Compressor Tech 04 2015 PDF
Compressor Tech 04 2015 PDF
Compressor Tech 04 2015 PDF
April 2015
n Challenge:
Select a compression partner to ensure years
of efficient, reliable production.
n Result:
Elliott refrigeration compressors and unmatched experience
have been central to successful LNG projects for decades.
They say American-Made
used to mean something.
COMPRESSOR
Rig Counts Down,
A Member of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group
PUBLICATION STAFF
Publisher ..................................... Brent Haight
Production Up
Associate Publisher ...............Roberto Chellini
Managing Editor ........................ Angela Jarrell
Executive Editor ............................... DJ Slater
Deputy Editor .............................. Mark Thayer
Senior Editor .................. Michael J. Brezonick
M
Associate Editor ................................ Jack Burke
Associate Editor .............................Chad Elmore arch rig count reports from ExxonMobil plans to reduce its capital
Associate Editor ....................................Art Aiello
Copy Editor ................................ Jerry Karpowicz
Baker Hughs show that the spending budget by 12% this year.
Digital Content Manager............Catrina Boettner
number of U.S. rigs is 1192, Despite these cutbacks, the EIAs
Advertising Manager .................... Sarah Yildiz
down 600 from one year ago. Of this March Short-Term Energy Outlook
Circulation Manager ...................Sheila Lizdas count, only 26% (268) of total rigs forecasts that 2015 natural gas pro-
Production Manager ............. Marisa J. Roberts
Graphic Artist ........................Brenda L. Burbach
were targeting natural gas, a de- duction will average 73.9 Bcfd (2.12 x
Graphic Artist .............................Carla D. Lemke crease of 77 rigs compared with last 109 m3/d), an increase of 5% over 2014
Graphic Artist ........................... Amanda J. Ryan
Graphic Artist ................................ Alyssa Loope
years natural gas rig levels. levels. EIA forecasts that for 2016, pro-
PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS Despite the decline in rig counts, duction will average 75.4 Bcfd (2.14 x
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220 natural gas production is on the rise. In 109 m3/d), a 2% year-over-year growth.
Waukesha, Wisconsin 53186-1873
Telephone: (262) 754-4100 Fax: (262) 754-4175 its latest short-term energy report, the The ultimate deciding factor is sup-
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS U.S. Energy Information Administra- ply and demand, and the demand for
Norm Shade Cambridge, Ohio tion (EIA) forecasts continued growth natural gas is rising.
Mauro Belo Schneider Rio Grande du Sul, Brazil
HOUSTON, U.S.A.
in natural gas production over the next EIA projects that U.S. total natu-
Brent Haight, Publisher two years. ral gas consumption will average
Angela Jarrell, Managing Editor
Mark Thayer, Deputy Editor In December 2014, dry natural gas 75.7 Bcfd (2.14 x 109 m3/d) in 2015
12777 Jones Road, Suite 225 production hit a record high of 74.3 Bcfd and 76.2 Bcfd (2.15 x 109 m3/d) in
Houston, Texas 77070
Telephone: (281) 890-5310 Fax: (281) 890-4805 (2.10 x 109 m3/d), according to EIA 2016, compared with 73.5 Bcfd (2.08
GERMANY reports. This production increase oc- x 109 m3/d) in 2014. Growth is largely
Lisa Hochkofler, Advertising Manager
Gabriele Dinsel, Advertising Manager
curred despite declining prices and driven by demand in the industrial and
Niemllerstr. 9 falling rig counts. Natural gas produc- electric power sectors.
73760 Ostfildern, Germany
Telephone: +49 711 3416 74 0 Fax: +49 711 3416 74 74 tion overall in 2014 increased 6.1%, EIA projections show natural gas
UNITED KINGDOM according to the EIA, the strongest consumption in the power sector
Ian Cameron, Regional Manager/Editor growth since 2011, despite a 13% de- growing by 8.1% in 2015 and by 1.9%
Linda Cameron, Advertising Manager
40 Premier Avenue crease in average natural gas rig count in 2016. Aiding the power genera-
Ashbourne, Derbyshire,
DE6 1LH, United Kingdom
levels in 2014 compared with 2013. tion front, the Environmental Protec-
Telephone: +44 20 31 79 29 79 Fax: +44 20 31 79 29 70 Rig counts have historically been a tion Agencys Mercury and Air Toxics
ITALY common metric for estimating the pro- Standards (MATS) goes into effect
Roberto Chellini, Associate Publisher
44, Via Delle Forbici duction of natural gas. Today, advanc- this year. MATS requires large coal-
I-50133 Firenze, Italy es in shale production and increases and oil-fired electric generators to
Telephone: +39 055 50 59 861 Fax: +39 055 57 11 55
in drilling efficiency allow for more meet stricter emissions standards by
Roberta Prandi
Via Fitta, 21a
production from fewer rigs. During the incorporating emissions control tech-
I-38062 Arco, Italy past several years, natural gas pro- nologies in existing generating facili-
Telephone: +39 0464 014421 Fax: +39 0464 244529
duction has steadily increased, while ties. The expectation is an increase in
SWEDEN
Bo Svensson, Field Editor/Business Manager the number of active rigs characterized coal retirements and more structural
Dunderbacksvagen 20 as natural gas has fallen dramatically. natural gas demand. The EIA re-
612-46 Finspong, Sweden
Telephone: +46 70 2405369 Fax: +46 122 14787 As Bob Dylan so eloquently put it, ports that in 2015, electric generating
JAPAN the times, they are a changin. companies expect to add 6.3 GW of
Akiyoshi Ojima, Branch Manager
51-16-301 Honmoku Sannotani, Naka-ku
In March, ConocoPhillips said it natural gas, utility-scale generating
Yokohama, 231-0824 Japan would cut spending on new oil and capacity to the power grid.
Telephone: +81 45 624 3502 Fax: +81 45 624 3503
gas projects by 15%, this in addition According to EIA data, industrial sec-
CHINA
S.H. Mok, Branch Manager to the 20% cut it announced in De- tor consumption increases by 6.6 and
Rm 1903A, 19/F, Sunbeam Commercial Building cember. Chevron plans to trim US$5 2.1% in 2015 and 2016, respectively. A
469-471 Nathan Road
Kowloon, Hong Kong billion from its 2014 spending this bright spot on a horizon currently dot-
Telephone: +852 31187930 Fax : +852 23321565
year. Occidental Petroleum Corp. will ted with a lot of bad news. CT2
KOREA
Myung-Shin Lee, Sales Manager reduce capital spending by a third
191-1, Pyungchang-dong, Chongno-ku in 2015. Royal Dutch Shell plans to
Seoul, Korea 100-648
Telephone: +82 2 391 4254 Fax: +82 2 391 4255 spend US$15 billion less over the next
Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications three years. BP is cutting its capital Brent Haight, publisher
President & CEO ..................... Michael J. Osenga and exploration budget nearly 20%. bhaight@dieselpub.com
Executive Vice President .... Michael J. Brezonick
WE ENSURE YOUR COMPRESSOR
ISNT THE WEAK LINK
With a global footprint, CPI delivers industry-leading compressor parts and lubrication systems as well
as comprehensive engineering support and field service. From simple part replacements to complete
overhauls, we take the time to get to know our customers needs and to make sure our solutions deliver
unparalleled uptime and profitability.
COMPRESSORtech2 is the premier resource for gas compression news and information.
Featured Articles
14 New Natural Gas Screw Compressors
24 For Small Compressors
26 A Practical Approach Toward Mechanical
Integrity Programs For Gas Processing Plants
32 Organic Rankine Cycle Waste Heat Solutions
Cover Designed By
And Opportunities In Natural Gas Compression
Alyssa Loope 38 Solar Titan 250 Gains Wide Acceptance
Compressortech2 (ISSN 1085-2468) 43 Exline, Miba Bearings Form Partnership
Volume 20, No. 3 Published 10 issues/year
(January-February, March, April, May, June, 46 Targeting Safety
July, August-September, October, November,
December) by Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications, 50 Baseline Testing Provides Opportunities For Continuous Improvement
20855 Watertown Road, Waukesha, WI 53186-
1873, U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 per 62 Murphy Expands Rosenberg, Texas, Facility
year/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicals post-
age paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 and at addi- 78 Best Practices For Pulsation Bottle Design To Reduce Horsepower Losses
tional mailing offices. Copyright 2015 Diesel &
Gas Turbine Publications. All Rights Reserved.
Materials protected by U.S. and international copy-
right laws and treaties. Unauthorized duplication
and publication is expressly prohibited.
TECHcorner
16 Evaluation Of A Dynamic Variable Orifice For Reciprocating
Canadian Publication Mail Agreement # 40035419.
Return Undeliverable Canadian Addresses to: P.O. Compressor Pulsation Control (Part 1)
Box 456, Niagara Falls, ON L2E 6V2, Canada. E-mail:
slizdas@dieselpub.com. POSTMASTER: Send address 64 Analysis And Estimation Of Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio And
changes to: Circulation Manager, Compressortech2, Methane Number For Natural Gas
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220, Waukesha, WI
53186-1873 U.S.A.
www.compressortech2.com Departments
4 Page 4 Rig Counts Down, Production Up
Follow Us @Compressortech2
8 Global Perspective From Gas Importer To Exporter
10 Events & Meetings
12 About The Business Dont Expect Higher Energy Prices Anytime Soon
MEMBER OF
42 Prime Movers
84 Scheduled Downtime
85 Marketplace
80
celebrating
86 Advertisers Index
88 Cornerstones Of Compression A Revolutionary
years
Concept In Natural Gas Compression
1-877-965-8989 www.dcl-inc.com
U N I T E D S T A T E S C A N A D A E U R O P E
Global Perspective
E
gypt has been a natural gas exporter for many years potential, both onshore and offshore, as well as its large
with its two liquefied natural gas (LNG) plants, but domestic demand market. Cost structures are also favor-
the increase of internal gas consumption has re- able, with relatively shallow waters in the proven Nile Delta
versed the situation. Well over 50% of the countrys energy and onshore projects in the underexplored Western Desert.
consumption is based on natural gas. In spite of Egypt Following the success of the January deals, another
being the third-largest African natural gas producer after eight blocks, covering a total of 4575 sq.mi. (11,849 km2) in
Algeria and Nigeria, the government has been obliged to the Mediterranean Sea, were put up for auction in Febru-
finance two LNG import regasification terminals. The first ary. According to EGAS, as much as US$9.2 billion worth of
is due to start operation in a few months; the second was exploration deals are being negotiated.
ordered in late 2014. Growing investment into both exploration and develop-
However, the country has immense hydrocarbon re- ment projects will support gas production over the medium-
serves, especially of natural gas, which have to be imple- to-long term. Restarting work on the long-delayed BP-led
mented to reverse, once again, the trend, and place Egypt North Alexandria project is a major step in boosting gas
among the natural gas exporting nations. production. Minority partner RWE Dea announced it is ex-
New licensing rounds, major contract signings and dis- pecting Egypts largest gas project to be online in 2017.
coveries during 2014 support the Business Monitor Interna- This development will add around 2.9 Tcf (8.2 x 109 m3) of
tional (BMI) view that Egypt will be one of the outperformers production at peak.
in the oil and gas industry in 2015, despite weak oil prices. Eni has pledged to increase investment into Egypt after
Developments from both domestic and international oil and being awarded new onshore and offshore exploration acre-
gas companies support the positive outlook for natural gas age in the country. BMI also expects other international oil
production growth over the coming five years and beyond. companies to increase the focus of their investments on the
Egypts state-run gas company, Egyptian Natural Gas country, given the more attractive cost structures, improved
Holding Company (EGAS), has been leading exploration security and long-term demand outlook. This will support
and development, having made 14 discoveries in 2014. new production in the coming four to five years.
