J.Natn.Sci.

Foundation
The dairy industry in Sri Lanka 2008 36 Special issue: 115-126
SriLanka 115

The dairy industry in Sri Lanka: current status and future

directions for a greater role in national development
B.M.A.O. Perera and M.C.N. Jayasuriya*
1
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya.
2
National Science Foundation, 47/5, Maitland Place, Colombo 07.

Submitted: 28 August 2008

Abstract: The role of livestock in agriculture in Sri Lanka is less than 2 ha. Almost one third of these smallholdings
complex and significantly different from that of industrialized have a mixture of crops and livestock. The area of farm
nations. Although the livestock sub-sector has contributed only holdings with livestock is around 0.56 million ha, of
around 1.2% to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which 99% are categorised as smallholdings. The total
it has been a crucial source of high quality protein, minerals number of farmers involved in livestock production is
and vitamins to the population, by way of milk, meat and eggs. estimated at 700,000, and between 30-60% of gross farm
For many rural smallholder farmers, livestock are a living income is generated from livestock activities 1.
bank that serves as a financial reserve for periods of economic
distress.
The agricultural sector contributes around 13% to
the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It provides
In a global context the current status of the dairy industry
employment to about 33% of the labour force, surpassing
in Sri Lanka is far below expectations, local production of milk
the contribution of any other major sector. The livestock
having been able to meet only 30% of the demand. Whilst there
have been many political, technical and socio-economic factors
sub-sector contributes around 6% to the agricultural GDP
contributing to the virtual stagnation of the dairy industry in the and around 1.2% to the national GDP 2.
country, the very low farm gate price being one of the major
contributors to this, it appears that the sector cannot continue Livestock play diverse roles in Sri Lankan
to survive as a subsistence based activity, because it is only a agriculture. Primarily, they provide a crucial source of
secondary source of income to the farming community. It is high quality protein by producing milk, meat and eggs.
apparent that if dairy farming is to be a profitable venture, there In addition, cattle and buffalo are a primary source of
is a need for the small holder farmers to consider dairying as a renewable and low cost draught power for a variety of
commercial enterprise and at the same time link with the large agricultural operations and transport. Other subsidiary
scale dairy farms. This would require major policy changes, products include hides, skins and manure. Livestock
with a strong commitment and sustained implementation also serve as a living bank for many small farmers,
strategy by the government in partnership with the private cushioning the risks associated with crop production and
sector. providing a financial reserve during periods of economic
hardship.
Keywords: Dairy, development, livestock, milk
The population of ruminants (cattle, buffalo, goats
and sheep) in Sri Lanka over the past eight years is given
INTRODUCTION
in Table 1 and the annual average per capita availability
The land area under agriculture in Sri Lanka is around 2 of milk and milk products during the same period are
million hectares, which is 30% of the countrys total area given in Table 2. The numbers of cattle and buffalo
of 65,610 sq. km. Almost 75% of the agricultural land is during the 1980s were estimated to be around 1.6 million
under smallholdings, and the number of such holdings is and 0.8 million, respectively. However, the last island-
estimated at 1.8 million, with over 90% of them having wide census of agriculture conducted in 2002 showed

*Journal of the National

Corresponding author Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue November 2008
116 B.M.A.O. Perera & M.C.N. Jayasuriya

that the populations of the two species had declined to This situation is rather paradoxical, considering that
1.1 and 0.36 million, respectively. Since then there has successive governments have viewed the development
been a gradual increase in both populations 3. of the livestock sector as an instrument for social and
economic advancement of the rural poor, through
The annual average per capita availability of milk employment, sustainable income and improved
and milk products has also shown only a marginal nutrition. The development of this sector will not only
increase over the past decade (Table 2). On the other help to achieve food security, import substitution or
hand, as evident from Table 3, the annual average per even self sufficiency in animal products but also prevent
capita consumption of meat as well as milk has increased the migration of rural poor to urban areas in search of
markedly since the early 1990s. The greatest increase supposed economic benefits. In order to fulfill this
in consumption has been in chicken meat and milk role, however, it is clear that the dairy sub-sector in
powder. particular needs to become more efficient and business-
oriented. The operations at production level as well as
The monthly average expenditure on livestock the post-production value-chain involving processing
products by households in different sectors during 2006 and marketing need to be horizontally integrated, so
is given in Table 4. As expected, the urban sector spends that the farmers receive an economically attractive price
more on livestock products than either the rural or estate for their products. This would provide the incentive
sectors. for medium- and large-scale entrepreneurs to enter the
field and make further investments that are necessary to
From the forgoing it is apparent that although make the national livestock industry more efficient and
consumer demand for livestock products has increased, modernized.
neither the numbers of livestock nor their productivity
(with the exception of the poultry sector, which is not Current status of the dairy industry
covered here), has shown any significant increase. The
dairy sub-sector in particular has been stagnant over National milk consumption, national production and
the past two decades, while imported milk powder has imports
filled the gap between demand and local production. An
important reason for this is that the majority of holdings As shown in Table 5, the current milk consumption in
in this sector continue to operate as a subsistence-based Sri Lanka is around 700 million litres per annum, which
activity, being only a source of secondary income to the amounts to a per capita consumption of 35 litres per
majority of livestock owners. annum. The current national milk production of 220

