compacted sili-
duced silica fume is blown pneumatically into bulk tank ca fume due to the requirements of shipping the water
trucks, and typically takes 3 to 5 hours of loading time. portion of the slurry. Transportation costs for slurry may be
When the bulk tank truck arrives at the concrete plant, the reduced if a portion of the journey is via barge or tanker.
silica fume is pneumatically discharged into the input pipe of There are many different kinds of slurried silica-fume
the storage silo. Discharge time varies typically from 90 min products, and each may have specific handling characteris-
to 4 hr for compacted silica fume and 3 to 6 hr for as-pro- tics. The so-called plain slurry products are about 50 percent
duced fume. Sonic horns have been used to help move as- silica fume by mass and are stored for regional distribution
in steel tanks that are frost protected in regions where cold dling procedures will depend upon whether the silica
temperatures occur. Some tanks are equipped with re- fume is provided in bulk or in bags.
circulation pumps or mechanical paddle agitators to keep 9.2.2 Slurried silica fumeAt the concrete production
the material homogenized and liquefied. Often only inter- plant, the slurry products are typically stored in steel or fi-
mittent agitation or recirculation is needed, and some- berglass 2000 to 6000-gal (7500 to 22,700-L) tanks.
times compressed air is used briefly to disperse the These tanks usually have recirculation or mechanical ag-
material. itation capability or both that are used intermittently as re-
The plain slurry material and formulated (containing quired to liquefy the material for dispensing. Typically,
chemical admixtures) slurry products are pumped, or the slurry is pumped from the storage tank through a flow
moved by gravity, into 4000-gal (15,100-L) tanker trucks meter and a hose into the mixer or into the water weigh
or 20,000-gal (75,700 L) rail tanker cars for transportation hopper. Some systems dispense the slurry by mass, but
to permanent or mobile dispensers located at concrete volumetric dispensers are more commonly used.
production plants. If the weather conditions warrant, the Slurry silica-fume products have been mixed success-
tankers should be insulated. fully in various kinds of mixers, including truck mixers,
Formulated slurry products, with water-reducing ad- central mixers (both drum and pan mixers), mortar mix-
mixtures, are stored and dispensed in essentially the same ers, and auger mixers. In most cases the slurry products
manner as the plain slurry products, although the pump are added to the mixer either before or during charging of
and dispensing line sizes may be somewhat larger, and the the other concrete ingredients, although more rarely it
recirculation and agitation periods may vary from those may be the last ingredient added to the concrete.
used for plain slurry. 9.2.3 Mixing silica-fume concreteTo produce consis-
Slurry products are also shipped in 50 or 55-gal (190 or tent silica-fume concrete, it is important that the mixing
208-L) steel drums or 5-gal (19-L) pails. Sometimes, par- equipment is in good condition. Mixing time may need to
ticularly for small jobs or trial batch work, drums are be increased and the volume of concrete mixed in truck
filled to a specified mass, and the entire contents of the mixers in particular may need to be decreased somewhat
drum are added to a specified concrete volume. The prod- to achieve good concrete uniformity when using high dos-
uct is usually liquefied via mechanical agitation prior to ages of silica fume with low water content concrete. The
being used in this manner, and it can be transported to amount of increased mixing is generally higher for densi-
the mixer through a small pump. fied silica fume to achieve proper dispersion.
Slurried silica fume should be protected against freez-
ing during transportation or storage. Should a particular 9.3Transporting
slurry freeze, the supplier should be consulted to deter- Silica-fume concrete has been successfully transported
mine what steps should be taken. and placed using most commonly available concrete
equipment and methods as described in ACI 304R. There
9.2Producing concrete has typically been no requirement to modify transporta-
9.2.1 Dry silica fumeProducing silica-fume concrete tion and placing equipment or procedures.
with bulk dry compacted material is very similar to pro-
ducing ordinary concrete with other bulk mineral admix- 9.4Placing
tures such as fly ash or slag. The bulk compacted material Although silica-fume concrete offers significant advan-
is handled by normal cement storage and internal convey- tages for steel reinforcement corrosion protection, high
ing and weighing equipment along with ordinary admix- strength, abrasion resistance, and chemical resistance, it
ture dispensing, concrete batching, and mixing is absolutely essential to adhere to good concrete place-
equipment. Dry silica-fume weigh batching is usually ac- ment practices as outlined in ACI 304R to achieve this
complished by discharging into the cement weigh hopper, high level of concrete performance. Before placing silica-
on top of the cement after the cement weighing is com- fume concrete, the contractor must be prepared. Adequate
pleted. If cumulative weighing is used, care should be tak- manpower, back-up equipment (vibrators, vibratory
en to assure that the cement is not overweighed as this will screeds, power sprayers) and the proper curing materials
reduce the amount of silica fume that will be added. Sili- should all be on hand. With silica-fume concrete, general-
ca-fume concrete almost always requires a HRWRA, thus ly the placing, finishing, and curing procedures must all
standard liquid HRWRA dispensing systems are used, be performed in a continuous operation.
along with existing normal admixture dispensing systems Silica-fume concrete should be placed at the highest
for ordinary water reducers and air-entraining admixtures. practical slump [6 to 9 in. (150 to 225 mm)]. It may also
Silica-fume concrete using dry compacted silica fume has be advisable to redose with additional HRWRA on site to
been successfully prepared in both dry batch and central- maintain the high placement slump. Silica-fume concrete
mixing concrete plants. Bags and super sacks are typically is very cohesive and resists segregation at high slumps.
introduced to the batch at the most appropriate time as de- Even though silica-fume concrete flows well, vibration is
termined by trial batches. needed for good consolidation even at high slumps. Use
Producing concrete using as-produced dry silica fume of a vibratory screed is recommended when placing
has been done. The exact techniques and materials han- slabs and concrete overlays.
9.5Finishing should not be used to apply excess water to the concrete's

