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Compressor Tech 04 2015 PDF

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Hotstart Targets

Exline, Miba Bearing Solar Titan 250 Gains


Small Compressors Form Bearing Partnership Wide Acceptance

April 2015

TMP Extends Oil-Flooded


Screw Compressor Line

New Compressor Valve


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Page
4
CT2 Founder ........................... Joseph M. Kane

COMPRESSOR
Rig Counts Down,
A Member of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group

PUBLICATION STAFF
Publisher ..................................... Brent Haight

Production Up
Associate Publisher ...............Roberto Chellini
Managing Editor ........................ Angela Jarrell
Executive Editor ............................... DJ Slater
Deputy Editor .............................. Mark Thayer
Senior Editor .................. Michael J. Brezonick

M
Associate Editor ................................ Jack Burke
Associate Editor .............................Chad Elmore arch rig count reports from ExxonMobil plans to reduce its capital
Associate Editor ....................................Art Aiello
Copy Editor ................................ Jerry Karpowicz
Baker Hughs show that the spending budget by 12% this year.
Digital Content Manager............Catrina Boettner
number of U.S. rigs is 1192, Despite these cutbacks, the EIAs
Advertising Manager .................... Sarah Yildiz
down 600 from one year ago. Of this March Short-Term Energy Outlook
Circulation Manager ...................Sheila Lizdas count, only 26% (268) of total rigs forecasts that 2015 natural gas pro-
Production Manager ............. Marisa J. Roberts
Graphic Artist ........................Brenda L. Burbach
were targeting natural gas, a de- duction will average 73.9 Bcfd (2.12 x
Graphic Artist .............................Carla D. Lemke crease of 77 rigs compared with last 109 m3/d), an increase of 5% over 2014
Graphic Artist ........................... Amanda J. Ryan
Graphic Artist ................................ Alyssa Loope
years natural gas rig levels. levels. EIA forecasts that for 2016, pro-
PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS Despite the decline in rig counts, duction will average 75.4 Bcfd (2.14 x
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220 natural gas production is on the rise. In 109 m3/d), a 2% year-over-year growth.
Waukesha, Wisconsin 53186-1873
Telephone: (262) 754-4100 Fax: (262) 754-4175 its latest short-term energy report, the The ultimate deciding factor is sup-
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS U.S. Energy Information Administra- ply and demand, and the demand for
Norm Shade Cambridge, Ohio tion (EIA) forecasts continued growth natural gas is rising.
Mauro Belo Schneider Rio Grande du Sul, Brazil
HOUSTON, U.S.A.
in natural gas production over the next EIA projects that U.S. total natu-
Brent Haight, Publisher two years. ral gas consumption will average
Angela Jarrell, Managing Editor
Mark Thayer, Deputy Editor In December 2014, dry natural gas 75.7 Bcfd (2.14 x 109 m3/d) in 2015
12777 Jones Road, Suite 225 production hit a record high of 74.3 Bcfd and 76.2 Bcfd (2.15 x 109 m3/d) in
Houston, Texas 77070
Telephone: (281) 890-5310 Fax: (281) 890-4805 (2.10 x 109 m3/d), according to EIA 2016, compared with 73.5 Bcfd (2.08
GERMANY reports. This production increase oc- x 109 m3/d) in 2014. Growth is largely
Lisa Hochkofler, Advertising Manager
Gabriele Dinsel, Advertising Manager
curred despite declining prices and driven by demand in the industrial and
Niemllerstr. 9 falling rig counts. Natural gas produc- electric power sectors.
73760 Ostfildern, Germany
Telephone: +49 711 3416 74 0 Fax: +49 711 3416 74 74 tion overall in 2014 increased 6.1%, EIA projections show natural gas
UNITED KINGDOM according to the EIA, the strongest consumption in the power sector
Ian Cameron, Regional Manager/Editor growth since 2011, despite a 13% de- growing by 8.1% in 2015 and by 1.9%
Linda Cameron, Advertising Manager
40 Premier Avenue crease in average natural gas rig count in 2016. Aiding the power genera-
Ashbourne, Derbyshire,
DE6 1LH, United Kingdom
levels in 2014 compared with 2013. tion front, the Environmental Protec-
Telephone: +44 20 31 79 29 79 Fax: +44 20 31 79 29 70 Rig counts have historically been a tion Agencys Mercury and Air Toxics
ITALY common metric for estimating the pro- Standards (MATS) goes into effect
Roberto Chellini, Associate Publisher
44, Via Delle Forbici duction of natural gas. Today, advanc- this year. MATS requires large coal-
I-50133 Firenze, Italy es in shale production and increases and oil-fired electric generators to
Telephone: +39 055 50 59 861 Fax: +39 055 57 11 55
in drilling efficiency allow for more meet stricter emissions standards by
Roberta Prandi
Via Fitta, 21a
production from fewer rigs. During the incorporating emissions control tech-
I-38062 Arco, Italy past several years, natural gas pro- nologies in existing generating facili-
Telephone: +39 0464 014421 Fax: +39 0464 244529
duction has steadily increased, while ties. The expectation is an increase in
SWEDEN
Bo Svensson, Field Editor/Business Manager the number of active rigs characterized coal retirements and more structural
Dunderbacksvagen 20 as natural gas has fallen dramatically. natural gas demand. The EIA re-
612-46 Finspong, Sweden
Telephone: +46 70 2405369 Fax: +46 122 14787 As Bob Dylan so eloquently put it, ports that in 2015, electric generating
JAPAN the times, they are a changin. companies expect to add 6.3 GW of
Akiyoshi Ojima, Branch Manager
51-16-301 Honmoku Sannotani, Naka-ku
In March, ConocoPhillips said it natural gas, utility-scale generating
Yokohama, 231-0824 Japan would cut spending on new oil and capacity to the power grid.
Telephone: +81 45 624 3502 Fax: +81 45 624 3503
gas projects by 15%, this in addition According to EIA data, industrial sec-
CHINA
S.H. Mok, Branch Manager to the 20% cut it announced in De- tor consumption increases by 6.6 and
Rm 1903A, 19/F, Sunbeam Commercial Building cember. Chevron plans to trim US$5 2.1% in 2015 and 2016, respectively. A
469-471 Nathan Road
Kowloon, Hong Kong billion from its 2014 spending this bright spot on a horizon currently dot-
Telephone: +852 31187930 Fax : +852 23321565
year. Occidental Petroleum Corp. will ted with a lot of bad news. CT2
KOREA
Myung-Shin Lee, Sales Manager reduce capital spending by a third
191-1, Pyungchang-dong, Chongno-ku in 2015. Royal Dutch Shell plans to
Seoul, Korea 100-648
Telephone: +82 2 391 4254 Fax: +82 2 391 4255 spend US$15 billion less over the next
Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications three years. BP is cutting its capital Brent Haight, publisher
President & CEO ..................... Michael J. Osenga and exploration budget nearly 20%. bhaight@dieselpub.com
Executive Vice President .... Michael J. Brezonick
WE ENSURE YOUR COMPRESSOR
ISNT THE WEAK LINK

Connecting oil and gas companies to profitability


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1.800.675.6646
April 2015

COMPRESSORtech2 is the premier resource for gas compression news and information.

Featured Articles
14 New Natural Gas Screw Compressors
24 For Small Compressors
26 A Practical Approach Toward Mechanical
Integrity Programs For Gas Processing Plants
32 Organic Rankine Cycle Waste Heat Solutions
Cover Designed By
And Opportunities In Natural Gas Compression
Alyssa Loope 38 Solar Titan 250 Gains Wide Acceptance
Compressortech2 (ISSN 1085-2468) 43 Exline, Miba Bearings Form Partnership
Volume 20, No. 3 Published 10 issues/year
(January-February, March, April, May, June, 46 Targeting Safety
July, August-September, October, November,
December) by Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications, 50 Baseline Testing Provides Opportunities For Continuous Improvement
20855 Watertown Road, Waukesha, WI 53186-
1873, U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 per 62 Murphy Expands Rosenberg, Texas, Facility
year/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicals post-
age paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 and at addi- 78 Best Practices For Pulsation Bottle Design To Reduce Horsepower Losses
tional mailing offices. Copyright 2015 Diesel &
Gas Turbine Publications. All Rights Reserved.
Materials protected by U.S. and international copy-
right laws and treaties. Unauthorized duplication
and publication is expressly prohibited.
TECHcorner
16 Evaluation Of A Dynamic Variable Orifice For Reciprocating
Canadian Publication Mail Agreement # 40035419.
Return Undeliverable Canadian Addresses to: P.O. Compressor Pulsation Control (Part 1)
Box 456, Niagara Falls, ON L2E 6V2, Canada. E-mail:
slizdas@dieselpub.com. POSTMASTER: Send address 64 Analysis And Estimation Of Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio And
changes to: Circulation Manager, Compressortech2, Methane Number For Natural Gas
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220, Waukesha, WI
53186-1873 U.S.A.

www.compressortech2.com Departments
4 Page 4 Rig Counts Down, Production Up
Follow Us @Compressortech2
8 Global Perspective From Gas Importer To Exporter
10 Events & Meetings
12 About The Business Dont Expect Higher Energy Prices Anytime Soon
MEMBER OF

42 Prime Movers
84 Scheduled Downtime
85 Marketplace

80
celebrating
86 Advertisers Index
88 Cornerstones Of Compression A Revolutionary
years
Concept In Natural Gas Compression

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U N I T E D S T A T E S C A N A D A E U R O P E
Global Perspective

From Gas Importer


By Roberto Chellini
Associate Publisher To Exporter > Egypt is starting production
at several new fields

E
gypt has been a natural gas exporter for many years potential, both onshore and offshore, as well as its large
with its two liquefied natural gas (LNG) plants, but domestic demand market. Cost structures are also favor-
the increase of internal gas consumption has re- able, with relatively shallow waters in the proven Nile Delta
versed the situation. Well over 50% of the countrys energy and onshore projects in the underexplored Western Desert.
consumption is based on natural gas. In spite of Egypt Following the success of the January deals, another
being the third-largest African natural gas producer after eight blocks, covering a total of 4575 sq.mi. (11,849 km2) in
Algeria and Nigeria, the government has been obliged to the Mediterranean Sea, were put up for auction in Febru-
finance two LNG import regasification terminals. The first ary. According to EGAS, as much as US$9.2 billion worth of
is due to start operation in a few months; the second was exploration deals are being negotiated.
ordered in late 2014. Growing investment into both exploration and develop-
However, the country has immense hydrocarbon re- ment projects will support gas production over the medium-
serves, especially of natural gas, which have to be imple- to-long term. Restarting work on the long-delayed BP-led
mented to reverse, once again, the trend, and place Egypt North Alexandria project is a major step in boosting gas
among the natural gas exporting nations. production. Minority partner RWE Dea announced it is ex-
New licensing rounds, major contract signings and dis- pecting Egypts largest gas project to be online in 2017.
coveries during 2014 support the Business Monitor Interna- This development will add around 2.9 Tcf (8.2 x 109 m3) of
tional (BMI) view that Egypt will be one of the outperformers production at peak.
in the oil and gas industry in 2015, despite weak oil prices. Eni has pledged to increase investment into Egypt after
Developments from both domestic and international oil and being awarded new onshore and offshore exploration acre-
gas companies support the positive outlook for natural gas age in the country. BMI also expects other international oil
production growth over the coming five years and beyond. companies to increase the focus of their investments on the
Egypts state-run gas company, Egyptian Natural Gas country, given the more attractive cost structures, improved
Holding Company (EGAS), has been leading exploration security and long-term demand outlook. This will support
and development, having made 14 discoveries in 2014. new production in the coming four to five years.
According to Chairman Khaled Abd El Badee, the discov- Given the level of investment in exploration and pro-
eries in the Nile Delta and Mediterranean Sea added 3 Tcf duction, BMI sees an upside risk to its already positive
(84 x 109 m3) of new gas reserves. Nine new gas projects forecast for natural gas. It currently forecasts Egypt to
began production in 2014, with four focused on delivering be a net gas importer for at least the next five years,
gas to power stations. As many as 10 new EGAS-led gas largely based on the LNG import contracts signed with
projects could add new gas output in 2015. Sonatrach and Noble Energy, but also potential pipeline
Improvements to the investment environment in Egypt, gas imports from Israel and Cyprus. The substantial return
as well as a concerted effort to repay monies owed to oil of investment into Egypts upstream has the potential to
and gas companies, has lifted confidence in the sector and make the countrys gas importer status a temporary de-
supported a return of exploration. In January 2015, 15 new velopment. That said, BMIs current forecast sees Egypt
exploration deals were signed with major oil and gas firms, as a net gas importer for the next 10 years. Given the
including BP, Eni, Shell and Total, which selected Egypt as upside risk from new investment, it will reassess its out-
an area in which to increase their presence. Egypt contin- look if positive exploration and development results are
ues to remain attractive because of its strong hydrocarbon achieved during 2015. CT2

APRIL 2015 8 Compressortech2


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Events & Meetings


Altronic.indd 1 3/6/13 2:54 PM

Boldface indicates shows and c


onferences in which Compressortech2 is participating

APRIL +1 (225) 578-4853 +1 (412) 372-4301


April 12-15 www.gsrms.org www.egcr.org
Gas Processors Association
Annual Convention April 28-30 May 19-21
San Antonio Southwest Energy Institute Sensor+Test
+1 (918) 493-3872 Liberal, Kansas Nuremberg, Germany
www.gpaglobal.org +1 (620) 417-1170 +49 5033 9639-0
www.swenergyinstitute.org www.sensor-test.de
April 20-22
Gas Compressor Association MAY May 19-21
Turkmenistan Gas Congress
Expo & Conference May 4-7
Avaza, Turkmenistan
Galveston, Texas Offshore Technology Conference
+44 20 7596 5000
+1 (972) 518-0019 Houston
www.turkmenistangascongress.com
www.gascompressor.org +1 (972) 952-9494
www.otcnet.org
JUNE
April 22-25 June 1-5
4th Erbil Oil & Gas May 12-14 WGC World Gas Conference
International Exhibition Oil & Gas Uzbekistan Paris
Erbil, Iraq Tashkent, Uzbekistan +61 29 5567945
+90 216 575 28 28 +44 207 596 5144 www.wgc-paris2015.com
www.erbiloilgas.com www.oguzbekistan.com
June 2-5
April 27-29 May 19-21 Caspian Oil & Gas
Gulf South Rotating Eastern Gas Compression Baku, Azerbaijan
Machinery Symposium Roundtable +44 207 596 5000
Baton Rouge, Louisiana Pittsburgh www.caspianoil-gas.com

APRIL 2015 10 Compressortech2


Altronic.indd 2 3/6/13 2:54 PM

For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com/events/

June 9-11 +1 (404) 847-0072 +44 1992 656 634


Power-Gen Europe www.asmeconferences.org/TE2015/ www.powergenasia.com
Amsterdam
+44 1992 656 617 June 24-25 Sept. 14-16
Energy Exposition SPE North Africa Technical Conference
www.powergeneurope.com
Billings, Montana and Exhibition
Cairo
June 9-11 +1 (307) 234-1868
+971 4 457 5800
Global Petroleum Show www.energyexposition.com
www.spe.org/events/natc
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
+1 (403) 209-3555 JULY Sept. 14-17
www.globalpetroleumshow.com July 20-22 Turbomachinery Symposium/
Southern Gas Association Operating Pump Users Symposium
Conference Houston
June 9-11
Nashville, Tennessee +1 (979) 845-7417
Sensors Expo & Conference
+1 (972) 620-8505 http://pumpturbo.tamu.edu
Long Beach, California
www.southerngas.org
+1 (617) 219-8375 Sept. 15-17
www.sensorsmag.com/sensors-expo August Wyoming Oil & Gas Fair
Aug. 18-20 Casper, Wyoming
June 15-19 +1 (307) 258-4708
Power-Gen Natural Gas
Achema 2015 www.wyogasfair.org
Columbus, Ohio
Frankfurt, Germany +1 (888) 299-8016 Sept. 15-17
+49 69 7564-100 www.power-gennaturalgas.com Gas Compressor Short
www.achema.de/en Course Conference
SEPTEMBER Norman, Oklahoma
June 15-19 Sept. 1-3 +1 (405) 325-38910
ASME Turbo Expo Power-Gen Asia www.ou.edu/outreach/engr/
Montreal, Quebec, Canada Bangkok gascompressor_home.html

APRIL 2015 11 Compressortech2


About The Business

Dont Expect Higher


Energy Prices
By Norm shade Anytime Soon > Downturn pressures companies
to improve operations

I
n the midst of significant budget cutbacks and layoffs in U.S. liquid natural gas (LNG) supplies coming on-line over
the oil and gas exploration and production industry, and the next several years, coupled with slower growth in Chi-
now in the gas compression arena, the burning question nese demand, is expected to soften the LNG market after
is, When will oil and gas prices recover? Mounting evi- 2018 until about 2022. Then, a tighter LNG market is forecast
dence suggests that it wont be anytime soon. as new supplies are delayed because new LNG projects will
The annual Gas/Electric Partnership conference, held in be unable to gain final investment at lower gas prices.
February in Houston, explored this question in depth. In ad- Natural gas liquids (NGL) production growth is also pre-
dition to its usual focus on gas compression facilities, gas/ dicted to continue, driven by shale plays. However, NGL
liquids infrastructure from the wellhead through transmis- prices, especially ethane, could remain relatively low, as
sion and associated power interactions, this year the con- the market development is uncertain, but important to ac-
ference featured several leading energy authorities, who commodate the growing production.
debated the impacts of (lower) oil prices and the outlook for The panel indicated that midstream gas infrastructure
the future. Members of the roundtable were Kevin Petak, development should remain robust, because it is needed
ICF International; Michael Juden, McKinsey & Co.; and Ed- to accommodate growing production and support market
ward Kelly, IHS Inc. growth. Oil infrastructure growth is less certain due to re-
The panels consensus was that a recovery in energy duced oil prices.
prices is unlikely anytime soon. Juden pointed out that an Demand from the colder-than-normal February drew
oil price of US$100/bbl was structurally difficult to support, down gas storage to below the five-year average, but as
because production significantly exceeds demand. He de- of early March inventory was still ahead of last year. Ac-
scribed three possible recovery scenarios: (1) a quick re- cordingly, the NYMEX price had somewhat stabilized in the
covery that requires taking 1.5 MMbbl/d out of the market; US$2.60 to US$2.70/MMBtu range, but it will likely drop
(2) a slow recovery as a result of continued supply growth, from there as demand softens with the arrival of spring.
lack of OPEC action to reduce output and tepid demand Low energy prices and the cost overruns and delays ex-
growth; or (3) no recovery, wherein all producers adjust to perienced during the rapid growth of the past five years will
the lower prices, maintain production and continue to pro- force oil and gas companies to seek more affordable and
tect their market shares. All the analysts agreed that oil pro- improved products and services. This will be felt through-
duction would continue to grow this year, before declining. out the compression supply chain in the form of hungrier
There will be some price volatility in the near term, with esti- competition and pressure on prices, terms and lead times.
mates ranging from US$20 to US$60/bbl. Petak suggested Another risk is the ability of debt-heavy producers being
that oil prices could reach about US$75/bbl by 2018 and able to pay on time or at all. Careful credit management is
then flatten out for the foreseeable future. important during steep downturns.
U.S. gas production will continue to grow because of the As the industry responds to lower prices and reduced
ongoing shale boom. Natural gas prices were also predicted profits with mass layoffs, yet another challenge is to
to remain relatively low over the next year or more, increasing maintain a workforce of sufficient size and balanced age
as demand growth strengthens after 2015. Currently, there is structure to support long-term needs. Skill shortages will
high natural gas demand growth in Asia, about 3% growth re-emerge and set the stage for the next brutal boom-bust
in North America and flat demand in Europe. Australian and cycle. Long-term success is dependent on companies
maintaining their young talent and continuing the support
Norm Shade is senior consultant and president emeritus of ACI of training programs that prepare replacements for older
Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio. A 45-year veteran of the gas workers that are approaching retirement.
compression industry, he has written numerous papers and is Copies of the analysts detailed presentations can be
active in the major industry associations. downloaded from http://bit.ly/1wXVjdO. CT2

April 2015 12 Compressortech2


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New Natural Gas Screw
Compressors > TMP is extending its line of oil-flooded
screw compressors
By Roberto Chellini

n Gas compressor sample from the NG series (model NG14 [144 hp] 110 kW).

T
he compressor division of Ter- up to 1341 hp (1 MW). The company form hydrostatic, mechanical and per-
momeccanica Pompe (TMP) supplies the bare screw compressor to formance tests according to customer
of La Spezia, Italy, is engaged packagers that provide the engineering, specifications. Natural gas compres-
in extending the line of its oil-flooded procurement and construction (EPC) sors are manufactured according to
screw compressors. The present line is contractor or the final customer with API 619 5th Edition specifications, and
designed for pressures up to 290 psi the skid-mounted compression system. ATEX specifications [1-2].
(20 bar). During the course of 2015 Upon the customers request, TMP can Production capacity is 15,000 bare
the company plans to issue the first provide an accessory kit containing the compressors per year, 90% of which
units of the 580 psi (40 bar) family. inlet valve and other components. is exported worldwide. Major export
The development process is carried While the air compressor line is fully countries are the United States and
out entirely in-house with the use of standardized, the gas line is tailored Canada (30%), China, South Korea,
proprietary software. to respond to customer specifica- Europe and Turkey.
TMP has been involved in the de- tions. Depending to gas composition, A global service organization of
velopment and production of screw special materials of the casing and the pumps division is also in charge
compressors for more than 30 years. the screw can be selected, mechani- of servicing the company screw com-
The original line featured air compres- cal seals can feature single or double pressors and rotating machines from
sors for industrial applications and sealing rings, in the case of very ag- other original equipment manufactur-
gas compressors for the compression gressive or flammable gases (hy- ers (OEMs). CT2
of natural gas, hydrogen, carbon diox- drogen), and the compressor casing
ide (CO2), etc., tailored for the oil and can be completely sealed and con- References
gas industry and as booster units for nected to the driver through a mag- [1] API Standard 619, Rotary-Type
gas turbine fuel gas supply. netic coupling. According to TMP, the Positive-Displacement Compressors
Two years ago, TMP introduced the oil-flooded construction of the com- For Petroleum, Petrochemical, And
NG line specifically tailored for natural pressor is best suited to handle dirty Natural Gas Industries, 5th Edition,
gas compression at the well head, to gases, which are purified in the gas American Petroleum Institute, 2010.
cover the needs of shale gas devel- treatment system placed in front of [2] ATEX Equipment Directive (ATEX
opments and flare gas to lower flaring the compressor, and the oil inside the 95), Directive On Equipment And Pro-
of associated gas, which is harmful to casing protects the casing and screw tective Systems Intended For Use In
the environment. surfaces from residual impurities and Potentially Explosive Atmospheres
The present line covers flows up to minimizes leakages. (94/9/EC), European Parliament And
3738 scfm (6000 Nm3/hr) and powers The TMP shop is equipped to per- The Council.