Table 1: The population of ruminants in Sri Lanka, 2000 - 2007

Animal Type Number (x 1,000 heads)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Neat cattle 1,147 1,153 1,112 1,138 1,160 1,185 1,214 1,222
Buffalo 304 290 282 280 301 307 314 318
Sheep/Goats 506 504 360 423 416 405 395 405

Source: Dept. of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka3.

Table 2: Annual average per capita availability of milk and milk products, 2000 2006

Product 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Cow milk (L) 3.58 3.54 3.68 4.14 4.01 4.04 4.06
Buffalo milk (L) 1.38 1.36 1.35 1.33 1.33 1.38 1.27
Milk power (kg) 3.73 3.64 3.94 4.10 3.46 3.63 4.21
Condensed milk (kg) 0.25 0.24 0.25 0.24 0.27 0.27 -
Other milk foods (kg) 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.14 0.15

Source: Dept. of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka3.

November 2008 Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue
The dairy industry in Sri Lanka 117

million litres comprises of 120 million litres (approx. the formal and informal milk markets, thus reducing the
300,000 litres per day) collected by the formal market and proportion of imported milk from the current level of
100 million litres sold through the informal market. The 70% to 35% (Table 5).
shortfall of 480 million litres is met by imports, mostly
in powder form. Thus, locally produced milk meets only Contribution to national production from cattle, buffaloes
30% of the current demand for national consumption. and goats
As stated previously, the populations of cattle and buffalo
In a global context, Sri Lanka produces a mere 0.22
have shown a very slow rate of increase over the past
million metric tons (mmt) of milk per year, out of the
decade (Table 1). The trend in annual milk production
total world production of around 600 mmt (FAO, 2007).
from cattle and buffalo and the amounts collected by the
The major producers are India (80 mmt), USA (76 mmt),
formal milk collection systems over the same period,
Germany (30 mmt), New Zealand (12 mmt) and the
given in Table 6, show a similar slow growth.
Netherlands (10 mmt).
The majority of cattle in the country are of the cross-
The current Government of Sri Lanka has given
bred type, comprising mainly of crosses between the
high priority for dairy development, with a policy target
indigenous Bos indicus (Zebu) cattle and improved Zebu
of attaining 50% self-sufficiency by 2015. The medium-
breeds from the Indian sub-continent, or between Zebu
term goal of the Ministry of Livestock Development is
and Bos taurus (European/American) dairy breeds. The
to double the local milk production, in respect of both
main improved Zebu breeds used in dairy production
in Sri Lanka are Scindhi and Sahiwal, while the main
Table 3: Annual average per capita consumption of livestock products European breeds used are Holstein/Friesian (Figure 1)
and Jersey.
Product 1980/81 1990/91 2006

Beef (kg) 1.63 1.97 2.82 Over 90% of the buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
Mutton (kg) n/a 0.19 0.22 population is of the indigenous type, referred to as Lanka
Pork (kg) 0.54 0.15 0.45 buffalo, kept by smallholder farmers. They are used
Chicken (kg) n/a 0.82 10.93 predominantly for farm power in the cultivation of rice,
Other meat (kg) n/a 0.05 0.30 but in some areas they have traditionally been milked,
Total meat (kg) 2.18 3.18 14.72 particularly in the South-East (Ruhuna), which is famous