According to Chairman Khaled Abd El Badee, the discov- Given the level of investment in exploration and pro-
eries in the Nile Delta and Mediterranean Sea added 3 Tcf duction, BMI sees an upside risk to its already positive
(84 x 109 m3) of new gas reserves. Nine new gas projects forecast for natural gas. It currently forecasts Egypt to
began production in 2014, with four focused on delivering be a net gas importer for at least the next five years,
gas to power stations. As many as 10 new EGAS-led gas largely based on the LNG import contracts signed with
projects could add new gas output in 2015. Sonatrach and Noble Energy, but also potential pipeline
Improvements to the investment environment in Egypt, gas imports from Israel and Cyprus. The substantial return
as well as a concerted effort to repay monies owed to oil of investment into Egypts upstream has the potential to
and gas companies, has lifted confidence in the sector and make the countrys gas importer status a temporary de-
supported a return of exploration. In January 2015, 15 new velopment. That said, BMIs current forecast sees Egypt
exploration deals were signed with major oil and gas firms, as a net gas importer for the next 10 years. Given the
including BP, Eni, Shell and Total, which selected Egypt as upside risk from new investment, it will reassess its out-
an area in which to increase their presence. Egypt contin- look if positive exploration and development results are
ues to remain attractive because of its strong hydrocarbon achieved during 2015. CT2
For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com/events/
I
n the midst of significant budget cutbacks and layoffs in U.S. liquid natural gas (LNG) supplies coming on-line over
the oil and gas exploration and production industry, and the next several years, coupled with slower growth in Chi-
now in the gas compression arena, the burning question nese demand, is expected to soften the LNG market after
is, When will oil and gas prices recover? Mounting evi- 2018 until about 2022. Then, a tighter LNG market is forecast
dence suggests that it wont be anytime soon. as new supplies are delayed because new LNG projects will
The annual Gas/Electric Partnership conference, held in be unable to gain final investment at lower gas prices.
February in Houston, explored this question in depth. In ad- Natural gas liquids (NGL) production growth is also pre-
dition to its usual focus on gas compression facilities, gas/ dicted to continue, driven by shale plays. However, NGL
liquids infrastructure from the wellhead through transmis- prices, especially ethane, could remain relatively low, as
sion and associated power interactions, this year the con- the market development is uncertain, but important to ac-
ference featured several leading energy authorities, who commodate the growing production.
debated the impacts of (lower) oil prices and the outlook for The panel indicated that midstream gas infrastructure
the future. Members of the roundtable were Kevin Petak, development should remain robust, because it is needed
ICF International; Michael Juden, McKinsey & Co.; and Ed- to accommodate growing production and support market
ward Kelly, IHS Inc. growth. Oil infrastructure growth is less certain due to re-
The panels consensus was that a recovery in energy duced oil prices.
prices is unlikely anytime soon. Juden pointed out that an Demand from the colder-than-normal February drew
oil price of US$100/bbl was structurally difficult to support, down gas storage to below the five-year average, but as
because production significantly exceeds demand. He de- of early March inventory was still ahead of last year. Ac-
scribed three possible recovery scenarios: (1) a quick re- cordingly, the NYMEX price had somewhat stabilized in the
covery that requires taking 1.5 MMbbl/d out of the market; US$2.60 to US$2.70/MMBtu range, but it will likely drop
(2) a slow recovery as a result of continued supply growth, from there as demand softens with the arrival of spring.
lack of OPEC action to reduce output and tepid demand Low energy prices and the cost overruns and delays ex-
growth; or (3) no recovery, wherein all producers adjust to perienced during the rapid growth of the past five years will
the lower prices, maintain production and continue to pro- force oil and gas companies to seek more affordable and
tect their market shares. All the analysts agreed that oil pro- improved products and services. This will be felt through-
duction would continue to grow this year, before declining. out the compression supply chain in the form of hungrier
There will be some price volatility in the near term, with esti- competition and pressure on prices, terms and lead times.
mates ranging from US$20 to US$60/bbl. Petak suggested Another risk is the ability of debt-heavy producers being
that oil prices could reach about US$75/bbl by 2018 and able to pay on time or at all. Careful credit management is
then flatten out for the foreseeable future. important during steep downturns.
U.S. gas production will continue to grow because of the As the industry responds to lower prices and reduced
ongoing shale boom. Natural gas prices were also predicted profits with mass layoffs, yet another challenge is to
to remain relatively low over the next year or more, increasing maintain a workforce of sufficient size and balanced age
as demand growth strengthens after 2015. Currently, there is structure to support long-term needs. Skill shortages will
high natural gas demand growth in Asia, about 3% growth re-emerge and set the stage for the next brutal boom-bust
in North America and flat demand in Europe. Australian and cycle. Long-term success is dependent on companies
maintaining their young talent and continuing the support
Norm Shade is senior consultant and president emeritus of ACI of training programs that prepare replacements for older
Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio. A 45-year veteran of the gas workers that are approaching retirement.
compression industry, he has written numerous papers and is Copies of the analysts detailed presentations can be
active in the major industry associations. downloaded from http://bit.ly/1wXVjdO. CT2
n Gas compressor sample from the NG series (model NG14 [144 hp] 110 kW).
T
he compressor division of Ter- up to 1341 hp (1 MW). The company form hydrostatic, mechanical and per-
momeccanica Pompe (TMP) supplies the bare screw compressor to formance tests according to customer
of La Spezia, Italy, is engaged packagers that provide the engineering, specifications. Natural gas compres-
in extending the line of its oil-flooded procurement and construction (EPC) sors are manufactured according to
screw compressors. The present line is contractor or the final customer with API 619 5th Edition specifications, and
designed for pressures up to 290 psi the skid-mounted compression system. ATEX specifications [1-2].
(20 bar). During the course of 2015 Upon the customers request, TMP can Production capacity is 15,000 bare
the company plans to issue the first provide an accessory kit containing the compressors per year, 90% of which
units of the 580 psi (40 bar) family. inlet valve and other components. is exported worldwide. Major export
The development process is carried While the air compressor line is fully countries are the United States and
out entirely in-house with the use of standardized, the gas line is tailored Canada (30%), China, South Korea,
proprietary software. to respond to customer specifica- Europe and Turkey.
TMP has been involved in the de- tions. Depending to gas composition, A global service organization of
velopment and production of screw special materials of the casing and the pumps division is also in charge
compressors for more than 30 years. the screw can be selected, mechani- of servicing the company screw com-
The original line featured air compres- cal seals can feature single or double pressors and rotating machines from
sors for industrial applications and sealing rings, in the case of very ag- other original equipment manufactur-
gas compressors for the compression gressive or flammable gases (hy- ers (OEMs). CT2
of natural gas, hydrogen, carbon diox- drogen), and the compressor casing
ide (CO2), etc., tailored for the oil and can be completely sealed and con- References
gas industry and as booster units for nected to the driver through a mag- [1] API Standard 619, Rotary-Type
gas turbine fuel gas supply. netic coupling. According to TMP, the Positive-Displacement Compressors
Two years ago, TMP introduced the oil-flooded construction of the com- For Petroleum, Petrochemical, And
NG line specifically tailored for natural pressor is best suited to handle dirty Natural Gas Industries, 5th Edition,
gas compression at the well head, to gases, which are purified in the gas American Petroleum Institute, 2010.
cover the needs of shale gas devel- treatment system placed in front of [2] ATEX Equipment Directive (ATEX
opments and flare gas to lower flaring the compressor, and the oil inside the 95), Directive On Equipment And Pro-
of associated gas, which is harmful to casing protects the casing and screw tective Systems Intended For Use In
the environment. surfaces from residual impurities and Potentially Explosive Atmospheres
The present line covers flows up to minimizes leakages. (94/9/EC), European Parliament And
3738 scfm (6000 Nm3/hr) and powers The TMP shop is equipped to per- The Council.
for Cylinder Cook Compression Service Centers give you turnkey cylinder
support. We reline, re-size and perform all related repairs.
www.cookcompression.com
See Whats Happening at Cook Now
TECH
Evaluation Of A Dynamic Variable Orifice
corner
For Reciprocating Compressor Pulsation
Control (Part 1) > Aorifice
dynamic variable orifice (DVO) allows the
size to be adjusted for optimal pulsation
control and efficiency as conditions change
By Norm Shade, Tyler Clark and Jared W. Adair
Editors Note: This paper was delivered at the Gas Ma- with flat gaskets. Once the flanges are installed, the ori-
chinery Research Councils Gas Machinery Conference fice plates remain in place and can only be removed or
meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014. The au- changed by stopping the compressor, completely venting
thors wish to acknowledge the management of ACI Ser- all gas to atmospheric pressure, loosening all the flange-
vices Inc. for providing equipment, facilities, personnel threaded fasteners, removing the original orifice plates, in-
and funding for this research and to Tech Transfer Inc. for stalling new orifice plates with new gaskets, re-assembling
providing the case studies referenced in this article and tightening the threaded fasteners and pressurizing
the system with gas and restarting the compressor.
Background In the majority of applications, compressor operating
Common pulsation attenuation elements include pulsa- conditions speed, suction pressure and temperature,
tion bottles (expansion volumes, often containing internal discharge pressure and temperature, displacement, effec-
baffles, multiple chambers and choke tubes), external choke tive clearance volume, and even the gas composition vary
tubes and fixed orifice plates installed at specific locations with time. Operating condition variations may be gradual
in both the suction and discharge sides of each compres- over time, but are more often intermittent, changing fre-
sor cylinder. These pulsation attenuation devices can be quently to higher or lower levels as dictated by the de-
used separately or in combination to dampen the pressure mands of the application. Some applications, e.g., natural
waves and reduce the resulting forces to acceptable levels. gas transmission and gas storage, have extreme varia-
They typically accomplish pulsation attenuation by adding tions in operating conditions over time. In fact, the majority
resistance to the system, which causes system pressure of reciprocating applications require operation over a wide
drop and energy losses both upstream and downstream speed range as well as multiple flow rates that range from
of the compressor cylinders. The pressure losses typically low to very high flows.
increase as the frequency of the pulsation increases, and Fixed orifice plates are effective in reducing pulsations
they add to the work that must be done by the compressor over a narrow compressor operating range; however, they
to move gas from the suction line to the discharge line [1]. cause an associated pressure drop that adds to the work
Fixed orifice plates are one of the most common ele- and power consumption required by the compressor. The
ments used for pulsation control. They are relatively easy system pulsation control design is almost always a com-
to install and are low in cost, often used at multiple loca- promise between pulsation control and pressure drop or
tions throughout the system. Fixed orifices are thin metal power penalty [3]. For example, a very restrictive (low Beta
sheets having a round hole of a specified diameter, locat- ratio) fixed orifice plate may be required to adequately
ed at the center of the pipe cross section. Most typically, dampen pulsations at certain operating conditions. How-
the Beta ratio, defined as the orifice hole diameter divided ever, at other operating conditions, the pulsations might
by the inside diameter of the pipe in which it is installed, be acceptable with a less-restrictive (larger Beta ratio),
is in the range of 0.5 to 0.7 [2]. However, smaller and fixed orifice plate or possibly with no orifice plate at all. In
larger Beta ratios are sometimes used. The orifice plate addition, a fixed orifice plate that controls pulsations with a
is retained between two adjacent pipe flanges that are tolerable pressure drop and power penalty at some condi-
held together with multiple threaded fasteners and sealed tions may cause excessive damping, pressure drop and
power penalty at other conditions.
Norm Shade, PE, is senior consultant for ACI Services Inc., Consequently, multiple challenges occur when trying to
Cambridge, Ohio. Tyler Clark, EIT, is project engineer for ACI achieve pulsation control with pulsation bottles and fixed
Services Inc., Cambridge, Ohio. Jared W. Adair is acoustical orifice plates. A typical disclaimer by a pulsation control
analyst for Tech Transfer Inc., Houston. designer states that Orifice and choke tube diameters are
Silencers
quadruple-tuned reactive elements that eectively controls sound
Allows for lower back pressure and higher sound attenuation
than multiple silencers or silencers in a series
QUAD-TUNED Design algorithm allows tuning of the muer to match
technology raises the bar a specic engines rpm and engine gas temperature for
optimal performance
for noise reduction!