APRIL 2015 14 Compressortech2


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TECH
Evaluation Of A Dynamic Variable Orifice

corner
For Reciprocating Compressor Pulsation
Control (Part 1) > Aorifice
dynamic variable orifice (DVO) allows the
size to be adjusted for optimal pulsation
control and efficiency as conditions change
By Norm Shade, Tyler Clark and Jared W. Adair

Editors Note: This paper was delivered at the Gas Ma- with flat gaskets. Once the flanges are installed, the ori-
chinery Research Councils Gas Machinery Conference fice plates remain in place and can only be removed or
meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014. The au- changed by stopping the compressor, completely venting
thors wish to acknowledge the management of ACI Ser- all gas to atmospheric pressure, loosening all the flange-
vices Inc. for providing equipment, facilities, personnel threaded fasteners, removing the original orifice plates, in-
and funding for this research and to Tech Transfer Inc. for stalling new orifice plates with new gaskets, re-assembling
providing the case studies referenced in this article and tightening the threaded fasteners and pressurizing
the system with gas and restarting the compressor.
Background In the majority of applications, compressor operating
Common pulsation attenuation elements include pulsa- conditions speed, suction pressure and temperature,
tion bottles (expansion volumes, often containing internal discharge pressure and temperature, displacement, effec-
baffles, multiple chambers and choke tubes), external choke tive clearance volume, and even the gas composition vary
tubes and fixed orifice plates installed at specific locations with time. Operating condition variations may be gradual
in both the suction and discharge sides of each compres- over time, but are more often intermittent, changing fre-
sor cylinder. These pulsation attenuation devices can be quently to higher or lower levels as dictated by the de-
used separately or in combination to dampen the pressure mands of the application. Some applications, e.g., natural
waves and reduce the resulting forces to acceptable levels. gas transmission and gas storage, have extreme varia-
They typically accomplish pulsation attenuation by adding tions in operating conditions over time. In fact, the majority
resistance to the system, which causes system pressure of reciprocating applications require operation over a wide
drop and energy losses both upstream and downstream speed range as well as multiple flow rates that range from
of the compressor cylinders. The pressure losses typically low to very high flows.
increase as the frequency of the pulsation increases, and Fixed orifice plates are effective in reducing pulsations
they add to the work that must be done by the compressor over a narrow compressor operating range; however, they
to move gas from the suction line to the discharge line [1]. cause an associated pressure drop that adds to the work
Fixed orifice plates are one of the most common ele- and power consumption required by the compressor. The
ments used for pulsation control. They are relatively easy system pulsation control design is almost always a com-
to install and are low in cost, often used at multiple loca- promise between pulsation control and pressure drop or
tions throughout the system. Fixed orifices are thin metal power penalty [3]. For example, a very restrictive (low Beta
sheets having a round hole of a specified diameter, locat- ratio) fixed orifice plate may be required to adequately
ed at the center of the pipe cross section. Most typically, dampen pulsations at certain operating conditions. How-
the Beta ratio, defined as the orifice hole diameter divided ever, at other operating conditions, the pulsations might
by the inside diameter of the pipe in which it is installed, be acceptable with a less-restrictive (larger Beta ratio),
is in the range of 0.5 to 0.7 [2]. However, smaller and fixed orifice plate or possibly with no orifice plate at all. In
larger Beta ratios are sometimes used. The orifice plate addition, a fixed orifice plate that controls pulsations with a
is retained between two adjacent pipe flanges that are tolerable pressure drop and power penalty at some condi-
held together with multiple threaded fasteners and sealed tions may cause excessive damping, pressure drop and
power penalty at other conditions.
Norm Shade, PE, is senior consultant for ACI Services Inc., Consequently, multiple challenges occur when trying to
Cambridge, Ohio. Tyler Clark, EIT, is project engineer for ACI achieve pulsation control with pulsation bottles and fixed
Services Inc., Cambridge, Ohio. Jared W. Adair is acoustical orifice plates. A typical disclaimer by a pulsation control
analyst for Tech Transfer Inc., Houston. designer states that Orifice and choke tube diameters are

APRIL 2015 16 Compressortech2


selected to provide the optimum pulsation dampening and mm) diameter cylinders, driven by a 1200 rpm, 1500 hp
pressure drop over the entire operating range of the unit. (1118 kW) gas engine in a gas-gathering application. Over
Typically, the predicted pressure drop levels for the com- the life of the application, the suction pressure will vary with
pressor will range from at or below API 618 [4] allowable time as individual gas wells come on and off line. In ad-
levels at normal and low flow conditions to above API 618 dition, the suction pressure will trend to lower levels over
allowable levels at high flow conditions. Additionally, the pul- longer periods of time as the gas wells mature and produc-
sation dampening will be generally good at normal and high tion volumes and pressure decline. To accommodate the
flow conditions, but may be marginal to poor at certain fre- wide range of operating conditions within the rated limits of
quencies when operating at the minimum flow conditions. the compressor and the engine driver, the operating speed,
Downtime, labor and lost production required for changing suction pressure, volumetric clearance and number of ac-
fixed orifice plates make that alternative undesirable in most tive compressor ends have to be varied, often by means of
cases. As a result, compressor systems tend to run with high- automatic controls. This type of application is very common,
er pressure and power losses or with higher pulsation-driven and the design of an optimal pulsation control system for
vibration, and associated risk, than would be optimal if the such an application is often very challenging.
orifice size were changed when dictated by operating con- The end user provided 18 different operating conditions
ditions. The dynamic variable orifice, which is the subject that defined the range over which the system was required
of this article, provides a practical alternative for changing to operate. A conventional flat-plate orifice was placed at
orifice size during operation of a compressor. the inlet flange on the suction bottle, which was a two-
chambered, volume-choke-volume acoustic filter connect-
Case studies ed to two cylinders. Flat-plate orifices were also placed
Two case studies of actual applications were conducted at each cylinder suction flange. An identical configuration
to provide examples of the penalties associated with hav- was used on the opposite side of the compressor for the
ing fixed orifice diameters as well as the benefits of having other two cylinders.
variable orifice diameters. Three-chambered, volume-choke-volume bottles were
Case study 1 used on the discharge, joining two parallel cylinders on
The first case study involved a single-stage, four-throw, each side of the compressor. Flat-plate orifices were placed
5.5 in. (139.7 mm) stroke compressor with 8.75 in. (222.25 continued on page 18

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3/20/15 10:57 AM
2
Optimal Common Optimal Common Optimal Common
Operating Case 1 3 8
Cyl 1 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cly 1 - SACE Cyl 1 - DA; Nominal HE Clearance
Cyl 2 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cly 2 - SACE Cyl 2 - DA; Nominal HE Clearance
Load Step
Cyl 3 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cly 3 - SACE Cyl 3 - DA; Nominal HE Clearance
Cyl 4 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cyl 4 - DA; Added HE Clearance Cyl 4 - DA; Nominal HE Clearance
Suction Temperature (F) 62 62 61
Suction Pressure (psig) 705 735 850
Discharge Pressure (psig) 981 981 1000
Speed (rpm) 1200 1084 1200
Power Required (hp) 1370 784 1245
Flow Rate (MMscfd) 86.5 58.0 149.9
Suction Bottle Inlet Orifice Diameter (in.) 7.44 5.50 4.25 5.50 7.44 5.50
Cylinder Suction Flange Orifice Diameter (in.) 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 5.00 3.75
Cylinder Discharge Flange Orifice Diameter (in.) 3.75 3.50 3.75 3.50 5.50 3.50
Discharge Bottle Outlet Orifice Diameter (in.) 5.50 4.25 3.50 4.25 5.50 4.25
Suction Line Pressure Drop (psi) 10.80 13.80 11.60 6.10 11.00 33.60
Suction Line Pressure Drop (%) 1.53 1.96 1.58 0.83 1.29 3.95
Suction Line Power (hp) 13.70 17.40 9.80 5.20 19.20 58.50
Suction Line Pulsation (psi) 15.90 13.70 54.00 88.20 5.70 4.30
Suction Line Pulsation (% Average Pressure) 2.20 1.90 7.20 11.80 0.70 0.50
Discharge Line Pressure Drop (psi) 9.70 18.90 15.60 8.90 12.10 52.10
Discharge Line Pressure Drop (%) 0.99 1.93 1.59 0.91 1.21 5.21
Discharge Line Power (hp) 9.40 18.20 10.60 6.20 18.40 79.20
Discharge Line Pulsation (psi) 13.90 13.00 55.70 57.60 1.70 1.70
Discharge Line Pulsation (% Average Pressure) 1.40 1.30 5.60 5.80 0.20 0.20
Total Pressure Drop (psi) 20.50 32.70 27.20 15.00 23.10 85.70
Total Line Power (hp) 23.10 35.60 20.40 11.40 37.60 137.70
% System Power Cost 1.69 2.60 2.60 1.45 3.02 11.06
Daily Fuel Cost @ US$3.50/MMBtu $13.58 $20.93 $12.00 $6.70 $22.11 $80.97
Savings Per Day $7.35 -$5.29 $58.86
Savings Per Year At 96% Utilization $2575.44 -$1854.34 $20,624.12

Suction Line Pulsation (% Of Guideline Limit) 192 165 636 1005 84 64


Discharge Line Pulsation (% Of Guideline Limit) 127 118 509 527 46 43
n Table 1: Case study 1 Comparison of common (one set) and optimal (two sets) pulsation control orifices.

at each cylinder discharge flange. A flat-plate orifice was change. The set was selected to provide the best overall
also placed at the outlet flange on each discharge bottle. performance at operating case 1, which is the highest pow-
The compressor and piping system was modeled and er condition. At this condition, the suction (from the suction
analyzed over the range of operating conditions to deter- header to the compressor cylinder suction flange) and dis-
mine the pulsations throughout the system. The analysis charge (from the compressor cylinder discharge flange to
results of three of the 18 specified operating conditions the discharge header) pressure drops are 1.96 and 1.93%
are presented in Table 1. of line pressure, respectively. The suction and discharge
Operating case 1 is a 1200 rpm operating point with pulsations are controlled to 1.9 and 1.3% of the line pres-
all four cylinders in double-acting (DA) mode, but with sure, respectively, and the associated power consumed by
volumetric clearance added to the cylinder head end the suction and discharge pressure drops is 2.60%.
to reduce the capacity to a rating of 86.5 MMscfd (2.45 x A more optimal set of orifices, for operating case 1,
106 m3/d). controls the suction and discharge pulsations to 2.2 and
Operating case 3 is a 1084 rpm operating point with 1.4%, respectively, which would be acceptable for that
three cylinders in single-acting (SACE) mode and one case based on analysis of the resulting shaking forces.
in DA mode with volumetric clearance added to the The larger-diameter orifices in the optimal set resulted in
head to reduce capacity to a rating of 58 MMscfd (1.64 x suction and discharge pressure drops of 1.53 and 0.99%,
106 m3/d). respectively, with an associated power consumption of
Operating case 8 is a 1200 rpm operating point with 1.69%. This translates to a savings of US$7.35 in driver
all four cylinders acting in DA mode with no volumetric fuel cost per day, based on a fuel cost of US$3.50/MMBtu
clearance added to the head for a maximum capacity (1055 x 106 kJ). If the compressor were to operate at this
of 149.9 MMscfd (4.24 x 106 m3/d). operating condition all the time, with the assumption of the
As is customary, a common set of flat-plate orifices was industry norm of 96% availability, use of the optimal orifice
selected for all operating conditions. As shown in Table 1, set would result in annual fuel savings of US$2575.44. Al-
a common set of orifices is far from optimal as conditions though the savings is significant, operating case 1 does

APRIL 2015 18 Compressortech2


not demonstrate the primary issue with the use of a com- Recognized
Leader
mon set of orifices.
Operating case 3 shows a different issue that occurs with
the use of a common set of fixed pulsation control orifices.
It is a low flow condition in which three of the four cylinders
are operated in SACE mode. Power losses with the com-
mon set are 1.45%; however, the pulsation control is not ad-
equate. Suction and discharge pulsations with the common
set are 11.8 and 5.8%, respectively. These are unaccept-
ably high and result in a high risk of pulsation-related vibra-
tion, meter-measurement problems and other safety and
reliability problems upstream of, within and downstream
of the compressor system. A more optimal set of pulsation
control orifices for this case result in suction and discharge
pulsations of 7.2 and 5.6%, respectively. Although these
pulsations are still higher than would be preferred, they are
substantially better than the common orifice set and they
represent the best practical alternative for this operating
condition without more drastic redesign of the system. The
resulting power consumption increases to 2.60%; however,
that is a reasonable premium for reducing the risk of pulsa-
tion-related reliability problems. While this particular exam-
ple is not perfect in all respects, it demonstrates a common
issue that results from use of a single set of orifices.
Operating case 8 provides an example of another prob-
lem associated with using a common set of fixed pulsation
control orifices in a compressor that must operate over a
wide range of flow conditions. The common orifice set con-
Innovator in State-of-the-Art
trols suction and discharge pulsations to 0.5 and 0.2%, re-
Pipe Supports & Clamps
spectively. This exceptional pulsation control comes with a
significant power cost, however, for this low-pressure ratio
Inventor of Flywheel Lock
operating case, because the resulting power consumption Leaders in Field Machine Work
is 11.06%. A more optimal set of pulsation control orifices Pioneers in Casting Rapair
for case 8 results in a power consumption of 3.02%. Suc-
tion and discharge pulsations remain very low, even with PRODUCTS: SERVICES:
the optimal, larger-diameter orifice set. The power savings n Pipe Supports & Clamps n Field Machining
translates to US$58.86 in driver fuel cost per day, based n Epoxy Grout n Casting Repair
on a fuel cost of US$3.50/MMBtu (1055 x 106 kJ). If the n Anchor Bolts n Crankshaft Machining
compressor were to operate at this operating condition all n Flywheel Locks n Machine Shop
the time, with the assumption of the industry norm of 96% n Temperature & Vibration n Broken Bolt Removal
availability, use of the optimal orifice set would result in Sensors n Frame Reinforcement
annual fuel savings of US$20,624.12. n Spark Plugs n Alignment Services
In this case study, the options are limited to: (1) restrict-
ing the compressor operation to a limited operating range,
i.e., a low flow of about 60 MMscfd (1.7 x 106 m3/d) to a
high flow of about 80 MMscfd (2.26 x 106 m3/d) with the use
of the common set of orifices, or (2) to stop the compres-
sor frequently, vent the system to atmospheric pressure,
physically unbolt ten sets of flanges to change the orifice
plates to sets that are more optimal for the intended op-
eration, reassemble the 10 sets of flanges, re-pressurize
the system, and restart the compressor. Option 1 could
918-252-7545
result in flow being limited by as much as 69.9 MMscfd
www.r-f.com
(1.98 x 106 m3/d), or the difference between the desired info@r-f.com
149.9 MMscfd (4.24 x 106 m3/d) maximum capacity and the Tulsa, OK
continued on page 20

APRIL 2015 19 Compressortech2


Optimal Common Optimal Common
Operating Case 1 3
Cyl 1 - DA; Minimum HE Clearance Cly 1 - SACE
Cyl 2 - DA; Minimum HE Clearance Cly 2 - DA; Added HE Clearance
Load Step
Cyl 3 - DA; Minimum HE Clearance Cly 3 - SACE
Cyl 4 - DA; Minimum HE Clearance Cyl 4 - DA; Added HE Clearance
Suction Temperature (F) 125 128
Suction Pressure (psig) 400 400
Discharge Pressure (psig) 2200 2200
Speed (rpm) 1200 900
Power Required (hp) 1439 445
Flow Rate (MMscfd) 14.82 13.09 4.936 5.005

Unbalanced Forces Over API Allowable


1st Stage Suction Bottle Inlet Orifice Diameter (in.) 4.20 3.30 3.30 4.20
1st Stage Cylinder Suction Flange Orifice Diameter (in.) 4.20 2.40 2.40 4.20
1st Stage Cylinder Discharge Flange Orifice Diameter (in.) 3.30 2.40 2.40 3.30
1st Stage Discharge Bottle Outlet Orifice Diameter (in.) 4.20 3.30 3.30 4.20
2nd Stage Suction Bottle Inlet Orifice Diameter (in.) 2.80 1.60 1.60 2.80
2nd Stage Cylinder Suction Flange Orifice Diameter (in.) 2.20 1.60 1.60 2.20
2nd Stage Cylinder Discharge Flange Orifice Diameter (in.) 2.20 1.60 1.60 2.20
2nd Stage Discharge Bottle Outlet Orifice Diameter (in.) 2.80 1.60 1.60 2.80
Suction Line Pressure Drop (psi) 8.30 50.60 3.50 0.80
Suction Line Pressure Drop (%) 2.08 12.66 0.87 0.20
Suction Line Power (hp) 7.10 28.20 1.00 0.20
Suction Line Pulsation (psi) 3.40 3.80 11.80 23.90
Suction Line Pulsation (% Average Pressure) 0.81 0.93 2.85 5.77
Interstage Pressure (psig) 835.0 805.70 934.70 934.50
Interstage Line Pressure Drop (psi) 24.30 62.40 5.90 2.40
Interstage Line Pressure Drop (%) 2.91 7.74 0.63 0.25
Interstage Line Power (hp) 9.80 24.10 0.60 0.30
Interstage Line Pulsation (psi) 2.90 0.80 16.30 24.70
Interstage Line Pulsation (% Of Average Pressure) 0.34 0.09 1.72 2.60
Discharge Line Pressure Drop (psi) 5.60 92.50 9.00 1.10
Discharge Line Pressure Drop (%) 0.25 4.20 0.41 0.05
Discharge Line Power (hp) 1.70 14.20 0.30 0.00
Discharge Line Pulsation (psi) 9.80 5.60 3.30 17.00
Discharge Line Pulsation (% Average Pressure) 0.44 0.25 0.15 0.77
Total Pressure Drop (psi) 38.20 205.50 18.40 4.30
Total Line Power (hp) 18.60 66.50 1.90 0.50
% System Power Cost 1.30 4.62 0.42 0.12
Daily Fuel Cost @ US$3.50/MMBtu $10.96 $39.11 $1.11 $0.31
Savings Per Day $28.15 -$0.79
Savings Per Year At 96% Utilization $9862.91 -$278.35

Suction Line Pulsation (% Of Guideline Limit) 114 55 206 440


Interstage Line Pulsation (% Of Guideline Limit) 63 10 189 287
Discharge Line Pulsation (% Of Guideline Limit) 100 29 34 91
n Table 2: Case study 2 Comparison of common (one set) and optimal (two sets) pulsation control orifices.

80 MMscfd (2.26 x 106 m3/d) limit imposed on the unit due million annually. Option 2 is generally not a practical alter-
to use of the fixed orifices. Based on a US$3.50/MMBtu native because of its high cost, its labor intensity, the en-
(1055 x 106 kJ) gas price, this lost production opportunity vironmental impact from the more frequent venting of gas
would be nearly US$14,000 per day or more than US$5.1 from the system to the atmosphere, and the fact that flow

0.50 0.58 0.65 0.73 0.80


n Figure 1. The effective Beta ratio of the DVO is increased from a minimum of (left) 0.5 to a maximum of (right) 0.8 as the upper plate
is rotated relative to the fixed lower plate.

APRIL 2015 20 Compressortech2


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n Figure 2 (top). Flat DVO showing fixed lower-ported plate held be-
tween pipe flanges and rotatable upper-ported plate (bottom). A worm IDEAL ANALYZER TO
gear rotates the upper-ported plate to align its ports relative to ports in
the fixed lower-ported plate to increase or decrease the DVO Beta ratio. MEASURE ENGINE EMISSIONS
conditions are not always predictable or controllable, which
could pose a risk to operational safety.
NEW
E4500
Total NOx
Case study 2 O2, CO, NO, & NO 2
The second study involved a two-stage, four-throw,
4.5 in. (110.25 mm) stroke compressor with two 7.25 in. Auto Data Saving
(190.5 mm) diameter cylinders and two 5.00 in. (127 mm)
diameter cylinders, driven by a 1200 rpm, 1480 hp (1103 kW) CO Auto-Range
To 50,000 ppm
gas engine in a gas processing application. The end user
provided 13 different operating conditions that defined PC Software With
the wide range over which the system was required to BlueTooth & USB
operate. Performance at operating case 1, which is the
highest power condition, results in unacceptable pulsa-
tion levels for operating case 3. On the other hand, se- Now with Service Centers in
lecting a common set that controls pulsations at case 3
results in very high-pressure drops that result in a fuel
PA, CA, & Canada
cost penalty of US$28.15 per day, or US$9,862.91 per
year. More importantly, it results in 1.73 MMscfd (0.22 x E Instruments
106 m3/d) less flow from the compressor, a reduction
215-750-1212
of 11.7%. To a producer, this has a potential economic
value of US$6055 per day, or more than US$2.1 million www.E-Inst.com
annually, in lost production.
continued on page 22 Built with Quality In Mind
APRIL 2015 21 Compressortech2
ratio is at a maximum when the ports are fully open. The
DVO Beta ratios can be selectively designed from a mini-
mum of typically 0.4 to 0.5, or lower, up to a maximum of
0.7 to 0.8, or higher, if necessary.
The shapes of the upper and lower ported plates can be
flat as shown in Figures 2(a) and (b), conical as shown in
Figures 3(a) and (b), or a combination thereof. The upper-
ported plate is typically rotated (Figure 3[b]) in one direc-
tion about the lower fixed ported plate to reduce the effec-
tive orifice size, and in an opposite direction to increase
the effective orifice size.
The lower plate has an integral flange that fits between
pipe flanges and supports, and contains the entire as-
sembly and provides mounts for an actuator and provi-
sions for control position sensors, if needed. The worm
gear can be driven manually using an external handle
or wrench, or automatically using a small electric or
pneumatic actuator. Selected DVO orifice positions can
be locked with a spring-loaded detent arrangement or
sensed and actively controlled via feedback from one or
multiple electronic sensors (when a more sophisticated
control approach is necessary).
The basic DVO mechanical structure, positioning mech-
anism and seals are designed for 1500 psig (103.5 bar).
DVOs can be designed for essentially any pipe size and
600# or 900# ANSI (American National Standards Institute;
www.ansi.org) flange ratings to provide a range of Beta ra-
tios as may be required within this pressure limit. Higher-
n Figure 3 (top). Conical DVO showing fixed lower-ported plate pressure applications may be possible with special designs.
held between pipe flanges and rotatable upper-ported plate (bot- The positioning mechanism and flange spacing are the
tom). A worm gear rotates the upper-ported plate to align its ports same for the flat and conical DVO configurations. The
relative to ports in the fixed lower ported plate to increase or de- flat DVO can be slipped between properly spaced mat-
crease the DVO Beta ratio. ing flanges; however, its maximum Beta ratio is less than
that of the conical DVO. The conical DVO can provide a
Both of the foregoing case studies show the potential for wider range of Beta ratios; yet, it requires removal of a
operating improvements if there were a practical method pipe spool piece for installation and removal of the DVO
of changing orifice sizes as operating conditions change. assembly. The shape of the conical DVO typically results
The rest of this article describes a new technology that in a decreased pressure drop for a given Beta ratio or
provides such a solution. flow area. CT2

Description and operation of the dynamic References


variable orifice (DVO) [1] Harris, R. And Raymer, R., The Value ($$) Of Com-
The dynamic variable orifice (DVO) provides a practi- pressor Efficiency, 2006 GMC Short Course, Oklahoma
cal means of changing the effective orifice sizes to opti- City, Oct. 5, 2006.
mal values in response to changing compressor operating [2] Gas Machinery Research Council, GMRC Guideline
conditions [5]. It can be adjusted while the compressor For High-Speed Reciprocating Compressor Packages For
is operating and pressurized, and allows the user to in- Natural Gas Transmission & Storage Applications, Re-
crease or decrease the effective Beta ratio. lease 1.3, July 19, 2013.
The DVO consists of a rotatable upper-ported plate [3] Greenfield, S.D., Optimizing Compressor Design
aligned with a fixed lower-ported plate, both having a For Complex Reciprocating Installations, 2006 GMRC
central round port. As shown in Figure 1, the central port, Gas Machinery Conference, Oct. 2-4, 2006.
which corresponds to the minimum DVO Beta ratio, is [4] API 618, Reciprocating Compressors For Petroleum,
similar to a fixed orifice plate. As the upper-ported plate is Chemical, And Gas Industry Services, 5th Edition (Wash-
rotated relative to the lower fixed ported plate, additional ington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute [API], 2007).
ports are opened, allowing flow to pass in parallel with [5] Patent Application No. 61930275, Dynamic Variable
the central port, increasing the DVOs Beta ratio. The Beta Orifice For Compressor Pulsation Control, Jan. 22, 2014.