for buffalo curd. Lanka buffalo are located mainly in the
Cow milk (L) 6.14 4.29 4.54
low-country wet and dry zones and in the mid-country.
Goat milk (kg) n/a 0.03-
The contribution of buffalo milk to the overall national
Condensed milk (kg) n/a 0.02 0.10
Milk powder (kg) 1.63 2.10 17.41
milk production is around 16%.
Other milk products (kg) - - 2.30
Eggs (number) 15.6 29.60 138.50
Goats are reared mainly in the dry zone, where they
are kept mainly for producing meat. However, rearing
Source: Dept. of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka. Household income of goats for milk and milk products is becoming more
and expenditure surveys, 2006/2007 popular, especially in peri-urban areas due to changes in
food habits of the people. The main exotic dairy breeds
Table 4: Monthly average expenditure on livestock products by that have been used for crossing with indigenous goats are
households in different sectors during 2006 the Jamnapari from India and the Saanen from Europe.

Product Expenditure (Rs.) Table 5: Current local production and imports of milk, and the medi
Urban Rural Estate Overall um-term development targets of the Government

Milk and milk foods 1077 723 613 767 Source of milk Million litres/year
Current Development target
Milk and milk foods 10.2 9.3 9.0 9.5
(as a % of average monthly Local production
expenditure) Formal market 120 240
Meat 584 262 206 305
Informal market 100 200
Meat (as a % of average 5.5 3.4 3.0 3.8
Imported (% of total) 480 (70%) 260 (35%)
monthly expenditure
Total 700 700
Source: Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka. Household
income and expenditure survey, 2006/07. Source: Ministry of Livestock Development, 20088

Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue November 2008
118 B.M.A.O. Perera & M.C.N. Jayasuriya

Production systems Peri-urban System: A specialized dairy production

system (not integrated with crops); high producing
Cattle and buffalo management systems in different pure-bred European cattle and Indian buffalo kept under
parts of the country have largely been influenced by confinement; all fodder and concentrates are purchased
the climate, type of crops grown and cropping pattern, from outside; primary objective is milk production with
availability of grazing land, genetic make-up of the meat as a by-product (Figure 2).
animals and the main production objectives 4. The major
production systems have been classified as follows: Cost of production, farm gate price and price to the
consumer
Dry Zone Traditional Village System: Mainly indigenous
zebu cattle and buffalo, with some crosses with Indian
A survey conducted in three veterinary ranges of the
breeds; kept on communal grazing lands with minimal
inputs; primary income is from sales for meat and Kandy District during 2007 5 showed that the cost of
draught, with limited milk extraction from some animals production (COP) of milk was on average Rs. 30.55 per
over a short lactation period. litre, and varied widely between the different production
systems studied (extensive, semi-intensive and intensive).
Dry Zone Irrigated Settlement System: Small herds with When family labour was valued at market rates, it was
medium production levels; combination of tethered the major cost component, amounting to an average of
grazing and stall-feeding with cut grasses, tree fodders, Rs. 16.60 per litre, while feed cost was Rs. 6.81 per litre
straw and some concentrates; primary products are milk and fixed costs were Rs. 6.02 per litre. Overall, labour
and draught, with surplus animals sold for draught and accounted for 55% of production cost (range 13 to 86%),
meat. while feed accounted for 22% (range 4 to 46%). The
average farm gate price of milk at the time of the survey
Intermediate Zone (Coconut Triangle) System: Small was Rs. 23.40 per litre (range Rs. 19-31). Thus, when all
herds under semi-intensive system; grazing is free or fixed and variable costs were accounted for (including
tethered, on natural pasture under coconut and other family labour), there was no profit from dairying under
perennial crops; primary products are milk and draught, the farming systems studied.
with surplus animals sold for draught and meat.
The current price of processed liquid milk sold to
Wet Zone (Mid and Up-Country) System: Intensive
consumers (as pasteurized or sterilized milk, packed in
smallholder mixed crop-livestock production system
bottles or tetra-packs) ranges from Rs. 60 to Rs. 130 per
with pure-bred or cross-bred European breeds of cattle
and Indian breeds of buffalo; zero-grazing with high litre. Thus, the margin between the farm gate price and
inputs for feed, health control and artificial breeding; the price to the consumer is excessively wide, and is
primary objective is milk production with meat as a one of the main reasons for stagnation of the dairy
by-product. industry.

