2012 PTQ q3

SPECIAL FEATURES
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

ROTATING EQUIPMENT
REFINING
GAS PROCESSING
PETROCHEMICALS
PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY QUARTERLY
ptq
Q3 2012
cover and spine copy 12.indd 1 2/6/12 11:21:35
Are you looking to step up plant performance?
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Using the original BRIM technology Topse has developed several new catalysts, resulting
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The next generation BRIM catalysts display
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haldor.indd 1 1/6/12 11:37:31
2012. The entire content of this publication is protected by copyright full details of which are available from the publishers. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
The opinions and views expressed by the authors in this publication are not necessarily those of the editor or publisher and while every care
has been taken in the preparation of all material included in Petroleum Technology Quarterly the publisher cannot be held responsible for any
statements, opinions or views or for any inaccuracies.
3 Heavy concerns
Chris Cunningham

5 ptq&a

17 Process and catalysis factors to maximise propylene output
Takuya Amano, Jack Wilcox and Carel Pouwels Albemarle Corporation
Takakazu Matsuura Taiyo Oil Co
29 Challenges and opportunities of 10 ppm sulphur gasoline: part 1
Delphine Largeteau, Jay Ross, Marc Laborde and Larry Wisdom Axens
39 Natural gas fuels the integration of refning and petrochemicals
Tanmay Taraphdar, Praveen Yadav and M K E Prasad Technip KT India
49 Offine tools for on-site control implementation
Ken Allsford, Bhaskar Iyer and Aric Tomlins
Advanced Solutions, Honeywell International
57 APC2: aligning people with control
Raymond Coker BP Texas City refnery
65 Alarm foods and plant incidents
Dustin Beebe, Steve Ferrer and Darwin Logerot ProSys Inc
75 Minimise corrosion while maximising distillate
Brandon Payne GE Water & Process Technologies
83 Reliable design of sour water strippers
Nathan Hatcher and Ralph Weiland Optimized Gas Treating
93 Monitoring and treatment to maximise light cycle oil
Greg Savage Nalco

101 Monitoring and diagnostics for reciprocating compressors
Jost-A Anderhub Prognost Systems
105 Catalyst stripper improves FCC unit performance
Rama Rao Marri and Dalip Soni Lummus Technology, a CB&I Company
109 Gasifying coke to produce hydrogen in refneries
Tek Sutikno and Kevin Turini Fluor Enterprises
115 High-quality products from heavy sour crudes
Maria Aldescu KBC Advanced Technologies
123 Removing fnes from gas scrubbing liquids
Barry Perlmutter BHS-Filtration
130 Achema 2012
134 Industry News
BPs Texas City refnery. See p57 for our article on aligning people to advanced process control projects. Photo BP
Q3 (Jul, Aug, Sep) 2012
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Y L R E T R A U Q Y G O L O N H C E T M U E L O R T E P

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What i s
Next Gen Per f ormance
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N extG en Performance is optimising each and every opportunity. Its
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Its the result of two parties you and KBC working in a side-by-side
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m ost signifcant challenges.
kbc.indd 1 7/3/12 13:58:03
T
he European Union has arguably
been the global leader in biodiesel
production and use, with overall
biodiesel production increasing from 1.9
million tonnes in 2004 to nearly 10.3 million
tonnes in 2007. Biodiesel production in the
US has also increased dramatically in the
past few years from 2 million gallons in
2000 to approximately 450 million gallons
in 2007. According to the National Biodiesel
Board, 171 companies own biodiesel
manufacturing plants and are actively
marketing biodiesel.1. The global biodiesel
market is estimated to reach 37 billion
gallons by 2016, with an average annual
growth rate of 42%. Europe will continue to
be the major biodiesel market for the next
decade, followed closely by the US market.
Although high energy prices,
increasing global demand, drought
and other factors are the primary
drivers for higher food prices, food
competitive feedstocks have long
been and will continue to be a major
concern for the development of biofu-
els. To compete, the industry has
responded by developing methods to
increase process effciency, utilise or
upgrade by-products and operate
with lower quality lipids as
feedstocks.
Feedstocks
Biodiesel refers to a diesel-equivalent
fuel consisting of short-chain alkyl
(methyl or ethyl) esters, made by the
transesterifcation of triglycerides,
commonly known as vegetable oils or
animal fats. The most common form
uses methanol, the cheapest alcohol
available, to produce methyl esters.
The molecules in biodiesel are pri-
marily fatty acid methyl esters
(FAME), usually created by trans-
esterifcation between fats and metha-
nol. Currently, biodiesel is produced
from various vegetable and plant oils.
First-generation food-based feedstocks
are straight vegetable oils such as
soybean oil and animal fats such as
tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat
and the by-products of the production
of Omega-3 fatty acids from fsh oil.
Soybean oil and rapeseeds oil are the
common source for biodiesel produc-
tion in the US and Europe in quanti-
ties that can produce enough biodie-
sel to be used in a commercial market
with currently applicable
PTQ Q3 2012 3
Editor
Chris Cunningham
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ISSN 1362-363X

Petroleum Technology Quarterly (USPS 0014-781)
is published quarterly plus annual Catalysis edition
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Vol 17 No 4
Q3 (J ul, Aug, Sep) 2012
Heavy concerns
A
t the end of May, Motiva Enterprises Baytown, Texas, plant took over top
spot as the USs largest throughput refnery as it approached its nameplate
600 000 b/d capacity. The extra throughput arrives chiefy courtesy of a
new crude distillation unit and associated equipment. Up to fve years ago,
the announcement would have been a signifcant step towards making up the
defcit in refning output to meet domestic demand for automotive fuels.
How times change. Completion of the Baytown revamp, which was not
always certain to happen, will enable the Motiva site to become the exporter
of a reported 100 000 b/d of fuels. Baytowns established role is in refning
medium sour crudes, but the upgrade will enable the refnery to also process
heavier crudes as well as lighter, sweeter domestic supplies. In due course,
however, Motiva and its neighbours with upgrading plans, may have to ask
themselves where is the heavy stuff coming from.
In a presentation to Euro Petroleum Consultants International Bottom of
the Barrel Technology conference in Rome during May, consultant Wood
Mackenzie outlined the prospects for heavy crude and residue upgrading in
particularly complex circumstances. Planned upgrading projects across the
globe are mushrooming. Slated coker projects alone amount to more than 1.8
million b/d of capacity. Such is the growth in demand for upgrading, in fact,
that potential demand outstrips current levels of supply.
For instance, US refneries are potentially short of reliable sources of heavy
material to keep their upgrading units at preferred rates of utilisation. Latin
America is the current leader among suppliers of heavy stocks to the US.
However, the regions plans to raise its own upgrading capacity mean that
northbound exports are unlikely to grow signifcantly enough to meet North
American demand.
Initially, and reasonably enough for a site co-owned by Aramco, Baytowns
heavy sour crude supplies will be sourced from Saudi Arabia. But complica-
tions arise here as well. Saudi Arabia and other Middle Eastern oil-producing
states have long-held ambitions to be major exporters of quality oil products,
ambitions they are actively pursuing. Added to that, Saudi Arabia in particu-
lar has a global line-up of customers for its heavy output, in particular China,
which will be nursing by far the biggest schedule of upgrading projects for
the foreseeable future.
Refning eyes along the US Gulf Coast must therefore turn northwards
towards Canada. The impact of supplies of Canadian oil sands production
in its various diluted and upgraded forms on other refning regions is
plain to see. Mid-Western refneries, with their easier access to Canadian sup-
plies, have enjoyed higher margins than their Gulf Coast counterparts. East
Coast refneries, without access to Canadian supplies or even a share of the
currently booming output of lighter domestic supplies, and therefore com-
mitted to premium-priced crude inputs, are in disarray.
For the time being, the closing price differential between heavy sour
imports and lighter sweeter shale oil supplies may be keeping the pressure
off, but in due course refners like Motiva may want a high level of certainty
about how to keep their secondary units ticking over. The sooner the
Keystone XL pipeline is in place to bring in Canadian crude, the better their
options will be.
CHRIS CUNNINGHAM
p
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Y L R E T R A U Q Y G O L O N H C E T M U E L O R T E P
contents/ed com copy 15.indt 2 2/6/12 16:58:47
www.CRITERIONCatalysts.com
My hobbies? Fishing, downhill skiing, and
inventing breakthrough catalysts.
Father of three sons and ten patents, Alexei Gabrielov would love nothing more than to ideate and invent
all day long. And after 16 years of active research in catalysis working with CRITERION and Shell, Alexei
has done his fair share of both. He helped bring to life a new generation of catalysts technologies including
CENTINEL GOLD and CENTERA
. Recently, Alexei and his colleagues invented and developed a new