Can be applied to both Inline and Ground Access designs
ENGINEERED TO PERFORM
800-640-3141 | MIRATECHCORP.COM
APRIL 2015 1
Miratech.indd 17 Compressortech
3/20/15 10:57 AM
2
Optimal Common Optimal Common Optimal Common
Operating Case 1 3 8
Cyl 1 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cly 1 - SACE Cyl 1 - DA; Nominal HE Clearance
Cyl 2 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cly 2 - SACE Cyl 2 - DA; Nominal HE Clearance
Load Step
Cyl 3 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cly 3 - SACE Cyl 3 - DA; Nominal HE Clearance
Cyl 4 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cyl 4 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cyl 4 - DA; Nominal HE Clearance
Suction Temperature (F) 62 62 61
Suction Pressure (psig) 705 735 850
Discharge Pressure (psig) 981 981 1000
Speed (rpm) 1200 1084 1200
Power Required (hp) 1370 784 1245
Flow Rate (MMscfd) 86.5 58.0 149.9
Suction Bottle Inlet Orifice Diameter (in.) 7.44 5.50 4.25 5.50 7.44 5.50
Cylinder Suction Flange Orifice Diameter (in.) 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 5.00 3.75
Cylinder Discharge Flange Orifice Diameter (in.) 3.75 3.50 3.75 3.50 5.50 3.50
Discharge Bottle Outlet Orifice Diameter (in.) 5.50 4.25 3.50 4.25 5.50 4.25
Suction Line Pressure Drop (psi) 10.80 13.80 11.60 6.10 11.00 33.60
Suction Line Pressure Drop (%) 1.53 1.96 1.58 0.83 1.29 3.95
Suction Line Power (hp) 13.70 17.40 9.80 5.20 19.20 58.50
Suction Line Pulsation (psi) 15.90 13.70 54.00 88.20 5.70 4.30
Suction Line Pulsation (% Average Pressure) 2.20 1.90 7.20 11.80 0.70 0.50
Discharge Line Pressure Drop (psi) 9.70 18.90 15.60 8.90 12.10 52.10
Discharge Line Pressure Drop (%) 0.99 1.93 1.59 0.91 1.21 5.21
Discharge Line Power (hp) 9.40 18.20 10.60 6.20 18.40 79.20
Discharge Line Pulsation (psi) 13.90 13.00 55.70 57.60 1.70 1.70
Discharge Line Pulsation (% Average Pressure) 1.40 1.30 5.60 5.80 0.20 0.20
Total Pressure Drop (psi) 20.50 32.70 27.20 15.00 23.10 85.70
Total Line Power (hp) 23.10 35.60 20.40 11.40 37.60 137.70
% System Power Cost 1.69 2.60 2.60 1.45 3.02 11.06
Daily Fuel Cost @ US$3.50/MMBtu $13.58 $20.93 $12.00 $6.70 $22.11 $80.97
Savings Per Day $7.35 -$5.29 $58.86
Savings Per Year At 96% Utilization $2575.44 -$1854.34 $20,624.12
at each cylinder discharge flange. A flat-plate orifice was change. The set was selected to provide the best overall
also placed at the outlet flange on each discharge bottle. performance at operating case 1, which is the highest pow-
The compressor and piping system was modeled and er condition. At this condition, the suction (from the suction
analyzed over the range of operating conditions to deter- header to the compressor cylinder suction flange) and dis-
mine the pulsations throughout the system. The analysis charge (from the compressor cylinder discharge flange to
results of three of the 18 specified operating conditions the discharge header) pressure drops are 1.96 and 1.93%
are presented in Table 1. of line pressure, respectively. The suction and discharge
Operating case 1 is a 1200 rpm operating point with pulsations are controlled to 1.9 and 1.3% of the line pres-
all four cylinders in double-acting (DA) mode, but with sure, respectively, and the associated power consumed by
volumetric clearance added to the cylinder head end the suction and discharge pressure drops is 2.60%.
to reduce the capacity to a rating of 86.5 MMscfd (2.45 x A more optimal set of orifices, for operating case 1,
106 m3/d). controls the suction and discharge pulsations to 2.2 and
Operating case 3 is a 1084 rpm operating point with 1.4%, respectively, which would be acceptable for that
three cylinders in single-acting (SACE) mode and one case based on analysis of the resulting shaking forces.
in DA mode with volumetric clearance added to the The larger-diameter orifices in the optimal set resulted in
head to reduce capacity to a rating of 58 MMscfd (1.64 x suction and discharge pressure drops of 1.53 and 0.99%,
106 m3/d). respectively, with an associated power consumption of
Operating case 8 is a 1200 rpm operating point with 1.69%. This translates to a savings of US$7.35 in driver
all four cylinders acting in DA mode with no volumetric fuel cost per day, based on a fuel cost of US$3.50/MMBtu
clearance added to the head for a maximum capacity (1055 x 106 kJ). If the compressor were to operate at this
of 149.9 MMscfd (4.24 x 106 m3/d). operating condition all the time, with the assumption of the
As is customary, a common set of flat-plate orifices was industry norm of 96% availability, use of the optimal orifice
selected for all operating conditions. As shown in Table 1, set would result in annual fuel savings of US$2575.44. Al-
a common set of orifices is far from optimal as conditions though the savings is significant, operating case 1 does
80 MMscfd (2.26 x 106 m3/d) limit imposed on the unit due million annually. Option 2 is generally not a practical alter-
to use of the fixed orifices. Based on a US$3.50/MMBtu native because of its high cost, its labor intensity, the en-
(1055 x 106 kJ) gas price, this lost production opportunity vironmental impact from the more frequent venting of gas
would be nearly US$14,000 per day or more than US$5.1 from the system to the atmosphere, and the fact that flow
n Figure 2 (top). Flat DVO showing fixed lower-ported plate held be-
tween pipe flanges and rotatable upper-ported plate (bottom). A worm IDEAL ANALYZER TO
gear rotates the upper-ported plate to align its ports relative to ports in
the fixed lower-ported plate to increase or decrease the DVO Beta ratio. MEASURE ENGINE EMISSIONS
conditions are not always predictable or controllable, which
could pose a risk to operational safety.
NEW
E4500
Total NOx
Case study 2 O2, CO, NO, & NO 2
The second study involved a two-stage, four-throw,
4.5 in. (110.25 mm) stroke compressor with two 7.25 in. Auto Data Saving
(190.5 mm) diameter cylinders and two 5.00 in. (127 mm)
diameter cylinders, driven by a 1200 rpm, 1480 hp (1103 kW) CO Auto-Range
To 50,000 ppm
gas engine in a gas processing application. The end user
provided 13 different operating conditions that defined PC Software With
the wide range over which the system was required to BlueTooth & USB
operate. Performance at operating case 1, which is the
highest power condition, results in unacceptable pulsa-
tion levels for operating case 3. On the other hand, se- Now with Service Centers in
lecting a common set that controls pulsations at case 3
results in very high-pressure drops that result in a fuel
PA, CA, & Canada
cost penalty of US$28.15 per day, or US$9,862.91 per
year. More importantly, it results in 1.73 MMscfd (0.22 x E Instruments
106 m3/d) less flow from the compressor, a reduction
215-750-1212
of 11.7%. To a producer, this has a potential economic
value of US$6055 per day, or more than US$2.1 million www.E-Inst.com
annually, in lost production.
continued on page 22 Built with Quality In Mind
APRIL 2015 21 Compressortech2
ratio is at a maximum when the ports are fully open. The
DVO Beta ratios can be selectively designed from a mini-
mum of typically 0.4 to 0.5, or lower, up to a maximum of
0.7 to 0.8, or higher, if necessary.
The shapes of the upper and lower ported plates can be
flat as shown in Figures 2(a) and (b), conical as shown in
Figures 3(a) and (b), or a combination thereof. The upper-
ported plate is typically rotated (Figure 3[b]) in one direc-
tion about the lower fixed ported plate to reduce the effec-
tive orifice size, and in an opposite direction to increase
the effective orifice size.
The lower plate has an integral flange that fits between
pipe flanges and supports, and contains the entire as-
sembly and provides mounts for an actuator and provi-
sions for control position sensors, if needed. The worm
gear can be driven manually using an external handle
or wrench, or automatically using a small electric or
pneumatic actuator. Selected DVO orifice positions can
be locked with a spring-loaded detent arrangement or
sensed and actively controlled via feedback from one or
multiple electronic sensors (when a more sophisticated
control approach is necessary).
The basic DVO mechanical structure, positioning mech-
anism and seals are designed for 1500 psig (103.5 bar).
DVOs can be designed for essentially any pipe size and
600# or 900# ANSI (American National Standards Institute;
www.ansi.org) flange ratings to provide a range of Beta ra-
tios as may be required within this pressure limit. Higher-
n Figure 3 (top). Conical DVO showing fixed lower-ported plate pressure applications may be possible with special designs.
held between pipe flanges and rotatable upper-ported plate (bot- The positioning mechanism and flange spacing are the
tom). A worm gear rotates the upper-ported plate to align its ports same for the flat and conical DVO configurations. The
relative to ports in the fixed lower ported plate to increase or de- flat DVO can be slipped between properly spaced mat-
crease the DVO Beta ratio. ing flanges; however, its maximum Beta ratio is less than
that of the conical DVO. The conical DVO can provide a
Both of the foregoing case studies show the potential for wider range of Beta ratios; yet, it requires removal of a
operating improvements if there were a practical method pipe spool piece for installation and removal of the DVO
of changing orifice sizes as operating conditions change. assembly. The shape of the conical DVO typically results
The rest of this article describes a new technology that in a decreased pressure drop for a given Beta ratio or
provides such a solution. flow area. CT2
H
otstarts OSE Small Capacity Oil Heating System
is the companys latest offering for the oil and gas
market. The OSE is a compact oil-heating system
that features a pump and automatic controls to heat and
circulate oil in small compressors. The heating system is
also designed to pre-lube the compressor frame with a
single piece of equipment rather than requiring a sepa-
rate pre-lube unit.
The OSE was designed specifically for smaller compres-
sors and small-engine heating applications. The OSEs
maximum lubricant flow rate is 7.4 gpm (28 L/min) with a
heating power of 2.0 or 3.6 hp (1.5 or 2.5 kW).
The heating system pulls oil from the compressor sump
using a positive displacement oil pump. Oil is heated and
circulated through the compressor lubricating system.
Pre-lubing compressors with heated oil reduces conden-
sation and supplies consistent pressure to the lubricating
system with minimal variation in viscosity. Compressors
can benefit from pre-lubing in both cold climates and
high-humidity climates where temperature variations can
result in damaging condensation.
en
Relia
REE
t
und
En
iro
so
profiled picture.
nmentally
v
The REE Assessment carried out on-site by HOERBIGER senior compressor
experts ranks your equipment using the REE index. It supports you in
Profiled
choosingvalve plates made
the technology PowerPEEK:
of and
needed in making business decisions.
the CP valve combines the efficiency of profiled valve rings
with the reliability and simplicity of conventional valve plates.
Editors Note: This paper was de- information associated with that equip- the chemicals once the release occurs.
livered at the 2014 Gas Processors ment. This paper also proposes a spe- The mechanical integrity program
Association (GPA) meeting in Dallas, cific methodology for the determination is a secondary line of defense, and
Texas, April 13-16, 2014. of equipment that should be included if properly deployed, can serve as an
in the mechanical integrity program early warning indicator to a potential
O
SHA 1910.119 (Occupational through differentiation of mechanical unwanted release. Referring again to
Safety and Health Admin- integrity and operational reliability. Appendix C of OSHA 1910.119, The
istration [OSHA], 2012) ex- Appendix C of OSHA 1910.119 dis- first step of an effective mechanical
plains that a catastrophic release is cusses the various lines of defense integrity program is to compile and
a major uncontrolled emission, fire, employers have with regard to pro- categorize a list of process equipment
or explosion, involving one or more cess safety. Specifically, Appendix C and instrumentation for inclusion in
highly hazardous chemicals that pres- states, The first line of defense an the program. The list should then be
ents serious danger to employees in employer has available is to operate categorized by priority.
the workplace. The intent of mechan- and maintain the process as designed, As previously stated, the MEL is the
ical integrity programs is to assure and to keep the chemicals contained. proposed tool by which summary lev-
the continued integrity of the process Control of chemical release is the next el process equipment and mechanical
equipment [1]. line of defense in which unwanted re- integrity information is retained. An
A practical approach toward me- leases are prevented. Secondary pro- example MEL is shown in Tables 1
chanical integrity programs for gas pro- tection includes fixed fire-protection and 2. (Note: It is probably a bit more
cessing plants is discussed and how systems like sprinklers, water spray, optimal to collect this information in a
the intent of OSHA 1910.119 is accom- or deluge systems, monitor guns, etc., spreadsheet as opposed to immedi-
plished, with particular emphasis on dikes, designed drainage systems, ately implementing some sort of data-
process vessels. The paper will provide and other systems that would control base management solution.)
several examples of the underlying or mitigate hazardous chemicals once Tables 1 and 2 are tailored toward
thought processes, a flowchart to as- an unwanted release occurs. vessels. Appropriate column head-
sist in the application of API 510 [2] with The key thought is that highly haz- ings and information for relief valves,
respect to performance of vessel inter- ardous chemicals are kept where emergency shutdown systems, and
nal inspections, and development of a they belong (i.e., away from people) other second line of defense equip-
single document, hereinafter named and that the process is operated as it ment would be necessary for a com-
the Master Equipment List (MEL) as was designed to operate. In the event plete MEL.
a reference document that provides of an unwanted release, a secondary The next step in developing a me-
summary level information of process line of defense is deployed to ensure chanical integrity program is to iden-
equipment and the mechanical integrity the release is conducted in as safe tify those pieces of equipment that
a manner as possible and that addi- are candidates for participation. It
Barry Keys is a senior engineering man- tional systems/programs have been is clear that not all pieces of equip-
ager at Midcoast Energy Partners. deployed to control and/or mitigate continued on page 28
INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS
As a natural gas certified hazardous area
provider, our team provides superior, reliable
panel systems tailored for the market. We
integrate Murphys rugged products as well
as the leading PLC brands to create a
solution to fit your application.