APRIL 2015 22 Compressortech2


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The OSE was designed specifically for smaller compres-
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APRIL 2015 24 Compressortech2


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package more easily than our standard OLE system.
For example, the CAT 3306 engine is 60.62 in. (1540
mm) long, and before the OSE we would recommend an
OLE system, which is 49 in. (1245 mm) long and needs
n Hotstarts heated pre-lube system offers benefits for small
to be mounted on a support structure. The OSE is 30 in.
compressors in cold or high-humidity climates.
(762 mm) long and can be foot-mounted, which makes for
a more compact installation.
The OSE is manufactured at Hotstarts main facility in
Hotstart developed the OSE to meet demand for circu- Spokane, Washington, and is available globally through
lating systems for smaller-horsepower engines and smaller- Hotstart representatives or from authorized Hotstart
frame compressors where direct immersion heaters were distributors. CT2

APRIL 2015 25 Compressortech2


A Practical Approach Toward Mechanical
Integrity Programs For Gas Processing
Plants > Aoperations
tool promoting a safe and efficient plant
environment
By Barry Keys

Editors Note: This paper was de- information associated with that equip- the chemicals once the release occurs.
livered at the 2014 Gas Processors ment. This paper also proposes a spe- The mechanical integrity program
Association (GPA) meeting in Dallas, cific methodology for the determination is a secondary line of defense, and
Texas, April 13-16, 2014. of equipment that should be included if properly deployed, can serve as an
in the mechanical integrity program early warning indicator to a potential

O
SHA 1910.119 (Occupational through differentiation of mechanical unwanted release. Referring again to
Safety and Health Admin- integrity and operational reliability. Appendix C of OSHA 1910.119, The
istration [OSHA], 2012) ex- Appendix C of OSHA 1910.119 dis- first step of an effective mechanical
plains that a catastrophic release is cusses the various lines of defense integrity program is to compile and
a major uncontrolled emission, fire, employers have with regard to pro- categorize a list of process equipment
or explosion, involving one or more cess safety. Specifically, Appendix C and instrumentation for inclusion in
highly hazardous chemicals that pres- states, The first line of defense an the program. The list should then be
ents serious danger to employees in employer has available is to operate categorized by priority.
the workplace. The intent of mechan- and maintain the process as designed, As previously stated, the MEL is the
ical integrity programs is to assure and to keep the chemicals contained. proposed tool by which summary lev-
the continued integrity of the process Control of chemical release is the next el process equipment and mechanical
equipment [1]. line of defense in which unwanted re- integrity information is retained. An
A practical approach toward me- leases are prevented. Secondary pro- example MEL is shown in Tables 1
chanical integrity programs for gas pro- tection includes fixed fire-protection and 2. (Note: It is probably a bit more
cessing plants is discussed and how systems like sprinklers, water spray, optimal to collect this information in a
the intent of OSHA 1910.119 is accom- or deluge systems, monitor guns, etc., spreadsheet as opposed to immedi-
plished, with particular emphasis on dikes, designed drainage systems, ately implementing some sort of data-
process vessels. The paper will provide and other systems that would control base management solution.)
several examples of the underlying or mitigate hazardous chemicals once Tables 1 and 2 are tailored toward
thought processes, a flowchart to as- an unwanted release occurs. vessels. Appropriate column head-
sist in the application of API 510 [2] with The key thought is that highly haz- ings and information for relief valves,
respect to performance of vessel inter- ardous chemicals are kept where emergency shutdown systems, and
nal inspections, and development of a they belong (i.e., away from people) other second line of defense equip-
single document, hereinafter named and that the process is operated as it ment would be necessary for a com-
the Master Equipment List (MEL) as was designed to operate. In the event plete MEL.
a reference document that provides of an unwanted release, a secondary The next step in developing a me-
summary level information of process line of defense is deployed to ensure chanical integrity program is to iden-
equipment and the mechanical integrity the release is conducted in as safe tify those pieces of equipment that
a manner as possible and that addi- are candidates for participation. It
Barry Keys is a senior engineering man- tional systems/programs have been is clear that not all pieces of equip-
ager at Midcoast Energy Partners. deployed to control and/or mitigate continued on page 28

Equipment MAWP Min/Max National Year U-1A


Tag # P&ID # Size Manufacturer
Name (psig) Temp (F) Board # Built Available?

Inlet 1100 3 ft. 6 in. by 10 ft.


PV-16.03 LON-MO-1-001 250 QB Johnson SN 108582 1982 YES
Separator (75.84 bar) (1066 by 3048 mm)

n Table 1. Master Equipment List summary level equipment information (vessels).

April 2015 26 Compressortech2


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instrumentation to develop the best solutions.
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Last Next
Physical Last Internal Next Internal
Equipment Inspection Inspection External External
Tag # Entry Inspection Inspection Comments
Classification for MI Requirement Inspection Inspection
Possible Date Due Date
Date Due Date
+25 Years
Pressure
PV-16.03 Yes Yes API 510 6/21/2010 6/21/2015 6/21//2010 6/21/2020 Remaining
Vessel
Life

n Table 2. Master Equipment List summary level M1 information for equipment (Vessels).
Last Next
Physical Last Internal Next Internal
Equipment Inspection Inspection External External
Tag # Entry Inspection Inspection Comments
Classification for MI Requirement Inspection Inspection
Possible Date Due Date
Date Due Date
No
Evidence Of
Pressure
HTR-1301 Yes No API 510 4/30/2009 4/30/2014 5/15/2012 5/15/2022 Pitting Or
Vessel
Localized
Corrosion

n Table 3. Proposed MEL information for equipment not requiring mechanical integrity inspections.

ment have the potential of causing a integrity and operational reliability the list and quantities of chemicals for
catastrophic failure while it is equally is initiated. As previously stated, the consideration in process safety man-
clear that inspections should be per- key thought for process safety is to agement and it is well recognized that
formed to ensure ongoing reliable keep the hazardous chemicals con- uncontrolled releases of these chemi-
operations. To this end, the idea of tained while operating within design cals above their threshold amounts
differentiating between mechanical parameters. OSHA 1910.119 defines continued on page 30

Identify List Of Equipment That Are Candidates For


Internal Inspections

Yes No
Refined Catastrophic
Refined Equipment List
Equipment List Failure?

No

No
Physical
Entry Refined Equipment Done
Possible? List
Inspections
Desired For
Operational
Yes Reliability?
Special
Circumstances No
Warranting Yes
Refined Equipment Additional
List Inspections

Yes
Perform On-Stream/
Additional
Inspections
Perform Internal/ Engineering Provide Ops Define Scope Of
On-Stream Resolution To Desired Inspections
Inspections Inspection Inquiry

Engineering
Provide Resolution
To Inspection

n Figure 1. Pressure vessel inspection decision guidance.

April 2015 28 Compressortech2


Mechanical Integrity

n Figure 2. Mechanical integrity, operational reliability


and routine maintenance working together.

Safe, Effective,
Efficient And
Reliable Plant

Preventive Maintenance Operational Reliability

would be considered as catastrophic that asks, If a major, uncontrolled failure? Quite simply, if the answer
failures. Given this list of chemicals, release of this substance occurred, were yes, then the particular piece of
an evaluation needs to be conducted would it be considered a catastrophic equipment under consideration would

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April 2015 30 Compressortech2
be included in the mechanical integ- Separating the inspections into these effective and efficient plant operations
rity program. If the answer is no, two categories serves the purpose of as shown in Figure 2. CT2
then one should now ask the ques- establishing priorities for inspections,
tion, Should inspections be conduct- meets the intent of OSHA 1910.119, References
ed as part of an operational reliability and assists operations in budget and [1] Occupational Safety And Health
or preventive/planned maintenance schedule development for process Administration, Process Safety Man-
system? If yes, then include those safety management (PSM)-related ac- agement Of Highly Hazardous Chemi-
pieces of equipment in the appropri- tivities. Mechanical integrity programs cals, Appendix C, U.S. Department Of
ate program. Table 3 identifies a par- do not replace planned or preventive Labor, Occupational Safety And Health
ticular piece of equipment that follows maintenance activities, or other in- Administration (OSHA), 2012.
this logic. In this case, the equipment spection programs, but are simply one [2] API 510, Pressure Vessel In-
is a hot oil heater. The hot oil heater of the tools, working in conjunction spection Program (Washington, DC:
does not have any process tubing as- with others, to provide safe, reliable, American Petroleum Institute [API]).
sociated with it and does not handle
any process fluids. It is classified as
a vessel and is periodically inspected.
Regarding vessel inspections, API
510 provides specific guidance for
the performance of internal and ex-
ternal vessel inspections. Once a
MEL has been constructed, it is of
critical importance to identify those
pieces of equipment that will require
internal inspections. It is also impor-
tant to note that API 510 presents
on-stream inspections as an alter-
WHEN
MACHINES
native to performing internal inspec-
tions. Specifically, there are several
conditions that must be met to pur-

STOP,
sue the use of on-stream inspections
vs. internal inspections, as follows:
Physically impossible to enter or
If physically possible but:
General corrosion rate is known
PROBLEMS
START.
to be <0.005 in./yr (0.127 mm/yr)
Remaining life is >10 years
K  nown corrosion mechanisms
and effects have been traced for
five years
N  o questionable conditions re- For over 90 years, Sloan Lubrication Systems has provided
sulting from external inspections the most dependable, accurate and comprehensive
O  perational temperature < creep lubrication solutions for your reciprocating and rotary
rupture temperature equipment. So when you cant afford downtime (and frankly,
Vessel not subject to environmen- who can?), put our generations of expertise into designing
tal cracking or hydrogen damage and applying the ideal components for your systems.
N  o noninternally bonded lining
such as strip lining or plate lining
Figure 1 identifies a process flow-
chart that may be followed to differen- Protection is peace of mind.
tiate between internal inspections per- Optimize your systems with Sloan.
formed for either mechanical integrity
or operational reliability purposes.
Using the guidance shown in Fig-
ure 1 and an updated MEL, it is now 1.800.722.0250
possible to generate a list of equip- Sales@SloanLubrication.com
ment that requires inspections from a SloanLubrication.com
mechanical integrity perspective and
an operational reliability perspective.

April 2015 31 Compressortech2


Organic Rankine Cycle Waste Heat
Solutions And Opportunities In Natural
Gas Compression > The renewable energy source
you already have
By John Fox

n Figure 1. The majority of the heat resulting from


the burning fuel in an internal combustion engine is
lost in the coolant and exhaust, each of which repre-
sents an opportunity for heat recovery.

I
t takes a significant amount of en- commonly found on reciprocating en- engine or in electricity purchased from
ergy to transport the ever-growing gines, where an ORC generator can the grid. By adding an ORC to an en-
supply of natural gas in the United increase engine performance and de- gine installation, the parasitic load of
States from where it is produced to crease fuel consumption by convert- cooling the engine can be greatly re-
where it is consumed. At each natu- ing the engines jacket water and/or duced or even eliminated. The ORC
ral gas compression station there exhaust into additional electricity for turns the cost of cooling into the pay-
are multiple opportunities to con- the site. The typical engine runs at ap- back of cooling.
vert the existing waste heat streams proximately 35% efficiency, resulting
to additional electricity for the site in considerable waste heat from the Excess heat abounds
and potentially more horsepower for jacket water and the exhaust. Most industrial processes, though
increased compression and plant Engine applications include prime designed with efficiency in mind, shed
throughput. The existing waste heat power production in remote areas, excess/unused heat in some form
streams can be converted to more island and developing nations, bio- and in significant amounts. Heat may
power with no added fuel or emis- gas gen-sets such as landfill and originate from boilers, engines, fur-
sions, using technology that is prov- wastewater treatment plants, and naces, incinerators, etc., or it may
en and established worldwide. renewable biofuels. The thousands originate from other processes, in-
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) tech- of natural gas compression engines cluding gas compression, chemical
nology has been around for decades, across the globe provide a great op- reactions and more.
but only recently established itself portunity for waste-heat-to-power. The majority of the heat resulting
as a proven source of power gen- The abundance of waste heat in its from the combustion of fuel in an in-
eration from low-temperature waste many forms provides for the renew- ternal combustion engine is lost in the
heat streams. Such heat streams are able you already have. coolant and exhaust, each of which
Because ORC generators work as represents an opportunity for heat re-
John Fox is the chief executive officer at cooling devices, they can act as the covery (Figure 1). This level of heat
ElectraTherm. He holds a BS in mechani- engines radiator, essentially working rejection is common to diesel, gas, or
cal engineering and a masters degree in as a radiator with a payback. For all biomass-powered reciprocating en-
engineering mechanics from Penn State engine applications, there is an as- gines. Exhaust stack gases from virtu-
University. He also has an MBA from the sociated cost of cooling the engine, ally all combustion processes (ovens,
University of Pittsburgh. either in horsepower provided by the continued on page 34

April 2015 32 Compressortech2


flow across a difference in tempera-
ture generates power. See the basic
cycle in Figure 2.
Steps in the process include:
Surplus heat is used to boil a work-
ing fluid in an evaporator.
Under pressure, the vapor is forced
through a twin-screw expander (the
power block), turning it to spin an
electric generator.
The vapor is cooled and condensed
back into a liquid in the condenser.
The working fluid liquid refriger-
ant is pumped to higher pressure
and returned to the evaporator to
n Figure 2. The Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) has much in common with both repeat the process.
the steam engine and a refrigerator. It is a thermodynamic device (an engine) to Replacing water with alternative
convert thermal and mechanical energy. low boiling-point fluids allows a
modified version of the traditional
Rankine cycle to successfully use
kilns, furnaces, incinerators, thermal nize a power generation opportu- heat which is typically at tempera-
oxidizers and boilers) contain a large nity, be able to design and install tures too low to drive a steam engine
fraction of the original energy of the heat capture hardware plus ORC, to produce electricity. Such fluids
fuel consumed. and operate and maintain power include organic molecules, e.g., hy-
In addition to heat incidental to in- station-type equipment. drocarbons like pentane, or hydro-
dustrial processes, heat accompanies Finally, low relative energy costs, fluorocarbon refrigerants, hence the
alternative energy processes such as as well as the historically intangible moniker ORC.
geothermal, biogas, solar, biomass, nature of the environmental benefits ElectraTherms ORC waste-heat-to-
and oil field geothermally heated co- associated with reduced emissions, power generators use a hydrofluoro-
produced fluids. have made the payback period of carbon called R-245fa (1,1,1,3,3-pen-
Historically low-grade waste heat small waste-heat-to-power equip- tafluoropropane), a nonflammable,
has been ignored for several reasons: ment too long. However, histori- nontoxic liquid with a boiling point
Low-temperature waste heat can- cally rising costs of energy in- slightly below room temperature, about
not drive conventional heat engines cluding the environmental costs of 58F (15C).
such as water-based Rankine cy- fossil fuel combustion coupled
cle systems (steam-turbine power with enabling new technology, Return on investment
plants). A lower-temperature meth- have reduced the return on invest- To take low-temperature heat ener-
od of converting a fraction of this ment for waste-heat-to-electricity gy from the jacket water of a 1341 hp
heat into electricity is needed. conversion equipment. (1 MW) engine-powered generator,
Although the total amount of heat for example, and convert it to a valu-
can be very large, it is geographi- How it works able form of energy such as electric-
cally diverse. There is insufficient The ORC process follows that of ity, ORC technology is bound by the
heat available at individual process the steam engine, the principle differ- same laws of thermodynamics that
sites to utilize the most commonly ence being the replacement of water apply to the engine itself. Heat must
available heat engine solutions, with a working fluid with a much lower be rejected.
typically rated in megawatts. There- boiling point. Consider the ORC a re- Figure 3 shows heat flowing from
fore, the distribution and variation frigerator running in reverse, i.e., heat a high-temperature TH through the
of available waste heat demands
smaller, modular and distributed
generation technology. n Figure 3. Heat
Industries produce heat as a by- flows from a hot
product of their primary enterprise, source to a cold
so they generally do not consider sink. Some heat
waste-heat-to-power as an inte- is converted to
gral part of their operations. Often useful work.
sites do not have the personnel
with the skills or desire to recog-

April 2015 34 Compressortech2


n Figure 4. One single cooling device for engine/ORC combination the engine radiator is eliminated in the lower configuration.

working fluid of the ORC and into the


cold sink TC, forcing the working sub-

REDUCE DOWNTIME
stance to do mechanical work, in this
case on a generator.
The fraction of heat that is theoreti-
cally recoverable is limited by the Car-
not efficiency equation, given as:
1 - (TH / TC)
WITH FIELD REPAIRS
provided that temperatures are mea-
sured in Kelvin or Rankine degrees.
ON-SITE REPAIRS PERFORMED BY CERTIFIED
Thermal efficiencies range between SAFETY-TRAINED EXPERTS
6 and 12%. Although the numbers
seems small, since the heat is already
going to waste, the fuel source is es-
sentially free.
The heat from the condenser can
be reused, though not for generating
more electricity because of its low
temperature, but in applications for
low-temperature heat, such as district
heating, greenhouses, aquaculture, do-
mestic hot water preheating, radiant
heating, swimming pools, de-icing, etc.

ORC efficiency R&D


ElectraTherm, a manufacturer of
low-temperature ORC generators, in
working with the U.S. Department of
Defense (DoD), researched ORC ef-
ficiencies and output, and discovered
the possibility of replacing the engine
radiator completely. Mechanical Overhauls Protective Devices
The company began its first proj-
Field Machining Ignition Systems, Controls & Devices
ect with the DoD to simulate various
U.S. Navy-owned engine models and Foundation Services Laser & Optic Alignment Services
ORC integration schemes, and fully
test those configurations on Elec-
traTherms test cell. A matrix was A N E X PE RIE NCED, VA LUE -A DDED A PP ROACH
developed consisting of five engine
models and two-engine configura-
tions over different ambient condi-
tions for waste heat capture: jacket (800) 255-0111 www.exline-inc.com
water only and jacket water boosted
continued on page 36

April 2015 35 Compressortech2


freed up for compression. In effect,
the engines waste heat becomes a
source of cost savings by displacing
the radiators capital cost, reducing or
eliminating the associated parasitic
load on the engine and producing
electricity for the site.
Figure 5 shows the configuration that
will deploy later this year, comprised of
two 40 ft. (12.2 m) ISO (International
Standards Organization) shipping con-
tainers. The Cummins gen-set, engine
controls, switch gear and exhaust-gas
heat exchanger are housed in a com-
bined heat and power (CHP) module
packaged under ElectraTherms direc-
tion by Cummins Rocky Mountain, lo-
cated in Denver, Colorado.
The ORC module will contain the
n The skidded ORC unit includes a combined radiator for the both the engine and the ORC. ORC and associated controls, liquid
loop radiator (the combined radiator
for the engine and ORC), and the cor-
with exhaust energy. Navy personnel vanced engine cooling with a pay- responding balance of plant, including
visited ElectraTherm several times back was born, accomplished with an piping, pumps and expansion tank,
during the first project for training and intermediate heat exchanger to op- etc. The system will be tested first
inspection of the test cell and facili- timize the return temperature to the at ElectraTherms facility, and then
ties. At the conclusion of the project engine and a bypass to ensure the shipped to the field for a full year of
a favorable report was issued by the engine cooling remained operating if performance monitoring and fuel sav-
Navy and is available for U.S. Gov- the ORC is not running. The impact to ings validation.
ernment employees upon request. the overall installed cost for an ORC
The next project, which is underway, can now be reduced by 20 to 30%. Waste heat to additional
is the development of a higher out- Figure 4 shows how the engine ra- compression
put, fully integrated ORC specific to a diator is replaced by the ORC and its ElectraTherms experience with
Cummins KTA-50 1475 hp (1.1 MW) condenser, a liquid loop radiator. In gen-set integration has included sin-
engine for DoD deployment. The ORC the lower schematic, the ORC is cap- gle and multiple engines utilizing jack-
and balance of plant are packaged in turing both the engine jacket water et water heat alone as well as jacket
ISO shipping containers for ease of and exhaust for maximum electrical water combined with exhaust heat.
deployment and mobility throughout output. The preheater of the ORC is ElectraTherms ORC has been inte-
the world. Funding for this second specifically sized to the engine model grated with engine models from Jen-
project came from DoDs Environmen- to remove most of the engine cool- bacher, Deutz and MWM in Europe,
tal Security Technology Certification ing duty reducing parasitic loads and CAT and Waukesha engines in
Program (ESTCP) through Southern at existing sites with engine radiators North America. The ElectraTherm
Research Institute (SRI), which is inde- or completely eliminating the engine product line consists of ORCs sized
pendently monitoring the performance radiator on greenfield sites or where from 47 hp (35 kW), 87 hp (65 kW)
and fuel efficiency gains. radiators are being replaced or up- to 147 hp (110 kW). These fit well
graded. A secondary loop configured with ~700 hp (~500 kW), ~1000 hp
Replace the engine radiator between the engine and the condens- (~800 kW) and ~1500 hp (~1000 kW)
This project forced the ElectraTherm er for the ORC controls the return engines, respectively.
engineering team to look hard at the temperature of the jacket water to the As ORC technology continues to
question, Do we need both the en- engine. The ORC condenser is sized grow in varying applications and ge-
gine radiator and ORC radiator? All for 100% heat rejection for the engine, ographies, new opportunities will
ORCs need condensing and all en- and the ORC and the engine cooling bring value to the marketplace. The
gines need cooling. Could it be done operate seamlessly whether the ORC large number of stationary engines
with one radiator, eliminating approxi- is on or off. associated with natural gas compres-
mately $75,000 in capital cost for an If integrating at a site with a shaft- sion provide ample waste heat.
engine this size? driven radiator, the radiator can be One prospective customer is inves-
The answer was a clear yes. Ad- decoupled and additional horsepower tigating the potential of removing the

April 2015 36 Compressortech2


widely known or mainstream, but the
technology is field-proven, and the
economics and improved site perfor-
mance can be attractive. New gen-
n Figure 5. Containerized set applications, or plants looking to
prime power with ORC in- replace an existing radiator, may con-
tegration and complete en- sider ORC technology as a radia-
gine radiator replacement. tor with a payback. Plants seeking
more compression capacity should
consider using the waste-heat re-
source already available to improve
site throughput. CT2

shaft-driven radiators from their exist-


ing gas compression engines. In do-
ing so, approximately 75 hp (56 kW)
of parasitic load from the engine will
be removed, freeing up horsepower
for additional compression. Plus,
the ORC-generated electricity can
be converted to more compression
via an additional electric compres-
sor. More compression means more
gas throughput, which equates to in-
creased revenue.
Converting the existing waste heat
streams to more compression without
increased emissions can be of par-
ticular interest in emissions-capped
(nonattainment) areas where another
engine cannot be added easily. An
ORC is a unique approach for increas-
ing plant throughput without additional
emissions, thereby keeping the station
under existing permitted levels.
Distributed waste-heat-to-power sys-
tems for stationary engines are not yet

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APRIL 2015 37 Compressortech2


Solar Titan 250 Gains
Wide Acceptance
More than 40 compressor and
power generation sets are in
service, onshore and offshore

n This cross-sectional cutaway


shows Solar Turbines largest gas
turbine model to date, the Titan
250, with a continuous ISO duty
rating of 30,000 hp (23,370 kW).