state-of-the-art nickel-moly FCC pretreat catalyst, Criterions CENTERA
DN-3651.
A DN-3651 technical paper will be presented at the 244th American Chemical Society (ACS) meeting in August 2012.
Leading minds. Advanced technologies.
Meet Alexei Gabrielov:
Outdoor Enthusiast, CRITERION Scientist.
criterion.indd 1 1/6/12 11:33:38
Q
Which would you say is the preferred scheme for enhanced
distillate production: increase diesel yield from FCC pretreat
in mild hydrocracking mode; or extend the endpoint of the
feed to a diesel unit and convert the heavy fraction?
A
Stefano Melis, Senior Hydroprocessing Specialist,
Albemarle Corporation, Stefano.Melis@albemarle.com
It is extremely diffcult to provide recommendations on
this subject. Indeed, the choice strongly depends upon
the confguration of the refnery and on the characteris-
tics of the available FCC pretreat and diesel units, with
particular reference to unit volume and hydrogen
partial pressure.
In general, upgrade of FCC pretreat to mild hydro-
cracking seems to be the easiest solution. Such an
option simply corresponds to an increase in operation
severity, where average conversion levels around 20%
are achieved at the expense of cycle length. Higher
conversion levels (in the order of 30%) might also be
achieved, but this can be done only in units with suff-
cient pressure (for instance, 100 bar) and would likely
also require signifcant throughput reduction or invest-
ment in additional reactor volume.
On the other hand, extending the end point of the
diesel feed requires much more attention. A typical
diesel unit provides a T95 boiling point shift of around
5C. High-pressure operations combined with highly
active hydrogenation catalyst can raise the T95 shift to
10-15C, but the conversion of the heavy fraction also
requires a signifcant increase in operating severity
(because of the nature and the amount of sulphur and
nitrogen present in the heavy fraction). Processing of
even heavier diesel (requiring a >15C boiling point
shift) is also possible, but requires the use of cracking
catalysts at the bottom of the reactor and shifting the
operation from hydrotreatment to HGO/LVGO hydro-
cracking. This solution can be done only in units that are
equipped with a suitable quenching system and will
also require a reduction in throughput and cycle length.
Since the fnal objective is obviously margin improve-
ment, the choice between the two potential solutions
depends on the net increase of diesel yield compared
to the increased costs associated with production loss
(from lower throughput reduction and/or increased
turnarounds/downtime, for example), increased cata-
lyst expense and increased hydrogen consumption. Of
course, capital expenditure must also be taken into
account for those scenarios requiring a unit revamp.
Finally, in addition to the hydroprocessing economic
factors described above, the refner must estimate the
effects these hydrotreating options will have on FCC
unit operations, yields and product qualities in order
to project the overall refnery impacts.
Q
Is there a control option that will ensure the right oxygen
feed to our sulphur recovery unit in all operating conditions
upstream of the unit, and so avoid emissions peaks?
A
Eric Roisin, Sulfur Recovery Technical Manager, Axens,
Eric.Roisin@Axens.com
I would recommend you contact the suppliers of detec-
tors to inquire if their acid gas detectors are able to
quantify both sulphur and hydrocarbons species. I know
ABB and Ametek do supply such pieces of equipment.
The integration of such equipment within the SRU
control can also be done by engineering companies that
revamp existing units. I have heard about the success
story of Suncors Simonette gas plant in Canada, the
control system of which was revamped by Jacobs.
Q
What is the best approach with current catalyst systems
for shifting between maximum gasoline and maximum diesel
from the FCC unit: catalyst change-out or a blending option?
A
Yen Yung, Global Technical Specialist, Albemarle
Corporation, Yen.Yung @albemarle.com
Shifting between maximum gasoline mode and maxi-
mum diesel in the FCC unit is very unit specifc. The
main determining factors include the time needed for a
catalyst change-out, maximum regenerator temperature
and wet gas capacity.
Albemarle has a full line of MD catalysts (for instance,
Amber MD for gas oil feedstocks and Upgrader MD for
residual feedstocks) featuring high accessibility and
bottoms conversion for maximising diesel production.
Albemarle has also developed catalysts for maximum
gasoline yield and high bottoms conversion. These cata-
lysts include Go-Ultra for gas oil feedstocks, and
Upgrader and Coral SMR for residual feedstocks.
When maximum fexibility is required, our bottoms
conversion additive, referred to as BCMT-MD, is
recommended for a multitude of feedstock types. This
provides an immediate mechanism for boosting
bottoms cracking and increasing the yield of middle
distillates. This is accomplished by increasing the equil-
ibrated accessibility index of the base catalyst and
providing additional bottoms cracking power and
selectivity towards diesel. Rather than waiting weeks
or months, the selectivity towards diesel can be quickly
accomplished by using BCMT-MD.
www.eptq.com PTQ Q3 2012 5
ptq&a
Additional Q&A can be found at www.eptq.com/QandA
Q&A copy 11.indd 1 2/6/12 17:25:43
A
Jason Smith, BASF Refning Additives Manager, Jason.
k.smith@basf.com
Rapid changes in fuels supply and demand can move
the relative pricing of a refners products quickly. As a
result, a refner may fnd themselves with a non-
optimal catalyst and non-optimal unit performance.
Operational changes can be made, but will only result
in incremental performance changes. For high turnover
units, changes in catalyst formulation might be able to
keep up these rapidly changing product goals.
However, most units would be more likely to beneft
from the use of co-catalysts offered by BASF.
Co-catalysts are a standalone product category
providing the refner with the fexibility to change the
product slate of the FCC without changing the FCC
catalyst. These products are added at rates of 10-40%
of the catalyst feed and fundamentally change the
performance of the FCC unit in a short period of time.
LCO production could be increased through opera-
tional changes: decreased riser outlet temperature,
decreased catalyst activity, increased feed preheat and
increased HCO recycle. However, these changes do not
necessarily improve the proftability of the FCC due to
the resultant increase in bottoms product and loss of
product volume. Only a change in catalytic performance
can defnitely increase FCC proftability for LCO maxi-
misation. Changing the catalytic performance allows for
increased LCO selectivity lower bottoms make and
can maintain proftable product volume and value. A
catalyst reformulation could provide this change in cata-
lytic performance, but this takes too long to capture the
advantage of the rapidly changing economics.
Similarly, gasoline production can be infuenced
quickly and most effectively using a maximum conver-
sion co-catalyst as opposed to operational adjustments
and base catalyst changes. Gasoline yield is maximised
while maintaining high throughput and coke selectivity.
In one commercial example, HD Ultra, BASFs maxi-
mum LCO co-catalyst, replaced 30% of the catalyst
feed, increasing matrix activity and stability. The resul-
tant product slate saw a 2% increase in LCO and a 2%
reduction in slurry. In another commercial example,
Converter, BASFs maximum gasoline co-catalyst,
replaced 20% of the catalyst feed. Slurry oil decreased
by 4.5%, while conversion jumped by 5.2%, gasoline
grew by 3.5% and LPG increased by 2.1%. Co-catalysts
quickly changed the product slate at these refneries to
maximise proftability. Further examples can be found
in the 2010 NPRA paper AM-10-110: Co-catalysts Provide