LIFETIME SUPPORT
Service after the sale is our priority.
With personnel dedicated to start-up
assistance, in-field application support
and 24-hour technical support, you
have a partner to rely on for the life of
your Murphy panel.
Visit us at:
Booth PQ-3
April 20-22 Galveston, Texas
Moody Gardens Hotel & Convention Center
n Table 2. Master Equipment List summary level M1 information for equipment (Vessels).
Last Next
Physical Last Internal Next Internal
Equipment Inspection Inspection External External
Tag # Entry Inspection Inspection Comments
Classification for MI Requirement Inspection Inspection
Possible Date Due Date
Date Due Date
No
Evidence Of
Pressure
HTR-1301 Yes No API 510 4/30/2009 4/30/2014 5/15/2012 5/15/2022 Pitting Or
Vessel
Localized
Corrosion
n Table 3. Proposed MEL information for equipment not requiring mechanical integrity inspections.
ment have the potential of causing a integrity and operational reliability the list and quantities of chemicals for
catastrophic failure while it is equally is initiated. As previously stated, the consideration in process safety man-
clear that inspections should be per- key thought for process safety is to agement and it is well recognized that
formed to ensure ongoing reliable keep the hazardous chemicals con- uncontrolled releases of these chemi-
operations. To this end, the idea of tained while operating within design cals above their threshold amounts
differentiating between mechanical parameters. OSHA 1910.119 defines continued on page 30
Yes No
Refined Catastrophic
Refined Equipment List
Equipment List Failure?
No
No
Physical
Entry Refined Equipment Done
Possible? List
Inspections
Desired For
Operational
Yes Reliability?
Special
Circumstances No
Warranting Yes
Refined Equipment Additional
List Inspections
Yes
Perform On-Stream/
Additional
Inspections
Perform Internal/ Engineering Provide Ops Define Scope Of
On-Stream Resolution To Desired Inspections
Inspections Inspection Inquiry
Engineering
Provide Resolution
To Inspection
Safe, Effective,
Efficient And
Reliable Plant
would be considered as catastrophic that asks, If a major, uncontrolled failure? Quite simply, if the answer
failures. Given this list of chemicals, release of this substance occurred, were yes, then the particular piece of
an evaluation needs to be conducted would it be considered a catastrophic equipment under consideration would
RUNOUT
1.800.558.4322
dictionary@dieselpub.com
STOP,
sue the use of on-stream inspections
vs. internal inspections, as follows:
Physically impossible to enter or
If physically possible but:
General corrosion rate is known
PROBLEMS
START.
to be <0.005 in./yr (0.127 mm/yr)
Remaining life is >10 years
K nown corrosion mechanisms
and effects have been traced for
five years
N o questionable conditions re- For over 90 years, Sloan Lubrication Systems has provided
sulting from external inspections the most dependable, accurate and comprehensive
O perational temperature < creep lubrication solutions for your reciprocating and rotary
rupture temperature equipment. So when you cant afford downtime (and frankly,
Vessel not subject to environmen- who can?), put our generations of expertise into designing
tal cracking or hydrogen damage and applying the ideal components for your systems.
N o noninternally bonded lining
such as strip lining or plate lining
Figure 1 identifies a process flow-
chart that may be followed to differen- Protection is peace of mind.
tiate between internal inspections per- Optimize your systems with Sloan.
formed for either mechanical integrity
or operational reliability purposes.
Using the guidance shown in Fig-
ure 1 and an updated MEL, it is now 1.800.722.0250
possible to generate a list of equip- Sales@SloanLubrication.com
ment that requires inspections from a SloanLubrication.com
mechanical integrity perspective and
an operational reliability perspective.
I
t takes a significant amount of en- commonly found on reciprocating en- engine or in electricity purchased from
ergy to transport the ever-growing gines, where an ORC generator can the grid. By adding an ORC to an en-
supply of natural gas in the United increase engine performance and de- gine installation, the parasitic load of
States from where it is produced to crease fuel consumption by convert- cooling the engine can be greatly re-
where it is consumed. At each natu- ing the engines jacket water and/or duced or even eliminated. The ORC
ral gas compression station there exhaust into additional electricity for turns the cost of cooling into the pay-
are multiple opportunities to con- the site. The typical engine runs at ap- back of cooling.
vert the existing waste heat streams proximately 35% efficiency, resulting
to additional electricity for the site in considerable waste heat from the Excess heat abounds
and potentially more horsepower for jacket water and the exhaust. Most industrial processes, though
increased compression and plant Engine applications include prime designed with efficiency in mind, shed
throughput. The existing waste heat power production in remote areas, excess/unused heat in some form
streams can be converted to more island and developing nations, bio- and in significant amounts. Heat may
power with no added fuel or emis- gas gen-sets such as landfill and originate from boilers, engines, fur-
sions, using technology that is prov- wastewater treatment plants, and naces, incinerators, etc., or it may
en and established worldwide. renewable biofuels. The thousands originate from other processes, in-
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) tech- of natural gas compression engines cluding gas compression, chemical
nology has been around for decades, across the globe provide a great op- reactions and more.
but only recently established itself portunity for waste-heat-to-power. The majority of the heat resulting
as a proven source of power gen- The abundance of waste heat in its from the combustion of fuel in an in-
eration from low-temperature waste many forms provides for the renew- ternal combustion engine is lost in the
heat streams. Such heat streams are able you already have. coolant and exhaust, each of which
Because ORC generators work as represents an opportunity for heat re-
John Fox is the chief executive officer at cooling devices, they can act as the covery (Figure 1). This level of heat
ElectraTherm. He holds a BS in mechani- engines radiator, essentially working rejection is common to diesel, gas, or
cal engineering and a masters degree in as a radiator with a payback. For all biomass-powered reciprocating en-
engineering mechanics from Penn State engine applications, there is an as- gines. Exhaust stack gases from virtu-
University. He also has an MBA from the sociated cost of cooling the engine, ally all combustion processes (ovens,
University of Pittsburgh. either in horsepower provided by the continued on page 34
REDUCE DOWNTIME
stance to do mechanical work, in this
case on a generator.
The fraction of heat that is theoreti-
cally recoverable is limited by the Car-
not efficiency equation, given as:
1 - (TH / TC)
WITH FIELD REPAIRS
provided that temperatures are mea-
sured in Kelvin or Rankine degrees.
ON-SITE REPAIRS PERFORMED BY CERTIFIED
Thermal efficiencies range between SAFETY-TRAINED EXPERTS
6 and 12%. Although the numbers
seems small, since the heat is already
going to waste, the fuel source is es-
sentially free.
The heat from the condenser can
be reused, though not for generating
more electricity because of its low
temperature, but in applications for
low-temperature heat, such as district
heating, greenhouses, aquaculture, do-
mestic hot water preheating, radiant
heating, swimming pools, de-icing, etc.
By Norm Shade
S
olar Turbines reports erating in oil and gas applications, such as sales gas, export,
that its Titan 250 gas gas transmission and gas lift. In the power generation indus-
turbine has gained wide try, the Titan 250 is operating in pulp and paper, chemical
acceptance in the six years since it processing, and other industrial and institutional combined
was introduced. The first unit entered heat and power applications across the world. Customers
service in 2009 at a gas transmission bought the Titan 250 based on the reputation and experience
site, and now more than 40 Titan 250s of Solar Turbines, Dutt said. Many prefer an industrial gas
have been purchased in 14 countries turbine to an aero-derivative and they favor the Solar Tur-
on six continents. The Titan 250 fleet bines service model. There are many repeat customers for
has accumulated more than 200,000 the Titan 250 already.
combined operating hours of experi- Since Solar Turbines entered the industrial gas turbine busi-
ence, and a few engines are nearing ness in 1960, its worldwide-installed fleet of gas turbines has
the first overhaul cycle. The turbines grown to more than 15,000 units that have logged more than
have established successful experi- 2.3 billion hours of operation in 100 countries. Over the past
ence in compressor set, generator set five decades, Solar has developed and introduced ever-larger
and mechanical drive applications, gas turbines for power generation and oil and gas applications.
said Manoj X. Dutt, manager, oil and A major increase in the Solar gas turbine power range oc-
gas marketing at Solar Turbines. curred in 1997 with the introduction of the Titan 130 at 20,500 hp
Titan 250 turbines are currently op- (15,290 kW). Introduction of the Titan 250 extended its range
significantly further. With an Internation- ratio. Variable guide vanes on the compressor inlet and five
al Standards Organization (ISO; 59F stators enable smooth, reliable starting and stopping. Com-
[15C], sea level, 60% relative humidity, pressor blades and stator vanes are coated with inorganic
zero inlet and exhaust losses) continuous aluminum for corrosion resistance and increased durability.
duty rating of 30,000 hp (23,370 kW), the The four-piece, split-case design simplifies field maintenance.
Titan 250 is the largest gas turbine model The combustion system follows Solar Turbiness traditional
that Solar Turbines manufactures. annular design with an augmented backside-cooled liner to en-
Company officials said that the Titan sure long-term durability. The combustor section is available
250s 6360 Btu/hp-hr (9000 kJ/kW-hr) in dry-low emissions (SoLoNOx) or conventional models for
heat rate is the best in its class. The gen- usage on a wide range of gaseous and liquid fuels. First intro-
erator set version has a continuous duty duced in 1992, the SoLoNOx system uses lean-burn technolo-
rating of 21,745 kWe and heat rate of gies to reduce NOx and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions over
8775 Btu/kWe-hr (9260 kJ/kWe-hr). an ever-increasing range of ambient temperatures and operat-
Unlike aeroderivative gas turbines, ing conditions. The combustion system is available in either a
which were originally designed for the dry mode or a wet mode for reduced NOx emissions.
aviation industry and later modified for The two-stage axial gas generator turbine has a maximum
stationary applications, industrial gas tur- speed of 10,500 rpm. It features internally air-cooled first-
bines, such as the Titan 250, were en- and second-stage nozzle vanes as well as internally cooled
gineered from inception for power gen- first-stage rotor blades. The design provides cylindrical blade
eration and oil and gas applications. In tips and a rub-tolerant coating for improved tip control and in-
developing the Titan 250, Solar Turbines creased efficiency. The thrust bearing is a tilting-pad type and
leveraged proven technology by taking the anti-thrust bearing is a fixed tapered land type.
the best from its other proven products. The three-stage axial power turbine has a maximum speed
The 250s aerodynamics have been opti- of 7000 rpm. The configuration utilizes shrouded blades to
mized in such a way that its 40% simple- maximize efficiency and flatten the power curve. Both the
cycle mechanical efficiency is achieved thrust and anti-thrust bearings are tilting-pad type. Tilting-pad
at a firing temperature that allows the journal bearings are used for both turbine rotors. Turbine and
use of proven, durable materials for the nozzles blades of both rotors have a precious metal diffusion
hot section of the turbine. In addition, the aluminide coating.