By Norm Shade

S
olar Turbines reports erating in oil and gas applications, such as sales gas, export,
that its Titan 250 gas gas transmission and gas lift. In the power generation indus-
turbine has gained wide try, the Titan 250 is operating in pulp and paper, chemical
acceptance in the six years since it processing, and other industrial and institutional combined
was introduced. The first unit entered heat and power applications across the world. Customers
service in 2009 at a gas transmission bought the Titan 250 based on the reputation and experience
site, and now more than 40 Titan 250s of Solar Turbines, Dutt said. Many prefer an industrial gas
have been purchased in 14 countries turbine to an aero-derivative and they favor the Solar Tur-
on six continents. The Titan 250 fleet bines service model. There are many repeat customers for
has accumulated more than 200,000 the Titan 250 already.
combined operating hours of experi- Since Solar Turbines entered the industrial gas turbine busi-
ence, and a few engines are nearing ness in 1960, its worldwide-installed fleet of gas turbines has
the first overhaul cycle. The turbines grown to more than 15,000 units that have logged more than
have established successful experi- 2.3 billion hours of operation in 100 countries. Over the past
ence in compressor set, generator set five decades, Solar has developed and introduced ever-larger
and mechanical drive applications, gas turbines for power generation and oil and gas applications.
said Manoj X. Dutt, manager, oil and A major increase in the Solar gas turbine power range oc-
gas marketing at Solar Turbines. curred in 1997 with the introduction of the Titan 130 at 20,500 hp
Titan 250 turbines are currently op- (15,290 kW). Introduction of the Titan 250 extended its range

APRIL 2015 38 Compressortech2


n The first Titan 250 gas
turbine was installed in
2009 with a Solar Turbines
pipeline compressor at this
gas transmission and stor-
age station in Tennessee.

significantly further. With an Internation- ratio. Variable guide vanes on the compressor inlet and five
al Standards Organization (ISO; 59F stators enable smooth, reliable starting and stopping. Com-
[15C], sea level, 60% relative humidity, pressor blades and stator vanes are coated with inorganic
zero inlet and exhaust losses) continuous aluminum for corrosion resistance and increased durability.
duty rating of 30,000 hp (23,370 kW), the The four-piece, split-case design simplifies field maintenance.
Titan 250 is the largest gas turbine model The combustion system follows Solar Turbiness traditional
that Solar Turbines manufactures. annular design with an augmented backside-cooled liner to en-
Company officials said that the Titan sure long-term durability. The combustor section is available
250s 6360 Btu/hp-hr (9000 kJ/kW-hr) in dry-low emissions (SoLoNOx) or conventional models for
heat rate is the best in its class. The gen- usage on a wide range of gaseous and liquid fuels. First intro-
erator set version has a continuous duty duced in 1992, the SoLoNOx system uses lean-burn technolo-
rating of 21,745 kWe and heat rate of gies to reduce NOx and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions over
8775 Btu/kWe-hr (9260 kJ/kWe-hr). an ever-increasing range of ambient temperatures and operat-
Unlike aeroderivative gas turbines, ing conditions. The combustion system is available in either a
which were originally designed for the dry mode or a wet mode for reduced NOx emissions.
aviation industry and later modified for The two-stage axial gas generator turbine has a maximum
stationary applications, industrial gas tur- speed of 10,500 rpm. It features internally air-cooled first-
bines, such as the Titan 250, were en- and second-stage nozzle vanes as well as internally cooled
gineered from inception for power gen- first-stage rotor blades. The design provides cylindrical blade
eration and oil and gas applications. In tips and a rub-tolerant coating for improved tip control and in-
developing the Titan 250, Solar Turbines creased efficiency. The thrust bearing is a tilting-pad type and
leveraged proven technology by taking the anti-thrust bearing is a fixed tapered land type.
the best from its other proven products. The three-stage axial power turbine has a maximum speed
The 250s aerodynamics have been opti- of 7000 rpm. The configuration utilizes shrouded blades to
mized in such a way that its 40% simple- maximize efficiency and flatten the power curve. Both the
cycle mechanical efficiency is achieved thrust and anti-thrust bearings are tilting-pad type. Tilting-pad
at a firing temperature that allows the journal bearings are used for both turbine rotors. Turbine and
use of proven, durable materials for the nozzles blades of both rotors have a precious metal diffusion
hot section of the turbine. In addition, the aluminide coating.
modular design improves maintainability. Solar Turbines builds complete turbomachinery packagers
Its package weight and compact size al- that are ready to work when they leave the factory. The fully
lows it to be transported in one piece in- integrated packages are designed to minimize life cycle cost,
side a commercial airplane. with the objective of making shipping, installation, operation
The Titan 250 gas turbine is an indus- and maintenance easier. Standard pre-engineered packages,
trial two-shaft design. The 16-stage axial as well as customized packages, are available. Titan 250 gas
compressor develops a 24:1 pressure continued on page 40

APRIL 2015 39 Compressortech2


n Two Titan 250 gas turbine
compressor sets are helping to
power this major production
platform in the South China Sea.

turbine systems are provided as me- include NEC Class I, Group D, Div. 1 or The packages feature stainless or
chanical drive packages for compres- 2; ATEX Zone 2; or CENELEC Zone carbon steel inlet and exhaust sys-
sors and pumps and as electric gen- 1. Package options are also available tem options, a complete enclosure
erator sets for prime power on offshore for FPSO applications. with associated options, direct-drive
platforms, floating production storage In addition to vibration monitoring, variable frequency drive (VFD) al-
and offloading (FPSO) vessels, gas control options include a 120 Vdc ternating current (ac) motor start-
production and process facilities. Elec- battery/charger system, turbine and ing system, natural gas fuel system,
tric generator sets are also provided package temperature monitoring, tur- turning gear system and lube oil sys-
for combined heat and power, peak- bine performance map, compressor tems that include a turbine-driven
ing, power/load management, district performance map, historical displays, main pump, ac motor-driven pre- and
heating and cooling, and base load printer/logger, serial link supervisory post-lube pumps, tank vent separa-
power in a variety of industries and fa- interface, process controls, compres- tor and flame trap, lube oil filter and
cilities, including hospitals, universities, sor anti-surge control, multiple-unit optional oil cooler and heater. Speed
rural electric coops, municipal utilities, sequencing, field programming and increasing or decreasing gearboxes
food processing, pulp and paper mills, remote monitoring and diagnostics. also can be included when required
manufacturing facilities, mining and
refineries. Titan 250 compressor sets
n This Solar Titan 250
are offered for gas gathering, gas lift,
SoloNox gas turbine driv-
storage/withdrawal and transmission
ing a Solar pipeline com-
applications. A matching family of So-
pressor entered service at
lar gas compressors has been devel-
a Utah gas transmission
oped for gas transmission and higher-
station in early 2012.
pressure upstream applications.
The standard modular Titan 250
mechanical drive package measures
33.75 ft. (10.3 m) long by 12 ft. (3.7 m)
wide by 13.5 ft. (4.2 m) high and
weighs 116,000 lb. (50,620 kg), not
including the driven equipment. Stan-
dard skids include drip pans, Type
316L stainless-steel piping, compres-
sion-type tube fittings and a freestand-
ing microprocessor control panel with
color video display. Electrical options

APRIL 2015 40 Compressortech2


to match the driven equipment speed. As a single-source provider, Solar San Diego, California. Its worldwide
The Titan 250 engine and package also provides commissioning; techni- turbomachinery service team num-
are designed for maintainability and cal training; field service; certified parts; bers 3000 strong at 43 service loca-
increased uptime. All regularly serviced repairs, overhauls and upgrades; com- tions, 13 overhaul and repair centers
components are placed near the plete project operation and mainte- and 19 strategically located parts
sides of the package for easy access nance; engineering, procurement and centers. In addition to startup and
and fast service. A two-axis (lateral construction; contract power; and leas- commissioning services, Solar offers
and axial) service system was de- ing and financing programs. post-installation field support, long-
veloped to facilitate planned service Solar designs and manufactures term service agreements, equipment
events. The lateral service system al- its gas turbines, compressors and health management services, ex-
lows the entire engine or major com- turbomachinery packages in ISO change engines, regionally stocked
ponents, including the gas producer 9001-certified facilities located in spare engines and tools. CT2
or power turbine, to be removed
quickly from the package for over-
haul or exchange. The axial service
system supports a condition-based
maintenance approach and provides
access to inspect, repair and replace
hot section components, bearings,
blades and seals. This approach re-
duces both maintenance and ship-
ping costs while increasing overall
system availability.
Titan 250 packages are moni-
tored via Solars advanced InSight
System, allowing detailed equip-
ment health analysis and alerts,
so that field personnel can analyze
problems in advance of respond-
ing, Dutt said. If trouble is detected
at any time, the system helps deter-
mine the prognosis, forecast the out-
come and decide whether to repair
now or wait for the next scheduled
service. With built-in predicative ca-
pability, some events that previously
would have shut the package down
now trigger fallback to a safe oper-
ating mode and alert service per-
sonnel of the machines status. The
system also gathers and analyzes
information, such as performance
maps, historical displays, availabil-
ity and life-cycle cost, to help make
operational decisions that maximize
investment returns.
Solar provides a single source for
turbomachinery packages that can op-
erate in the toughest, most challeng-
ing environments including remote
artic, desert, tropical and offshore ar-
eas, Dutt said. We manufacture our
turbines, compressors and turboma-
chinery packages to ensure maximum
systems compatibility and integration,
plus high performance, reliability, avail-
ability, efficiency and long life.

APRIL 2015 41 Compressortech2


PRIME
Movers
Swift Filters throughout China. Li has a technical (6400 m), penetrating 164 ft. (50 m) of
Swift Filters Inc. has acquired JB background with compressors, en- gas pay in Oligocene sandstones.
Services International Inc., a Houston- gines, turbomachinery and mechani- Expected to be the deepest well ever
based manufacturer of high-pressure cal reliability. drilled in Egypt, the Atoll well still has
filter housings sold to the oil and gas, Paul Crowther will serve as a princi- another 0.6 mi. (1 km) to drill to test the
chemical processing and other mar- pal engineer. He is same reservoir section found to be gas
kets. The purchase marks the entry of a technical authority bearing in BPs 2013 Salamat discov-
Swift Filters into the filter housing manu- in Betas Piping Vi- ery, 9.3 mi. (15 km) to the south.
facturing business. Swift Filters Inc. de- bration and Integrity Atoll-1 was drilled in 3028 ft. (923 m)
signs and manufactures replacement- Group, which deals water depth around 49.7 mi. (80 km)
filter elements, custom-filter elements with design, inspec- north of Damietta city, 9.3 mi. (15 km)
and high-pressure filter assemblies for tion and consulting north of Salamat and 28 mi. (45 km)
a wide variety of industries. services related to to the northwest of Temsah offshore
JB Services International is now part static and transient facilities. BP has 100% equity in the
of a newly created division of Swift P. Crowther piping vibration for discovery.
Filters, Swift-JB International LLC. onshore and offshore facilities.
Swift-JBs T-Type high-pressure filter Crowther has more than 14 years EQT Midstream Partners
assemblies have been used for more of experience in advanced engineer- EQT Midstream Partners has en-
than 25 years in the extreme environ- ing analysis in Europe and the Middle tered into an agreement with EQT
ments of the offshore oil and gas and East, where he supervised large- Corp. to acquire its Northern West
subsea industry where they withstand scale piping vibration projects. He is Virginia Marcellus Gathering System,
up to 20,000 psi (1378 bar) operating currently working in Betas Calgary, along with a preferred interest in an
pressures, according to the company. Alberta, Canada, office and will relo- EQT subsidiary, for US$1.05 billion.
For the last six years, we have cate to Malaysia later this year. EQT Midstream will pay $997.5 mil-
been the exclusive supplier of all high- lion in cash and $52.5 million in common
pressure stainless steel metal filter el- Viega and general partner units for the assets.
ements for JBs filter housings, said Viega LLC appointed Kevin C. Fox They are expected to add to the partner-
Ned Swift, president of Swift Filters. as its new director of marketing. Fox is ships distributable cash flow per unit.
Both JB and Swift had been looking for responsible for directing and manag- The gathering system was designed
opportunities to expand product lines ing Viegas marketing department, in- and constructed to gather natural gas
and improve operational efficiencies to cluding strategic marketing research, production in the wet gas and dry gas
meet the growing demands of our cus- planning and implementation, market- regions of the Marcellus, specifically in
tomer base. This merger will help us ing financial tracking, and supporting the Saturn, Mercury, Pandora and Plu-
achieve these goals. corporate research, marketing and to development areas. The system in-
brand initiatives. He is also involved cludes 70 mi. (112.6 km) of natural gas
Beta Machinery Analysis in developing and implementing cre- gathering pipeline and nine compres-
Beta Machinery Analysis (Beta) an- ative visuals for brand strategies and sor units with 25,000 hp (18,642 kW).
nounced two additions to its leadership communications. The system also includes a 30 mi.
team. The new personnel reflect Betas Fox joins Viega from Burns and Mc- (48.2 km), high-pressure, wet gas
growing business in China and South- Donnell Engineering in Kansas City, header pipeline that moves wet gas
east Asia, and its expanded services in Missouri, where he was the corporate from the development areas to the
piping vibration and integrity. marketing strategist. Prior to that, he MarkWest Mobley processing facility.
Andy Li will serve as general man- held the position of senior art director EQT is contracted for 10 years of firm
ager China. In this role, he is respon- at American Identity and creative direc- capacity on the system.
sible for supporting tor at Soft-Tek International. EQT Midstream Partners plans to
Betas China cus- invest US$370 million over the next
tomers, including BP Egypt several years to complete planned ex-
application sup- BP Egypt announced another gas pansion projects, including the installa-
port, project deliv- discovery in the North Damietta Off- tion of 100 mi. (161 km) of gathering
ery, service deliv- shore Concession in the East Nile Delta. pipeline and five compressor units with
ery and staffing. Li The Atoll-1 deepwater exploration well, 23,700 hp (17,673 kW). Ongoing main-
will also manage currently being drilled using the 6th gen- tenance costs are expected to be less
and support Betas eration semi-submersible rig Maersk than US$5 million per year.
A. Li business activities Discoverer, has reached 20,997 ft. continued on page 83

APRIL 2015 42 Compressortech2


Exline, Miba Bearings Form
Partnership > Strategic alignment offers
benefits to both companies
By DJ Slater

E
xline Inc., a family-owned gas The partnership will give Miba bet-
compression service and equip- ter market exposure through Exline,
ment provider, has formed a he said. In turn, Exline gains access
partnership with Miba Bearings, a man- to Mibas full-line bearing capabil-
ufacturer of bearings and brushings for ity and technology, which will now be
the natural gas and power generation available to Exline customers.
industry based in McConnelsville, Ohio. Exline and Miba will benefit from
The newly formed partnership al- the relationship and the name recog-
lows Exline to sell and install bearings nition that both companies enjoy in
and bushings, expanding its repair, the industry, Exline said. n Exlines Kevin Einhaus (left), di-
manufacturing and service capabili- Miba is not the first partnership for vision manager for parts services,
ties. Exline customers benefit from Exline. The company also has part- and John Luder, project manager,
having a full-service experience for nerships with Altronic (20 years), examine some Miba bearings in
nearly all makes and models of recip- Enginuity (15 years, sold to Dresser- Exlines warehouse.
rocating engines and compressors. Rand), and Exterran (less than a
Im very excited about the part- year). CT2
nership, said Rob Exline, owner
and president of Exline. Its a very
strategic alignment that we can both
benefit from. Experience, Reliability, Integrity...
Exline, headquartered in Salina,
Kansas, provides expertise in a
wide range of on-site services, such
as mechanical, machining, controls
and foundation, as well as in-house
repair, manufacturing and transpor-
tation services.
The inner workings of the partner-
ship began as early as an impromp-
tu meeting in October 2013 at the
GMRC Conference in New Mexico.
The dialogue began there and contin-
ued with several meetings between
the two companies. Mibas product
line specifically main bearings,
connecting rod bearings and bush-
ings became of interest to Exline,
which was looking to strengthen its
parts and services division.
The availability of high-quality main
The AXH manufacturing complex consists of
and rod bearings is challenging at
six plants, totaling 553,500 SF on 67 acres.
times and it is our plan to stock many
of the more popular items, Exline said.
Miba really supports and plays into
the larger strategy were trying to do
(918) 283-9200 Fax (918) 283-9229 www.axh.com
here, Exline said, referring to the com-
panys parts and services division.

April 2015 43 Compressortech2


n Cook Compressions Valve Installation Tool (V.I.T.) allows a single
operator to securely hold, move and align valves when installing or
removing them from the cylinder.

Targeting Safety > New compressor valve installation tool


improves safety, boosts efficiency
By Skip Foreman

A
ccording to safety experts, compressor valve in-
stallation and removal is a leading cause of work-
place injuries in gas compression operations.
Awkward angles, heavy parts, hot, greasy surfaces and
dangerous pinch points combine to increase the risk of
serious injury to extremities, as well as cause overex-
ertion injuries from lifting, pushing and holding valves
in place. These problems are magnified with larger size
valves, cramped spaces, extreme weather conditions
and poorly lit work areas.
Targeting safe valve installation and removal, Cook
Compression engineers have developed the Valve In-
stallation Tool (V.I.T.). The proprietary V.I.T. allows a
single operator to securely hold, move and align valves
when installing or removing them from the cylinder. The
procedure can be completed by only one worker sup-
ported by an overhead crane.
The full weight of the compressor valve is supported
continued on page 48
n Figure 1. Valve Installation Tool (top to bottom): V.I.T. body,
Skip Foreman is director of product sales Americas for Cook guide lever, jam nut and coupler.
Compression.

April 2015 46 Compressortech2


Gas compression operations cant wait and cant stop.
With Dragon they dont.
Top-quality gas lift compressors. Priced right and available.
Since you need to get busy compressing gas, allow us to compress this message. Our
compressors are severe-duty engineered and built in-house for exceptional durability and
reliability, just as weve done with all our equipment for 50 years. We offer 200HP and
380HP units featuring the best components, including Ariel compressors with Caterpillar or
Cummins engines. Theyre part of our full line of surface production equipment, from tanks
to separators to VRTs. And you can
count on our people as much as
our equipment. Make it happen.

U.S. owned and operated for over 50 years.

www.dragonproductsltd.com 1-800-231-8198
Copyright 2015 Modern Group Inc. All rights reserved.
by the V.I.T. This is particularly important for valves in
the lower position on the cylinder, where workers oth-
erwise have to continuously lift and hold valves in posi-
tion. The V.I.T. also maneuvers the valve into and out of
the seat area, keeping workers hands safely away from
tight clearances in the valve port.
Typical valve installation or removal procedure can be
completed in less than 10 minutes.
The V.I.T. consists of a tool body, threaded coupler,
jam nut and guide bar (Figure 1). The installation proce-
dure varies slightly depending upon whether the valve is
bottom-loaded or top-loaded on the cylinder.

Bottom-loaded valve installation


For installation of a valve in the lower position on a cyl-
n Figure 2. V.I.T. attached to cylinder inder, the first step is to remove the valve cover and bolt
using valve port studs. the V.I.T. body to the cylinder. The V.I.T. has a flanged
connection designed to fit the valve port studs (Figure 2).
The cage and valve are then assembled in the V.I.T.
body using the coupler and are secured with the jam nut.
A guide lever is also installed to aid in seating the valve
later in the process (Figure 3).
A drive mechanism built into the V.I.T. allows the valve
assembly to be moved forward into the seat using a
pneumatic, handheld wrench (Figure 4). A guide plate
aligns the valve and port to make seating the valve effort-
less. Once the valve is seated, a retaining pin is installed
to hold the valve in place. The coupler and V.I.T. body are
then removed from the cylinder, completing the process.

Top-loaded valve installation


For valves in the top position of the cylinder, the first
step is to assemble the V.I.T. to the valve and cage using
the coupler and jam nut. This step is completed on grade.
n Figure 3. Valve and cage The guide lever is also attached to aid in positioning the
assembled in V.I.T. assembly on the cylinder and to help in seating the valve.
An overhead crane is used to position the V.I.T./valve
assembly on the cylinder, where it is bolted in place. The
assembly is then driven into the valve port with a pneu-
matic wrench.
With the valve seated, the coupler and V.I.T. body are
removed from the cylinder, completing the process.