Table 6: Annual milk production from cattle and buffalo and the amounts collected by the
formal milk collection systems (mainly processors) over the past nine years

Year Annual milk production Total annual Total collected

(liters) production by processors
Cattle Buffalo (liters) (liters)

1998 147,381,600 29,707,440 177,089,040 100,828,000
1999 149,686,800 30,196,800 179,883,600 108,863,000
2000 151,239,600 30,210,144 181,449,744 92,494
2001 152,764,800 30,262,800 183,027,600 102,245,000
2002 152,840,880 30,354,120 183,195,000 92,043,000
2003 156,546,000 30,258,000 186,804,000 88,003,000
2004 159,696,000 30,600,000 190,296,000 99,235,000
2005 161,816,400 30,925,200 192,741,600 100,185,000
2006 164,862,200 31,648,160 196,510,680 109,308,000

Source: National Livestock Statistics, 2007

November 2008 Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue
The dairy industry in Sri Lanka 119

FIgure 1: Friesian cattle grazing lush pastures in the hill country

Figure 2: A herd of Murrah buffalo in the coconut triangle

Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue November 2008
120 B.M.A.O. Perera & M.C.N. Jayasuriya

Major constraints to improved milk production High cost of feeding dairy animals. This is influenced
by:
The constraints to sustainable livestock production by
the resource poor farmers in developing countries have * Seasonal fluctuations in ruminant feed resources
been classed into three major categories6. These are resulting in scarcity
fully applicable to the current situation that prevails in * High price of compounded feeds
Sri Lanka, and are: * Lack of knowledge on methods of low-cost feed
supplementation
Procurement of animals: Poor farmers find it difficult
to access capital and credit facilities to purchase the Lack of an appropriate long term government
required breeding stock. policy and sustained support to improve local milk
Management: Farmers are unable to obtain animal production and progressively reduce imports. This
health and production services, such as veterinary, is due to:
breeding and advisory services in a timely and
effective manner. * Inadequate government support for livestock
Marketing: Small farmers do not have access to extension services in management, health,
reliable and steady markets for their products. breeding and product technology
* High cost of veterinary services and drugs
Studies conducted under a SAREC/NARESA Buffalo * Lack of follow-up programmes by the Ministry
Development Project a decade ago4 showed that the and the DAPH to continue the livestock
constraints faced by cattle and buffalo farmers in many development programmes that were initiated
regions of Sri Lanka were as follows: and assisted by international grants and loans
* Lack of credit, tax rebates, insurance schemes and
Low farm gate price of milk, which is determined by other incentives to encourage small to medium
government policy and the monopolistic practices of scale private enterprises in dairy production
milk collection systems. This is further influenced
by:
A study commissioned by the Animal Production and
Health Commission for Asia and the Pacific (APHCA) of
* Lack of producer participation in collection and
the FAO on improved market access and smallholder dairy
marketing, thereby resulting in monopolies and
farmer participation for sustainable dairy development7
malpractices by the collectors and exploitation
identified the main constraints to dairy development in
of the farmers
Sri Lanka in five main areas as: stock availability; animal
* Powerful advertising campaigns by importers
health management; land availability; farmer knowledge
of milk products in order to sway consumer
preference away from local milk products and skills; and extension system limitations.
* Lack of milk collecting facilities in certain areas,
and inadequacies even in some areas where they Recent findings of the Ministry of Livestock
exist, with only morning milk being collected Development through its studies and consultations with
stakeholders in the dairy sector have shown that many
Shortage of suitable breeding stock in the country. of the above constraints are still present. The limitations
The factors influencing this are: have been categorized under four headings 8 and include
the following:
* The state sector livestock farms of the National
Livestock Development Board (NLDB) are Primary production level
mandated to supply superior breeding stock to
farmers, but they are able to meet only about * Non-availability of good quality dairy animals
20% of the demand. * Inadequate coverage of AI and follow-up
* Lack of organized livestock markets for farmers services
to sell and buy animals * High wastage of improved genetic material
* Limitations of the artificial insemination (AI) * Inadequate feed resources
programme, with only 10-15% of breedable * Unfavourable ratio between farm gate price and
cows being served by AI, and only 2-5% of cost of production of milk
calvings attributable to AI * Limitations of research and development efforts
* Lack of natural breeding (stud) services in areas aimed at resolving problems at the producer
where AI services are not available level

November 2008 Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue
The dairy industry in Sri Lanka 121