Refners with FCC Operational Flexibility.
While operational changes are quick, they have
limited ability to change unit performance and may
have undesirable trade-offs. Base catalyst formulation
can provide fundamental unit performance changes,
but they often take too long to be of use in a changing
market. Usage of either a maximum gasoline co-
catalyst or a maximum LCO co-catalyst allows refners
to rapidly change unit performance and capture the
most favourable economics at all times, maximising
FCC proftability.
Q
We are targeting maximum propylene production from
the FCC unit for obvious economic reasons, but are there any
negative effects of this policy on the quality of other product
streams?
A
Eric Roisin, Sulfur Recovery Technical Manager, Axens,
Eric.Roisin@Axens.com
When increasing the propylene yield, the gasoline
production will reduce. The gasoline properties will
change as follows:
Olefn content will stay relatively constant
Aromatic content will increase signifcantly and
could be a constraint in the gasoline pool
RON will increase; with conventional maximum
gasoline operation, FCC gasoline will reach around 92
RON. When the propylene yield is at 10 wt%, 94-95 is
very common. As a consequence, the gasoline pool will
require less reformate or lower severity reformate. It
will have a positive effect on the aromatic content in
the pool and could compensate the additional aroma-
ticity of the FCC gasoline
RVP will increase slightly because the content of C
5
in the gasoline will increase.
In order to address the last point on RVP, Axens
advises considering adding a TAME unit or an oligom-
erisation unit on the C
5
cut downstream Prime-G+ frst
step, which constitutes an ideal feed pretreatment
6 PTQ Q3 2012 www.eptq.com
MINIVAP ON- LINE
P h o n e +4 3 1 2 8 2 1 6 2 7 -0 | F a x +4 3 1 2 8 0 7 3 3 4
i n fo . g ra b n e r-i n s tru m e n t s @ a m e te k . a t | w w w. g ra b n e r-i n s tru m e n t s . co m
VAPOR PRESSURE
PROCESS ANALYZER
VP o f G a so li n e , C ru d e O i l a n d L P G
Acco rd i n g to S ta n d a rd s
R VP , D VP , T VP a n d V/L = 2 0
H i g h e st P re ci si o n
U p to 2 S a m p le S tre a m s
Ad ju sta b le Te m p e ra tu re
R a n g e : 2 0 -6 0 C
Ad ju sta b le V/L R a ti o
Au to m a ti c C a li b ra ti o n
F a st a n d E a s y M a i n te n a n ce
Au to m a ti c L u b ri ca ti o n
MINIVAP ON-LINE.indd 1 29.02.2012 13:19:08
Q&A copy 11.indd 2 1/6/12 12:56:11
cbi.indd 1 1/6/12 12:08:30
before etherifcation. A TAME unit is an opportunity to
reach a higher RON pool. Oligomerisation of C
5
into
distillate (PolyFuel process) is an opportunity to switch
gasoline into diesel, particularly in Europe, where
refners face surplus gasoline production.
Q
What arrangement of trays and packing designs will
give me the best effciency of fractionation in my crude and
vacuum distillation units?
A
Celso Pajaro, Manager of Refnery Applications, Sulzer
Chemtech USA, Celso.Pajaro@sulzer.com
There is no specifc arrangement of packing and trays
for getting the best effciency of fractionation. The choice
in column internals is a function of the type of crude
being processed and the column diameter available.
Structured packing has been used in every section of
crude columns, often to substantially increase effciency.
In many cases, the effciency within a given section can
be increased by two to three theoretical stages each.
However, its use in the top section can be a challenge
with particularly corrosive crudes. Monel and AL6XN
materials have been used successfully in these applica-
tions, but care needs to be taken to properly match the
correct material with the level and type of corrosivity.
In such corrosive sections, trays have an innate
advantage due to their higher thickness. Some heavy,
high-sulphur crudes also have issues with chloride salt
deposition, which can plug packing and trays, so
specially designed fouling-resistant trays such as
Sulzers VG AF have been used to increase column run
length and maintain tray performance.
If corrosion is not an issue, entrainment-resistant
trays, such as Sulzers Umbrella Floating Mini (UFM)
valve trays will give the highest effciency over the
widest operating range. The downward vapour fow
from these valves improves mixing at the tray deck
level and minimises entrainment, maintaining the high-
est possible effciency from turndown to full capacity.
For the kero through diesel fractionation sections, the
UFM valve trays are the best economical option. Also,
structured packing can be used to improve diesel-
AGO fractionation.
The wash oil section is characterised by low liquid
rates coupled with high vapour rates. This is ideal for
structured packings. With its high effciency, a well-
designed structured packing wash section can produce
high yields of high-quality AGO under a wide variety
of conditions. Sulzer MellapakPlus high-performance
structured packing provides a high combination of eff-
ciency and capacity.
The stripping section is typically designed with trays
with a variable open area to maximise their effciency.
Structured packing has been used in this section with
some success; its low pressure drop allows for better
stripping. However, plugging has been experienced
with some diffcult crude types.
For vacuum columns, structured packing is the clear
choice due to its lower pressure drop that allows mini-
mum pressure at the fash zone and maximum feed
vapourisation. For columns with a steam stripping
section, trays are the typical solution, although struc-
tured packing has also been used due to the lower
pressure drop that maximises stripping. There are
several vacuum columns successfully operating with
structured packing in their stripping section. As is the
case with crude columns, structured packing can be
subject to fouling when processing diffcult crudes.
Q
Is there a case for hydrogen production via coke
gasifcation over steam methane reforming?
A
Girish K Chitnis, Licensing Director, Technology Sales
and Licensing, ExxonMobil Research and Engineering
Company, girish.k.chitnis@exxonmobil.com
Hydrogen demand in modern refneries continues to
increase, with additional hydrotreating and hydro-
cracking units being deployed to meet the various
clean fuels mandates and product demands with
heavier crudes and additional conversion capacity.
Historically in low-conversion refneries, byproduct
hydrogen from catalytic reforming of naphtha for motor
gasoline production was principally used to meet hydro-
gen demand. Although catalytic reforming technology
has advanced over the years, resulting in increased
hydrogen yield due to lower operating
pressures,
1,2
it does not produce enough hydrogen to
want to keep the FCC at full feed rate. An option would be to
add partial conversion hydrocracking before the FCC. The
feed rate to the hydrocracker (HC) can be fixed so that the
FCC can be kept full, but there is substantial additional diesel
produced. Of course, some additional VGO is required, either
purchased or through additional crude runs.
The pressure of the partial-conversion HC needs to be
optimised. A high-pressure unit will be able to make ultra-
low-sulphur diesel (ULSD) directly. However, capital cost is
high. A less capital-intensive option is to use a lower-pressure
HC, with some additional post-treat of the diesel integrated
with the HC. If there are other difficult diesel stocks that need
to be treated in the refinery, such as FCC light cycle oil (LCO),
it may also be possible to economically utilise the post-treat
unit for them.
With regard to FCC LCO, this stream is an inferior
potential diesel component with its low cetane value, even
after hydrotreating. Partial hydrocracking of LCO (at
moderate pressure) can be considered to upgrade the
material. While some diesel molecules will be lost to lighter
material, the diesel retained is upgraded to a higher-quality
diesel blending stock.
What are some of the most attractive isomerisation