Valve removal
For valve removal, installation procedures are sim-
ply reversed. The valve cover is removed and the
V.I.T. body is bolted to the cylinder. The coupler is at-
tached to the valve assembly and secured with the
jam nut. The valve assembly is then backed out of the
port with the handheld wrench.
To complete removal, the V.I.T. is unbolted from the
cylinder and the secured V.I.T./valve assembly is then
lifted away from the cylinder using an overhead crane.
n Figure 4. Drill moves assembly into The V.I.T. is available for valves on almost any gas
valve port for seating. compressor. With the high incidence of injuries from
handling compressor valves, the V.I.T. offers a practical
way to significantly improve workplace safety. CT2

April 2015 48 Compressortech2


Bringing energy and the environment into harmony.

Make it faster. Make it smaller. Make it better.

Make it yours.
Rotating equipment solutions that generate the results you want.
When you have a challenge out there in the eld, you want your solution, not someone elses.
And thats precisely what you get with Dresser-Rand. Thats because our experts will work
hand in hand with your experts to create a solution thats exclusively yours. One that not only
makes sense, but makes a difference for your business. To see how weve helped some of the
biggest names in the industry achieve their goals, visitdresser-rand.com/yours
Baseline Testing Provides
Opportunities For Continuous
Improvement > Examining the past for future advancements By Robert Vaughan, Wally Bratek
and Michael Hahn

n Figure 1. Multichannel data-acquisition system.

Editors Note: This paper was struction and commissioning of five, tion program. This allows the owner to
presented at the Gas Machinery Re- electric-drive 6500 hp (4847 kW) compare the actual field results with
search Council meeting in Nashville, KBZ/6 compressor packages. This is the intended design. Three issues to
Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014. the third large-scale facility installed address when developing the testing
in the region and it includes a num- plan are determining the method of

C
ontinuous improvement is an ber of improvements from the first data collection, defining the required
important philosophy at Shell. one. Later, improvements were ap- scope, and comparing field results to
For the rotating engineering plied to the Sundance Compressor/ the design model.
team, this goal is accomplished by Dehy Station, which has 1680 hp
looking at each new facility and finding (1253 kW) JGK/4 and 840 hp (626 kW) Vibration analyzers
ways to improve the design, construc- JGK/2 compressors. The testing system must collect a
tion and commissioning process for By examining the results of the large amount of data to identify the
the rotating equipment, balancing reli- baseline vibration testing and past worst-case problems for machines
ability and integrity objectives with im- compressor installations, Shell has operating across different conditions
pacts on capital and operating costs, identified a number of reliability and in- and speeds. Vibration measurements
practical design and operations. tegrity improvement opportunities for are needed at many locations in the
Shell Canada has commissioned a reciprocating compressor packages. piping system and should be collected
200 MMscfd (5.71 x 106 Nm3/d) gas Beta Machinery Analysis (BETA) was at various conditions, load steps, and
plant located in northeastern Brit- involved as part of the design team for across the entire speed range. For
ish Columbia, Canada. The Saturn these facilities, conducted the onsite these reasons, a multichannel ana-
1 project included the design, con- baseline testing, and supported Shell lyzer, with the capability to simultane-
with the improvement initiative. ously measure 50-plus channels, has
Robert Vaughan, PEng, PMP, is a staff ro- many advantages.
tating equipment engineer at Shell Glob- Baseline vibration testing approach Utilizing a multichannel analyzer
al Solutions. Wally Bratek, MSc, PEng, is Continuous improvement requires for baseline testing, as shown in Fig-
a principal engineer at Beta Machinery accurate data to make informed deci- ure 1, minimizes the need to conduct
Analysis. Michael Hahn, PEng, is a project sions. The best way to obtain this is multiple tests and speed sweeps,
manager at Beta Machinery Analysis. through a baseline testing and inspec- thereby reducing the stress on the

April 2015 50 Compressortech2


vibration screening guideline, the fol- Check off-skid piping and small-
lowing scope is suggested for a com- bore attachments.
prehensive baseline vibration test: Check that torsional vibration and
Confirm that pulsations match ex- torsional natural frequencies match
pected values. the design requirements (Figure 2).
Check vibration and resonance Inspect pipe clamp installation,
in main piping, skid and frame shimming, supports, etc.
across the run speed for key op- Check the foundation to confirm if
erating conditions and load steps. skid or machinery has high vibra-
C  heck on-skid small-bore and tion, and confirm the pile attach-
pressure safety valves (PSV) for ment to the main skid, especially
resonance. continued on page 52

n Figure 2. Torsional strain


gauge instrumentation.

compressor and saving considerable QUALITY LUBRICANTS YOU CAN DEPEND ON.
measurement time. After the initial
transducer setup is complete, the
compressor can be ramped though
the speed range while collecting each
of the vibration test points at once.
Then, load steps can be changed,
and the test is repeated.
This kind of comprehensive test
would be very difficult with only a
two- or four-channel analyzer, since
the few transducers would have to
be manually moved between tests,
and many compressor speed sweeps
would be required. Also, with fewer
channels and multiple speed sweeps,
there is a loss of consistency in the Stocking
data since pressures may change locations in
between speed sweeps and the vibra- the U.S. &
tion phase relationship between vibra-
tion test points is lost.
Canada
While a two- or four-channel ana- SERVICES
lyzer is sufficient for troubleshooting Customized Lubricant Application Selection
work where the focus is on a specific
Oil Analysis Lab and Problem Application Support
vibration problem area, a multichan-
nel analyzer is required for compre- New Product Development
hensive baseline vibration testing. PRODUCTS
Semi Synthetics Synthetic Polyalkylene Glycols (PAGs)
Scope of vibration testing
Often, owners and operators focus Synthetic Polyol Esters (POEs) Synthetic Diesters
on the equipment on the skid and for- Synthetic Polyalphaolefin (PAOs)
get to measure important risk areas
off-skid, such as header piping. For a
large unit, on-site testing time ranges 866.366.5699 Fax: 281.367.5685 Synthosol.com
between one and two days, depend- mpe@mastersprocess.com
ing on the facility. After agreeing on a

April 2015 51 Compressortech2


MasterSynthetics.indd 1 1/15/13 10:02 AM
at interior pile locations (Figure 3).
S pot-check fit-up tolerances (based
on testing results).
Evaluate interaction between units
(if multiple units connected to the
same header).
Check performance results.

Closing the loop: comparing field


n Figure 3. Inspecting piles attached to skid with slip rings for Saturn 1, results to the design model
6500 hp (4849 kW) KBZ/6 compressor package. Before comparing the design anal-
ysis results to the actual field data,
check if all of the design report recom-
Pipe Size (in. [mm]) Angular Gap Tolerance for 300 lb mendations have been implemented.
ANSI Class Flanges (in. [mm]) Note that the field conditions may not
match the data in the design report
ASME B31.3 API 686
since worst-case conditions may have
2 (50.8) 0.019 (0.4826) 0.01 (0.254)
been used for the design. In these
4 (101.6) 0.032 (0.8128) 0.011 (0.02794) cases, results from the design report
6 (152.4) 0.044 (1.1176) 0.013 (0.03302) can be scaled to the field conditions,
10 (254) 0.066 (1.6764) 0.018 (0.04572) or the design models may have to be
16 (406.4) 0.096 (2.4384) 0.026 (0.06604) rerun to better match field conditions.

n Table 1. Angular Gap Tolerance for ASME B31.3 vs. API 686 Piping tolerances, fit-up, and field
connections
Field testing has verified that high-
frequency vibrations are amplified in
locations with excessive pipe strain or
poor piping installation and fit-up [1].
Baseline vibration tests can identify
locations where pipe strain is suspect-
ed. In severe cases, field modifica-
n Figure 4. Recommended tions may be required to improve the
alignment tolerances and flange or piping alignment. Improved
field welds. design, shop testing and field connec-
tions will avoid these problems.
Alignment standards contained in
ASME B31.3 are often insufficient for
key areas of the compressor pack-
age, especially those between the
scrubber and suction bottles [2]. To
solve this problem, the authors rec-
ommend using API as design speci-
fication for these locations [3]. Ta-
ble 1 shows a tolerance comparison
between the ASME B31.3 and API
686 standards.
To avoid misalignment after trans-
portation and lifting, the authors rec-
ommend leaving some welds for the
field and to make preparations in
the shop to achieve this (Figure 4).
Shells experience confirms that pip-
ing field welds at key locations will
solve the fit-up challenge. Since oth-
n Figure 5. Examples of pipe misalignment resulting in er field connections are required at
vibration issues.
site, there is no significant impact by

April 2015 52 Compressortech2


Speed Range
600 to 625 to 650 to 675 to 700 to 725 to 750 to 775 to 800 to 825 to 850 to 890 to
Test Point 625 650 675 700 725 750 775 800 825 850 890 900
Unit 2
2S18
2S21
2S21 Top Valve

n Table 2. Speeds to avoid chart (to prevent resonance).

field welding and hydro-testing a few report is shown in Table 2. Blocking quired to operate at the whole speed
additional piping spools. out specific speeds can be considered range may not be justified.
Dilution Reliable ad_Layout 1 2/19/2014 2:32 PM Page 1
It can be particularly challenging to when system modification costs re- continued on page 54

RELIABLE
achieve optimal alignment and fit-up
of multicylinder pulsation bottles. If the
fit between the bottle and the cylinders
is poor, the stressed state of the bottle

Synthetic Lubricants
can result in excessive high-frequency
vibration and fatigue failures. For this
reason, the fit of the bottles onto the

Lubricant Dilution?
cylinders should be measured and
documented (Figure 5). Also, post-
weld heat treating is recommended on Lubricants used in oil flooded compressors will
tend to absorb the gas being compressed.
all pulsation bottles, to relieve the re-

This is especially true for hydrocarbon gases with


sidual static stress state and thereby
increase the capability of the bottle to
better withstand vibratory stress. high BTU content. This absorption results in a
thinning of the oils viscosity and compromises
its ability to properly lubricate bearings. The
Managing mechanical resonance
For most high-speed compressors,
there is a strong possibility that one effect is known as dilution. To combat this
problem, Summit has developed specialized
or more areas may be resonant. For

equipment that measures a lubricant s change


high-speed compressors operated
across a wide speed range, reso-
nance is unavoidable. This means in viscosity under gas stream and compressor
conditions. Were able to use that information
the design team must address the

to predict the dilution effect a gas stream will


trade-off between mechanical reso-
nance, operating speed range and
installation costs. have on different lubricant base stocks and
choose a lubricant that will meet your specific
The most common solution to ad-

OEM compressor specifications.


dress mechanical resonance is to
modify the piping system and sup-

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ports to shift the mechanical natural
frequency (MNF) away from reso-
nance. Typically this entails increas-
ing the MNF by adding bracing, or in
some cases detuning the system by

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reducing stiffness or adding mass.
However, there are other alterna-
tives to address a mechanical reso-
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to avoid a mechanical resonance prob- www.klsummit.com
lem. An example of a speed block-out

April 2015 53 Compressortech2


n Figure 7. Steel block mount.

n Figure 6. Grout box mount. or utilizing a recycle valve. Therefore,


from an overall cost and reliability
standpoint, the blocking out of speed
may be the best solution to address
mechanical resonance problems.
An additional option to address a
mechanical resonance vibration prob-
lem is to add damping to the system
to reduce the resonant vibration am-
plitude to acceptable levels. A current
GMRC research project provides in-
formation on damping options.

Compressor skid mounting


There are two main ways to attach
the compressor frame and distance
piece supports to the main skid; one
uses grout, the other uses machined
steel blocks.
Grouting compressors (frames and
distance pieces supports) can be done
quickly in a controlled shop environ-
ment, as shown in Figure 6. When us-
ing grout, key issues include selecting
the right grout and sizing of the grout
box to result in acceptable deflection.
Grout manufacturers provide engi-
neering manuals for how to complete
the proper grout box calculations [4].
Determining the differential thermal ex-
pansion and sealing joints of the grout
n Figure 8. Continuous improvement of scrubber liquid box are also important considerations.
level indication. While grouting small horsepower
applications is likely sufficient, apply-
ing more weight or stronger forces
The speed block-out solution may capacity control if certain speeds are can lead to cracking. It is important
initially create concerns for the oper- blocked. These include coordination not to overstress the grout by over-
ating staff; however, methods other between other units, cylinder loading, tightening the bolts.
than speed are available to fine-tune throttling with a suction control valve, If grout is used, selecting the right

April 2015 54 Compressortech2


color (grade) grout is important and baseline testing can reduce the risk of
should be considered in the grout small-bore piping failures by ensuring
box area calculation. Furthermore, if acceptable vibration. Further, informa-
grouting is done at site, controlling en- tion from the baseline testing can be
vironmental heat and curing times can used to improve the design of small-
be difficult. bore attachments for future projects.
An alternative to grout is the use of Regarding the design and fabrica-
steel on steel supports, as shown in Fig- tion, end-user (owner or operator)
ure 7. In this method, steel blocks are involvement is important to address
first welded down and then machined. these vibration and integrity risks.
It is important not to weld down pre- This includes improved specifica-
machined steel blocks, since it defeats tions, standards and inspections. To
the purpose of achieving a flat pane for mitigate these risks, designers often
all of the compressor feet. Compared to have to remove, redesign, or realign
grout, steel supports are very stiff since small-bore connections. This includes
steel has a much higher modulus of reviewing designs to find the best ap-
elasticity than grout. Additionally, steel proach for the scrubber attachments, n Figure 9. Robust small-bore at-
blocks are better to transfer compressor including liquid-level controllers. The tachment design at Sundance is the
loads effectively into piles (as design is authors recommend shop inspection result of continuous improvement
intended), and they are more reliable and testing in the field to avoid reso- and effective end-user specification.
for larger horsepower machines. nance problems. They also recom-
mend avoiding threaded connections
Small-bore connections in vibration services. typical and can be a vibration problem,
scrubber-level gauge An example of the continuous im- since the offset from the scrubber shell
Failures of small-bore piping and provement process, Figure 8 shows wall is relatively large, and the diam-
attachments are a significant reliabili- the progression of the design of liquid- eter of the pipe connections to the shell
ty and safety concern near reciprocat- level measurements on suction scrub- are relatively small. The design shown
ing compressors [5]. Comprehensive bers. The revision 1 and 2 design is continued on page 56

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n Figure 10. Field testing of
small-bore attachments.

plitude, where technically the vibra-


tion is above a vibration guideline,
however not at a vibration level that
would be considered obviously unac-
ceptable. In these cases, a finite ele-
ment model can be utilized to define
the relationship between measured
vibration and dynamic stress at the
connection, and ultimately determine
if the vibration is acceptable. An ex-
ample of this process is shown in
Figure 10. In the small-bore connec-
tion shown, vibration was measured
to be 1.8 in./s (45.72 mm/s), which
is more than the agreed upon vibra-
tion guideline of 1 in./s (25.40 mm/s).
However, for this specific case, a fi-
nite element analysis of the connec-
tion proved that this level of vibration
is, in fact, acceptable.

Small-bore connections
suction strainer differential
pressure measurements
Temporary startup screens or
strainers, as shown in Figure 11, are
very common for the commissioning
of reciprocating compressor pack-
ages. These cone-shaped screens
keep debris and dirt out of the cylin-
n Figure 11. Temporary cone-shaped startup strainer. der and path of the piston. However,
the fine mesh of these screens can
plug up quickly during commission-
in revision 3 is more robust, utilizing cording to the latest version of Shells ing of a new plant. If not kept clean,
larger-diameter studding outlets for specification is shown in Figure 9. they can buckle and be pulled into the
connection to the scrubber shell, and Note the low-profile robust design of compressor. Therefore, it is important
a reduced offset distance. Revision 4 the instrumentation connections, re- to monitor the differential pressure
shows a design where the sight-glass sulting in minimal risk of vibration and across the strainer.
component has been replaced with reliability problems. For permanent differential pressure
ultrasonic-level switches, resulting in During baseline vibration testing, measurement, piping connection tees
the most reliable arrangement. many times the vibration of small- are often utilized on the suction pip-
The small-bore piping design ac- bore attachments is at marginal am- ing and pulsation bottle, on either side

April 2015 56 Compressortech2


of the cone strainer. Individual isola-
tion valves are also used, as shown in
the typical arrangement in Figure 12,
revision 1. Since this design is sus-
ceptible to small-bore vibration issues
as previously described, an improved
design was developed as shown in
revision 2. Revision 2 utilizes mono-
flange valve assemblies to reduce the
cantilevered length of the small-bore
attachment and eliminate the need for
threaded fittings in the gas process
stream. While the revision 2 design
is an improvement over conventional
arrangements, it is still difficult to sup-
port the long lengths of tubing and is a
rather expensive option.
After considering the fact that direct
differential pressure is only monitored
during compressor startup (CSU), it
was decided that a robust permanent
connection and isolation valves were
not required. Therefore, the design as
shown as revision 3 with drilled and
tapped flanges will be used as the next
n Figure 12. Continuous improvement for iteration. Revision 3 will include flex-
pressure differential measurements. ible tubing to a temporary differential
continued on page 58
n Figure 13. Layout 1. n Figure 15. Plate-type outboard cylinder supports.

likely require a field weld. In cases where the MNF of the


piping spool can be designed to be above significant excita-
tion frequencies, this design is preferred.
In layout 2, the suction piping leaving the scrubber is in-
line with the suction bottle. With this design, the scrubber is
not isolated from the compressor cylinder excitation to the
extent that it is in layout 1, which may result in the increased
risk of vibration problems for the scrubber and scrubber at-
tachments. However, as a result of the increased stiffness
and elimination of the 90 bend, vibration of the suction pip-
ing from compressor cylinder excitation will likely be avoided.
This layout makes fabrication and alignment easy, and is
preferred for higher-speed applications.
Another key aspect of high-speed compressor designs
involves addressing the potential need for cylinder out-
board (head-end) supports. Depending on the weight of
the compressor cylinder and the speed of the compressor,
n Figure 14. Layout 2. certain cylinders may be mechanically resonant and require
an outboard support, as shown in Figure 15. Addressing
pressure gauge, and have the benefits of being relatively cylinder resonance problems in the field without adequate
inexpensive and removable. After the commissioning phase provisions designed into the system can be challenging and
is complete, the tubing and gauge can be removed, and the potentially very expensive, especially for compressors with
tapped flange plugged. This eliminates the long-term, small- pile foundations.
bore vibration risk. Therefore, during the mechanical analysis, the vibration
specialist will identify the specific cylinders where there is
Main piping and support design a high risk of mechanical resonance. The best solution in
There are many options and preferences for piping and these cases is to provide provisions for a cylinder support,
support layouts. Baseline testing has resulted in improve- even if the packager does not install the support. Provisions
ments in key areas, leading to reduced vibration risks and include ensuring that there is an adequate skid beam in the
providing for more robust designs. correct position under the head-end of the cylinder, design-
The piping between the suction scrubbers and suction ing piping and utilities to not block the area under the cylinder
bottles, for example, is a high vibration risk since it is dif- where a potential outboard cylinder support may be installed,
ficult to design supports with sufficient stiffness at the rela- and including piles under the skid beams located below the
tively high elevation of this piping. There are two common head-end of the cylinders. With these provisions, a cylinder
layouts as shown in Figures 13 and 14. Each of these has outboard support can easily be installed in the field.
different advantages and disadvantages, and the best op- Baseline testing has also demonstrated that piping in the
tion will depend on the specific compressor application. area of the pressure safety valve (PSV) or relief valve also
In layout 1, the suction piping leaving the scrubber is at a requires special attention. This piping is subjected to both
different elevation than the suction bottle. While the scrub- significant dynamic loading from pressure pulsations and sig-
ber is more isolated from the compressor cylinder excita- nificant differential thermal expansion loading since they are
tion, the likelihood of high spool vibration increases, and installed on the relatively hot discharge lines and vented to
alignment and fabrication are more difficult since this will continued on page 60

April 2015 58 Compressortech2


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ining past deficiencies and reliability
issues, Shell and its team are able
to modify its designs, specifications,
inspections, commissioning, and proj-
ect management activities. The au-
thors hope that the ideas and opinions
provided in this article will assist other
owners to improve their installations,
and stimulate further industry discus-
sions about best practices. CT2

References
[1] Maxwell, G., Howes, B., Piping
Misalignment And Vibration Related
Fatigue Failures, Gas Machinery Re-
search Council (GMRC), 2013, http://
www.betamachinery.com/assets/
pdfs/Technical_Articles/Piping-Mis-
alignment-Vibration-Related-Fatigue-
Failures.pdf.
[2] ASME B31.3, Inspection, Ex-
n Figure 16. PSV piping amination, And Testing, In Process
arrangements. Piping, ASME Code For Pressure Pip-
ing, B31, Chapter 6, Section 4-18.
[4] Chockfast Engineering Manual,
a cool flare header. As the compressor stiffness and modeling techniques for http://www2.sintemar.com/documen-
warms up, the discharge piping grows pipe clamps, see the GMRC research tacion/catalogos/chockfast/prc_engi-
longer as a result of thermal growth. If project Pipe Support Stiffness [6]. neering_manual.pdf.
the PSV or the flare piping just down- [5] Small Bore Connections (SBC)
stream of the PSV is clamped down Conclusions Assessment For All Machinery Types
tightly, the PSV connection cannot This article has identified a number And Applications, Beta, http://www.
grow with the discharge piping, and of lessons learned from Shells recent betamachinery.com/services/small-
can become stressed. This has been expansion project in Northeast British bore-connections-sbc-assessment.
shown to create pipe strain-related fail- Columbia, Canada. This continuous [6] Pipe Support Stiffness, GMRC
ures and excessive vibration. There- improvement process requires an ef- Project: Improving Piping System Re-
fore, the PSV piping design should fective feedback loop that involves liability, Beta, http://www.betamachin-
consider both thermal and dynamic field testing and evaluation. By exam- ery.com/wiki/pipe-support-stiffness/.
issues, as demonstrated in Figure 16.
Finally, baseline testing has shown
that details such as the design and
accurate modeling of pipe clamps
(Figure 17) are important to achieve
accurate simulation results, and pro-
vide the optimal pipe support solution,
including the effects of both vibration
and thermal expansion. Piping engi-
neers concerned with only thermal flex-
ibility often assume that pipe clamps
are rigid anchors. This assumption is
incorrect and results in added unnec-
essary flexibility, and can create vibra-
tion problems. Therefore, the clamps
must be modeled to include friction
when doing thermal flexibility analyses,
and must not be over-tightened in the n Figure 17. Pipe clamps for
field such that the required flexibility is vibratory service.
achieved. For information on accurate

April 2015 60 Compressortech2


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ucts, has spent the last two years renovating and expanding its
facility in Rosenberg, Texas.