* Non-sustainability of low input low output and in the various agro-climatic zones (hill country, mid
highly fragmented smallholder dairy farming country, low country wet, dry and coconut triangle zones
system and Jaffna peninsula) under intensive and extensive
systems of management have been described. The general
Curative and preventive animal health care delivery breeding strategy is to upgrade the existing livestock
system through cross-breeding using genetically superior breeds
and thereby enhance production.
* Inadequate coverage of veterinary services
catering to acute health care needs
Artificial insemination has been considered the
* Inadequacy of disease surveillance and control
preferred method of genetic upgrading of the native
service
herd. However, in areas where AI is not feasible, use of
* Inadequacy of man power development and
genetically superior stud bulls has been recommended for
training programmes
upgrading programmes. To achieve these objectives, the
Department of Animal Production and Health (DAPH)
Inefficiencies and distortions in milk marketing
has imported breeding bulls from time to time, and
system
regularly imports semen from superior sires for use on
* Unsatisfactory milk collecting system the national dairy herd.
* Lack of bargaining power of smallholders
* Heavy consumer preference for milk powder There have also been many imports of live cattle
* Heavy competition from imports and buffalo heifers and cows to Sri Lanka by the NLDB
* Availability of low quality milk and milk and DAPH in the past, but these have not provided the
products in the market expected impetus for dairy development. The problems
of importing good quality stock are well known, and
Other limitations include, difficulty in locating high quality animals (due to
the natural reluctance of farmers in the source countries to
* Most of the Government and parastatal sell their best animals); stress and diseases caused during
institutions are trying to do too many things with transport and quarantine; and failure of animals imported
limited resources from temperate climates to adapt to tropical conditions.
* Weak industrial structure of the dairy industry. In some cases imported animals were distributed among
Some aspects of the main technical as well as non- local smallholder farmers, with disastrous results, due
technical issues and constraints are further examined to the lack of adequate knowledge, skills and resources
below. among them to manage such animals.

a) Technical issues It is important to consolidate the contribution of the

progeny of such superior imported stock in the breeding
Shortage of quality breeding stock suited to different farms and improve their management conditions, before
environments (breeding, AI and Natural Service (NS), resorting to further importations. Imported stock at any
delivery of services and follow-up): The national livestock future date should be located in suitable nucleus farms
development policy and strategy has recognized that with facilities for better nutrition, management and
cattle, buffalo and goats play an integral part in the rural healthcare. Their offspring must be managed properly
agriculture economy, and has identified the dairy sub and evaluated using comprehensive recording of all
sector as the priority area for public sector investment production data, and then subject to stringent selection
in livestock development. Upgrading of the native herd for use in future breeding programmes
is considered a fundamental necessity for dairy cattle
and buffalo development. This envisages preserving Feeding: seasonal shortages of green fodder and high
the traits of technical importance which have helped cost of concentrates: Since ruminant livestock production
native livestock to thrive in hostile environments and in Sri Lanka is mostly in the hands of smallholder
low quality feed, while improving their productivity. A resource poor farmers who are dispersed primarily
national breeding policy for cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep in rural areas, the feeds that are likely to be available
and pigs has been formulated by the National Animal are the natural grazing from waste land, cut and carry
Breeding Committee in 1994 to ensure uniformity of indigenous grass species from road sides, water ways,
livestock breeding across the country 9. The breeding paddy fields and bunds, crop residues, and agricultural
objectives, policy and strategy for each livestock species by-products from industry. Due to the highly seasonal

Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue November 2008
122 B.M.A.O. Perera & M.C.N. Jayasuriya