modular design improves maintainability. Solar Turbines builds complete turbomachinery packagers
Its package weight and compact size al- that are ready to work when they leave the factory. The fully
lows it to be transported in one piece in- integrated packages are designed to minimize life cycle cost,
side a commercial airplane. with the objective of making shipping, installation, operation
The Titan 250 gas turbine is an indus- and maintenance easier. Standard pre-engineered packages,
trial two-shaft design. The 16-stage axial as well as customized packages, are available. Titan 250 gas
compressor develops a 24:1 pressure continued on page 40
turbine systems are provided as me- include NEC Class I, Group D, Div. 1 or The packages feature stainless or
chanical drive packages for compres- 2; ATEX Zone 2; or CENELEC Zone carbon steel inlet and exhaust sys-
sors and pumps and as electric gen- 1. Package options are also available tem options, a complete enclosure
erator sets for prime power on offshore for FPSO applications. with associated options, direct-drive
platforms, floating production storage In addition to vibration monitoring, variable frequency drive (VFD) al-
and offloading (FPSO) vessels, gas control options include a 120 Vdc ternating current (ac) motor start-
production and process facilities. Elec- battery/charger system, turbine and ing system, natural gas fuel system,
tric generator sets are also provided package temperature monitoring, tur- turning gear system and lube oil sys-
for combined heat and power, peak- bine performance map, compressor tems that include a turbine-driven
ing, power/load management, district performance map, historical displays, main pump, ac motor-driven pre- and
heating and cooling, and base load printer/logger, serial link supervisory post-lube pumps, tank vent separa-
power in a variety of industries and fa- interface, process controls, compres- tor and flame trap, lube oil filter and
cilities, including hospitals, universities, sor anti-surge control, multiple-unit optional oil cooler and heater. Speed
rural electric coops, municipal utilities, sequencing, field programming and increasing or decreasing gearboxes
food processing, pulp and paper mills, remote monitoring and diagnostics. also can be included when required
manufacturing facilities, mining and
refineries. Titan 250 compressor sets
n This Solar Titan 250
are offered for gas gathering, gas lift,
SoloNox gas turbine driv-
storage/withdrawal and transmission
ing a Solar pipeline com-
applications. A matching family of So-
pressor entered service at
lar gas compressors has been devel-
a Utah gas transmission
oped for gas transmission and higher-
station in early 2012.
pressure upstream applications.
The standard modular Titan 250
mechanical drive package measures
33.75 ft. (10.3 m) long by 12 ft. (3.7 m)
wide by 13.5 ft. (4.2 m) high and
weighs 116,000 lb. (50,620 kg), not
including the driven equipment. Stan-
dard skids include drip pans, Type
316L stainless-steel piping, compres-
sion-type tube fittings and a freestand-
ing microprocessor control panel with
color video display. Electrical options
E
xline Inc., a family-owned gas The partnership will give Miba bet-
compression service and equip- ter market exposure through Exline,
ment provider, has formed a he said. In turn, Exline gains access
partnership with Miba Bearings, a man- to Mibas full-line bearing capabil-
ufacturer of bearings and brushings for ity and technology, which will now be
the natural gas and power generation available to Exline customers.
industry based in McConnelsville, Ohio. Exline and Miba will benefit from
The newly formed partnership al- the relationship and the name recog-
lows Exline to sell and install bearings nition that both companies enjoy in
and bushings, expanding its repair, the industry, Exline said. n Exlines Kevin Einhaus (left), di-
manufacturing and service capabili- Miba is not the first partnership for vision manager for parts services,
ties. Exline customers benefit from Exline. The company also has part- and John Luder, project manager,
having a full-service experience for nerships with Altronic (20 years), examine some Miba bearings in
nearly all makes and models of recip- Enginuity (15 years, sold to Dresser- Exlines warehouse.
rocating engines and compressors. Rand), and Exterran (less than a
Im very excited about the part- year). CT2
nership, said Rob Exline, owner
and president of Exline. Its a very
strategic alignment that we can both
benefit from. Experience, Reliability, Integrity...
Exline, headquartered in Salina,
Kansas, provides expertise in a
wide range of on-site services, such
as mechanical, machining, controls
and foundation, as well as in-house
repair, manufacturing and transpor-
tation services.
The inner workings of the partner-
ship began as early as an impromp-
tu meeting in October 2013 at the
GMRC Conference in New Mexico.
The dialogue began there and contin-
ued with several meetings between
the two companies. Mibas product
line specifically main bearings,
connecting rod bearings and bush-
ings became of interest to Exline,
which was looking to strengthen its
parts and services division.
The availability of high-quality main
The AXH manufacturing complex consists of
and rod bearings is challenging at
six plants, totaling 553,500 SF on 67 acres.
times and it is our plan to stock many
of the more popular items, Exline said.
Miba really supports and plays into
the larger strategy were trying to do
(918) 283-9200 Fax (918) 283-9229 www.axh.com
here, Exline said, referring to the com-
panys parts and services division.
A
ccording to safety experts, compressor valve in-
stallation and removal is a leading cause of work-
place injuries in gas compression operations.
Awkward angles, heavy parts, hot, greasy surfaces and
dangerous pinch points combine to increase the risk of
serious injury to extremities, as well as cause overex-
ertion injuries from lifting, pushing and holding valves
in place. These problems are magnified with larger size
valves, cramped spaces, extreme weather conditions
and poorly lit work areas.
Targeting safe valve installation and removal, Cook
Compression engineers have developed the Valve In-
stallation Tool (V.I.T.). The proprietary V.I.T. allows a
single operator to securely hold, move and align valves
when installing or removing them from the cylinder. The
procedure can be completed by only one worker sup-
ported by an overhead crane.
The full weight of the compressor valve is supported
continued on page 48
n Figure 1. Valve Installation Tool (top to bottom): V.I.T. body,
Skip Foreman is director of product sales Americas for Cook guide lever, jam nut and coupler.
Compression.
www.dragonproductsltd.com 1-800-231-8198
Copyright 2015 Modern Group Inc. All rights reserved.
by the V.I.T. This is particularly important for valves in
the lower position on the cylinder, where workers oth-
erwise have to continuously lift and hold valves in posi-
tion. The V.I.T. also maneuvers the valve into and out of
the seat area, keeping workers hands safely away from
tight clearances in the valve port.
Typical valve installation or removal procedure can be
completed in less than 10 minutes.
The V.I.T. consists of a tool body, threaded coupler,
jam nut and guide bar (Figure 1). The installation proce-
dure varies slightly depending upon whether the valve is
bottom-loaded or top-loaded on the cylinder.
Valve removal
For valve removal, installation procedures are sim-
ply reversed. The valve cover is removed and the
V.I.T. body is bolted to the cylinder. The coupler is at-
tached to the valve assembly and secured with the
jam nut. The valve assembly is then backed out of the
port with the handheld wrench.
To complete removal, the V.I.T. is unbolted from the
cylinder and the secured V.I.T./valve assembly is then
lifted away from the cylinder using an overhead crane.
n Figure 4. Drill moves assembly into The V.I.T. is available for valves on almost any gas
valve port for seating. compressor. With the high incidence of injuries from
handling compressor valves, the V.I.T. offers a practical
way to significantly improve workplace safety. CT2
Make it yours.
Rotating equipment solutions that generate the results you want.
When you have a challenge out there in the eld, you want your solution, not someone elses.
And thats precisely what you get with Dresser-Rand. Thats because our experts will work
hand in hand with your experts to create a solution thats exclusively yours. One that not only
makes sense, but makes a difference for your business. To see how weve helped some of the
biggest names in the industry achieve their goals, visitdresser-rand.com/yours
Baseline Testing Provides
Opportunities For Continuous
Improvement > Examining the past for future advancements By Robert Vaughan, Wally Bratek
and Michael Hahn
Editors Note: This paper was struction and commissioning of five, tion program. This allows the owner to
presented at the Gas Machinery Re- electric-drive 6500 hp (4847 kW) compare the actual field results with
search Council meeting in Nashville, KBZ/6 compressor packages. This is the intended design. Three issues to
Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014. the third large-scale facility installed address when developing the testing
in the region and it includes a num- plan are determining the method of
C
ontinuous improvement is an ber of improvements from the first data collection, defining the required
important philosophy at Shell. one. Later, improvements were ap- scope, and comparing field results to
For the rotating engineering plied to the Sundance Compressor/ the design model.
team, this goal is accomplished by Dehy Station, which has 1680 hp
looking at each new facility and finding (1253 kW) JGK/4 and 840 hp (626 kW) Vibration analyzers
ways to improve the design, construc- JGK/2 compressors. The testing system must collect a
tion and commissioning process for By examining the results of the large amount of data to identify the
the rotating equipment, balancing reli- baseline vibration testing and past worst-case problems for machines
ability and integrity objectives with im- compressor installations, Shell has operating across different conditions
pacts on capital and operating costs, identified a number of reliability and in- and speeds. Vibration measurements
practical design and operations. tegrity improvement opportunities for are needed at many locations in the
Shell Canada has commissioned a reciprocating compressor packages. piping system and should be collected
200 MMscfd (5.71 x 106 Nm3/d) gas Beta Machinery Analysis (BETA) was at various conditions, load steps, and
plant located in northeastern Brit- involved as part of the design team for across the entire speed range. For
ish Columbia, Canada. The Saturn these facilities, conducted the onsite these reasons, a multichannel ana-
1 project included the design, con- baseline testing, and supported Shell lyzer, with the capability to simultane-
with the improvement initiative. ously measure 50-plus channels, has
Robert Vaughan, PEng, PMP, is a staff ro- many advantages.
tating equipment engineer at Shell Glob- Baseline vibration testing approach Utilizing a multichannel analyzer
al Solutions. Wally Bratek, MSc, PEng, is Continuous improvement requires for baseline testing, as shown in Fig-
a principal engineer at Beta Machinery accurate data to make informed deci- ure 1, minimizes the need to conduct
Analysis. Michael Hahn, PEng, is a project sions. The best way to obtain this is multiple tests and speed sweeps,
manager at Beta Machinery Analysis. through a baseline testing and inspec- thereby reducing the stress on the
compressor and saving considerable QUALITY LUBRICANTS YOU CAN DEPEND ON.
measurement time. After the initial
transducer setup is complete, the
compressor can be ramped though
the speed range while collecting each
of the vibration test points at once.
Then, load steps can be changed,
and the test is repeated.
This kind of comprehensive test
would be very difficult with only a
two- or four-channel analyzer, since
the few transducers would have to
be manually moved between tests,
and many compressor speed sweeps
would be required. Also, with fewer
channels and multiple speed sweeps,
there is a loss of consistency in the Stocking
data since pressures may change locations in
between speed sweeps and the vibra- the U.S. &
tion phase relationship between vibra-
tion test points is lost.
Canada
While a two- or four-channel ana- SERVICES
lyzer is sufficient for troubleshooting Customized Lubricant Application Selection
work where the focus is on a specific
Oil Analysis Lab and Problem Application Support
vibration problem area, a multichan-
nel analyzer is required for compre- New Product Development
hensive baseline vibration testing. PRODUCTS
Semi Synthetics Synthetic Polyalkylene Glycols (PAGs)
Scope of vibration testing
Often, owners and operators focus Synthetic Polyol Esters (POEs) Synthetic Diesters
on the equipment on the skid and for- Synthetic Polyalphaolefin (PAOs)
get to measure important risk areas
off-skid, such as header piping. For a
large unit, on-site testing time ranges 866.366.5699 Fax: 281.367.5685 Synthosol.com
between one and two days, depend- mpe@mastersprocess.com
ing on the facility. After agreeing on a
n Table 1. Angular Gap Tolerance for ASME B31.3 vs. API 686 Piping tolerances, fit-up, and field
connections
Field testing has verified that high-
frequency vibrations are amplified in
locations with excessive pipe strain or
poor piping installation and fit-up [1].
Baseline vibration tests can identify
locations where pipe strain is suspect-
ed. In severe cases, field modifica-
n Figure 4. Recommended tions may be required to improve the
alignment tolerances and flange or piping alignment. Improved
field welds. design, shop testing and field connec-
tions will avoid these problems.
Alignment standards contained in
ASME B31.3 are often insufficient for
key areas of the compressor pack-
age, especially those between the
scrubber and suction bottles [2]. To
solve this problem, the authors rec-
ommend using API as design speci-
fication for these locations [3]. Ta-
ble 1 shows a tolerance comparison
between the ASME B31.3 and API
686 standards.