configurations and catalysts available to meet the
growing demand for light paraffin isomerisation? What
can be done to lower the equipment cost, such as the
recycle hydrogen compressor?
Bruno Domergue, product line manager, Axens, bruno.

domergue@axens.net: Gasoline specifications are getting
tighter when it comes to octane, sulphur, olefins and
aromatics, which is why interest in isomerisation will grow
accordingly. With its octane number up to 25 numbers higher
than the C
5
/C
6
cut and the total absence of sulphur, benzene
and olefins, isomerate is the ideal gasoline blendstock. From
a processing scheme standpoint, several isomerisation
options are available, which include the once-through (the
most simple) and the deisohexaniser recycle (the current
favourite), ranging up to complete iso-normal paraffins
separation and recycle (a must in the near future for some
geographic areas). Of the various types of catalyst available,
chlorinated alumina is the most profitable because it gives
the highest possible RON, being by far the most active
catalyst. It also has the lowest operating and investment
costs, owing to low operating temperatures, low recycle flows
(for recycle units) and no need for a recycle compressor.
Margaret Stine, marketing manager, process technology &
equipment refining market, UOP LLC, margaret.stine@
uop.com: The UOP Penex and Par-Isom processes are the
most common processes chosen to meet the worldwide needs
for light paraffin isomerisation. Penex uses the aluminum
chlorided catalysts I-8 Plus and I-82. The UOP catalysts
process all feedstocks, including those with high C
7
hydrocarbons or benzene content. Penex is frequently
coupled with deisopentaising and/or deisohexanising to
reach high isomerate product octane. The process is very
efficient and does not require a recycle compressor.
Par-Isom has been widely accepted as the best means of
converting an idle process unit, such as a fixed-bed reforming
unit, to light paraffin isomerisation. Little capital investment
is required, because the idle reforming unit contains all the
major equipment required for Par-Isom operation. No
additional feed treatment equipment is necessary beyond
typical hydrotreating. The newest Par-Isom catalyst, PI-242, is
the highest-activity non-chlorided catalyst available on the
market today. It is contaminant-tolerant and can recover
from water or sulphur upsets.
Stephan Zuijdendorp, technical sales manager,
isomerisation, Albemarle Catalyst Company BV, stephan.
zuijdendorp@albemarle.com: With the latest generation of
chlorinated alumina isomerisation catalysts, refiners save on
platinum investments and gain from long lifecycles and
high conversion. Albemarle delivers such catalysts with the
ATIS range. In units of IFP-Axens and ABB Lummus Global
design, and others, ATIS-1L and ATIS-2L bring such
improvements, which finally result in a significant cost
reduction. Depending on the conditions per unit, a technical
and economic evaluation will show if revamping from
hydrogen recycle to hydrogen once-through will be of
interest. The lower conversion in the liquid phase might be
compensated by more active catalysts and reduced yield loss
by cracking.
With the growing demand for isobutane as an

octane-enhancing refinery feedstock, as well as a
feedstock for the petrochemical route to propylene oxide,
what opportunities are available for increasing the
capacity and efficiency of existing deisobutanisers
similar to Figure 1?
QUES TI ONS & ANS WERS

PTQ Q2 2006
18
Kidextractor
Quarter page
After you have used
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Kid Extractor will
become your trusty
hydraulic-tube-
bundle-extractor
KI DExtr actor Ltd.
P.O. Box 11, Zebbug
MALTA
Tel . 00356- 21- 462891
Fax. 00356- 21- 462755
MOBILE:00356-94-20596
E-mail:idrojet@videobank.it
Website:www.kidextractor.com
Of the various types of catalyst available,
chlorinated alumina is the most profitable
because it gives the highest possible RON,
being by far the most active catalyst
ENQUIRY NO 214
www.ptqenquiry.com
PTQ&A copy 1 8/3/06 21:12 Page 3
Q&A copy 11.indd 3 1/6/12 12:56:32
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ICR 512
ICR 180
ICR 185
ICR 250
ISOCRACKING
VGO
clean transportation fuels
ultra-low sulfur diesel (<5 ppm)
high smoke point jet (25-30 mm)
Ultra-low sulfur naphtha (<0.5 ppm)
FCC feed
clg.indd 1 23/2/12 11:55:22
meet the needs of a modern refnery,
and other larger sources are needed.
The catalytic steam methane
reforming (SMR) process, frequently
used in refnery hydrogen plants,
can produce large quantities of
hydrogen and, today, typically meets
50+% of the hydrogen demand. In
SMR, light hydrocarbons such as
methane are reacted with steam at
high temperatures and moderate
pressures (>800C and 20-30 bar)
over nickel catalysts to form H
2
and
CO. Natural gas is the preferred feed
to the SMR units. The H
2
-to-CO ratio
is theoretically 3:1 using natural gas,
and drops to 2:1 using less hydro-
gen-rich feedstocks such as refnery
fuel gas. Liquid feeds such as LPG
and naphtha can also be considered.
In all cases, the choice of primary
and backup feedstock is driven by
availability, pricing and pretreatment
requirements. Shift convertors are
used to shift CO to produce more
H
2
. Older SMR plants typically
contained a wet scrubber and a
methanator to produce a 97% purity
hydrogen stream. Newer SMR units
employ pressure swing adsorption
and can deliver 99.9+% purity
hydrogen. SMR remains the base
case against which all other options
need to be weighed.
Hydrogen produced from on-
purpose gasifcation or non-catalytic
partial oxidation (POX) is not yet
widespread for refnery applications
and is believed to meet less than 5%
of total worldwide demand.
1
POX
units have been traditionally
commissioned to provide syngas as
a feedstock for petrochemicals. The
POX feed can be resid, petcoke,
deasphalter bottoms or coal. The
POX operating conditions are signif-
icantly more severe (>1150C and
25-80 bar) than for SMR. As a conse-
quence, the gasifer capital costs can
be high and the cycle length can be
low, typically only a few months.
The short cycle length can be
addressed by adding spare gasifers,
but this adds to the capital invest-
ment. An air separation unit is
typically added to provide the
oxygen to the POX unit, which adds
yet more investment, unless oxygen
can be purchased from a nearby
supplier. Disposal of slag can be a
challenge when processing resid-
derived streams or coal as feedstock.
Syngas from POX units typically is
treated to remove acid gases (H
2
S
and CO
2
) and shifted (sweet shift),
similar to an SMR plant before
hydrogen purifcation. The sequence
can also be reversed, involving COS
removal frst, then sour shift and
acid gas removal before hydrogen
purifcation.
1,2
In most cases, the
hydrogen produced by POX is likely
to be much more expensive than
SMR, unless natural gas or other
suitable feedstocks are either not
available or very expensive.
A case for POX over SMR is likely
to be limited to niche situations
where the natural gas availability/
pricing, coupled with petcoke
disposal, become signifcant chal-
lenges. A further limitation would
be the huge hydrogen quantities
produced by the POX units. A 3000
t/d (wet basis) petcoke gasifer can
produce 200 MMSCFD (20 t/h) of
hydrogen.
1
The petcoke demand
translates to 2400 t/d on a dry basis,
assuming 18% moisture. A 45 000 b/
d delayed coking unit processing a
27% CCR vacuum resid is deemed
adequate to supply the required
petcoke quantities. Hydrogen avail-
ability for US refneries in 2008 was
reported to vary between 400 and
1100 SCF/b; the lower fgure is for
the rest of the US and the higher
fgure is for California,
1
translating
to a 80-220 MMSFCD hydrogen
demand for a 200 000 b/d refnery.
Naphtha reforming was reported to
account for only 10% of the
California supply, whereas the
percentage is much higher (50% in
the rest of US). Thus, outside
California, standard POX plants will
generally be too big for refneries
seeking only to bridge the defcit in
hydrogen supply.
Hydrogen extracted from the
Flexicoking process may be an
attractive option to investigate in
some situations. Flexicoking is a
commercially proven, continuous
fuid bed technology with integrated
steam and air gasifcation that ther-
mally converts heavy oils such as
vacuum resid to lighter, more valu-
able products and gasifes the coke
to provide low-cost and abundant
fuel gas as a natural gas substitute.
3