rainfall in many parts of the country, the quality and Therefore, simple and low-cost technologies in nutrition
quantity of available forage also fluctuates affecting the and management need to be introduced to the smallholder
milk yield and lactation length of both cattle and buffalo. farmers.
While in times of abundance animals are fed on good
quality forage with little or no concentrate feed, in times However, traditional farmers who have reared cattle
of short supply they are fed on poor quality crop residues and buffaloes with minimal inputs do not readily accept
like cereal straws and agro-industrial by-products and innovations, especially when they call for extra time,
high amounts of concentrate feed. The latter is found to money and labour. Therefore, innovative approaches
be uneconomical but farmers adopt such strategies for that demonstrate clear economic benefits are needed to
purposes of sustenance. Therefore, feeding strategies need convince farmers to accept newer technologies 11-14.
to be developed for an annual cycle and not for separate
wet and dry season feeding, highlighting the need for Studies conducted under a multidisciplinary
conservation of forages and other feed resources. programme to improve smallholer buffalo production 12, 15
have shown that simple low cost feeding systems can be
The feed resources that can be used in addition to developed using locally available feed resources. The
natural grasses include fibrous crop residues such as rice strategy used was to combine natural grasses, rice straw
straw and maize stover, and agro-industrial by-products and legume tree fodder with Urea-Molasses Multinutrient
such as molasses, rice bran, waste from fruit canneries Blocks (UMMB) for use under an intensive management
and brewers grain. Feedstuffs that result from industrial system.
processing of agricultural products are generally less
fibrous in comparison to crop residues, being rich in protein Reproduction : An important prerequisite for the
and minerals and containing more fermentable energy. sustainability of a dairy production system is that cows
Their source of origin can be from field and plantation must have an efficient reproductive performance 16. This
crops, tree crops, fruit processing industries and other is essential for the production of the main commodity
miscellaneous sources 10. Some non-conventional feeds of interest, milk, as well as to provide replacement
like leaves and fruits from multi-purpose trees, shrubs animals. Over and above this, and particularly in
and woody perennial plants and sugarcane tops, contain smallholder systems, the animals must provide other
medium to high levels of protein and are considered as outputs also, which will directly or indirectly result
useful additives to low quality diets. in economic benefits to the farmer. These include, in
different combinations depending on the system, meat,
With the progressive decline in land available for extensive draught power, fuel and fertilizer. Since the continued
grazing and fodder production due to expansions in crop generation of these outputs rely totally on the production
production and human settlements, only marginal and of offspring, no dairy production system is sustainable
poor quality lands are left for grazing and mixed farming. without an acceptable level of reproduction.

Table 7: Reproductive indices for dairy cattle and buffaloes under optimum conditions and
suggested "acceptable" performance under improved smallholder systems in tropics.

Reproductive Index Cattle Buffalo

Optimum Acceptable Optimum Acceptable

Age at puberty (m) < 18 < 24 < 30 < 36
Age at first calving (m) < 30 <36 < 42 < 48
Calving to first service (d) < 60 < 90 < 60 < 90
Calving to conception (d) < 85 < 115 < 85 < 115
Calving Interval (m) 12-13 13-14 13-14 14-15
First service conception rate (%) > 60 > 55 > 55 > 50
Overall conception rate (%) > 80 > 75 > 75 > 70
Calving rate (%) > 75 > 70 > 70 > 65
Services per conception < 1.6 < 1.8 < 1.8 < 2.0

Source: Perera, 1999

November 2008 Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue
The dairy industry in Sri Lanka 123