Addition of silica fume to concrete will increase cohesive- surface for finishing purposes. Only a fine coating or sheen
ness and reduce bleeding thereby altering the finishability should be applied with the misting device. Evaporation re-
and the finishing operations required. As the amount of silica tarders will also aid finishing, retain moisture in the con-
fume in the concrete increases, so will the effect of the silica crete, and prevent plastic shrinkage cracking. Another
fume on finishing. The absence of bleed water and the stick- method of preventing plastic shrinkage cracking is the im-
iness of concrete with high silica fume dosages (10 to 20 per- mediate covering of the concrete surface after screeding and
cent) makes screeding and troweling slab surfaces more between finishing operations.
difficult than ordinary concrete. Slab placements in hot climates often include the use of re-
The best way to establish exact finishing methods for any tarders to increase working time. Excessive use of retarders
particular project (especially for large scale flatwork) is to will lead to the formation of a sponge-like dry crust on the
stage small trial placements prior to the start of the actual concrete surface, making finishing difficult. This crust may
work. These trials can be repeated until the best methods for also be highly susceptible to plastic shrinkage cracking. This
a given project and its specified mixture proportions are problem can be prevented by the reduction or elimination of
identified. Trial placements also prove placement equip- retarders or by using the same protective measures used
ment and provide valuable experience for the placing and against plastic shrinkage cracking.
finishing crews, as the timing and readiness of the finishing For slabs requiring a steel-trowel finish, after screeding
crew is important. and bull floating, apply an evaporation retarder, continu-
A general approach to finishing silica-fume concrete is to ously water mist the surface, or cover with plastic sheeting
under finish as opposed to over finishing the concrete until the slab is firm enough to support finishers and finish-
surface (Holland 1987b). Although it may not always be ing equipment.
esthetically pleasing, the minimum required finish is the
best approach since it provides the most resistance to ag- 9.6Curing
gressive freezing and thawing and aggressive chemical To obtain the full benefits of silica-fume concrete, proper
environments. curing procedures must be followed. Because of the typ-
Proper vibration will also help finishing by bringing fines ically low water content and low water-to-cementitious ma-
to the surface of the slab. The use of a vibratory screed on terial ratio, silica-fume concrete requires additional attention
slabs and concrete overlays is recommended. to curing as compared to ordinary concrete. This extra em-
9.5.1 Plastic shrinkage crackingBecause of the absence phasis on curing helps to retain the water needed for devel-
of bleed water, plastic shrinkage cracking is a concern asso- opment of the desired properties of the concrete.
ciated with silica-fume concrete, although it can occur in any Chlorinated-rubber based curing compounds meeting the
type of concrete (see also Section 4.6). If proper procedures requirements of ASTM C 309 have proved to be very effec-
are followed, plastic shrinkage cracking can be completely tive for silica-fume concrete. When applying this curing
eliminated from silica-fume concrete. Plastic shrinkage compound to slabs or other large areas, a power sprayer is
cracking can occur at any time between initial finishing op- recommended for thorough coverage and faster application.
erations (leveling and screeding) and the time of final setting Curing agents should be applied immediately after finishing
and hardening of the concrete. to protect against plastic shrinkage cracking.
Contractors have frequently been urged by suppliers of sil- An alternate curing method for silica-fume concrete slabs
ica fume or required by project specifications to use the chart is to cover them with wet burlap and plastic sheeting. How-
presented as Fig. 2.1.5 in ACI 305R or as Fig. 1 in ACI 308 ever, if wet curing is used, the concrete must be protected
that allows estimates to be made regarding the rate of evap- against plastic shrinkage since there is usually a time delay
oration from fresh concrete. For instances in which the chart associated with placing burlap that could allow cracking.
predicts that plastic shrinkage cracking is likely, contractors Protect against plastic shrinkage using one of the techniques
have been referred to the preventative steps included in ACI mentioned earlier such as fog misting or using an evapora-
305R and 308. Cohen, Olek, and Dolch (1990) have suggest- tion retarder until the concrete has enough strength to sup-
ed that the potential for plastic shrinkage cracking of silica- port the placement of the wet burlap and plastic. Leave the
fume concrete is greater than that predicted by the ACI chart. burlap and plastic in place and keep the concrete wet for at
The potential for such cracking increases with increasing least three days and preferably for five to seven days. Ex-
dosages of silica fume because of the further reductions in posed surfaces should be coated with a curing compound or,
the rate of bleeding. The Virginia Department of Trans- if feasible, covered with wet burlap and plastic after