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By Brent Haight

M
urphy by Enovation Controls has spent the last specializes in instrumentation and control solutions for engine
two years reinvesting in its Rosenberg, Texas, and engine-driven equipment throughout myriad industries
facility. New machinery, streamlined production including oil and gas production and transmission, original
lines, more square footage for engineering and corporate equipment manufacturing, irrigation and agriculture, power
services the result is a manufacturing facility capable of generation and recreational marine and sporting vehicles.
producing 400-plus panels per month. Enovation Controls as a company targets many different
Headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A., the facil- markets, said Torrey Roberts, applications sales manager
ity produces Murphy products, which is a brand under the for Enovation Controls. Rosenbergs operations primarily
Enovation Controls umbrella. Enovation Controls also offers focuses on the gas compression market, specifically Mur-
EControls, Zero Off and Computronic Controls. The company phys natural gas compressor control systems.
The 29,000 sq.ft. (2694 m2) facility houses corporate sup-
port services (applications, inside sales, customer service
and purchasing/materials), system engineering offices,
manufacturing operations, testing and warranty service.
Newly added manufacturing machinery includes an Ac-
cupress 7606 press break and a Euromac MBX6 auto index
punch press. Additional investments were made refurbish-
ing its Cincinnati Shear power shear.
In addition to capital investments, the company stream-
lined its manufacturing process to maximize efficiency.
Weve implemented a one-piece flow strategy on our
manufacturing floor, said Stephanie Taylor, director of op-
n Technical Lead John Kubena (center) coaches employees on
erations for Enovation Controls Rosenberg facility. The
panel assembly in the Rosenberg facilitys new training room.
conveyor belt travels from the assembly floor to the machine

April 2015 62 Compressortech2


shop. Its a very fluid process. Weve controlled, Stares said. This is a ceptance test, we often break into
done cycle-time analysis to ensure chance to make sure everything is brainstorming sessions to fine tune the
that each step aligns at the exact same right, that everything they need in the process and get feedback from the cus-
time so that the panels are ready to go field is built into the panel. There have tomer, Stares said. Its a great time to
out the door as soon as possible. As been many occasions where a cus- get to know what the industry needs.
the metal comes down the line, the ap- tomer will witness the function testing Roberts said, Control systems to-
propriate kits are married to it so that and realize they need more function- day require more engineering than
when it gets to the prep team, they ality in the control panel than they ini- ever before. Each panel is a custom-
have everything they need in front of tially requested. ized solution. The feedback we get
them and are able to build. Engineers from Enovation Controls from customers is critical to ensure
Every part of the process is mod- also use this time to gauge customer we continue meeting the needs of the
ular, said Craig Stares, director of requirements. During the factory ac- gas compression market. CT2
engineering at Enovation Controls
Rosenberg site. Even though we pro-
duce panels that are engineered to or-
der, we start with a modular platform
that is scaled as needed. Every panel
an operator touches is different. We
have multiple panels coming down
the line at the same time.
Weve gotten very good at standard-
ization while still being very customiz-
DonT leT PulsaTion
able, Roberts said. We are a custom
control solution shop, but we build
them on the basis of very good and re-
PusH You arounD.
peatable, proven standardization prac-
tices. Its made us very efficient on the
engineering side, on the manufacturing
side, as well as what we quote.
Each panel is tested twice before it
ships to the customer. First is a pro-
duction test, which consists of point-to-
point testing for every wire, nut and bolt.
During the production test, our
team opens the printout to ensure ev-
erything that is on the drawing match-
es up with the panel, Taylor said. Its
not a power-up test, but its a check to
ensure that production did everything
they were supposed to do.
The secondary test involves loading
the program and powering the panel Go To
up. We check all of the gauges and CDConsulTinG.Com/sTarTHere
components to make sure they are To GeT sTarTeD on Your aPi 618 PulsaTion
functioning properly, Taylor said. We
walk through the program with the se- We Are Your engineering resource for:
quence of operation and the drawing to
ensure that everything is aligned prop- API 618 5th Edition Pulsation & Mechanical
erly. We have 200% testing on every rotor Dynamics
single panel that comes off of our line. Field Vibration Analysis
The Rosenberg facility also offers
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customers a factory acceptance test.
Customers can visit the shop to see
the function tests, allowing them to Compression Dynamics Consulting, LLC Call Now (918) 710-3664
see the panel in operation. 6130 S Maplewood Ave, Suite C sales@cdconsulting.com
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how things are going to actually be

April 2015 63 Compressortech2


Analysis And Estimation Of TECH

corner
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio
And Methane Number For
Natural Gas > A straightforward, four-component method By Gary Choquette

Editors Note: This paper was delivered at the Gas Ma- has resulted in gas compositions varying significantly in
chinery Research Council (GMRC) meeting in Nashville, some areas of the country. As a general rule, shale gas
Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014. tends to have a high heating value (predominantly because
of the increased quantities of ethane [C2H6] and some pro-
Abstract pane [C3H8]). Often times the shale gas is blended with
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio and methane number are more traditional gas supplies, which historically have a
important parameters to optimize natural gas-fueled in- lower heating value. As pipeline end-use loads decrease
ternal combustion engines for power and emissions. The (especially when heating loads or gas-fired power plants
increased production of high energy content natural gas shut down during low demand periods), the shale gas will
from shale and other sources combined with an increas- displace traditional supplies and result in a higher fraction
ingly reticulated natural gas transportation system has re- of the total supply in some localized areas. This will result
sulted in widely variable fuel composition for many natural in an increase in the blended heating value. As the end-
gas-fueled engines. In some cases, this requires dynamic use loads increase, more traditional gas enters the delivery
adjustments of engine controls to maintain emissions com- area resulting in a decrease in the blended heating value.
pliance, maximize power production, and avoid pre-ignition/
1140

detonation conditions.
This paper explores the different methods for calculating 1120

stoichiometric air/fuel ratio and methane number for natural


gas. Problems and limitations of those methods are identi- 1100

fied. In addition, methods are developed to estimate these


1080
parameters given only four-component information (i.e.,
Btu HHV/scf

nitrogen and carbon dioxide [CO2] content, specific grav- 1060

ity, and higher heating value). Methods that are suitable


for calculation in engine control systems will be highlight- 1040

ed. Those methods have relatively low computational and


memory costs yet provide reasonable accuracy. 1020

1000

Introduction 2/1/2013 3/3/2013 4/2/2013 5/2/2013 6/1/2013 7/1/2013 7/31/2013 8/30/2013 9/29/2013 10/29/2013 11/28/2013 12/28/2013

The introduction of large quantities of shale gas and in- n Figure 1. Btu trend.
creased use of natural gas for electrical power generation
The day-to-day variation in gas composition can be
Gary Choquette has worked in the natural gas transportation pronounced (Figure 1). The fuel composition can change
industry for more than 30 years. He has experience in facil- by more than 100 Btu/scf in a few hours (Figure 2). Many
ity design, construction, technical support, hydraulic model- of the engines used in natural gas pipeline transportation
ing, compression performance, noise, vibration, pulsation and were designed assuming a relatively constant fuel gas
controls, software design, SCADA, gas measurement and composition and cannot tolerate these fast changes in fuel
gas control. He has served in management roles in gas mea- gas composition.
surement, engineering design, construction and right of way, To achieve specific air emissions limits at maximum
operations software development and SCADA support, and power, many engines need to be tuned and configured
gas control. Mr. Choquette earned a bachelors degree in me- to the fuel gas on which they are operating. When the
chanical engineering from the University of Nebraska and is a composition frequently and significantly changes, serious
registered professional engineer in the state of Texas. continued on page 66

APRIL 2015 64 Compressortech2


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engine damage and/or air emissions excursions are pos- sition is to cause knock. There are several fuel combustion
sible [1-2]. If the engine is tuned and configured to op- properties that correlate to the likelihood of knock:
erate under the worst-case gas compositions, it is likely Low ignition delay time
the maximum power capability and/or the efficiency will High flame speed
have to be reduced [3-4]. Ideally, engines subjected to Low auto-ignition temperature
wide variations in fuel gas composition will use adaptive High heat release rate
control methods to automatically adjust the engine to the The heat release rate is a combination of the heating val-
fuel composition. ue of the gas and the flame speed. Hydrogen has relatively
low chemical energy but has a very high flame velocity and
1140 a relatively low auto-ignition temperature, which is why it
has a low knock resistance. Similar combustion character-
istics exist for hydrogen sulfide [5]. Laminar flame speeds,
1120

1100
heating values and auto-ignition temperatures for common
natural gas components can be found in Appendix A. The
1080 MN requirement of each engine (the fuel with the lowest
Btu HHV/scf

MN that the engine can accommodate without knock) is


1060 specific to the design of that engine. The MN requirement
is dependent on the engine geometry (i.e., the bore, stroke,
compression ratio, piston/cylinder head shape, scavenging
1040

1020
efficiency, location of the ignition source, air/fuel mixing, tur-
bulence, etc.) and the operating conditions (temperatures,
1000 pressures, torque, trapped air/fuel ratio, ignition timing and
5/20/2013 5/21/2013 5/22/2013 5/23/2013 5/24/2013 5/25/2013 5/26/2013 5/27/2013
speed). In general, knock in a lean combustion spark igni-
n Figure 2. Btu trend detail. tion engine has the sensitivities to operating conditions as
shown in Table 1 [6-10].
Discussion
Two key parameters associated with engine operation Operating Parameter Change Impact
are dependent on the fuel gas composition. The first is the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (SAFR), which is defined as the Higher Temperatures
ratio of the air to the fuel (by mass) such that there is just Trapped Air Temperature Are More Likely To Very High
enough oxygen to burn all of the fuel. While many engines Knock
(such as lean-burn engines) do not operate at stoichiomet- Decreasing Torque
Torque Very High
ric conditions, the SAFR is still an important parameter in Reduces Knock
the control of nitrogen oxide emissions levels. Adjusting an Retarding Timing Gen-
Ignition Timing High
engine to the proper air/fuel ratio based on the fuel compo- erally Reduces Knock2
sition is the single most important control to avoid knock1 Increasing Combustion
and maintain air emissions. Air/Fuel Ratio Air Generally Reduces Moderate
The second parameter discussed in this paper is the Knock3
methane number (MN). The MN is one measure of a gas- Reducing The Coolant
eous fuels propensity to cause knock in an engine. It is Coolant Temperature Temperature Decreases Low
determined by measuring the onset of knock in a coopera- The Potential For Knock
tive fuel reserve (CFR) engine. The MN scale was defined Higher Pressures Can
by setting the knock rating of a fuel having a high knock Peak Compression Pressure Increase Or Decrease Low
Knock4
resistance (in this case pure methane) to a value of 100
and a fuel having a low knock resistance (pure hydrogen) Decreasing Speed
to a value of 0 when operating at stoichiometric conditions. Speed Generally Increases Low
Knock5
Based on that scale, various gas compositions were mea-
sured and their MN determined. It should be noted that the Excessive Exhaust
Exhaust Backpressure Backpressure Can Very Low
MN is not limited to the range of 0 to 100; high quantities of
Increase Knock6
heavy hydrocarbons can produce a negative MN and high
levels of carbon dioxide in a largely methane (CH4) mixture n Table 1. Knock in a lean combustion spark ignition engine has
can produce a MN greater than 100. sensitivities to operating conditions.
The chemical kinetics of combustion are very complex;
the MN is not a perfect model for predicting knock for a spe- Since some of these operating conditions can be con-
cific engine. Rather, it is a general parameter that can be trolled to some degree, the MN requirement of an engine
used to provide guidance on how likely a given fuel compo- has some variability. For example, lowering the trapped air

APRIL 2015 66 Compressortech2


temperature will lower the MN requirement of the engine. By stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio on a mass basis. Specifically:
knowing the MN of the fuel, some engine operating condi-
H 4.7738
tions can be adjusted to maximize power, control air emis- SAFR = CMol + Mol
4 SG
sions and avoid knock.
In researching this paper, several additional options were Equation 1
identified that could be reasonably applied to engines to
reduce the potential for knock. For example, the addition of where CMol is the composition-weighted carbon content,
water vapor reduces the propensity of knock. Water has a HMol is the composition-weighted hydrogen content and SG
high specific heat that decreases the heat release rate and, is the specific gravity of the gas relative to air.
therefore, should improve the MN requirement. Recirculat- As a worked example, consider a gas composition that
ing cooled exhaust gas will also reduce knock. Water or has 5% CO2, 94% CH4, and 1% C2H6 by volume. This sam-
water/alcohol injection has also been used as knock con- ple composition has a specific gravity of 0.607 (including in-
trol, which achieves knock reduction through inlet cooling erts). The SAFR would be calculated as:8
caused by the vaporization of the water/alcohol and by add-
ing water vapor to the combustion air [10-11].

SAFR = (0.94 1+ 0.01 2) +
(0.94 4 + 0.01 6) 4.7738 = 15.06

4 0.0607
Gas compositional analysis
For this review, more than 25,000 gas compositions were Equation 2
downloaded from informational postings of interstate natural
gas transportation pipelines. The compositions were reviewed Urban/Sharpe method
for integrity. In addition, publically available compositions from The Urban and Sharpe method is similar in nature to the
reference documents were added to the dataset, including composition method but was created to estimate the air/fuel
the source data used to calculate MN. These compositions ratio based on measuring exhaust gases [12]. The principle
include single-component gases such as propane. Several also works using the gas composition. The method first de-
sample compositions were created to parametrically assess termines the weighted sum of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
the sensitivity of the models to changes in gas compositions. A and nitrogen in the fuel gas components. This method differs
detailed analysis was performed from a subset of these com- from the composition method by including carbon dioxide in
positions (6330 compositions). Statistics are shown in Table 2. the fuel in the mole sums. The specific gravity of the gas is
not required for this method.
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
H O
Three different methods to calculate stoichiometric air/ 1+ Mol Mol ( 31.999 + 3.7738 28.159)
fuel ratio were evaluated.7 4CMol 2CMol
SAFR =
H O N
12.011+ 1.008 Mol + 15.999 Mol + 14.007 Mol
CMol CMol CMol
Composition method
The standard method to calculate stoichiometric air/fuel Equation 3
ratio performs a mole balance of the individual gas compo-
nents in the fuel-to-air ratio. Inerts (carbon dioxide, nitrogen whereNMol is the composition-weighted nitrogen content
and helium) are ignored in the oxygen requirement calcula- and OMol is the composition-weighted oxygen content.
tions but are used in the mass-balance calculations. This method will give the same answer as the composi-
The basic principle of this method is to multiply each gas tion method.
component fraction (not percent) by the number of carbon
and hydrogen atoms for each component to calculate the Four-component estimation
amount of air required. One oxygen molecule is required In some cases, full gas composition analysis is not avail-
for each carbon atom and one oxygen molecule is required able but the four components of higher heating value, specif-
for each four hydrogen atoms. This then needs to be multi- ic gravity, carbon dioxide content, and nitrogen content are
plied by 4.7738 to account for the nitrogen in the air. Divid- available. In those cases, the SAFR can be estimated by:
ing this by the specific gravity of the fuel gas will yield the continued on page 68

HHV LHV Specific


CO2% N2% C2% C4+% H2
(Btu/scf) (Btu/scf) Gravity

Maximum 2567 2362 1.52 50.00 16.81 100.00 17.97 30.00


Minimum 749 675 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Average 1041 939 0.54 0.56 0.01 5.07 0.14 0.01

n Table 2. Statistical analysis of the sensitivity of the models to change in gas compositions.

APRIL 2015 67 Compressortech2


0.0094098 HHV different calculation methods. Measured MN values were
SAFR =
SG taken from several sources [14-18].
Equation 4
Methane Number Comparison
120.0
where HHV is the higher heating value of the gas in Btu/scf
at 14.73 psia (102 kPa) and 60F (16C).
In most cases, this method, though greatly simplified, 100.0

does a very good job modeling the actual SAFR as shown


in Figure 3. This method will not be accurate if the fuel gas
80.0
contains significant quantities of oxygen without applying an CARB
adjustment factor. Likewise, this method should not be used

Calculated MN
CARB

if the hydrogen content exceeds 30% by volume. Because 60.0 AVL


ISO
this is an estimation method, it is strongly recommended CAT
that either of the other two options presented here be used Est
40.0
when the full gas composition is available. Est4

Modeled Stoichiometric Air/Fuel 20.0

20.0

0.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0

17.5 Measured MN

n Figure 4. Measured vs. calculated MN.


Modeled SAFR

15.0
GRI/SwRI methods
Kubesh, et al., of the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI)
12.5 generated several different correlations to estimate motor
octane number (MON) [14]. The MON is then curve-fitted to
10.0
determine a MN. The first MON method is based on a data
regression of six gas compositions.

7.5 MON = 137.78 C1+ 29.948 C2 18.193 C3


7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 167.062 C4 + 181.233 CO 2 + 26.994 N2
Calculated SAFR
Equation 5
n Figure 3. Modeled vs. calculated SAFR.
where the fuel gas compositions are in fraction by volume
Methane number and C1 represents methane content as a fraction of the to-
Several different methods of calculating MN were eval- tal mixture,C2 represents ethane content as a fraction of
uated. Some of these methods are related to each other the total mixture,C3 represents propane content as a frac-
while other methods are completely different. In many cas- tion of the total mixture, C4 represents the sum of iso- and
es, the methods are limited in their applicability based on normal butane and all heavier hydrocarbons content as a
gas compositions. While there are other methods to calcu- fraction of the total mixture, CO2 represents carbon dioxide
late MN available as well, this analysis is limited to methods content as a fraction of the total mixture and N2 represents
that are either generally available or commonly used by the nitrogen content as a fraction of the total mixture.
natural gas industry. As stated by Kubesh, et al., this regression is limited to
All of the methods discussed here ignore the presence of gases with methane content between 82 and 100%. The
water in the fuel gas (or combustion air for that matter). The information from the Kubesh paper was used to perform the
presence of water should act as a diluent and improve the least-squares fit calculations presented here, based on the
effective MN of the fuel [10, 13]. The presence of carbon nine samples that had reliably measured MONs:
dioxide and nitrogen in the fuel increase the MN because
they act as a diluent to the air/fuel mixture. This lowers the MON = 125.53 C1+ 82.571 C2 + 42.694 C3 +
gas temperature during combustion, which increases the 94.426 C4 + 480.805 CO 2 + 41.274 N2
actual MN [14]. Equation 6
There is a wide variability in the calculated MN by cal-
culation type. This is attributed to variability in the calcula- This regression appears to be more accurate than Equation
tion methods and in the actual measurement MN. Figure 4 5. However, both Equations 5 and 6 should be considered to
shows the MN measured versus calculated MN for several continued on page 70

APRIL 2015 68 Compressortech2


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be general approximations based on the small sample size can be readily implemented in engine control systems. How-
used in their generation. Based on these limitations, it is not ever, these equations should be used with caution because
recommended that these equations be used. they were based on limited gas compositions. These methods
The second MON method is based on a correlation of mea- should not be used if the sum of ethylene, propylene, car-
sured MON to the reactive hydrocarbon/carbon ratio (H/C). bon monoxide (CO), hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide and helium
exceeds 1%; alarm flags are used to indicate when the gas
MON = 406.14 + 508.04 H / C 173.55 (H / C)2 + 20.170 (H / C)3
compositions are outside of these bounds.
Equation 7
ISO 15403-1
There are two different regression equations identified by ISO Standard 15403-1 [19] includes a discussion on MN
Kubesh to convert MON to MN: and includes a calculation method based on Equations 7
and 9 of the GRI/SwRI methods. The standard does not list
MN = 1.624 MON 119.1 the limits of the method. In Figure 4, this method is identi-
Equation 8 fied as ISO.

and: ISO/TR 22302


The MN in the technical report ISO/TR 22302, Natural
MN = 1.445 MON 103.42 Gas Calculation of Methane Number reference Equa-
Equation 9 tions 5 and 7 of the GRI/SwRI methods to calculate MON and
then uses Equation 9 to convert MON to MN. The standard
Equation 8 is based on a regression of calculated MN from recommends that if the calculations between the two meth-
a model and measured MON9 while Equation 9 is based on ods are different by more than six, the calculations should
measured MN and measured MON numbers. be considered to be in doubt and a test method should be
There are a number of technical limitations to the Kubesh used rather than the results of the calculation. The document
paper: also references the AVL method in passing, stating it can be
The analysis is limited to 12 gas samples tested plus used to calculate MN but the exact algorithm is confidential
two tests performed by others on only propane and only to AVL [20-21].
ethane gases.
o Of the 12 tests, three samples had to be exclud- CARB method
ed because the measured MON on the refer- The California Air Resources Board (CARB) method was
ence engine were above the maximum scale of derived from the GRI/SwRI methods using Equations 7 and
the test engine. 8 [22]. The paper specifies that the method adopted by
o Table 1 of the Kubesh paper shows the same CARB should not be used for reactive hydrogen/carbon ra-
gas composition for Blends 6 and 7. The listed tios less than 2.5 or where inert concentrations are greater
composition for Blend 6 is incorrect.10 than the typical 1 to 5% range.
To correlate MON to MN, only eight compositions were The CARB report is widely available via the Internet and
used (the first six of the 12 plus only propane and only has been adopted by others [2, 23-26]. Due in part to its
ethane). These compositions were used because they public availability, some engine manufacturers have adopt-
had measured methane numbers. ed this method [27]. However, the method does not appear
The measured MN for the only methane composition to be accurate enough to be used for many gas composi-
measured 94 when it should have measured 100 by defi- tions. The CARB method should only be used on existing
nition, indicating a possible calibration error. engines that have adopted its use. In Figure 4, this method
Using Equation 8, a pure methane gas yields a MN of is identified as CARB.
108.4 vs. the 100 it should be by definition. By comparison,
Equation 9 yields a MN of 99.0 for a pure methane gas. AVL methane method
These methods are not reliable for compositions that The AVL method uses a series of ternary diagrams to es-
contain >1% hydrogen or contains any hydrogen sulfide timate the MN using patented techniques [28]. These meth-
(H2S) in the fuel gas. ods have been compiled into an application named METH-
N  one of these methods are reliable for compositions ANE. It should also be noted that this application treats
that contain >3% CO2. The analysis in this paper shows all hydrocarbons that are pentane and higher as butanes.
that the addition of diluent in the fuel increases the MON Some engine manufacturers exclude nitrogen when cal-
but the method excludes the impact of diluents. culating the MN using the AVL application. The application
Of the methods presented by Kubesh, Equation 7 ap- also performs calculations on gas components not typically
pears to be the best model for MON, and Equation 9 should found in natural gas, including carbon monoxide, ethylene
be used to convert MON to MN. and propylene.
Because these formulas are relatively straight forward, they The application appears to be reasonably accurate, but