To avoid misalignment after trans-
portation and lifting, the authors rec-
ommend leaving some welds for the
field and to make preparations in
the shop to achieve this (Figure 4).
Shells experience confirms that pip-
ing field welds at key locations will
solve the fit-up challenge. Since oth-
n Figure 5. Examples of pipe misalignment resulting in er field connections are required at
vibration issues.
site, there is no significant impact by
field welding and hydro-testing a few report is shown in Table 2. Blocking quired to operate at the whole speed
additional piping spools. out specific speeds can be considered range may not be justified.
Dilution Reliable ad_Layout 1 2/19/2014 2:32 PM Page 1
It can be particularly challenging to when system modification costs re- continued on page 54
RELIABLE
achieve optimal alignment and fit-up
of multicylinder pulsation bottles. If the
fit between the bottle and the cylinders
is poor, the stressed state of the bottle
Synthetic Lubricants
can result in excessive high-frequency
vibration and fatigue failures. For this
reason, the fit of the bottles onto the
Lubricant Dilution?
cylinders should be measured and
documented (Figure 5). Also, post-
weld heat treating is recommended on Lubricants used in oil flooded compressors will
tend to absorb the gas being compressed.
all pulsation bottles, to relieve the re-
Summit
reducing stiffness or adding mass.
However, there are other alterna-
tives to address a mechanical reso-
nance problem that may result in
Industrial Products
less costly solutions.
If adequate baseline testing is com-
800.749.5823
pleted to precisely measure mechanical
natural frequencies, then it is possible
to block out only a small speed range
to avoid a mechanical resonance prob- www.klsummit.com
lem. An example of a speed block-out
Higher
Higher efficiency means
Higher efficiency
efficiency means
means
dollars
dollars saved. The ACI team
dollars saved. The
saved. The ACI
ACI team
team
of Compression
of Compression Experts
of Compression Experts
Experts
developed
developed new, radial poppet
developed new,
new, radial
radial poppet
poppet
valve
valve and capacity control
valve and
and capacity
capacity control
control
technology
technology to manage capacity,
technology toto manage
manage capacity,
capacity,
reduce fuel
reduce fuel consumption,
reduce fuel consumption,
consumption, Rotavator
Rotavator
lower
lower emissions and increase Rotavator
lower emissions
emissions and
and increase
increase
overall
overall revenue. Call the ACI
overall revenue.
revenue. Call
Call the
the ACI
ACI Radial
Radial Valves
Compression
Compression Experts today for Radial Valves
Valves
Compression Experts
Experts today
today for
for
more information
more information on the the next
more information on on the next
next
generation
generation valve technology.
generation valve
valve technology.
technology.
Radial
Radial Deactivator
Radial Deactivator
Deactivator
Single
Single Deck Valves
Single Deck
Deck Valves
Valves
ACI
ACI Services,
Services, Inc.
Inc. Cambridge,
Cambridge, Ohio
Ohio www.ACIServicesInc.com
www.ACIServicesInc.com (740)
(740) 435-0240
435-0240
ACI Services, Inc. Cambridge, Ohio www.ACIServicesInc.com (740) 435-0240
n Figure 10. Field testing of
small-bore attachments.
Small-bore connections
suction strainer differential
pressure measurements
Temporary startup screens or
strainers, as shown in Figure 11, are
very common for the commissioning
of reciprocating compressor pack-
ages. These cone-shaped screens
keep debris and dirt out of the cylin-
n Figure 11. Temporary cone-shaped startup strainer. der and path of the piston. However,
the fine mesh of these screens can
plug up quickly during commission-
in revision 3 is more robust, utilizing cording to the latest version of Shells ing of a new plant. If not kept clean,
larger-diameter studding outlets for specification is shown in Figure 9. they can buckle and be pulled into the
connection to the scrubber shell, and Note the low-profile robust design of compressor. Therefore, it is important
a reduced offset distance. Revision 4 the instrumentation connections, re- to monitor the differential pressure
shows a design where the sight-glass sulting in minimal risk of vibration and across the strainer.
component has been replaced with reliability problems. For permanent differential pressure
ultrasonic-level switches, resulting in During baseline vibration testing, measurement, piping connection tees
the most reliable arrangement. many times the vibration of small- are often utilized on the suction pip-
The small-bore piping design ac- bore attachments is at marginal am- ing and pulsation bottle, on either side
References
[1] Maxwell, G., Howes, B., Piping
Misalignment And Vibration Related
Fatigue Failures, Gas Machinery Re-
search Council (GMRC), 2013, http://
www.betamachinery.com/assets/
pdfs/Technical_Articles/Piping-Mis-
alignment-Vibration-Related-Fatigue-
Failures.pdf.
[2] ASME B31.3, Inspection, Ex-
n Figure 16. PSV piping amination, And Testing, In Process
arrangements. Piping, ASME Code For Pressure Pip-
ing, B31, Chapter 6, Section 4-18.
[4] Chockfast Engineering Manual,
a cool flare header. As the compressor stiffness and modeling techniques for http://www2.sintemar.com/documen-
warms up, the discharge piping grows pipe clamps, see the GMRC research tacion/catalogos/chockfast/prc_engi-
longer as a result of thermal growth. If project Pipe Support Stiffness [6]. neering_manual.pdf.
the PSV or the flare piping just down- [5] Small Bore Connections (SBC)
stream of the PSV is clamped down Conclusions Assessment For All Machinery Types
tightly, the PSV connection cannot This article has identified a number And Applications, Beta, http://www.
grow with the discharge piping, and of lessons learned from Shells recent betamachinery.com/services/small-
can become stressed. This has been expansion project in Northeast British bore-connections-sbc-assessment.
shown to create pipe strain-related fail- Columbia, Canada. This continuous [6] Pipe Support Stiffness, GMRC
ures and excessive vibration. There- improvement process requires an ef- Project: Improving Piping System Re-
fore, the PSV piping design should fective feedback loop that involves liability, Beta, http://www.betamachin-
consider both thermal and dynamic field testing and evaluation. By exam- ery.com/wiki/pipe-support-stiffness/.
issues, as demonstrated in Figure 16.
Finally, baseline testing has shown
that details such as the design and
accurate modeling of pipe clamps
(Figure 17) are important to achieve
accurate simulation results, and pro-
vide the optimal pipe support solution,
including the effects of both vibration
and thermal expansion. Piping engi-
neers concerned with only thermal flex-
ibility often assume that pipe clamps
are rigid anchors. This assumption is
incorrect and results in added unnec-
essary flexibility, and can create vibra-
tion problems. Therefore, the clamps
must be modeled to include friction
when doing thermal flexibility analyses,
and must not be over-tightened in the n Figure 17. Pipe clamps for
field such that the required flexibility is vibratory service.
achieved. For information on accurate
Insight onsite.
n Enovation Controls, which produces the Murphy brand prod-
ucts, has spent the last two years renovating and expanding its
facility in Rosenberg, Texas.
M
urphy by Enovation Controls has spent the last specializes in instrumentation and control solutions for engine
two years reinvesting in its Rosenberg, Texas, and engine-driven equipment throughout myriad industries
facility. New machinery, streamlined production including oil and gas production and transmission, original
lines, more square footage for engineering and corporate equipment manufacturing, irrigation and agriculture, power
services the result is a manufacturing facility capable of generation and recreational marine and sporting vehicles.
producing 400-plus panels per month. Enovation Controls as a company targets many different
Headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A., the facil- markets, said Torrey Roberts, applications sales manager
ity produces Murphy products, which is a brand under the for Enovation Controls. Rosenbergs operations primarily
Enovation Controls umbrella. Enovation Controls also offers focuses on the gas compression market, specifically Mur-
EControls, Zero Off and Computronic Controls. The company phys natural gas compressor control systems.
The 29,000 sq.ft. (2694 m2) facility houses corporate sup-
port services (applications, inside sales, customer service
and purchasing/materials), system engineering offices,
manufacturing operations, testing and warranty service.
Newly added manufacturing machinery includes an Ac-
cupress 7606 press break and a Euromac MBX6 auto index
punch press. Additional investments were made refurbish-
ing its Cincinnati Shear power shear.
In addition to capital investments, the company stream-
lined its manufacturing process to maximize efficiency.
Weve implemented a one-piece flow strategy on our
manufacturing floor, said Stephanie Taylor, director of op-
n Technical Lead John Kubena (center) coaches employees on
erations for Enovation Controls Rosenberg facility. The
panel assembly in the Rosenberg facilitys new training room.
conveyor belt travels from the assembly floor to the machine
corner
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio
And Methane Number For
Natural Gas > A straightforward, four-component method By Gary Choquette
Editors Note: This paper was delivered at the Gas Ma- has resulted in gas compositions varying significantly in
chinery Research Council (GMRC) meeting in Nashville, some areas of the country. As a general rule, shale gas
Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014. tends to have a high heating value (predominantly because
of the increased quantities of ethane [C2H6] and some pro-
Abstract pane [C3H8]). Often times the shale gas is blended with
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio and methane number are more traditional gas supplies, which historically have a
important parameters to optimize natural gas-fueled in- lower heating value. As pipeline end-use loads decrease
ternal combustion engines for power and emissions. The (especially when heating loads or gas-fired power plants
increased production of high energy content natural gas shut down during low demand periods), the shale gas will
from shale and other sources combined with an increas- displace traditional supplies and result in a higher fraction
ingly reticulated natural gas transportation system has re- of the total supply in some localized areas. This will result
sulted in widely variable fuel composition for many natural in an increase in the blended heating value. As the end-
gas-fueled engines. In some cases, this requires dynamic use loads increase, more traditional gas enters the delivery
adjustments of engine controls to maintain emissions com- area resulting in a decrease in the blended heating value.
pliance, maximize power production, and avoid pre-ignition/
1140
detonation conditions.
This paper explores the different methods for calculating 1120
1000
Introduction 2/1/2013 3/3/2013 4/2/2013 5/2/2013 6/1/2013 7/1/2013 7/31/2013 8/30/2013 9/29/2013 10/29/2013 11/28/2013 12/28/2013
The introduction of large quantities of shale gas and in- n Figure 1. Btu trend.
creased use of natural gas for electrical power generation
The day-to-day variation in gas composition can be
Gary Choquette has worked in the natural gas transportation pronounced (Figure 1). The fuel composition can change
industry for more than 30 years. He has experience in facil- by more than 100 Btu/scf in a few hours (Figure 2). Many
ity design, construction, technical support, hydraulic model- of the engines used in natural gas pipeline transportation
ing, compression performance, noise, vibration, pulsation and were designed assuming a relatively constant fuel gas
controls, software design, SCADA, gas measurement and composition and cannot tolerate these fast changes in fuel
gas control. He has served in management roles in gas mea- gas composition.
surement, engineering design, construction and right of way, To achieve specific air emissions limits at maximum
operations software development and SCADA support, and power, many engines need to be tuned and configured
gas control. Mr. Choquette earned a bachelors degree in me- to the fuel gas on which they are operating. When the
chanical engineering from the University of Nebraska and is a composition frequently and significantly changes, serious
registered professional engineer in the state of Texas. continued on page 66
Even inexperienced users benefit from Confidence health status information for each individual
component and their failure modes. Gear and bearing analyses are based on both traditional and
high frequency enveloped spectral analyses, while gear tooth defects are further defined using Time
Synchronous Averaging. The integrated fault frequency database works in conjunction with the
unique Confidence Factor plot providing users with essential lead time when decisions are due for
planning maintenance.
predictor@prognost.com www.prognost.com
engine damage and/or air emissions excursions are pos- sition is to cause knock. There are several fuel combustion
sible [1-2]. If the engine is tuned and configured to op- properties that correlate to the likelihood of knock:
erate under the worst-case gas compositions, it is likely Low ignition delay time
the maximum power capability and/or the efficiency will High flame speed
have to be reduced [3-4]. Ideally, engines subjected to Low auto-ignition temperature
wide variations in fuel gas composition will use adaptive High heat release rate
control methods to automatically adjust the engine to the The heat release rate is a combination of the heating val-
fuel composition. ue of the gas and the flame speed. Hydrogen has relatively
low chemical energy but has a very high flame velocity and
1140 a relatively low auto-ignition temperature, which is why it
has a low knock resistance. Similar combustion character-
istics exist for hydrogen sulfide [5]. Laminar flame speeds,
1120
1100
heating values and auto-ignition temperatures for common
natural gas components can be found in Appendix A. The
1080 MN requirement of each engine (the fuel with the lowest
Btu HHV/scf
1020
efficiency, location of the ignition source, air/fuel mixing, tur-
bulence, etc.) and the operating conditions (temperatures,
1000 pressures, torque, trapped air/fuel ratio, ignition timing and
5/20/2013 5/21/2013 5/22/2013 5/23/2013 5/24/2013 5/25/2013 5/26/2013 5/27/2013
speed). In general, knock in a lean combustion spark igni-
n Figure 2. Btu trend detail. tion engine has the sensitivities to operating conditions as
shown in Table 1 [6-10].