portation (1991) requires that measures to reduce moisture form removal.
loss be taken when the predicted rate of evaporation of sur- Carefully following these curing procedures will help to
face moisture from silica-fume concrete exceeds 0.05 assure the realization of all of the intended and specified ben-
lb/ft2/hr (0.5 kg/m2/hr) during the placement. efits of silica-fume concrete.
The use of a compressed-air/water misting device can help
prevent moisture from evaporating from the concrete surface 9.7Accelerated curing
and help prevent plastic shrinkage cracking. A misting There is synergy between silica-fume concrete and steam
device will also aid bull floating and finishing; however, it or heat accelerated curing. Although there are no published
data, manufacturers of precast silica-fume concrete products (Cohen and Bentur 1988). The pastes experienced reduc-
have achieved impressive gains in early age compressive tions in strength, loss of mass, and expansion. These re-
strength. In many cases, the economics of fuel cost savings com- sults were confirmed on tests with silica-fume concrete
pared to the cost of the silica-fume admixture were favorable. (Goldman 1987).
In the case of heat-cured concrete, ACI 517.2R discusses
the variables which must be considered when planning the 10.3Drying shrinkage and creep
heat curing cycle. In general, a presteaming period approxi- The literature dealing with the subjects of shrinkage and
mately equivalent to the period of initial setting of the con- creep is limited and inconclusive. Their relationship needs to
crete will produce satisfactory results. be established. The influence of high-range water-reducing
Calcium chloride and non-chloride accelerators have been admixtures (HRWRA) seems to generate some confusion in
used with silica-fume concrete in the field. Feedback from the analysis of shrinkage data. Use of HRWRA is important
those projects suggests that accelerating admixtures have the since it allows a reduction in the volume of the binder phase
same effects upon silica-fume concrete as they have upon fraction. However, the use of HRWRA can lead to increased
concrete without silica fume. shrinkage, thus offsetting some or all of the advantages
gained by the reduced water content (Sellevold and Nilsen
CHAPTER 10RESEARCH NEEDS 1987). In addition to shrinkage, creep and stress-relaxation
seem to play major roles in the crack sensitivity of silica-
The following topics have been identified as needing fur- fume concrete. Thus data on shrinkage alone are of limited
ther research, either to allow for more advanced applications value in connection with crack sensitivity (Sellevold and
or to increase the effectiveness of and confidence in cur- Nilsen 1987).
rent applications.
10.4Steel corrosion
10.1Frost resistance Corrosion of steel reinforcement is one of the most critical
As discussed in Chapter 5, studies of the resistance of sil- durability problems for concrete exposed to chloride ions.
ica-fume concrete to freezing and thawing have produced Laboratory tests of silica-fume concretes show that they
conflicting results. Some researchers have found the con- have low chloride permeability and high electrical resistivity
crete to be frost resistant without entrained air; others have (Chapter 5). Both of these are important in protecting the
found that even with entrained air the concrete is not durable. embedded reinforcement from depassivation and the result-
No doubt much of the controversy stems from differences in ing acceleration in the rate of corrosion. However, they are
test conditions: mixture proportions, curing, degree of satu- only indications of how the concrete will perform in service.
ration of the specimens, choice of test method. There is also Chloride permeability analysis by both the rapid chloride ion
concern that the general standard test methods (ASTM C permeability and ponding tests needs to be conducted and
666) applied to normal concrete may not be applicable to sil- compared. The applicability and usefulness of the ASTM
ica-fume concrete and may need to be modified (Sellevold and AASHTO methods need to be evaluated. Laboratory
and Nilsen 1987; Feldman 1986; Gudmundsson and As- tests generally measure a single factor affecting the complex
geirsson 1983; Huang and Feldman 1985c). Use of ASTM C process of corrosion. Research is needed to develop better
671 for assessing resistance to freezing and thawing of high- test methods, to investigate the performance of concrete un-
strength silica-fume concrete should be investigated as a der field conditions, and to determine construction practices
possible replacement or extension of ASTM C 666. The in- that produce the best results in terms of resistance to cor-
fluence of air-entraining admixtures on frost resistance and rosion. A related issue of particular interest in North Ameri-
the plausibility of obtaining a non-air-entrained frost-resis- ca is the repair of deteriorated structures. Research is needed
tant high-strength silica-fume concrete is currently being to develop repair methods that will not simply create new
studied. If the concrete will never become critically saturated corrosion cells in different locations. Silica-fume concrete
in service, it doesn't need entrained air to be frost resistant. may well have a role to play in these repairs.
10.2Sulfate attack 10.5Performance under high-temperature conditions