Table 7 gives the classical optimum reproductive viral disease of both species is foot-and-mouth disease
indices for dairy cattle, together with a suggested (FMD), which is highly infectious but rarely fatal,
acceptable performance indices for use under the more causing economic loss through lowered productivity.
intensive and improved smallholder conditions. A
similar set of criteria is also given for buffaloes, with Important parasitic diseases include those caused
suitable adjustments to account for inherent differences by gastrointestinal parasites such as round worms
such as later maturity of heifers and longer duration of (nematodes), flukes (trematodes) and tape worms
gestation. (cestodes), which cause mainly insidious losses due to
poor growth and development in young animals. Blood
From the viewpoint of reproduction, the main factors parasites such as Babesia and Theileria are of importance
which contribute to economic losses are delayed puberty, in pure-bred European cattle and their crosses, sometimes
long calving intervals, short productive life (due to causing high mortality.
culling for infertility or sterility) and high calf mortality.
In practical terms, the two major limitations that need to Goats are generally not prone to major bacterial and
be addressed to improve cattle and buffalo fertility, and viral diseases of epizootic nature. However, parasitic
thereby the economic benefits to smallholder farmers, diseases do cause losses, mainly in young kids. A specific
are poor oestrus detection and long postpartum anoestrus problem is Cerebro-Spinal Nematodiasis, which is caused
17
. when a parasite that lives harmlessly in the peritoneum
of cattle (Artionema digitata) infects goats and migrates
Improving oestrus detection needs education and to the central nervous system.
motivation of farmers, proper identification and records
for individual animals, and regular close observation for Young cattle, buffalo and goats are susceptible
the occurrence of heat signs. Oestrus synchronization to intestinal and lung disturbances, the former causing
is an alternative procedure that could be applied in diarrhoea and the latter pneumonia, both of which can
some farming systems. However, its use requires a full result in high mortality. The common bacterial causes of
evaluation of the fertility status in order to select the diarrhoea are Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp., while
the main parasitic cause is Coccidia spp. Aetiological
most suitable hormonal protocol, and careful planning to
agents for pneumonia can be viruses, bacteria or both.
ensure success.
Viruses usually play the role of primary pathogens,
while bacterial infection sets in as secondary invaders
Prevention of prolonged post-partum anoestrus is
under the lowered body resistance in affected animals.
best tackled by providing farmers with information on
Environmental factors such as adverse weather, ambient
how to manage, feed and breed their animals, in order
temperature, poor ventilation, overcrowding and poor
to avoid deleterious effects of harsh climate, seasonal
management can precipitate respiratory disease18,19.
fluctuations in feed availability, parasitic infections and
Improvement of housing, hygiene and management
diseases. Under smallholder systems this demands a practices can reduce the incidence of diarrhoea and
holistic approach from researchers and livestock support pneumonia to a great extent.
services, working closely with farmers to develop and
transfer a package of appropriate technologies that are b) Other issues
acceptable to them. The use of hormones and other
therapeutic interventions to overcome anoestrus are The National Livestock Development Policy and
unlikely to be successful unless these basic constraints Strategies published by the Ministry of Livestock
are resolved. Development in 2006 states that the dairy sector will be
given priority for public sector investment in livestock
Diseases : These can be classified broadly as infectious development. Several strategies for improving the diary
and non-infectious. The former are caused by bacterial, industry have been outlined in general terms, and include
viral and parasitic agents, while the latter include mainly the following:
the metabolic or production diseases.
Promoting and expanding the liquid milk market
In cattle and buffalo the most important bacterial Upgrading the native herd
diseases that cause economic losses through heavy Facilitating the transformation of the present
mortality are Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS) and subsistence level dairy producers/farmers into
Black Quarter (BQ), while diseases such as mastitis and commercially viable and sustainable enterprises
brucellosis cause losses through lowered productivity Further developing the medium and large scale
of milk and offspring, respectively. The most important private sector dairy producers

Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue November 2008
124 B.M.A.O. Perera & M.C.N. Jayasuriya

Allowing market forces to govern the pricing rural householder milk production system. It requires
mechanism of domestic milk major policy changes, strong commitment and sustained
Encouraging the private sector dairy processors to implementation by the Government in partnership with
contribute to dairy development private investors, and could be an effective way for
overcoming the stagnation that the dairy industry has
However, implementing these strategies requires a suffered in the past.
clear long-term policy backed by actions and investments
that will effectively address the limitations, inequalities Research and development needs for improving the
and deficiencies that exist in the dairy industry as a whole. dairy industry
As discussed above, one of the major dis-incentives to
dairy development is the low farm-gate price of milk and From a global perspective, FAO 21 considers the following
problems in marketing. Lack of credit and other support aspects to be of importance in promoting and improving
services for the diary industry are a further deterrent for livestock production from a pro-poor approach:
the smallholder farmers to evolve in to more commercially
Establishing the basis for livestock production:
oriented medium-scale entrepreneurs.
Providing adequate and secure access to basic
inputs required, such as land, water and feed, and
In Sri Lanka there is no beef cattle industry, and beef
risk coping mechanisms.
is a by-product of the dairy industry. However, the current
Kick-starting domestic markets for livestock and
policies and practices are not conducive for farmers to
livestock-derived products: Providing secure access
derive an income from raising any surplus stock for meat.
to livestock support services, credit and output
The ban on slaughter of females and the problems in the
markets.
meat marketing system make it impossible for farmers
Sustaining and expanding livestock production:
to dispose of non-productive females and excess males,
Securing the quality and food safety of livestock
thus making such animals an economic burden on the
products, promoting research on breeding and
farmer.
feeding to produce high quality animals and
products, and ensuring environmental sustainability
A recent consultancy undertaken by ANZDEC 20
of livestock production.
for the Ministry of Livestock Development has analysed
the main impediments to developing the dairy industry While some of these are clearly outside the scope of
and increasing domestic milk production, and has research and deal with policy issues, it is important to note
recommended the following strategy: that without such enabling policies and support services
the results of research will have limited applications for
Government provides a sustainable solution to the improving livestock production.
pricing of imported milk powder;
Government and industry together encourage The research and development priorities for the
investment by private investors into large-scale livestock sector in Sri Lanka have been the subject of
commercial dairy clusters; several workshops and consultations with researchers
Government works with smallholders to link them to and other stakeholders. The Sri Lanka Council for
large-scale commercial dairy farms for the purpose Agricultural Research Policy (CARP) has compiled
of increasing smallholder milk production and a document based on such consultations 22 under the
income from dairying; subject areas of breeding, reproduction, nutrition, health
Government needs to complete a major overhaul of and product technologies. The summary given below
all the government agencies involved in the dairy of priority research areas under different subjects or
sector the Ministry of Livestock, Department of themes is based on a CARP document as well as other
Livestock, Milco, and NLDB; publications and the experience of the authors.
Industry works to develop industry-wide quality
standards for milk that is commercially collected, Increasing the availability of quality animals suitable for
and establishes an industry promotion programme different environments and production systems
for the consumption of liquid milk.
This proposed strategy outlined by ANZDEC adopts The objectives under this theme should be to produce
a fundamentally different approach to those taken animals with optimum production performance, which are
previously, by harnessing commercial investment to able to survive under the existing environmental conditions,
create growth in the industry, and involves adding utilizing locally available resources; and to develop
commercial production capacity on top of the existing methods and procedures for optimizing their reproduction