APRIL 2015 70 Compressortech2


the MN is over-predicted if the gas contains >5% CO. This Propane 0 to 40%
calculation method is only available in compiled code for- Normal butane 0 to 10%
mat and is not suitable for direct usage in engine control Normal pentane 0 to 3%
systems. In Figure 4, this method is identified as AVL. Hexane+ 0 to 2%
Nitrogen 0 to 15%
DGC method Carbon dioxide 0 to 10%
The Danish Gas Technology Centre (DGC) developed a The WKI does not appear to work for gas compositions
method to calculate MN using interpolated AVL ternary dia- that have any significant concentrations of hydrogen or
grams. There is some error in the interpolation, especially hydrogen sulfide. With the exception of pure methane, the
with respect to hydrogen because of its nonlinear nature. WKI will generally calculate a higher value than either the
The estimated uncertainty is 3 MN [29]. The calculation AVL or Caterpillar methods [33]. The program is only avail-
methods are hosted on a DGC server and are available for able in a compiled format and not suitable for direct usage
use with a fee-based subscription [30]. As such, the DGC in engine control systems.
method is not suitable for use in engine control systems.
Direct measure instruments
E.ON GasCalc There are some instruments that directly estimate the MN
The E.ON GasCalc application calculates MN in addition based on measuring gas parameters, such as the speed of
to other gas calculation properties [13]. The application is sound and thermal conductivity. These instruments include
only available in compiled code format but appears to be the GasPT2 by CUI Inc., Elster Instromet Gas-lab Q1 and
based on the DGC/AVL methods. Because the application gasQS by MEMS AG. These devices have a stated accu-
is only available in a compiled format, it is not suitable for racy in the range of 3 MN and have a faster response to
direct usage in engine control systems. changing gas compositions when compared to gas chro-
matographs. The range of gas compositions for the stated
Caterpillar GERP method accuracy is not specified. These devices could be inter-
The specific methods used in Caterpillars Gas Engine faced directly with engine control systems.
Rating Pro (GERP) application to calculate MN are un- There are similar devices that do not directly infer MN that
known [31]. However, the results produced are similar to calculate the heating value and specific gravity, which can
those calculated by the AVL METHANE application with the be used to estimate MN using the methods outlined below.
exception that the application treats pentane and higher hy-
drocarbons differently than butane. As a result, gas compo- MN approximation
sitions that have significant quantities of pentane and higher Based on the literature review performed for this effort
should be more accurately calculated with this tool than the and MN calculations on the gas composition data set, the
AVL method. The application also performs calculations on following MN estimation method has been developed:
gas components not typically found in natural gas, including
carbon monoxide, ethylene, and propylene11, because the MN = MNRaw + H2SAdj + CO2Adj 100 H2
application is only available in compiled format, it is not suit- Equation 10
able for direct usage in engine control systems. In Figure 4,
this method is identified as CAT. where H2SAdj is an adjustment for hydrogen sulfide, CO-
2Adjis an adjustment for carbon dioxide and MNRaw is cal-
Waukesha Knock Index culated by:
The Waukesha Knock Index (WKI) uses a hybrid method
with curve fit equations for some gas composition ranges HCRAdj
MNRaw = 34.26 HCRAdj + 2.944 10 9 SGAdj (21.31 HCR2Adj ) 59.2
and a hydrogen/carbon ratio method (similar to the GRI/
SwRI methods) for other compositions [32]. Adjustments are Equation 11
made for inert gases. The curve fit equations apply and ac-
commodate alkanes up to hexane. where HCRAdj is the hydrogen-to-carbon ratio for only com-
The WKI method is unique in that it recognizes that iso- bustible components (renormalized to 100%) with H2 treat-
mers (e.g., isobutane and isopentane) have different knock ed as C1; SGAdj is the specific gravity for only combustible
characteristics than their normal counterparts. This is ad- components with H2 treated as C1.
dressed by assigning 58% of the isobutane concentration H2SAdj is calculated by:
to propane, the balance to normal butane and 68% of the
isopentane concentration to normal butane and the balance H2SAdj = 14.83 H2S 1.048 H2S0.002036
to normal pentane. The model is stated to be valid for gases Equation 12
that are within the following concentrations:
Methane 60 to 100% where H2S is the fraction of hydrogen sulfide by volume.12
Ethane 0 to 20% continued on page 72

APRIL 2015 71 Compressortech2


and: Unless used by the engine manufacturer, only Equa-
2 6
CO2Adj = 57.094CO MNRaw + 1.161 10 CO2 MN 4
0.0811 45.208 CO 2
tions 7 and 9 of the GRI/SwRI methods should be used.
2 Raw
Care must be used with these equations on gases with
2153.39 CO 22 253.97 CO 32 0.3377 CO 22 MNRaw
2

low hydrogen and inert contents.


Equation 13 The MN is measured under stoichiometric conditions.
Additional model refinement should estimate the effects
For the CO2Adj calculation, the MNRaw value should be of variable air/fuel ratio.
clamped to a minimum value of 70. (If the calculated value Current MN calculations do not alter the MN based on wa-
of MNRaw is less than 70, use a value of 70 for Equation 13). ter content in either the fuel or the air. Additional research
This method provides reasonable results when compared may be warranted to evaluate and quantify this effect.
to the AVL and Caterpillar methods. Unlike the AVL method, There is very little by way of actual measured MN data in
this method treats C5+ components differently than butane the public domain. The development of robust MN models
but they do not reduce the MN as aggressively as the Cat- for broader fuel ranges may require additional measured
erpillar method does. This method is not suited for compo- MN data, especially with respect to C5+ components.
sitions with >1% ethylene, propylene or carbon monoxide. The flame speeds and auto-ignition temperatures of the
This method could be used in engine control systems. In iso and normal components appear to be very different.
Figure 4, this method is identified as Est. Additional research may be of interest to better delin-
eate the impact to the MN by these subspecies.
Four-component estimation New methods have been developed for MN calculations
For four-component gas compositions, the MNRaw used that are comparable to the results from the AVL and
in the MN estimation method (Equation 9) can be approxi- Caterpillar methods. These methods are available as
mated by estimating HCRAdj and SGAdj: open source VB.NET code: https://github.com/gchoquet/
EngineControlSoftware.
Reasonable approximations for MN can be produced
(28.964 SG 44.01 CO 2 28.013 N2 )
SGAdj = from a four-component gas analysis for many gas com-
28.964(1 CO2 N2 )
positions provided the compositions contain no hydrogen.
Equation 14
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to Dr. Daniel Olsen, Dr. Jacob Klimstra, and
1.2164
HCRAdj = 1.8002 + Dr. Ghazi Karim for providing reference material and analysis
SGAdj
tools and Jacob Hedrick for his review and comments. CT2
Equation 15
Footnotes
With only four-component data, the carbon dioxide con- 1
Knock is used here to describe either the effect of pre-
tent is known but hydrogen content is not; therefore, calcu- ignition (ignition of the air/fuel mixture prior to the initiation
lations for CO2Adj are performed the same as the full com- of controlled ignition) or detonation (when the fuel/air mix-
position method, but H2 in Equation 9 is set to zero. ture in the end gas region ignites ahead of the flame front
This method will not be reliable if the sum of ethylene, that originated from the ignition source). Detonation is also
propylene, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, sometimes referred to as auto-ignition. While pre-ignition
and helium exceeds 1%. This method could be used in en- and detonation are distinctly different mechanisms, they
gine control systems. In Figure 4, this method is identified both produce higher stress levels on the engine when
as Est4. compared to normal combustion. Both pre-ignition and
detonation can be damaging to the engine because the
Conclusions abnormal combustion produces higher pressures and tem-
Calculation of SAFR is an important parameter for man- peratures in the power cylinder and therefore increased
aging engine control and is relatively straightforward to cal- stresses on the head, liner, piston, bearings, connecting
culate. A four-component method has been generated that rod and crankshaft. The fuel characteristics that produce
is suitable for many natural gas compositions. either pre-ignition or detonation are much the same.
MN can be an important tool in engine optimization. Ob- The usage of knock is not defined or used consistently
servations on MN from this effort include: in the industry. The usage in this paper is consistent with
If an engine manufacturer uses a specific method to Heywood [34]. For most large-bore engines, knock by deto-
calculate MN, that same method should be used to nation is more prevalent.
evaluate the fuel gas for its applicability to that engine. 2
If the mode of knock is auto-ignition, adjusting the igni-
Should the fuel gas have constituents that are not suit- tion timing may have a limited effect on reducing knock.
able for that method, they should consult the engine 3
This statement is generally true for lean-burn units, but
manufacturer for assistance. continued on page 74

APRIL 2015 72 Compressortech2


air adjustment is dependent on the fuel composition. For Equation 8). In Figure 4, this alternate fit is shown as the
example, in fuels with high hydrogen content, increasing CARB method.
air will increase the flame speed until the equivalence ra- 10
By comparison to Table 4 and back calculation of the
tio approaches 1.6; faster flame speeds are more prone MON, the correct values for Blend 6 was determined to be
to lead to knock conditions. As the air is increased, the 83.3% methane, 3.0% ethane, 11.9% propane, 0.8% bu-
heat release rate is generally decreased, scavenging is in- tane, 0.3% carbon dioxide, and 0.7% nitrogen.
creased, and cooling is increased, all of which reduce the 11
The Wobbe Index as calculated by the Caterpillar
potential for knock. Moreover, additional airflow is typically method appears to be based on the lower heating value of
achieved by increasing the air manifold pressure, which the gas, while the common convention calculates it based
can result in higher trapped temperatures increasing the on the higher heating value [24]. In addition, the higher
potential for knock. and lower heating values are only applicable for a base
4
With all other conditions constant, the flame speed pressure of 14.696 psia. The most common base pres-
generally decreases with increasing pressure (which re- sure for pipeline companies, however, is 14.73 psia, which
duces the likelihood of knock) but the ignition delay de- would cause the heating valve to be slighter higher.
creases with increasing pressure (which increases the 12
Hydrogen sulfide is commonly measured in grains per 100
likelihood of knock). The impact on knock is dependent on cu.ft. To convert from grains to fraction, multiply by 0.000016.
which effect has the higher impact for a given pressure/
temperature condition. It should be noted that increasing References
the compression pressure (which is achieved through tur- [1] Schafer, Keith and Fletcher, Scott, High BTU Fuel Gas
bocharging or supercharging on an engine with fixed com- From The Marcellus Shale And How It Affects Emissions And
pression geometry) also increases the temperature. Of Peak Firing Pressures, Gas Machinery Conference (Dallas,
the two mechanisms, temperature has the higher impact. TX: Gas Machinery Research Council [GMRC], 2010).
Therefore, increasing the compression pressure without [2] Beroun, Stanislav, et al., Formation Of Nitrogen Ox-
additional air intake cooling will generally increase the in- ide From Gas Engines On Different Fuels, Czech Tech-
cidence of knock. nical University In Prague, 2006, Online, www3.fs.cvut.
5
Reducing the speed generally increases the scaveng- cz/web/fileadmin/documents/12241-BOZEK/pub-
ing efficiency, which reduces free radicals that can help ini- likace/2006/2006_099_01.pdf.
tiate combustion and, more importantly, lower the residual [3] Attar, A.A., Optimization And Knock Modeling Of A
temperatures in the power cylinder. However, increasing Gas Fueled Spark Ignition Engine, PhD Dissertation, The
speed lowers the pressure in the cylinder faster resulting University Of Calgary, 1997.
in the associated temperature of the end gases to more [4] Bourn, G.D., High Btu Gas Effects On Performance
likely be below the auto-ignition temperature and, therefore, And Emissions In A Two-Stroke Integral Engine, PR-015-
reduce the likelihood of knock. 05217 (Church Falls, VA: Pipeline Research Council Inter-
6
Backpressure has little impact on knock according to national, 2006).
Taylor [10] To the extent that high backpressure inhibits [5] Vervisch, L., Labegorre, B., and Rveillon, J.,
power cylinder scavenging efficiency, it can increase the Hydrogen-Sulphur Oxy-Flame Analysis, Fuel 83, 4-5
likelihood of knock. (2004), pp. 605-614.
7
For these calculations, it is assumed that the amount of [6] Rahmouni, C. Brecq, C.G., Tazerout, M., and Le
free oxygen in the fuel gas is negligible. If there are signifi- Corre, O., Knock Rating Of Gaseous Fuels In Single Cylin-
cant quantities of oxygen in the fuel gas, the amount of air der Spark Ignition Engine, Fuel 83, 3 (2004), pp. 327-336.
decreases accordingly. [7] Gersen, S., Rotink, M.H., Van Dijk, G.H.J., Levin-
8
Methane has one carbon atom and four hydrogen at- sky, H.B., A New Experimentally Tested Method To Clas-
oms; ethane has two carbon atoms and six hydrogen at- sify Gaseous Fuels For Knock Resistance Based On The
oms. Complete combustion of methane will result in one Chemical And Physical Properties Of The Gas, Interna-
carbon dioxide molecule (requiring two oxygen atoms, one tional Gas Union Research Conf. (Oslo, Norway: Interna-
oxygen molecule) and two water molecules (requiring two tional Gas Union, 2011).
oxygen atoms or one oxygen molecule). The number of [8] Karim, G.A., The Onset Of Knock In Gas Fueled
carbon and hydrogen atoms for typical natural gas com- Spark Ignition Engines Prediction And Experiment, Journal
ponents can be found in Appendix A. Air is approximately of KONES Powertrain and Transport 14, 4 (2007).
78% N and 21% O (with the balance being argon and other [9] Healy, D.D., Curran, H.J., Simmie, J.M., Kalitan,
gases) and has a mole weight of 28.964. D.M., Zinner, C.M., Barrett, A.B., Petersen, E.L., Bourque,
9
Based on the information provided in the paper, Equa- G., Methane/Ethane/Propane Mixtures Oxidation At High
tion 8 could not be reproduced. The regression based Pressures And At High, Intermediate And Low Tempera-
on modeled MN was recalculated as MN = 1.558 MON tures, Combust. Flame (2008), doi: 10.1016/j.combust-
112.5. Based on the new regression, a pure methane flame.2008.07.003.
gas would have a MN of 105.8 (vs. the 108.4 obtained by continued on page 76

APRIL 2015 74 Compressortech2


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[10] Taylor, C.F., The Internal-Combustion Engine In 12603-R02 (Church Falls, VA: Pipeline Research Council
Theory And Practice, Vol. 2: Combustion, Fuels, Materi- International, 2014).
als, Design (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1985), ISBN [19] ISO 15403-1:2006, Natural Gas For Use As A Com-
0-262-70027-1. pressed Fuel For Vehicles Part 1: Designation Of The
[11] Shrestha, S.O. Bade and Rodrigues, R., Effect Of Quality (Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization
Diluents On Knock Rating Of Gaseous Fuels, Proc. Inst. for Standardization, 2006).
Mech. Eng. A J. Power Energy 222, 6 (2008): pp. 587-597. [20] ISO/TR 22302:2014, Natural Gas Calculation Of
[12] Urban, C.M. and Sharpe, C.A., Computing Air/Fuel Methane Number (Geneva, Switzerland: International Or-
Ratio From Exhaust Composition, Natural Gas And Al- ganization for Standardization, 2014).
ternative Fuels For Engines, ICE, Vol. 24 (New York, NY: [21] Natural Gas Calculation Of Methane Number,
ASME, 1984). 1st Edition, Petroleum And Natural Gas International Stan-
[13] Methane Number As A Parameter Or Gas Quality dardization, accessed March 31, 2014. October 27, 2013.
Specifications (Frankfurt, Germany: The European Associ- [Cited: March 31, 2014.].
ate of Internal Combustion Engine Manufacturers [EURO- [22] California Air Resources Board, LNG/CNG Rule-
MOT]), April 4, 2012. making 2002 Appendix D, 2002, www.arb.ca.gov/regact/
[14] Kubesh, J., Liss, W.E., and King, S.R., Effect Of cng-lpg/appd.pdf.
Gas Composition On Octane Number Of Natural Gas Fu- [23] Ganendra Babu, M.K. and Subramanian, K.A., Al-
els, SAE International Fuels and Lubricants Meeting and ternative Transportation Fuels: Utilization in Combustion
Exposition, Paper no. 922359 (Warrendale, PA: SAE Inter- Engines (London, U.K.: CRC Press, 2013).
national, 1992). [24] Harte, E., 2008 Southern California Heavy-Duty
[15] Leiker, M., Cartellieri, W., Cristoph, K., Pfeifer, U., CNG Vehicle Report (San Diego, CA: Southern California
and Rankl, M., Evaluation Of Anti-Knocking Properties Gas Company and San Diego Gas & Electric, 2009).
Of Gaseous Fuels By Means Of Methane Number And Its [25] BP, Guidebook To Gas Interchangeability And
Practical Application To Gas Engines, Paper 72-DGP-4 Gas Quality (International Gas Union, BP Gas Marketing,
(New York, NY: ASME, 1972). Ltd., 2011).
[16] Malenshek, M. and Olsen, D.B., Methane Number [26] Giordano, D., Henderson, M., Stewart, J., and Vance,
Testing of Alternative Gaseous Fuels (Elsevier, 2008). E., Improving Efficiency Of Spark Ignited, Stoichiometrical-
[17] Arunachalam, A. and Olsen, D.B., Experimental ly Operated Natural Gas Engines, prepared for California
Evaluation Of Knock Characteristics Of Producer Gas, Energy Commission Public Interest Energy Research Pro-
Biomass and Bioenergy 37, 2 (2012): pp.169-176. gram, by Sturman Industries, 2011, PIR 08-023.
[18] Olsen, D.B. and Wise, D.M., Energy Meter Per- [27] Cummins Westport Fuel Quality Calculator, www.cum-
formance Assessment: Phase 1 Amendment, PR-179- minswestport.com/fuel-quality-calculator, February 26, 2013.

Appendix A. Gas Properties For Key Natural Gas Components

Hydrogen Carbon Auto-Ignition Flame Speed @ xx (in/s)(4)


Component Mole Wt Cp(1) HHV(2) LHV
Atoms Atoms Temp (F)(3) 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
H2 2.0159 2 0 3.4010 324.2 273.9 752 31.74 56.10 78.99 93.75 106.30
C1 16.0430 4 1 0.5266 1009.7 909.1 999 3.83 10.95 14.65 12.54 5.67
C2 30.0690 6 2 0.4080 1768.7 1617.8 959 4.49 11.12 15.91 16.32 10.40
C3 44.0960 8 3 0.3887 2517.2 2315.9 871 5.36 11.48 15.53 15.42 9.51
IC4 58.1220 10 4 0.3867 3252.6 3001.0 864 6.34 12.58 17.39 18.04 13.67
NC4 58.1220 10 4 0.3951 3262.0 3010.5 761 5.03 10.50 14.44 13.89 7.87
IC5 72.1510 12 5 0.3829 3999.7 3697.9 788
NC5 72.1510 12 5 0.3880 4008.7 3706.8 496
C6 86.1780 14 6 0.3857 4756.1 4403.9 433
C7 100.2050 16 7 0.3842 5502.8 5100.3 433
C8 114.2320 18 8 0.3831 6248.9 5796.1 428
H2S 34.0760 2 0 0.2370 586.7 637.0 500
(1)
Specific heat (Cp) at constant pressure conditions near atmospheric.
(2)
Heating values in BTU/scf at 14.696 psia, 60F, and uncorrected for compressibility from GPA 2545-09.
(3)
Auto-ignition temperatures from Flammability Characterisitics of Combustible Gases and Vapors [35].
(4)
Laminar flame speed from Unversity of Southern California Combustion Kinetics Laboratory [36].

APRIL 2015 76 Compressortech2


[28] Rahmouni, C., Tazerout, M., Le Corre, O., Method netics Laboratory, Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering,
For Determining At Least One Energetic Property Of A Gas accessed April 8, 2014.
Fuel Mixture By Measuring Physical Properties Of The Gas
Mixture, US20040195531 A1, Aug. 15, 2006. Nomenclature
[29] Anderson, P., Algorithm For Methane Number Deter- C1 Mole fraction of methane
mination For Natural Gases, Project Report June 1999 (Hr- C2 Mole fraction of ethane
sholm, Denmark: Danish Gas Technology Centre, 1999). C3 Mole fraction of propane
[30] DGC, Algorithm For Methane Number Calculation C4 Mole fraction of normal and isobutane
Product Sheet 31 (Caterpillar Oil & Gas. Gas Engine Rat- C5 Mole fraction of normal and isopentane
ings Pro [GERP]), http://catoilandgas.cat.com/industries/ C6 Mole fraction of hexane
gas-compression/gerp, accessed March 20, 2014. C7 Mole fraction of heptane
[32] Sorge, G.W., Kakoczki, R.K., and Peffer, J.E., U.S. C8 Mole fraction of octane
Patent 6,061,637, Method Of Determining Knock Resis- CO2 Mole fraction of carbon dioxide
tance Rating For Non-Commercial Grade Natural Gas. CMol Composition of weighted carbon content
[33] Klimstra, Jacob, et al., Classification Methods For H 2 Mole fraction of hydrogen
The Knock Resistance Of Gaseous Fuels: An Attempt H2S Mole fraction of hydrogen sulfide
Towards Unification, Vol. 1, Fall Technical Conference HHV The higher heating value of the gas
of the ASME Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) Division HMol Composition-weighted hydrogen content
(New York, NY: ASME, 1999). J.E., Method Of Determin- MN Methane number
ing Knock Resistance Rating For Non-Commercial Grade MNAdj Base methane number adjustment
Natural Gas, U.S. Patent 6.061,637. MON Motor octane number
[34] Heywood, J.B., Internal Combustion Engine Funda- N2 Mole fraction of nitrogen
mentals (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2011. NMol Composition-weighted nitrogen content
[35] Zabetakis, M.G., Flammability Characteristics Of OMol Composition-weighted oxygen content
Combustible Gases And Vapors, Bulletin 627, U.S. Depart- SAFR Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio in lb air/lb fuel
ment of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 1924. SG Specific gravity of a gas relative to air
[36] Wang, H., Laminar Flame Speeds, Combustion Ki- f Equivalence ratio (actual fuel/air times SAFR)
Best Practices For Pulsation Bottle
Design To Reduce Horsepower
Losses > Apulsation
case study of an inadequately designed
control system
By Sarah Simons, Matt Johnson, Eugene
Broerman, III, and Garrett Williams

Editors Note: This paper was delivered at the Gas


Machinery Research Council meeting in Nashville, Ten-
nessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014.