A detailed research needs statement regarding sulfate at- Despite positive results for tests of the fire endurance of
tack was provided by Cohen and Mather (1991). Most of the silica-fume concrete (Chapter 5), further investigation is
literature deals with one type of sulfate attack sodium sul- needed, particularly for high-strength concrete. As Jahren
fate. Information on magnesium sulfate attack on silica- (1989) points out, some applications of high-strength con-
fume concrete is incomplete (Goldman 1987; Cohen and crete (with or without silica fume) may entail greater risks of
Bentur 1988). In sodium sulfate solutions, silica fume has explosive spalling. These include slender members under
been shown to have good resistance. It is possible to use a high stresses, prestressed concrete, and offshore structures.
blend of ASTM Type I portland cement with silica fume to
replace ASTM Type V sulfate-resistant portland cement 10.6Long-term durability
(Cohen and Bentur 1988). Work dealing with magnesium Most of the data on the durability of silica-fume concrete
sulfate action on pastes of portland cement plus silica fume have come from laboratory tests. These need to be supple-
showed that the presence of silica fume can be deleterious mented and correlated whenever possible with data from
concrete exposed to field conditions. Accelerated tests are quantified to optimize the effect of silica fume and
necessary for practical reasons, but they may be mislead- mixture proportioning.
ing. Some structures and pavements made from silica-
fume concrete are now old enough to provide useful 10.10Role of silica fume in special concretes
information about actual performance. A comprehensive Research is needed to study the influence of silica fume in
study of these applications would provide invaluable infor- nonconventional concretes. A recent article (Cohen, Olek, and
mation in terms of relating laboratory test results with Mather 1991) indicates that positive use of silica fume should
field performance as well as indicating good construction not be limited to ordinary portland cement concrete, but also
practices for future projects. has a role in expansive-cement concrete.
10.7Pore structure and permeability 10.11Effect of silica fume on hydration