This CO/H
2
fuel gas is referred to as
separate the various components, to
allow species identication in the
atomic emission detector. The
system would also require periodic
calibration with appropriate calibra-
tion gas mixtures.
Su|phur-containing mo|ecu|es
The benet of these techniques is
that they can identify some of the
sulphur-containing molecules, such
as carbonyl sulphide, methyl
mercaptan or ethyl mercaptan, in
order to understand where the vari-
ous sulphur compounds originate
from. This is useful for crude oil
rening and equally relevant to
natural gas processing.
In addition to sulphuric acid as
the key component of acid rain,
other environmentally hazardous
sulphur components produced as a
result of crude oil processing
include H
2
S and carbonyl sulphide,
both highly corrosive and toxic
chemical compounds.
Environmental authorities such as
the EPA have applied stringent
regulations governing hazardous
emissions from industries such as
oil reneries and this, in turn, has
placed a heavy emphasis on accu-
rately measuring the sulphur
content of emissions.
To this end, among other meas-
urement techniques, reneries have
installed continuous emission moni-
toring systems (CEMS) in plant
stacks to measure emissions from
exhaust streams on a continuous
basis.
To be able to trust the values of
these analysers, very accurate cali-
bration gas mixtures are required.
In this realm, Linde supplies tracea-
ble calibration mixtures for
measuring sulphur compounds in
petrochemical renery stacks.
Verication programme
In 2010, the EPA, in cooperation
with the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST),
conducted a blind audit of EPA
Protocol gases used to calibrate
CEMS and the instruments used in
EPA reference methods. These
gases and the associated quality
assurance/quality control checks
help to ensure the quality of the
emission data the EPA uses to
www.eptq.com 53
assess achievement of emission
reductions required under the
Clean Air Act.
This verication programme eval-
uated Linde in regard to how
accurately its products measured
SO
2
, nitrogen oxide and carbon
dioxide. Lindes US production site,
at Alpha New Jersey, passed the
audit with zero failures and, in
2011, the company was granted
continued approval to produce EPA
protocol gas standards both at this
site in the US and at an additional
site near Toronto, Canada.
As in other parts of the world, the
European Union is introducing
stricter limits on pollutant emis-
sions from light road vehicles,
particularly for emissions of nitro-
gen particulates and oxides. Since
2009, it has been mandatory to have
ultra-low-sulphur petrol and diesel;
that is, fuels containing less than 10
ppm of sulphur.
Analysis of sulphur compounds in
fuels has therefore not only become
a critical requirement, but so has the
need to measure for lower and lower
levels of sulphur compounds. It is
now vital to be able to detect
extremely low levels of sulphur,
down to parts per billion, and a
range of instrumentation techniques
and detectors are required to meet
these requirements. One of the typi-
cal methods used for the
determination of sulphur species in
fuel samples is GC separation
followed by sulphur chemilumines-
cence detection (SCD).
keferences
1 Helsel M, Schrelner , ue Lourdes Coude M,
Oxygen enrlchmenL ls un opLlon Lo reduce
loudlngs Ior Cluus plunLs, /yJtocatooa
/tocess|aq, leb 2007.
Shivan Ahamparam leuds Llnde's globul
murkeLlng progrumme ln chemlsLry und
energy Irom Murruy Hlll, New ]ersey. She hus
over 1S yeurs' experlence ln peLrochemlculs,
speclullLy chemlculs und lndusLrlul guses, und
hus u musLers ln mechunlcul englneerlng Irom
Aucklund UnlverslLy, New 7eulund, und u degree
ln englneerlng Irom CunLerbury UnlverslLy,
ChrlsLchurch, New 7eulund .
Stephen Harrison leuds Llnde's globul SpeclulLy
Guses & SpeclulLy LqulpmenL buslness Irom
Munlch, Germuny. He hus 20 yeurs' experlence
ln lndusLrlul guses und holds u musLer's ln
chemlcul englneerlng Irom lmperlul College,
London, UK.
www.enquiry.com
for further information
Heavy crude 0il
Atmospheric 0istillation
Vacuum 0istillation
0oker & Visbreaker Feed
Fluidized 0atalytic 0racker
Bitumen
Ncn-intrusive cw
measurement up tc 00C
FieId-Prcven at Pehneries
Trouble Iree operation at
extreme pipe temperatures
No clogging, no pressure losses
nstallation and maintenance
without process interruption
ndependent oI uid or pressure
Hazardous area approved

Wben tbe cing

gets R0T.
rehnery.exim.ccm
linde.indd 3 12/12/11 14:29:57
Q&A copy 11.indd 4 1/6/12 12:56:52
low rare earth loves
high performance
BASFs Rare Earth ALternative (REAL) solutions target
the needs of todays Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC)
catalyst market. Through a world-class combination
of technology, technical service, procurement expertise,
and investments in manufacturing and R&D, BASF
delivers performance and value to customers looking
for options to reduce rare earth costs.
At BASF, we create chemistry.
www.catalysts.basf.com/ re ning
basf.indd 1 7/3/12 13:50:50
Flexigas and it could be an attractive
source for hydrogen production. The
feed (typically 565C+ vacuum resid)
enters the scrubber
1
for integrated
direct contact heat exchange with
reactor overhead efuent vapours.
The scrubber condenses higher boil-
ing hydrocarbons in the reactor
efuent (typically >525C) and recy-
cles them into the reactor along with
the fresh feed. Lighter overhead
vapours are sent to conventional
fractionation and light ends recov-
ery. In the reactor,
2
the feed is
thermally cracked to a full range of
liquid products and coke. Coke
inventory is maintained by transfer-
ring the bed coke from the reactor to
the heater
3
via a transfer line. Hot
coke from the heater is circulated
back to the reactor (through another
l
2 3 4
6
Scrubber
Steam
generation
Venturi
scrubber
Direct
contact
cooler
Flexsorb
gas treating
Tertiary
cyclones
Peactor products
to fractionator
Heavy
feed
5
Cold
coke
Hot
coke
Air
Steam
Sour water
H
2
S
Purge
coke
Coke
fines
Air blower
Flexigas
clean fuel
Figure 1 Simplied Flexicoking process schematic
Heater
overhead
and
Flexsorb
Flexigas
compression
Hydrogen
shift
Hydrogen
production
Ammonia
production
Urea
production
CO
2
removal
Power
generation
Combined
cycle
Pankine
cycle
Lxcess Plexigas used as refinery fuel

PSA
off-gas Purge
gas
Figure 2 Hydrogen production from Flexicoking coke gas (Flexigas)
coke transfer line), supplying the
heat necessary to maintain reactor
temperature and sustain thermal
cracking reactions. Excess coke is
sent to the gasier,
4
where it reacts
with steam and air to produce a
CO/H
2
syngas gas that is further
treated with Flexsorb selective amine
to produce a clean fuel gas called
Flexigas.
5
Approximately 97% of the
coke generated in the reactor (gross
coke) is consumed in the process,
and a small amount of product coke
is recovered from the nes system.
The CO/H
2
Flexigas is a versatile
fuel that can be used as a renery
fuel for power generation, for
hydrogen production, as a syngas
for ammonia and urea production,
and for CO
2
sequestration, as
shown in Figure 2.
4