November 2008 Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue
The dairy industry in Sri Lanka 125

and productivity cost-effectively. The research required Improving the quality and safety of livestock products
would include the development of selection criteria
Studies are needed in this area to provide the information
for different breeds of ruminants suitable for different
needed for making and implementing policies on
production systems, determining the cost-effectiveness
setting standards and improving the quality and safety
of different genotypes under specific farming systems,
of livestock products as well as of animal feeds and
establishment of sustainable breeding programmes for
pharmaceuticals that influence animal products. This
commercial as well as conservation purposes, and the
should include studies on ingredients used in the value
development or adaptation and application of modern
addition of dairy and meat products, and methods
technologies for improving productivity.
for improving the quality of animal products through
advanced technologies. Surveys are also needed to
Development of low-cost feeding strategies using locally
identify unhygienic practices in relation to milking,
available feed resources
slaughter and subsequent processing of milk and meat
The research needed under this theme includes methods products, and on the usage, quality and safety of animal
for improving the utilization of locally available feed feeds, pharmaceuticals, biologicals and chemicals used
resources to obtain optimum production of milk and meat in agriculture and veterinary practices.
from ruminants. This would involve the development,
utilization and conservation of forage resources, both Other areas requiring study in this theme include methods
natural and cultivated, as well as development of novel for narrowing the gap between the farm-gate price and
feedstuffs from agricultural by-products. the consumer sale price of milk, the salvage and rearing
of male stock for meat, and methods for optimally using
Improving the management skills of farmers livestock by-products and excreta.
This area needs studies to develop appropriate
educational and extension materials and to deliver them CONCLUSION
to farmers through the most effective media using modern
communication methods. The ubiquitous cellular phone Smallholder dairy farmers represent some of the poorest
which is now common among village farmers could be a of the poor among the rural sector. Improving production
novel approach to farmer education in the future. of their livestock would therefore be one of the best ways
of raising their livelihoods and transforming them from
Provision of reliable breeding and follow-up services one of poverty to relative prosperity.

The delivery of AI and related support services has been The prevailing constraints, limitations and
a major bottleneck for improving dairy production. shortcomings as identified above have to be addressed
Improved methods and modalities for providing the and rectified urgently with adequate investment and
required services, their monitoring and continuous participation of both the government and the private sector.
improvement should be the focus of research in this If livestock production is to be a profitable enterprise and
area. the government is to achieve its proposed targets, there
is a need for smallholder farmers to be linked to large-
Controlling diseases, including sub-clinical and scale commercial dairy farms. Both the government and
production diseases industry together should also encourage investment by
The research under this theme should include studies private investors into large-scale commercial dairying.
that will produce the information needed for making and
implementing policies and programmes to control and References
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November 2008 Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka 36 Special Issue