As discussed in Chapter 5, silica fume does not substantially Chapter 3 describes the physical and chemical effects of sil-
reduce the porosity as measured by mercury intrusion poro- ica fume on the hydration of portland cement. However, most
simetry. The main effect on the pore structure is the reduction of the research in this area has focused separately on the chem-
of large pores by blocking them with hydration products. The istry or the microstructure or the behavior of the concrete, with
transformation of continuous pores into discon-tinuous pores some discussion of the likely implications for the other areas,
has a profound effect on the permeability of silica-fume con- but with little or no experimental work to verify the discus-
cretes (Chapter 5). From their study of pastes containing fly sion. Very little experimental work has been done to integrate
ash and portland cement, Marsh, Day, and Bonner (1985) con- these aspects. Studies of two or more of these areas using con-
cluded that when there is a significant amount of pozzolanic sistent ingredients and test conditions throughout can provide
activity, helium porosity correlates better with permeability a meaningful basis for further advancement.
than does mercury porosity. This is most likely true of silica
fume and portland cement pastes as well. Testing the water 10.12Curing
permeability of low-permeability concretes is difficult be- Most laboratory tests of concrete involve curing at room
cause of problems with leakage around the specimen and with temperature, even though in practice most concrete cures at
measuring low flows. The commonly used methods for as- other temperatures. Very few data are available in the litera-
sessing chloride permeability are also unsatisfactory in some ture on the effects of typical curing regimes on the properties
respects. Development of better test methods is thus of major of silica-fume concrete. Research on the development of the
importance. Another concern is the optimization of mixture microstructure of silica fume cement-based materials, supple-
proportions and curing conditions to minimize the permeabil- mented by tests of the mechanical and durability characteris-
ity of the concrete. tics of silica-fume concrete, is needed to provide a sound basis
for field practice. A good model for a study of this type would
10.8Rheology and setting properties be the work of Kjellsen (1990).
As mentioned in Chapter 4, silica-fume concrete fre-
quently requires a higher slump to provide the same workabil- 10.13Recommended field practice
ity as concrete without silica fume. This difference illustrates Experience with silica-fume concrete to date has demon-
one limitation of the slump test as a measure of workability. strated that it can perform well when properly proportioned,
Test methods are currently being developed that measure both mixed, placed, and cured. However, some questions remain
yield value and plastic flow parameters of fresh concrete only partially answered: How is adequate resistance to freez-
(Wallevik 1990). These promise more meaningful data on ing and thawing assured? What limits should be placed on
workability, but will require more research before they can minimum and maximum curing temperatures? What prac-
be used with confidence in the field. A related issue is the role tices will result in the best protection against corro-
of HRWRA, particularly with regard to slump loss. A detailed sion of reinforcement?
study addressing the problem of plastic shrinkage cracking
would be particularly helpful. CHAPTER 11REFERENCES
10.9Mechanism of strength development 11.1Recommended references