Discussion
Two key parameters associated with engine operation Operating Parameter Change Impact
are dependent on the fuel gas composition. The first is the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (SAFR), which is defined as the Higher Temperatures
ratio of the air to the fuel (by mass) such that there is just Trapped Air Temperature Are More Likely To Very High
enough oxygen to burn all of the fuel. While many engines Knock
(such as lean-burn engines) do not operate at stoichiomet- Decreasing Torque
Torque Very High
ric conditions, the SAFR is still an important parameter in Reduces Knock
the control of nitrogen oxide emissions levels. Adjusting an Retarding Timing Gen-
Ignition Timing High
engine to the proper air/fuel ratio based on the fuel compo- erally Reduces Knock2
sition is the single most important control to avoid knock1 Increasing Combustion
and maintain air emissions. Air/Fuel Ratio Air Generally Reduces Moderate
The second parameter discussed in this paper is the Knock3
methane number (MN). The MN is one measure of a gas- Reducing The Coolant
eous fuels propensity to cause knock in an engine. It is Coolant Temperature Temperature Decreases Low
determined by measuring the onset of knock in a coopera- The Potential For Knock
tive fuel reserve (CFR) engine. The MN scale was defined Higher Pressures Can
by setting the knock rating of a fuel having a high knock Peak Compression Pressure Increase Or Decrease Low
Knock4
resistance (in this case pure methane) to a value of 100
and a fuel having a low knock resistance (pure hydrogen) Decreasing Speed
to a value of 0 when operating at stoichiometric conditions. Speed Generally Increases Low
Knock5
Based on that scale, various gas compositions were mea-
sured and their MN determined. It should be noted that the Excessive Exhaust
Exhaust Backpressure Backpressure Can Very Low
MN is not limited to the range of 0 to 100; high quantities of
Increase Knock6
heavy hydrocarbons can produce a negative MN and high
levels of carbon dioxide in a largely methane (CH4) mixture n Table 1. Knock in a lean combustion spark ignition engine has
can produce a MN greater than 100. sensitivities to operating conditions.
The chemical kinetics of combustion are very complex;
the MN is not a perfect model for predicting knock for a spe- Since some of these operating conditions can be con-
cific engine. Rather, it is a general parameter that can be trolled to some degree, the MN requirement of an engine
used to provide guidance on how likely a given fuel compo- has some variability. For example, lowering the trapped air
n Table 2. Statistical analysis of the sensitivity of the models to change in gas compositions.
Calculated MN
CARB
20.0
0.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0
17.5 Measured MN
15.0
GRI/SwRI methods
Kubesh, et al., of the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI)
12.5 generated several different correlations to estimate motor
octane number (MON) [14]. The MON is then curve-fitted to
10.0
determine a MN. The first MON method is based on a data
regression of six gas compositions.
BREAKING
NEWS
Direct to your inbox
Subscribers, be on the lookout
for your twice-per-month newsletter
from COMPRESSORtech2
SUBSCRIBE NOW!
www.compressortech2.com/subscribe/
COMPRESSOR
Dedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications
be general approximations based on the small sample size can be readily implemented in engine control systems. How-
used in their generation. Based on these limitations, it is not ever, these equations should be used with caution because
recommended that these equations be used. they were based on limited gas compositions. These methods
The second MON method is based on a correlation of mea- should not be used if the sum of ethylene, propylene, car-
sured MON to the reactive hydrocarbon/carbon ratio (H/C). bon monoxide (CO), hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide and helium
exceeds 1%; alarm flags are used to indicate when the gas
MON = 406.14 + 508.04 H / C 173.55 (H / C)2 + 20.170 (H / C)3
compositions are outside of these bounds.
Equation 7
ISO 15403-1
There are two different regression equations identified by ISO Standard 15403-1 [19] includes a discussion on MN
Kubesh to convert MON to MN: and includes a calculation method based on Equations 7
and 9 of the GRI/SwRI methods. The standard does not list
MN = 1.624 MON 119.1 the limits of the method. In Figure 4, this method is identi-
Equation 8 fied as ISO.
Conducting
operations in
27 states with
43 established J-W Power Company
field offices specializes in designing
and fabricating compressors to our customers
conveniently unique needs, providing a variety of exceptional
and cost- efficient energy services.
located to
provide fast, We have the resources to deliver what we promise,
along with the expertise to service and manage
efficient energy
virtually any compression package, regardless
solutions. of the application and operating condition.
Abstract
To save upfront packaging costs, some companies de-
sign pulsation bottles with inadequate bottle and choke
tube diameters as well as high-loss choke tube inlets. Not
only does this result in excessive pressure and horsepow-
er losses, but it can also insufficiently damp pulsations.
This necessitates the use of orifices and/or secondary
pulsation bottles to lower pulsations in the piping system
to acceptable levels, which, in turn, creates additional n Figure 1. A typical acoustic filter design.
pressure and horsepower losses. While these meth-
ods can decrease initial installation costs, the long-term
horsepower costs can be unacceptably high and prevent compressors in heavy gas services utilizes surge volumes
a station from reaching expected flow capacity. This pa- connected by a single choke tube as shown in Figure 1.
per will discuss best practices and preliminary calcula- The surge volumes and choke tube work together to cre-
tion results used to design a pulsation bottle to allow an ate a low-pass acoustic filter system that reduces apli-
end-user to determine whether the pulsation control sys- tudes in the attached piping system associated with com-
tem designed for a reciprocating compressor is likely to pressor excitation orders above low-pass filter frequency.
create future problems. A case study of an inadequately A properly designed acoustic filter will create sufficient
designed pulsation control system that would have pre- surge volume to reduce dynamic flow components, con-
vented the station from reaching expected flow rates as a trol the shape and distribution of the impedance function
result of excessive horsepower losses will be presented. such that dynamic pressures are adequately controlled
on and off resonance, and limit residual pulsations in the
Introduction piping to acceptable levels.
A standard pulsation bottle design for reciprocating continued on page 80
Sarah Simons is a research scientist in the fluids machinery systems section at Southwest Research Institute. She performs thermal and
acoustic analyses of compressor and pump piping systems along with reciprocating compressor pulsation filter bottle design. She is
also involved with compressor and flow pulsation control research. Contact her at: sarah.simons@swri.org. Matt Johnson is the man-
ager of reliability and compression engineering with Boardwalk Pipeline Partners LP in Owensboro, Kentucky. He is responsible for
managing a team that provides Tier III technical support for field operations. Contact him at: matthew.johnson@bwpmlp.com. Eugene
Broerman, III is senior research engineer at Southwest Research Institute with experience in acoustics, vibrations and piping design.
He has designed/studied compressor and pump piping systems with the aid of the GMRC compressor system analog and two digital
acoustic design tools for acoustic (pulsation) analyses, field DAS equipment, ANSYS (finite element [FE] software) for mechanical
analyses, and CAESAR II for thermal analyses. Contact him at: ebroerman@swri.org. Garrett Williams, P.E., is the compression engi-
neering leader at Boardwalk Pipelines in the reliability and compression engineering group. He has experience in engineering design
focusing on compressor stations and compression engineering. Contact him at: garrett.williams@bwpmlp.com.
COMPRESSORtech2 is the premier resource for gas compression news and information.
The effectiveness of the pulsation bottle strongly cor-
relates to the size of the surge volumes. Large surge vol-
umes provide more damping of compressor excitations.
However, larger diameter bottles also cost more to fabri-
cate and install. Therefore, for filter bottle pulsation con-
trol systems, there is often a tradeoff made between the
initial installation cost and effectiveness.
n Table 2. Pressure drop and horsepower loss comparisons of the original bottle design (maximum flow case).
n Table 3. Redesigned drop and horsepower loss comparisons of the original bottle design (maximum flow case).
existing secondary suction volume mouth shape, as shown in Figure of a choke tube or a low diameter
bottle to sufficiently damp pulsations. 2, is defined as the inlet outer radii ratio reducer to a wider tapered an-
Another effect of using undersized being half the inner diameter (ID) of gle. However, this does not provide
diameter surge volumes is the cor- the piping and the entrance diameter a large enough inlet radius to sig-
responding reduction in choke tube twice the ID. nificantly reduce the pressure losses
diameters which needed to keep Since bell mouth shapes have to to the comparable levels of a bell
the Helmholtz response sufficiently be custom-fabricated, one shortcut mouth-shaped entrance [1].
below the first running order. The frequently taken is to grind the end continued on page 82
Helmholtz response is controlled by
the choke tube size and its associ-
ated bottle volume sizes. Since the
acoustic filter damps all responses
above its associated Helmholtz re-
sponse, it is desirable to keep the
cut-off frequency below the first
running order. The main contribu-
tors to placing the frequency of this
response are the diameters of the
surge volumes and choke tubes. If
the surge volumes are not sufficient-
ly large, this forces the choke tube
diameter to be smaller to keep the
Helmholtz frequency below the first
compressor running order. However,
forcing the gas flow through a small-
er diameter choke tube increases
the horsepower cost associated with
the pulsation control system as well
as the pressure loss.
The design of choke tube entranc-
es is another area where initial costs
over long-term costs are favored.
The inlet shape of the choke tube
affects the pressure loss associated
with it. Sharp edges have the high-
est pressure loss, and well-rounded
bell mouth-shaped edges have the
lowest pressure loss. Note that a bell
Redesigned bottle
Boardwalk requested that SwRI redesign the pulsation
bottles with several goals in mind:
Reduce the horsepower cost associated with the pul-
sation control system.
Eliminate the need for a secondary suction volume
bottle.
Lower the Helmholtz response farther away from the
first running order to allow for the future possibility of
single acting compressors.
To achieve these goals, the suction bottle diameter was
increased by 6 in. (152 mm), and the discharge bottle was
lengthened. The choke tube diameters were increased,
where possible, to reduce the pressure drop through
them, and the choke tube entrances were switched to
a bell mouth shape. By improving the effectiveness of
the acoustic filter, the bottle line nozzle orifices were
also eliminated.
Accurate modeling of the cylinder gas passages can
sometimes eliminate the need for a cylinder nozzle orifice,
further reducing horsepower costs. The Dresser-Rand re-
ciprocating compressors have a unique valve-in-piston
(VIP) cylinder design. On the discharge side, compared
to a conventional cylinder, the length from the valve to the
cylinder flange is shorter. This raises the nozzle response
frequency to higher orders where there are typically lower
excitation energies [3]. In this case, there was not enough
energy to produce high amplitude pulsations at the nozzle
response frequency, and no orifice was required in the
discharge bottle nozzle flange. This resulted in a gain of
64 hp (48 kW). Table 3 shows the cost savings of the
612 redesigned pulsation control system. The horsepower
82 Compressortech2
needed for compression at the maximum flow condition
was 3976 hp (2890 kW). This gave the compressor a
PRIME
150 hp (112 kW) available margin and a fuel savings of Movers
2.35 MMBtu/hr (689 kWh). Since the horsepower calcu-
lations in Table 3 are for steady-state flow, it is impor- Galileo
tant that there is extra horsepower available for the total A natural gas vehicle (NGV) fueling station featuring a
losses associated with dynamic flow. Galileo Gigabox natural gas compression system opened in
mid-February in Lake Forest, California.
Installation The 440 hp (328 kW) unit is one of Galileos top-end CNG
The installed pulsation system features large suction compressors, the company said. It features a compression ca-
bottles, which were too heavy for the building crane. pacity of 7.6 gasoline gallon equivalent per minute (GGE/min),
Therefore, a crane had to be rented, and the bridge on a discharge pressure of 4500 psi (310.3 bar) and an internal
the building crane is currently being upgraded so it can storage tank of 250 GGE. According to the company, this is
lift the next bottles. Additionally, slight modifications were the first CNG compressor of its kind in the United States.
made to the skid to make room for the longer discharge Galileo supplied the equipment for the station, which in-
pulsation bottle. cludes a Gigabox compressor with a built-in, single-tower
gas dryer to eliminate gas water content. The company also
Conclusions supplied two, high-speed EMB dispensers.