G
J
P
4
e
1
2
Vacuum Systems
You intend to revamp or upgrade
your vacuum system?
We deliver proven integrated
solutionsoptimizing your produc-
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You can rely on our 80 yearsof
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So contact usand we will show
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Phone: +49 7243 705-0
Internet: www.gea-wiegand.com
17217-az-GJP4e12-59x270-rz.indd 1 24.05.12 17:32
Q&A copy 11.indd 5 1/6/12 12:57:25
Nasty Stuff
Heavy crudes are here to stay.
As long as oil prices remain high,
Canadian, Venezuelan, Deep Water
Gulf of Mexico, Mexican and
other low API gravity crude oils
will play an ever more important
role in supplying world refineries.
And prices promise to remain high
because gainsayers notwithstanding,
Hubbert was right.
A big question is how to best handle
these nasty crudes? Do you
revamp existing units or invest in
new capacity? With refineries now
running flat out, the balance might
seem to favor grass roots expansion,
but given the substantial cost
multiplier over revamps, this could
be questioned. Whichever the case,
however, an inescapable fact is
that the process design of the project
will prove crucial. Between the
charge pump, the desalter and the
units' distillation columns there are
many places where miscalcula-
tions in the process design could
wreck the entire project.
Can you really be sure of attaining
desired crude rates? Desalting
viscous crude is extremely difficult.
Minimizing coking or asphaltene
precipitation in the heaters demands
extreme care. Can you reasonably
expect high diesel and HVGO
recoveries, acceptable levels of
nickel, vanadium, and microcarbon
residue (MCR)? Refiners who cut
deep should not be surprised when
the HVGO product MCR is over 2
wt % and the vanadium content is
in excess of 10 ppmw. Any one of
such difficulties can result in lower
revenue, unstable operation or
even unit shutdown. It is critical to
understand that the inherent
properties of these low API gravity
crudes dictate that exact process
design is of paramount importance.
The point of this litany of possible
problems is to remind you not to
skimp in the early phases of
engineering. From the start of the
LP work through the completion of
front-end process engineering,
actual product yield and qualities
depend on the process design.
The message is clear. Nasty crudes
will continue to make up an
increasing proportion of refineries'
crude slates. But time is precious.
The sooner we face this fact,
unwelcome as it may be, the more
expeditiously we can adapt.
For a more in depth review of
heavy crude challenges, ask us for
Technical Papers 173, 185 and
197.
3400 Bissonnet
Suite 130
Houston, Texas 77005
USA
Ph: [1] (713) 665-7046
Fx: [1] (713) 665-7246
info@revamps.com
www.revamps.com
This exchanger has seen better crude slates
pcs nasty.indd 1 1/6/12 11:58:35
Sweet, low-pressure Flexigas is shown as being
partly used as a refnery fuel and, after compression, a
portion is shown being sent to a gas turbine combined
cycle (GTCC) or Rankine cycle power generation block.
The remaining Flexigas is processed through shift
convertors, a CO
2
removal step and is then sent to the
PSA unit for hydrogen recovery. The PSA off-gas is
combined with the Flexigas portion allocated to the
power block for additional power generation. Optional
schemes for ammonia or urea production and for CO
2
sequestration are also shown.
For comparison on an equivalent basis to the 45 000
b/d delayed coking and POX case discussed earlier, a
Flexicoking unit processing the same quality feed and
operating at the same capacity will produce 160
MMSCFD (16 t/h) of hydrogen. Although both
Flexicoking and delayed coking technologies give
comparable coke yields, the former consumes a portion
of the coke as internal fuel, whereas delayed coking
requires external fuel such as natural gas or refnery fuel
gas for the feed furnaces. As a result, the maximum
hydrogen production potential from Flexicoking is about
20% lower. However, Flexicoking does not have the
large opex associated with the external fuel needed in
delayed coking and it also allows a natural attenuation
to eliminate surplus hydrogen production. The
Flexicoking approach shown in Figure 2 for hydrogen
recovery uses conventional and well-proven processing
steps and allows fexibility to further tailor hydrogen
production to meet demand and use the surplus
Flexigas as a cheap fuel for refnery use or for power
generation. Gas companies such as Air Products
5
, Linde
and Air Liquide specialise in gas separation and, in loca-
tions with industrial complexes, may consider installing
the hydrogen extraction trains outside the fence.
The Flexicoking case discussed above will also allow
export of 82 MW of net power, after deduction for
compression (air, Flexigas and PSA off-gas) and other
miscellaneous power consumption requirements
needed to run the unit shown in Figure 1 and for the
hydrogen production scheme shown in Figure 2.
Comparisons show that the Flexicoking technology
with its simpler integrated gasifcation approach can be
a cheaper source of power and hydrogen than the
delayed coking and POX approach.
4,6
Flexicoking is a mark of ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company.
References
1 Upgrading heavy crude oil and residues to transportation fuels:
technology, economics and outlook, SFA Pacifc Inc, Phase 8 Study, Oct
2009.
2 Handbook of Petroleum Refning Processes, Third Edition, McGraw-
Hill, 2003.
3 Flexicoking coking and integrated steam/air gasifcation, BBTC
Conference, 5-6 Oct 2010, London.
4 Flexicoking resid upgrading technology, BBTC Conference, 18-19 Apr
2012, Moscow.
5 Air Products at CEE Refning and Petrochemical Roundtable, 14-16
Oct 2008, Warsaw; and at ERTC Coking & Gasifcation Conference, 22
Apr 2009, Budapest.
6 Internal unpublished ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company
Studies, 2011.
RecipCOM
It sees what you cant
When reciprocating compressors are critical to your process, inefcient operation or breakdowns put the protability and
safety of the entire plant at risk. A monitoring and protection system is the best investment to ensure safe and reliable
operation and cut maintenance costs.
RecipCOM was developed in collaboration with a leading process gas company. It offers unmatched expertise in compressor
monitoring and protection, tailored to your needs.
Reci pCOMs cont i nuous moni t ori ng of
cri t i cal equi pment paramet ers gi ves you:
Dependable protection against
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Increased operational safety and
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RecipCOM_ptq.indd 1 29.05.2012 16:39:18
Q&A copy 11.indd 6 1/6/12 12:57:45
3400 Bissonnet
Suite 130
Houston, Texas 77005
USA
Ph: [1] (713) 665-7046
Fx: [1] (713) 665-7246
info@revamps.com
www.revamps.com
PROCESS
CONSULTING
SERVICES,INC.
upsets from water slugs and
other unpredictable situations
that have damaged internals,
resulting in diluent losses and
high vacuum unit overhead con-
densable oil. Diluent is neither
cheap nor plentiful, and high
vacuum column operating pres-
sure will reduce overall liquid
volume yields. And if the design
of the delayed coker fractionator
is based on todays experience
with conventional heavy feed-
stocks you will be lucky to run
six months.
What all this means is that
special process and equipment
designs are needed to satisfy
the special demands of pro-
cessing oil sands crudes. Such
processes are not generated by
computer based designers who
have little or no experience and
never leave the office. They are
developed only by engineers
with know-how who have real
experience wearing Nomex
suits
and measuring true unit per-
formance in Northern Alberta.
Shouldnt this be kept in mind
by those considering long term
supply agreements?
Oil Sands Crude
Profits and
Problems?
Canadian bitumen production
currently runs about 1 MMbpd,
with some being sold as Synbit
and Dilbit. Over the next 10-12
years output is expected to
increase to 3.5 MMbpd and more
refiners will begin investing to
process it and come to depend
on the Synbit and Dilbit for a
significant part of their supply.
Few today, however, have ever
processed these feeds at high
blend ratios, and are unaware
that conventional process and
equipment designs are not up
to the job. Canadian oil sands
feedstocks are extremely hard
to desalt, difficult to vaporize,
thermally unstable, corrosive, and
produce high di-olefin product
from the coker. If you intend to
lock into a long-term supply,
therefore, it is imperative that you
consider reliability and run length
from a particular design.
Too low tube velocity in the
vacuum heater tubes will lead to
precipitation of asphaltenes. Too
fast a flow rate will erode the
tube bends. If coil layout, burner
configuration and steam rate are
not correct, run length will be
measured in months, not years.
Diluent recovery unit designs
must take into account possible
For a discussion of factors
involved in designing refinery units
to process difficult oil sands feed-
stocks, ask for Technical Papers
#234 and 238.
10 PTQ 01:10 01 PC PTQ 0107 ADF 10/19/07 4:42 PM Page 1
pcs 2.indd 1 1/6/12 21:05:28
For more information, visit www.uop.com/uniex.
2012 Honeywell I nternational, I nc. All rights reserved.
refinement redefined
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uop.indd 1 9/3/12 12:31:44
Process and catalysis factors to maximise
propylene output
T
he fuid catalytic cracking
(FCC) unit has been the
primary source when it comes
to meeting the growing market
demand for propylene. This has led
to a signifcant challenge for licen-
sors to develop new process
technology and for refners to opti-
mise cracking severity. Achieving
maximum propylene yield and
conversion from a wide range of
feed qualities also presents consid-
erable challenges to catalyst
designers. The impact of feed
composition and process variables
on the yields and heat balance is
signifcant and therefore requires a
good understanding of the chemis-
try to design the right FCC catalyst
for individual FCC units.
This article describes the most
important elements of chemistry
and catalyst design considerations
for maximising propylene make
from the FCC unit.
Maximising propylene in the
FCC unit
In the refning industry, several
cracking processes are applied to
cleave carbon-carbon bonds, includ-
ing non-catalytic thermal coking
and visbreaking, as well as catalytic
hydrocracking and, most impor-
tantly, FCC. Coking, visbreaking
and hydrocracking will not be
discussed further, as there is essen-
tially no production of propylene
from these processes. While FCC is
predominantly a catalytic process,
the reaction temperature is high
enough to initiate some thermal
cracking.
Thermal cracking reactions
proceed through a non-selective
free radical chain mechanism that
Catalyst selection and process design enable a new RFCC unit to maximise
propylene production from a range of feeds
Takuya aMano, JaCk WilCox and CaRel PouWels Albemarle Corporation
Takakazu MaTsuuRa Taiyo Oil Co
involves three primary steps: initia-
tion, which involves the formation
of the highly reactive, electrically
neutral free radical ion; propaga-
tion, which is essentially the
cracking step plus the generation of
another radical; and termination, as
the radicals are eventually reduced
to methane, olefnic C
2
and C
2
frac-
tions, butadiene and small amounts
of isobutene and isobutylene. While
the thermal cracking reactions
occurring in the FCC reactor do
produce some olefnic C
2
, indicating
some hydrogen transfer, the contri-
bution to the overall propylene
yield is relatively small. The degree
of branching is minimal, indicating
very little isomerisation.
The predominant cracking mecha-
nism utilised in the FCC process is
driven by the use of a highly selec-
tive acid-catalysed system. Catalytic
cracking involves the formation of
carbo-cation intermediates as
follows: a carbonium ion is initially
formed either by abstraction of a
hydride ion from a paraffn or from
the acid site provided by the cata-
lyst. The highly selective cracking
reaction, referred to as -scission,
plus the formation of another
carbonium ion, then occurs.
Catalytic cracking produces highly
olefnic liquid products and essen-
tially no C
2
and lighter products. In
addition, secondary reactions, such
as hydrogen transfer and isomerisa-
tion occur, which impacts LPG and
gasoline olefnicity, as well as the
degree of paraffn branching. Figure
1 illustrates the differences in selec-
tivity by comparing the products
derived from thermal and catalytic
cracking of n-hexadecane at 500C.
1