The presence of silica fume in concrete increases its The documents of the various standards-producing organi-
strength. This is due to physical and pozzolanic effects in the zations referred to in this document are listed below with their
bulk matrix and at the interfaces between the matrix and inclu- serial designation.
sions (Detwiler 1988; Cong et al. 1990). The significance of
each effect is still uncertain. Also, their significance during American Association of State Highway and Transportation
each stage of hydration (fresh and hardening) is not known, al- Officials
though during the fresh stage the physical effects clearly dom- M 307-90 Standard Specification for Microsilica for Use in
inate, setting the stage for the hardening period. The Concrete and Mortar
mechanism of strength development in silica-fume concrete T 277 Standard Method of Test for Rapid Determina-
still needs to be established. The important parameters tion of the Chloride Permeability of Concrete
controlling the development need to be identified and (See also ASTM C 1202)
American Concrete Institute U. S. Army Corps of Engineers

116R Cement and Concrete Terminology CRD-C 63 Test Method for Abrasion-Erosion Resistance
211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for of Concrete (Underwater Method)
Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and The above publications may be obtained from the follow-
Placing Concrete ing organizations:
305R Hot Weather Concreting
306R-88 Cold Weather Concreting American Association of State Highway and Transportation
308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete Officials
309R-87 Guide for Consolidation of Concrete 444 North Capitol Street NW, Suite 225
363R State-of-the-Art Report on High-Strength Con- Washington, DC 20001
crete
517.2R Accelerated Curing of Concrete at Atmospheric American Concrete Institute
Pressure State of the Art P. O. Box 9094
Farmington Hills, MI 48333
American Society for Testing and Materials
C 94 Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Con- American Society for Testing and Materials
crete 100 Barr Harbor Drive
C 204 Test Method for Fineness of Portland Cement by West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
Air Permeability Apparatus
C 227 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reac- U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station
tivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations 3909 Halls Ferry Road
(Mortar-Bar Method) Vicksburg, MS 39180
C 309 Standard Specification for Liquid Membrane-
Forming Compounds for Curing Concrete 11.2Cited references
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pp. 29-34. ACI 234R-96 was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and approved in accor-
dance with ACI balloting procedures.

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ACI 234R-96

Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete*

Terence C. Holland Rachel Detwiler

Pierre-Claude Atcin Allen J. Hulshizer H. Celik Ozyildirim

3.6Heat of hydration 8.4Specifying silica-fume concrete

Alloy type SiO2 content of silica fume

Ferrosilicon alloys are produced with nominal silicon con-

Fig. 2.1Particle size distribution of silica fume (Fiskaa,

Table 2.2Variations in chemical composition of silica fumes from several sources

Table 2.3Physical properties of several silica fumes

According to Mindess (1988), silica fume increases the

4.4Time of setting 4.8Air entrainment

CHAPTER 5EFFECTS OF SILICA FUME ON

calcium hydroxide layer was absent and there were no gaps.

Fig. 5.6Drying shrinkage of silica-fume concrete with a water-cementitious materi-

Fig. 5.7Effect of silica fume on compressive strength of concrete (Malhotra et al.

Fig. 5.9Summary of durability factors for air-entrained concretes (Malhotra 1986)

dilation test, ASTM C 671, may be a more realistic alterna-

suspect since the aggregates known to be reactive did not ap-

*ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY LEVEL ABOVE WHICH REIN-

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY (OHMS-CM) (VACUUM SATURATION)

SILICA FUME 11 PERCENT

Fig. 5.13Electrical resistivity as measured during AASHTO T 277

to the effect of silica fume in lowering the ion concentration

CONCRETE CONTROL w/c 0.32 890 OHMS

Marion Lock and Dam No. 8 on the Monongahela River in 7.4Aggregate

Table 7.1Representative silica-fume concrete mixture proportions

Table 7.1Representative silica-fume concrete mixture proportions (SI units)

Table 8.1Silica fume specification established for Los

8.3Specifying silica-fume admixtures

9.5Finishing should not be used to apply excess water to the concrete's

10.2Sulfate attack 10.5Performance under high-temperature conditions

10.7Pore structure and permeability 10.11Effect of silica fume on hydration

10.9Mechanism of strength development 11.1Recommended references

American Concrete Institute U. S. Army Corps of Engineers

Burge, T. A., 1983, High Strength Lightweight Concrete pp. 449-453.

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