A well-designed pulsation control system can increase The California Energy Commission and the Mobile Source
the initial installation capital costs, but will end up saving Air Pollution Reduction Review Committee granted funds for
significant horsepower costs during operation. Addition- the project.
ally, it is important to ensure that the pressure drop and
horsepower losses associated with all pulsation control Burckhardt Compression
elements are evaluated and compared to the available Burckhardt Compression has received an order for three
driver horsepower to ensure that maximum capacity can process gas compressor systems ranging from 362 psia
be reached. CT2 (25 bara) to 2276 psia (157 bara), with rated motor power
from 456 hp (340 kW) to 4694 hp (3500 kW). The compres-
References sor systems will be delivered in the third quarter of 2015 to
[1.] Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe, increase capacity at a Canadian refinery complex.
Technical Paper No. 410, Crane Co., Stamford, CT, The process gas compressors are manufactured accord-
1988. ing to API 618, 5th Edition. The product line covers duties
[2.] API 618, Reciprocating Compressors for Petro- requiring a maximum rod load up to 335,000 lb. (151,953 kg)
leum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Amer- and power up to 41,572 hp (31,000 kW).
ican Petroleum Institute (API), Washington, DC, Burckhardt Compression handles reciprocating compres-
1995, p. A-29. sors and specializes in a complete range of reciprocating
[3.] Broerman, E.L., Fierro, F., Hinchliff, M., and McKee, compressor technologies. They are experienced in compres-
R.J., The Effect of Compressor Cylinder Design on sor applications with discharge pressures up to 50,760 psi
Nozzle Pulsations: Field Test Results of the Dresser- (3500 bar) as well as for applications handling gases with
Rand DDV Pipeline Cylinder, GM Journal, Q1, 2009. suction temperatures to -274F (-170C).
7 5
6
April Showers
Bellow Pound
G K R N N A J M F S I U I T S Y H R U D
Bolt Precipitation
O Z L Z P O O K T E K I R T S U G U S E Boom Rain
H W T G F L O O D Y Z A R B R U T D C P Captain Planet Resound
Y D H S L J R S S T S E P M E T N F R U Category Roar
W A J Y G M T M N A H L T W T P J A U U Clap Rumbling
Clouds Saturate
W B O T S A C E R O F K N U A G O U M T Crack Shower
R Y Z D I F B T N P M N I A R R E G B I Cyclone Sprinkle
I E B N A W S E N A C I R R U H N Z L K Downpour Squalls
C L W U R J H O E L L R R E T A W I I N Drizzle Storms
Earth Strike
N L V O G S P R E C I P I T A T I O N C
Fall Surge
O O D P H R T O I T W S N S S D C M G G Fire Tempests
W V D T A S U L I G H T N I N G M E H S Flood Thunder
O W C A T E G O R Y I Y F W A C R A C K Forecast Tornado
B L A E N G M G P D R P A T Y T U T G I Gale Tsunami
Gust Twister
T U J V D R O I K N L H L C D G P B V T
Heart Typhoons
K W C X E U O S A U W O L L E B A A N D Hurricane Volley
Q U Y S W S B T V O I O J S D U O L C C Jetstream Warning
S W Z C J E F T A S N N D R I Z Z L E V Lightning Water
Meatballs Waves
Z R I S M H M V G E D S Q U A L L S T K
Meteorologist Whirlwind
O V Q R V R Y F I R E D N U H T R A E H Monsoon Wind
Marketplace
EXPLOSION PROOF
Custom Reprints Available AC&DC ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS
STARTER MOTORS ALTERNATORS
Articles in COMPRESSORtech2 can be reprinted at a very reasonable cost and SWITCHES CLASS I, DIV. 1&2, GROUP D
UNITED STATES ENERGY CORPORATION
used for effective direct mail purposes, answering inquiries, trade show distri 1600 MISSILE WAY, ANAHEIM, CA 92801
(714) 871-8185 (714) 871-9229 FAX
bution and many other sales development activities. These reprints can be pro WWW.USENERGYCORPORATION.COM
ARLA
2015 CLASSIFIED AD RATES Engineering Service
Display or non-display classified advertising accepted. to Simulate Vibrations in Drive Systems
Rate is $130.00 per column inch, one inch minimum. torsional and lateral vibration analysis
Photographs not accepted. rotordynamics & bearing analysis (fluid-film)
No charge for typesetting. considering complete drivelines with motors,
Payment must accompany order. engines, compressors, gears, couplings
steady-state and time-transient simulation
For an immediate price quote fax or e-mail your ad copy to: simulation software (ARMD 5.8)
Sarah Yildiz Intl Seminar ROTOR DYNAMICS & BEARINGS
E-mail: syildiz@dieselpub.com Cologne, Germany: November 2-5, 2015
Fax: (262) 754-4175 ARLA Maschinentechnik GmbH,
Phone:
EGCR-CompTechAd3-15.pdf 1 (262)
3/2/15754-4146
10:13 PM GERMANY
Internet: www.arla-online.com
APRIL 2015
EGCR.indd 1
85 Compressortech
3/4/15 11:41 AM
2
Advertisers Index
*Further information on this companys products can be found in the 2014 Edition of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Sourcing Guide
(at www.Dieselandgasturbineguide.net) and/or 2015 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at CTSSnet.net).
Custom
Reprints From
Compressortech2
Perfect For Brochures, Web Attachments
& Bragging Rights
( just in case they missed it)
CFA-2 1000 200 (149) 2 5.0 (127) 12,000 (5442) -12,000 (-5442) 1.50 (38.1) 207
CFA-4 1000 350 (261) 4 5.0 (127) 12,000 (5442) -12,000 (-5442) 1.50 (38.1) 110
CFB-2 1000 200 (149) 2 5.0 (127) 16,000 (7256) -18,000 (-8163) 1.50 (38.1) 231
CFB-4 1000 350 (261) 4 5.0 (127) 16,000 (7256) -18,000 (-8163) 1.50 (38.1) 156
CFC-4/3 1000 Not available 4 5.5 (140) 38,000 (17,234) -38,000 (-17,234) 2.25 (57.1) 21
CFX-2 1000 Not available 2 5.5 (140) 26,000 (11,791) -26,000 (-11,791) 2.25 (57.1) 6
CFX-4 1000 Not available 4 5.5 (140) 26,000 (11,791) -26,000 (-11,791) 2.25 (57.1) 11
Total Production = 742 units
provide a compression system that was lower cost, more 12,000 lb. (5442 kg). Clark offered nine pre-engineered
compact, less weight and more easily packaged than the compressor cylinders for the CFA to cover a range of ap-
heavy, slower-speed integral engine compressors. plications. The largest cylinder had a 15.5 in. (393.7 mm)
CFA stands for compressor, field application. When in- bore diameter with 65 psig (4.5 bar) maximum working
troduced, it was the only compressor that could be directly pressure (MWP), and the smallest had a 3.5 in. (88.9 mm)
coupled to a high-speed engine driver, eliminating the need bore with 1250 psig (86.2 bar) MWP. Metallic compressor
for gear and belt drives. The units were skid-mounted piston rod packing was used, because the development
and were supplied for use in gas lifting, gas boosting, of Teflon packing materials was some years away.
re-pressurizing, pressure maintenance, field gas gathering Specifications indicate that it was a well-engineered ma-
and pipeline testing. Early brochures described the CFA chine, with features that ensured reliability, but probably
package as a completely self-contained compressor sta- made it more costly to manufacture than some of the com-
tion, and it came complete with foundation bolts, special petitive machines that would soon emerge. The crankcase
tools and barring device, piping and foundation plans, in- was cast semi-steel. Crankshafts, connecting rods and
struction books, parts lists, and two days of free erection crosshead pins were forged steel. The gear-type main lube
and superintendent time. oil pump and force-feed cylinder lube pumps were mounted
The two-throw CFA-2 was the first model introduced. on and driven by the frame.
Early brochures list packages in eight power sizes cover- Although some operators initially expressed doubts about
ing the 100 to 200 hp (75 to 150 kW) range. Compressor, a gas compressor running at such a high speed, the con-
engine and a radiator that handled cooling services for the cept was soon embraced overwhelmingly by the industry.
engine and compressor were mounted on a skid along with Clark soon had many competitors. In fact, Ingersoll-Rand
other necessary auxiliaries, such as scrubbers, making it a introduced a 5 in. (127 mm) stroke HHE compressor later
completely self-contained compressor package. Packages in 1957 that was the forerunner of the RD series. Cooper-
were built in-house or through Clark subsidiaries. These Bessemer introduced the AM frame in 1959. In 1960, White
single and two-stage machines proved to be an excellent Superior introduced a 6 in. (152 mm) stroke W6 compres-
choice for applications where the gas from a few wells had sor that matched its 900 rpm gas engines. Worthington, Chi-
to be gathered to permit well production. Clark bulletins cago Pneumatic, Joy and others soon joined the competition.
said, with the introduction of the CFA-2, operators have a Meanwhile, Clark expanded its line with higher rod load CFB,
modern compressor to handle the moderate-sized applica- and then even higher rated 5.5 in. (140 mm) stroke, 1000 rpm
tions, yet one possessing the built-in dependability usually CFC and CFX models.
found only in the larger machines. As the 1960s progressed, the dominant position of the
A four-throw CFA-4, rated at 350 hp (261 kW), followed. integral gas engine compressors was being seriously chal-
Both the CFA-2 and CFA-4 engine-driven packages were lenged by these high-speed separable compressor pack-
8.0 ft. (2.4 m) wide, enabling them to be shipped on a stan- ages. Clark built 742 high-speed separable compressors,
dard trailer. The CFA-2 package was 15.5 ft. (4.7 m) long but heavy iron manufacturers such as Clark and Cooper-
by 7.5 ft. (2.3 m) high and the CFA-4 was 22 ft. (6.7 m) long Bessemer found it difficult to produce these smaller com-
by 11.5 ft. (3.5 m) high. pressors profitably, exiting the manufacturing of them by
The CFA frames had a 5 in. (127 mm) stroke with rated the early 1980s. Other companies more than picked up
speeds of 1000 rpm for engine drives and 900 rpm for elec- the slack, however, as high-speed separable frames have
tric motor drives. The compressors had 1.50 in. (38.1 mm) dominated the reciprocating compressor industry ever
diameter piston rods with a maximum pin (rod) load of since, with now thousands produced every year. CT2
A
s the need emerged for smaller, portable compres- timber machinery. After a fire completely destroyed the
sor units that could be quickly installed at producing Belmont plant in 1912, the company built a new plant in
fields in remote locations, manufacturers developed Olean, New York, which was the beginning of the present
smaller, higher-speed versions of their reliable integral en- Dresser-Rand facility.
gine compressors. These smaller units were packaged on Clark became a producer of steam engines, and then in-
a steel skid with cooler, auxiliary equipment and intercon- ternal combustion engines. Around 1935, it introduced the
necting piping and wiring. Clark Brothers Co. led the way model RA, its first right-angle integral engine compressor.
with this concept, introducing the MA (midget angle) inte- In 1938, Clark merged with the S.R. Dresser Manufacturing
gral inline engine compressor in 1945. Cooper-Bessemer Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania. In 1956, the succes-
followed with the GMX (half-sized GMV) in 1946 and Ingersoll- sor company was incorporated as Dresser Industries.
Rand with the JVG (junior XVG) in 1947, both integral vee In 1957, Dresser-Clark pioneered the first 1000 rpm
engine compressors. balance-opposed separable compressor, the CFA. The
A little more than a decade later, Clark would again separable compressor concept was not new, but what was
lead the way with the introduction of a new compressor new, was the realization that by going to shorter 5 to 6 in.
configuration that would begin the demise of the inte- (127 to 152 mm) strokes, it would be possible to match
grals. Clark Brothers Co. was incorporated in Belmont, the 1000 rpm speed of several proven industrial gas en-
New York, in 1880 as a manufacturer of agricultural and gines (e.g., Climax, Waukesha and Roiline). This would