A leap in FCC technology
occurred when zeolites were incor-
porated into the catalyst
formulation, signifcantly upgrad-
ing catalytic cracking. This change
produced a much more intrinsically
active catalyst, which resulted in
not only increased unit conversion
but also signifcantly better product
selectivities, as well as reduced
delta coke and dry gas production.
1 2 0
1 4 0
1 0 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
2 0
C 1 C 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 C 6 C 7 C 8 C 9 C 1 0 C 1 1 C 1 2 C 1 3 C 1 4
m
o
l
e
s

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
1
0
0

m
o
l
e
s

c
r
a
c
k
e
d
C-number
0
C a ta lytic c ra c k in g , a m o rp h o u s S i0 2 /A 1 2 0 3
T h e rm a l c ra c k in g , q u a rtz c h ip s
Figure 1 Thermal and catalytic cracking of n-hexadecane at 500C
albemarle.indd 1 4/6/12 15:15:06
of branched and cyclic hydrocar-
bons to the active sites and only
allow straight-chain and mono
methyl paraffns and olefns to
enter. These molecules are essen-
tially centre-cracked, generating
predominantly propylene and small
amounts of butylene and ethylene.
The primary reactants are in the C
6
and C
7
range, but other gasoline
molecules with a carbon atom
number between 5 and 10 can be
converted by ZSM-5 to some extent.
Figure 2 shows the effect of ZSM-5
on product selectivity shifts, giving
clear evidence of the increase in the
production of C
3
, C
4
and C
2
olefns,
with a corresponding reduction in
C
6
and C
7
components.
FCC gasoline can be typically
classifed into fve types of hydro-
carbons: paraffns (P), iso-paraffns
(iP), olefns (O), naphthenes (N)
and aromatics (A). Based on these
hydrocarbon types, conversion of
the most easily cracked C
6
and C
7
atoms by ZSM-5 is shown in Figure
3. An olefn is cracked by ZSM-5
and produces two smaller olefns.
As such, in order to maximise the
light olefn yield, the cracking
mechanism generating the C
6
and
C
7
olefns produced in the riser
during the primary cracking with
the FCC catalyst must be carefully
managed.
The numbers on the bars in
Figure 3 show a reduction in the
specifc hydrocarbon type. The
decrease in light isoparaffns is the
largest. This is attributed to the
reduced formation of light isoparaf-
fns in the presence of ZSM-5 and
other reactions, including cracking
to light olefns. The light olefns,
however, contribute the most to
propylene make, as olefns are more
reactive and crack to form two
smaller olefn molecules. In general,
gasoline-range olefns are the
primary reactants for propylene.
The molecules that can be readily
cracked by ZSM-5 are in the gaso-
line boiling range and often referred
to as gasoline precursors. Although
iso-paraffns are good gasoline
precursors, the small pores of ZSM-
5 restrict access primarily to
straight-chain paraffns or those
with a methyl branch. Larger
branched or multiple-branched
However, at equivalent conversion,
the gasoline research octane
decreased, refecting the reduced
olefnicity. The reduced gasoline, as
well as LPG olefnicity, is a direct
result of the hydrogen transfer reac-
tions. These reactions dictate the
hydrogen redistribution through
the entire product slate. Hydrogen
transfer is refected by increased
iso/normal paraffns, reduced gaso-
line and LPG olefnicity, reduced
over-cracking to LPG, and more
hydrogen-defcient heavy products
as hydrogen is shifted to lighter
products (see Table 1).
Maximising propylene yield from
the FCC unit is typically accom-
plished by combining a low rare
earth catalyst system with severe
reaction conditions. Signifcant
quantities of incremental propylene
may be generated by augmenting
the catalyst inventory with the
shape-selective zeolite ZSM-5.
(Albemarles AFX catalyst and tech-
nology, with its unique zeolite
system discussed later, maximises
propylene without augmenting the
catalyst inventory with ZSM-5 addi-
tive.) This zeolite utilises pore
openings smaller than Y-zeolite,
driving different catalytic reactions.
The smaller pores restrict the access
Conversion Gasoline, vol% Propylene, vol%
Silica-alumina gel 75.5 47.5 8.5
REHY 85.5 61.0 5.9
Zeolite vs amorphous cracking
Table 1
1 2
1 8
1 6
1 4
1 0
8
6
4
2
C 1 C 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 C 6 C 7 C 8 C 9 C 1 0 C 1 1 C 1 2
Y
i
e
l
d
,

w
t
%
C-number
0
F C C c a ta lyst +Z S M -5
F C C c a ta lyst
Figure 2 Component selectivity shifts with ZSM-5
3
5
4
2
1
iP 6 O 6 iP 5 iP 7 O 7 A 7 A 6
Y
i
e
l
d
,