Abstract
To save upfront packaging costs, some companies de-
sign pulsation bottles with inadequate bottle and choke
tube diameters as well as high-loss choke tube inlets. Not
only does this result in excessive pressure and horsepow-
er losses, but it can also insufficiently damp pulsations.
This necessitates the use of orifices and/or secondary
pulsation bottles to lower pulsations in the piping system
to acceptable levels, which, in turn, creates additional n Figure 1. A typical acoustic filter design.
pressure and horsepower losses. While these meth-
ods can decrease initial installation costs, the long-term
horsepower costs can be unacceptably high and prevent compressors in heavy gas services utilizes surge volumes
a station from reaching expected flow capacity. This pa- connected by a single choke tube as shown in Figure 1.
per will discuss best practices and preliminary calcula- The surge volumes and choke tube work together to cre-
tion results used to design a pulsation bottle to allow an ate a low-pass acoustic filter system that reduces apli-
end-user to determine whether the pulsation control sys- tudes in the attached piping system associated with com-
tem designed for a reciprocating compressor is likely to pressor excitation orders above low-pass filter frequency.
create future problems. A case study of an inadequately A properly designed acoustic filter will create sufficient
designed pulsation control system that would have pre- surge volume to reduce dynamic flow components, con-
vented the station from reaching expected flow rates as a trol the shape and distribution of the impedance function
result of excessive horsepower losses will be presented. such that dynamic pressures are adequately controlled
on and off resonance, and limit residual pulsations in the
Introduction piping to acceptable levels.
A standard pulsation bottle design for reciprocating continued on page 80

Sarah Simons is a research scientist in the fluids machinery systems section at Southwest Research Institute. She performs thermal and
acoustic analyses of compressor and pump piping systems along with reciprocating compressor pulsation filter bottle design. She is
also involved with compressor and flow pulsation control research. Contact her at: sarah.simons@swri.org. Matt Johnson is the man-
ager of reliability and compression engineering with Boardwalk Pipeline Partners LP in Owensboro, Kentucky. He is responsible for
managing a team that provides Tier III technical support for field operations. Contact him at: matthew.johnson@bwpmlp.com. Eugene
Broerman, III is senior research engineer at Southwest Research Institute with experience in acoustics, vibrations and piping design.
He has designed/studied compressor and pump piping systems with the aid of the GMRC compressor system analog and two digital
acoustic design tools for acoustic (pulsation) analyses, field DAS equipment, ANSYS (finite element [FE] software) for mechanical
analyses, and CAESAR II for thermal analyses. Contact him at: ebroerman@swri.org. Garrett Williams, P.E., is the compression engi-
neering leader at Boardwalk Pipelines in the reliability and compression engineering group. He has experience in engineering design
focusing on compressor stations and compression engineering. Contact him at: garrett.williams@bwpmlp.com.

April 2015 78 Compressortech2


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The effectiveness of the pulsation bottle strongly cor-
relates to the size of the surge volumes. Large surge vol-
umes provide more damping of compressor excitations.
However, larger diameter bottles also cost more to fabri-
cate and install. Therefore, for filter bottle pulsation con-
trol systems, there is often a tradeoff made between the
initial installation cost and effectiveness.

Rodrigue station background


The Rodrigue Compressor Station, which is located in
Belle Rose, Louisiana, is approximately 9 mi. (14.5 km)
north of the Napoleonville Compressor Station (Napo-
leonville, Louisiana) and is part of Gulf Souths Magnolia
Gas Storage Facility. The Magnolia Gas Storage Facility
was authorized on Nov. 21, 2002. However, in December
2003, Gulf South experienced a force majeure event at
gas caverns of the Magnolia Facility. The facilities were n Figure 2. A bell mouth entrance to a choke tube.
then idled and made incapable of providing any storage
service. therefore, the available horsepower was not increased.
In 2011, Gulf South entered into an agreement to pro- The units investigated are described in Table 1.
vide new service to Entergys recently installed 737,562
hp (550 MW) combined cycle electric generating unit Compressor Manufacturer Dresser-Rand
at its Ninemile Power Plant located in Jefferson Parish, Compressor Model DR 7HOS6
Louisiana. This agreement required Gulf South to in-
Electric Motor Rated Power at
crease operating pressures on the Index 130 mainline. Design Condition rpm
4001 hp (2942 kW)
To accommodate this service at the increased pressures,
Number of Stages One
Gulf South determined it could either restore historically
unreliable compression at its Napoleonville Compressor Number of Cylinders 6 cylinders
Station or utilize its idled Rodrigue Compressor Station Unit rpm (1st order frequency) 750-1000 rpm (12.5-16.7 Hz)
by converting it from a storage to a transmission service. Suction Pressure 675-735 psig (47-51 barg)
Gulf South decided to convert its Rodrigue Compressor Discharge Pressure 830-910 psig (57-63 barg)
Station and retire the compression at Napoleonville Com-
pressor Station. n Table 1. Compressor specifications.
Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) was contracted
by Gulf South to perform a third-party review of a pulsa- This pulsation control system was designed with the
tion control system designed for two existing reciprocat- priority of minimizing initial cost through size reduction.
ing compressors at the Rodrigue Compressor Station. This resulted in insufficient surge volumes that could not
The compressors were re-cylindered with larger bore effectively reduce pulsation amplitudes in the piping to
cylinders to increase the amount of flow through the sta- within API allowable limits without additional means of
tion, and the acoustic filter bottles were redesigned. It is pulsation attenuation. Therefore, orifices were recom-
important to note that the drivers were not being replaced; mended in the bottle line nozzles as well as the use of an

Originally Reported SwRI-Calculated Orginally Reported SwRI-Calculated


Pulsation Bottle Element Pressure Drop Pressure Drop Horsepower Losses Horsepower
(% Of Line Pressure) (% Of Line Pressure) (Unit Total) Losses (Unit Total)
First Suction Cylinder 5
10 in. (254 mm) Bore Orifice Bottle Inlet 0.06 23x2
6 in. (152 mm) Sch. XX Internal Choke 0.88 (23+22+20)x2
11.374 in. (289 mm) ID External Choke 0.47 13x2
7.625 in. (194 mm) Orifice Bottle Outlet 0.12 5x6
First Suction Total 0.7 1.5 113 234
First Discharge Cylinder 5
6.5 in. (165 mm) Bore Orifice Bottle Inlet 0.21 8x6
5 in. (127 mm) Sch. 160 Internal Choke 1.11 (32+30+27)x2
8.5 in. (216 mm) Bore Orifice Bottle Outlet 0.08 32x2
First Discharge Total 1.2 1.4 192 290

n Table 2. Pressure drop and horsepower loss comparisons of the original bottle design (maximum flow case).

April 2015 80 Compressortech2


Pressure Drop Pressure Drop SwRI-Calculated SwRI-Calculated
(% Of Line (% Of Line Horsepower Losses Horsepower Losses
Pulsation Bottle Element
Pressure) Pressure) Original Bottle Redesigned Bottle
Original Bottle Redesigned Bottle (Unit Total) (Unit Total)
First Suction Cylinder 5
10 in. (254 mm) Bore Orifice At Suction
0.06 N/A 23x2 N/A
Bottle Inlet Flange
Internal Choke 0.88 0.47 (24+22+20)x2 (10+9+13)x2
11.374 in. (289 mm) ID External Choke 0.47 N/A 13x2 N/A
7.625 in. (194 mm) Bore Orifice At Suction
0.12 N/A 5x6 N/A
Bottle Outlet Flange
First Suction Total 1.5 0.47 234 64
First Discharge Cylinder 5
Bore Orifice at Discharge Bottle Inlet Flange 0.21 0.07 8x6 4x6
Internal Choke 1.11 0.46 (32+30+27)x2 (9+11+14)x2
8.5 in. (216 mm) Bore Orifice At Discharge
0.08 N/A 32x2 N/A
Bottle Outlet Flange
First Discharge Total 1.4 0.53 290 92

n Table 3. Redesigned drop and horsepower loss comparisons of the original bottle design (maximum flow case).

existing secondary suction volume mouth shape, as shown in Figure of a choke tube or a low diameter
bottle to sufficiently damp pulsations. 2, is defined as the inlet outer radii ratio reducer to a wider tapered an-
Another effect of using undersized being half the inner diameter (ID) of gle. However, this does not provide
diameter surge volumes is the cor- the piping and the entrance diameter a large enough inlet radius to sig-
responding reduction in choke tube twice the ID. nificantly reduce the pressure losses
diameters which needed to keep Since bell mouth shapes have to to the comparable levels of a bell
the Helmholtz response sufficiently be custom-fabricated, one shortcut mouth-shaped entrance [1].
below the first running order. The frequently taken is to grind the end continued on page 82
Helmholtz response is controlled by
the choke tube size and its associ-
ated bottle volume sizes. Since the
acoustic filter damps all responses
above its associated Helmholtz re-
sponse, it is desirable to keep the
cut-off frequency below the first
running order. The main contribu-
tors to placing the frequency of this
response are the diameters of the
surge volumes and choke tubes. If
the surge volumes are not sufficient-
ly large, this forces the choke tube
diameter to be smaller to keep the
Helmholtz frequency below the first
compressor running order. However,
forcing the gas flow through a small-
er diameter choke tube increases
the horsepower cost associated with
the pulsation control system as well
as the pressure loss.
The design of choke tube entranc-
es is another area where initial costs
over long-term costs are favored.
The inlet shape of the choke tube
affects the pressure loss associated
with it. Sharp edges have the high-
est pressure loss, and well-rounded
bell mouth-shaped edges have the
lowest pressure loss. Note that a bell

April 2015 81 Compressortech2


Calculating pressure drop and horsepower effects
API 618 requires the calculation of the pressure drop ef-
fects of the gas flow path with the highest losses [2]. This
means that only the flow from one cylinder is reported. It
is good practice to report the corresponding horsepower
losses of each pulsation element to ensure the losses as-
sociated with the pulsation control system are not under-
emphasized. Table 2 shows the comparison between
what was incorrectly calculated and reported for pressure
and horsepower losses in the original bottle compared to
the correctly calculated losses.
The maximum horsepower needed for compression
plus the horsepower required for pulsation control at
those conditions must be less than the available horse-
power from the driver to operate at that design point. This
is frequently overlooked when designing a pulsation con-
trol system. Total horsepower required for compression at
the maximum flow conditions of the Rodrigue Station was
4735 hp (3530 kW). The available horsepower was 4936
hp (3680 kW). It was predicted that this station would not
have been able to achieve maximum flow operation with
the original pulsation control system. As a result of the
high losses that were calculated during the third-party
review, Boardwalk Pipeline Partners, LP, petitioned the
vessels to be redesigned.

Redesigned bottle
Boardwalk requested that SwRI redesign the pulsation
bottles with several goals in mind:
Reduce the horsepower cost associated with the pul-
sation control system.
Eliminate the need for a secondary suction volume
bottle.
Lower the Helmholtz response farther away from the
first running order to allow for the future possibility of
single acting compressors.
To achieve these goals, the suction bottle diameter was
increased by 6 in. (152 mm), and the discharge bottle was
lengthened. The choke tube diameters were increased,
where possible, to reduce the pressure drop through
them, and the choke tube entrances were switched to
a bell mouth shape. By improving the effectiveness of
the acoustic filter, the bottle line nozzle orifices were
also eliminated.
Accurate modeling of the cylinder gas passages can
sometimes eliminate the need for a cylinder nozzle orifice,
further reducing horsepower costs. The Dresser-Rand re-
ciprocating compressors have a unique valve-in-piston
(VIP) cylinder design. On the discharge side, compared
to a conventional cylinder, the length from the valve to the
cylinder flange is shorter. This raises the nozzle response
frequency to higher orders where there are typically lower
excitation energies [3]. In this case, there was not enough
energy to produce high amplitude pulsations at the nozzle
response frequency, and no orifice was required in the
discharge bottle nozzle flange. This resulted in a gain of
64 hp (48 kW). Table 3 shows the cost savings of the
612 redesigned pulsation control system. The horsepower

82 Compressortech2
needed for compression at the maximum flow condition
was 3976 hp (2890 kW). This gave the compressor a
PRIME
150 hp (112 kW) available margin and a fuel savings of Movers
2.35 MMBtu/hr (689 kWh). Since the horsepower calcu-
lations in Table 3 are for steady-state flow, it is impor- Galileo
tant that there is extra horsepower available for the total A natural gas vehicle (NGV) fueling station featuring a
losses associated with dynamic flow. Galileo Gigabox natural gas compression system opened in
mid-February in Lake Forest, California.
Installation The 440 hp (328 kW) unit is one of Galileos top-end CNG
The installed pulsation system features large suction compressors, the company said. It features a compression ca-
bottles, which were too heavy for the building crane. pacity of 7.6 gasoline gallon equivalent per minute (GGE/min),
Therefore, a crane had to be rented, and the bridge on a discharge pressure of 4500 psi (310.3 bar) and an internal
the building crane is currently being upgraded so it can storage tank of 250 GGE. According to the company, this is
lift the next bottles. Additionally, slight modifications were the first CNG compressor of its kind in the United States.
made to the skid to make room for the longer discharge Galileo supplied the equipment for the station, which in-
pulsation bottle. cludes a Gigabox compressor with a built-in, single-tower
gas dryer to eliminate gas water content. The company also
Conclusions supplied two, high-speed EMB dispensers.
A well-designed pulsation control system can increase The California Energy Commission and the Mobile Source
the initial installation capital costs, but will end up saving Air Pollution Reduction Review Committee granted funds for
significant horsepower costs during operation. Addition- the project.
ally, it is important to ensure that the pressure drop and
horsepower losses associated with all pulsation control Burckhardt Compression
elements are evaluated and compared to the available Burckhardt Compression has received an order for three
driver horsepower to ensure that maximum capacity can process gas compressor systems ranging from 362 psia
be reached. CT2 (25 bara) to 2276 psia (157 bara), with rated motor power
from 456 hp (340 kW) to 4694 hp (3500 kW). The compres-
References sor systems will be delivered in the third quarter of 2015 to
[1.] Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe, increase capacity at a Canadian refinery complex.
Technical Paper No. 410, Crane Co., Stamford, CT, The process gas compressors are manufactured accord-
1988. ing to API 618, 5th Edition. The product line covers duties
[2.] API 618, Reciprocating Compressors for Petro- requiring a maximum rod load up to 335,000 lb. (151,953 kg)
leum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Amer- and power up to 41,572 hp (31,000 kW).
ican Petroleum Institute (API), Washington, DC, Burckhardt Compression handles reciprocating compres-
1995, p. A-29. sors and specializes in a complete range of reciprocating
[3.] Broerman, E.L., Fierro, F., Hinchliff, M., and McKee, compressor technologies. They are experienced in compres-
R.J., The Effect of Compressor Cylinder Design on sor applications with discharge pressures up to 50,760 psi
Nozzle Pulsations: Field Test Results of the Dresser- (3500 bar) as well as for applications handling gases with
Rand DDV Pipeline Cylinder, GM Journal, Q1, 2009. suction temperatures to -274F (-170C).

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Shinkawa Electric ...................................................................................81
* Dresser-Rand ..........................................................................................49
Sloan Lubrication Systems ....................................................................31
E Instruments International ...................................................................21
STASSKOL GmbH ...................................................................................59
Eastern Gas Compression Roundtable ................................................85

* Elliott Group ........................................................................Second Cover Summit Industrial Products ...................................................................53

* Ellwood Crankshaft Group .....................................................................21 SYNTHOSOL ............................................................................................51

Exline, Inc. ...............................................................................................35 * Tech Transfer Inc. ..................................................................................2-3

Exterran ...................................................................................................29 * Testo, Inc. ................................................................................................37

GE Measurement & Control ...................................................................73 Zahroof Valves Inc. .................................................................................13

Custom
Reprints From

Compressortech2
Perfect For Brochures, Web Attachments
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( just in case they missed it)

Contact Mary Graesing for pricing and details


Phone: 262-754-4147 E-mail: mgraesing@dieselpub.com
Cornerstones Of Compression story continued from page 88

Rated Rod Load Per Throw


Rated Rated Rod Approximate
Stroke
Model Speed Power Throws Tension Compression Diameter Quantity
in. (mm)
rpm hp (kW) lb. (kg) lb. (kg) in. (mm) Produced

CFA-2 1000 200 (149) 2 5.0 (127) 12,000 (5442) -12,000 (-5442) 1.50 (38.1) 207
CFA-4 1000 350 (261) 4 5.0 (127) 12,000 (5442) -12,000 (-5442) 1.50 (38.1) 110
CFB-2 1000 200 (149) 2 5.0 (127) 16,000 (7256) -18,000 (-8163) 1.50 (38.1) 231
CFB-4 1000 350 (261) 4 5.0 (127) 16,000 (7256) -18,000 (-8163) 1.50 (38.1) 156
CFC-4/3 1000 Not available 4 5.5 (140) 38,000 (17,234) -38,000 (-17,234) 2.25 (57.1) 21
CFX-2 1000 Not available 2 5.5 (140) 26,000 (11,791) -26,000 (-11,791) 2.25 (57.1) 6
CFX-4 1000 Not available 4 5.5 (140) 26,000 (11,791) -26,000 (-11,791) 2.25 (57.1) 11
Total Production = 742 units

n Dresser-Clark high-speed separable compressor rating and production summary.

provide a compression system that was lower cost, more 12,000 lb. (5442 kg). Clark offered nine pre-engineered
compact, less weight and more easily packaged than the compressor cylinders for the CFA to cover a range of ap-
heavy, slower-speed integral engine compressors. plications. The largest cylinder had a 15.5 in. (393.7 mm)
CFA stands for compressor, field application. When in- bore diameter with 65 psig (4.5 bar) maximum working
troduced, it was the only compressor that could be directly pressure (MWP), and the smallest had a 3.5 in. (88.9 mm)
coupled to a high-speed engine driver, eliminating the need bore with 1250 psig (86.2 bar) MWP. Metallic compressor
for gear and belt drives. The units were skid-mounted piston rod packing was used, because the development
and were supplied for use in gas lifting, gas boosting, of Teflon packing materials was some years away.
re-pressurizing, pressure maintenance, field gas gathering Specifications indicate that it was a well-engineered ma-
and pipeline testing. Early brochures described the CFA chine, with features that ensured reliability, but probably
package as a completely self-contained compressor sta- made it more costly to manufacture than some of the com-
tion, and it came complete with foundation bolts, special petitive machines that would soon emerge. The crankcase
tools and barring device, piping and foundation plans, in- was cast semi-steel. Crankshafts, connecting rods and
struction books, parts lists, and two days of free erection crosshead pins were forged steel. The gear-type main lube
and superintendent time. oil pump and force-feed cylinder lube pumps were mounted
The two-throw CFA-2 was the first model introduced. on and driven by the frame.
Early brochures list packages in eight power sizes cover- Although some operators initially expressed doubts about
ing the 100 to 200 hp (75 to 150 kW) range. Compressor, a gas compressor running at such a high speed, the con-
engine and a radiator that handled cooling services for the cept was soon embraced overwhelmingly by the industry.
engine and compressor were mounted on a skid along with Clark soon had many competitors. In fact, Ingersoll-Rand
other necessary auxiliaries, such as scrubbers, making it a introduced a 5 in. (127 mm) stroke HHE compressor later
completely self-contained compressor package. Packages in 1957 that was the forerunner of the RD series. Cooper-
were built in-house or through Clark subsidiaries. These Bessemer introduced the AM frame in 1959. In 1960, White
single and two-stage machines proved to be an excellent Superior introduced a 6 in. (152 mm) stroke W6 compres-
choice for applications where the gas from a few wells had sor that matched its 900 rpm gas engines. Worthington, Chi-
to be gathered to permit well production. Clark bulletins cago Pneumatic, Joy and others soon joined the competition.
said, with the introduction of the CFA-2, operators have a Meanwhile, Clark expanded its line with higher rod load CFB,
modern compressor to handle the moderate-sized applica- and then even higher rated 5.5 in. (140 mm) stroke, 1000 rpm
tions, yet one possessing the built-in dependability usually CFC and CFX models.
found only in the larger machines. As the 1960s progressed, the dominant position of the
A four-throw CFA-4, rated at 350 hp (261 kW), followed. integral gas engine compressors was being seriously chal-
Both the CFA-2 and CFA-4 engine-driven packages were lenged by these high-speed separable compressor pack-
8.0 ft. (2.4 m) wide, enabling them to be shipped on a stan- ages. Clark built 742 high-speed separable compressors,
dard trailer. The CFA-2 package was 15.5 ft. (4.7 m) long but heavy iron manufacturers such as Clark and Cooper-
by 7.5 ft. (2.3 m) high and the CFA-4 was 22 ft. (6.7 m) long Bessemer found it difficult to produce these smaller com-
by 11.5 ft. (3.5 m) high. pressors profitably, exiting the manufacturing of them by
The CFA frames had a 5 in. (127 mm) stroke with rated the early 1980s. Other companies more than picked up
speeds of 1000 rpm for engine drives and 900 rpm for elec- the slack, however, as high-speed separable frames have
tric motor drives. The compressors had 1.50 in. (38.1 mm) dominated the reciprocating compressor industry ever
diameter piston rods with a maximum pin (rod) load of since, with now thousands produced every year. CT2

APRIL 2015 87 Compressortech2


C ornerstones Of Compression

n In 1957, Dresser-Clark pioneered the first 1000 rpm


balance-opposed separable compressor, the CFA. Matched
to a 1000 rpm speed industrial gas engine (e.g., Climax,
Waukesha and Roiline), the CFA package was advertised as
a completely self-contained compressor station.

A Revolutionary Concept In Natural Gas


Compression > Clark Brothers Co. pioneered the first high-
speed separable gas compressor
By Norm Shade

A
s the need emerged for smaller, portable compres- timber machinery. After a fire completely destroyed the
sor units that could be quickly installed at producing Belmont plant in 1912, the company built a new plant in
fields in remote locations, manufacturers developed Olean, New York, which was the beginning of the present
smaller, higher-speed versions of their reliable integral en- Dresser-Rand facility.
gine compressors. These smaller units were packaged on Clark became a producer of steam engines, and then in-
a steel skid with cooler, auxiliary equipment and intercon- ternal combustion engines. Around 1935, it introduced the
necting piping and wiring. Clark Brothers Co. led the way model RA, its first right-angle integral engine compressor.
with this concept, introducing the MA (midget angle) inte- In 1938, Clark merged with the S.R. Dresser Manufacturing
gral inline engine compressor in 1945. Cooper-Bessemer Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania. In 1956, the succes-
followed with the GMX (half-sized GMV) in 1946 and Ingersoll- sor company was incorporated as Dresser Industries.
Rand with the JVG (junior XVG) in 1947, both integral vee In 1957, Dresser-Clark pioneered the first 1000 rpm
engine compressors. balance-opposed separable compressor, the CFA. The
A little more than a decade later, Clark would again separable compressor concept was not new, but what was
lead the way with the introduction of a new compressor new, was the realization that by going to shorter 5 to 6 in.
configuration that would begin the demise of the inte- (127 to 152 mm) strokes, it would be possible to match
grals. Clark Brothers Co. was incorporated in Belmont, the 1000 rpm speed of several proven industrial gas en-
New York, in 1880 as a manufacturer of agricultural and gines (e.g., Climax, Waukesha and Roiline). This would

APRIL 2015 88 Compressortech2


G3304 NA G3306B TA KTA19 VRG 330
G3304B NA G3306 TAA G8.3 VRG 330-CF (Coming Soon)
G3306 NA G3306B TAA G5.9 (Coming Soon)
G3306B NA G3406 NA
G3306 TA G3406 TA

With an extensive list of engines already mapped, even more


are on the way. Install Murphys turnkey Engine Integration
Control System on your engine for a productive year of
increased performance.
Visit us at:
Tell us what engine you want mapped next. Booth PQ-3
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Go to: www.fwmurphy.com/MapMyEngine Moody Gardens Hotel & Convention Center

to add it to our list


03 -15

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