w
t
%

o
n

f
e
e
d
C-numbers and component t ype
0
F C C c a ta lyst +Z S M -5
F C C c a ta lyst
-2 .8 -2 .1 -2 .0 -1 .7 -1 .5 0 . 3 0 . 5
Figure 3 Gasoline components impacted by ZSM-5
molecules are consequently not
desirable. Since Y-zeolite catalyses
isomerisation reactions, the catalyst
must be formulated to minimise
these reactions.
As Figure 3 shows, there is a
small increase in the gasoline
benzene and methyl-benzene with
the use of ZSM-5.
FCC manufacturers have a vari-
ety of tools available for designing
the optimal catalyst system to
maximise the propylene yield from
the FCC unit. The impact of these
various parameters on catalyst
performance in general and on light
olefn selectivity in particular
follows (see Table 2).
Type Y-zeolite is the primary
cracking component incorporated
into modern FCC catalysts. Y-
zeolite contains a high degree of
acidity, which contributes to a high
intrinsic activity. Despite the vari-
ous treatments performed on the
as-produced Y-zeolite to modify its
performance, the hydrogen transfer
function remains relatively high
while maintaining some isomerisa-
tion activity.
ZSM-5 zeolite also contains a high
level of acidity, which produces a
very active component, although
the effective cracking rate is limited
by the molecular diameter and
shape of the reactants. The inher-
ently high silica to alumina of this
particular zeolite promotes limited
isomerisation. In addition, ZSM-5
has oligomerisation activity, which
consumes propylene.
The catalyst matrix has evolved
into more than just an amorphous
support for the active zeolite
component. Albemarle Developed
Matrix (ADM) technology (also
employed in Albemarles AFX cata-
lysts) incorporates catalytically
active components, providing a
wide range of functionalities,
including heavy oil upgrading and
heavy metal contaminant tolerance.
The acid sites utilised with the
matrix are less dense and not as
strong as the acid sites in the Y-
zeolite. The matrix cracking activity
can be varied from low to high,
although the hydrogen transfer
(HT) and isomerisation activity are
lower than that of Y-zeolite. As
Figure 4 shows, reducing the hydro-
gen transfer activity contribution
Acidity Cracking Hydrogen transfer Isomerisation
ZSM5-zeolite Very High High* - High
Y- zeolite High High High Moderate
Matrices Low-moderate Low-high Low to moderate Low
* Size and shape of molecules determines cracking rate
Impact of FCC catalyst components
Table 2
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can be optimised to the units
constraints.
Reaction temperature
Increasing the riser outlet tempera-
ture to the limit of the wet gas
compressor and/or the main air
blower increases conversion, total
LPG yield and propylene
production.
Increasing the cracking tempera-
ture not only enhances the thermal
cracking reactions, but also
increases the catalytic reactions due
to the increased catalyst circulation.
A common parameter used to
monitor the level of catalytic to
thermal cracking occurring in the
FCC reaction zone is the ratio of
total C
4
to LPG (C
4
/(C
3
+C
4
). A ratio
of 0.68 denotes a high degree of
catalytic cracking
3
, whereas values
near 0.50 indicate increased thermal
cracking. These values are applica-
ble for typical FCC catalysts without
the use of ZSM-5, as the latter
zeolite increases C
3
selectively. In
general, cracking reactions have
higher effective activation energy
than bimolecular hydrogen transfer
reactions, so increasing the reaction
temperature increases the tendency
for gasoline olefns to crack to light
olefns rather than to undergo
hydrogen transfer.
4
Increasing the cracking tempera-
ture about 10C will increase the
propylene yield by about 0.8-0.9
wt% (see Table 3).
Hydrocarbon partial pressure
Minimising the hydrocarbon partial
pressure in the reaction zone direc-
tionally increases the light olefn
yield. Bimolecular reaction rates,
primarily hydrogen transfer, are
signifcantly slower at a low hydro-
carbon partial pressure,
4
preserving
the precursors for propylene
production in the gasoline boiling
from the matrix increases the
propylene yield.
In addition to hydrogen transfer,
several other secondary reactions
occur, such as cyclisation, aromati-
sation and oligomerisation. As the
catalyst/hydrocarbon in the reac-
tion zone increases, the
oligomerisation reaction rate
increases, consuming propylene
and leading to a loss of propylene
yield.
2

From a catalytic standpoint, the
following parameters must be care-
fully optimised to maximise the
propylene yield:
Maximise generation of C
6
and C
7

olefns and iso-paraffn precursors
in the gasoline boiling range
Minimise the hydrogen transfer
function
Limit isomerisation to maximise
methyl branches
Minimise undesirable secondary
reactions, including cyclisation,
aromatisation and oligomerisation
Selectively crack precursors to
propylene.
Optimising unit conditions
The inherent fexibility and versatil-
ity of the FCC process allows the
refner to adjust the units operating
severity to rapidly respond to chang-
ing market demands. Maximising
the yield of light olefns, such as
propylene, requires the cracking
severity to be carefully tuned.
Specifcally, operating parameters,
including reaction temperature, cata-
lyst circulation rate and hydrocarbon
partial pressure in the reaction zone,
Unit 1 Unit 2
RxT, C 522 543 519 530
C
3
=, wt% Base +1.6 Base +1.0
C
4
/(C
3
+C
4
) 0.58 0.56 0.59 0.57
* FCC catalyst with high ZSM-5 content
Effect of reaction temperature on propylene yield
Table 3
RxT, C 553 551
RxP, barg 2.1 2.8
Steam, mol% on feed 71 60
C
3
=, wt% on feed 11.6 9.9
Hydrocarbon partial pressure effect
on propylene yield sample
Table 4
Feed properties Operations
Type FT-Wax Unit Pilot plant
API 43.1 RxT, C 538
S.G. 0.81 CTO 4
S, ppmw 2.5 Catalyst Zoom
Sim Dist, 5% ,C 368 Conv, wt% 92
Sim Dist, 95%, C 474 C
3
=, wt% 18
Cracking FT-Wax in FCC pilot plant
Table 5
1 5
1 7
1 3
1 1
4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0
C
3

=

y
i
e
l
d
,

w
t
%
Conversi on, wt %
9
0 . 3
0 . 4
0 . 2
0 . 1
H
y
d
r
o
g
e
n

t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r

i
n
d
e
x
0 . 0
H T I : m a trix 2
H T I : m a trix 1
C 3 = m a trix 1
C 3 = m a trix 2
Figure 4 Effect of different matrices on hydrogen transfer and propylene yield
range. In addition, the oligomerisa-
tion reaction rate is much slower at
a lower hydrocarbon partial pres-
sure, thus preserving propylene.
Optimising the reactor/regenerator
pressure balance (to minimise the
reactor pressure) and using riser
diluents (steam) minimises the
hydrocarbon partial pressure in the
reaction zone. Grassroots units
intended to maximise the light
olefn yield are being designed for
a very low operating pressure and
high riser diluent injection. Table 4
shows an example of the impact of
reactor pressure and effective
hydrocarbon partial pressure.
Catalyst circulation rate
Optimising the reactor/regenerator
heat balance to maximise catalyst
circulation rates and resulting
catalyst-to-oil ratios contributes to
increased cracking severity, conver-
sion and light olefn yield. The
increased cracking and resulting
conversion far outweigh the nega-
tive impact of the increased
hydrogen transfer.
FCC feed quality
In order to maximise the yield of
light olefns, cracking severity must
be optimised for a given feed qual-
ity. In general, more propylene can
potentially be derived from feed
sources that are hydrogen rich and
low in contaminants (that is, easy to
convert). Feed sources rich in
aromatic components produce fewer
precursors in the gasoline boiling
range, resulting in potentially less
propylene yield. Commercial data
presented by Axens indicate as
much as 1.5-2.0 wt% incremental
propylene may be produced for
every 0.5 wt% increase in feed
hydrogen content.
5
A processing
option being integrated in some of
the new unit confgurations takes
advantage of co-processing hydro-
gen-rich streams, such as light
naphtha, C
4
saturates or oligomer-
ised C
4
/C
5
products.
Research presented by CPERI6
demonstrates the potential propyl-
ene yielded from cracking an
extremely hydrogen-rich feed
source (a wax derived from the
Fisher-Tropsch process). Utilising
various blends of commercial
equilibrium catalysts and
Albemarles ZSM-5 additive Zoom,
this feed was cracked in a pilot
plant. As Table 5 shows, with ZSM-
5 additive, a conversion level above
90 wt% was obtained with a propyl-
ene yield of 18 wt%.
Increasing the hydrogen content
of the feed by hydrotreating actu-
ally results in fewer precursors for
propylene production due to the
reduced olefn and corresponding
increased naphthene content of the
feed.
Catalyst design considerations
FCC catalyst
As the unit operating severity is
limited by mechanical constraints
and the choice of feed is typically
fxed by the refnerys crude oil
source, the selection of the optimum
catalyst system becomes crucial to
maximise both the desired yield
distribution and unit proftability.
This requires a complete under-
standing of the unit constraints and
limitations, as well as the feed qual-
ity and yield objectives.
As previously indicated, the opti-
mum catalyst system will maximise
both propylene selectivity and
gasoline olefnicity, while minimis-
ing hydrogen transfer, isomerisation,
oligomerisation and aromatisation
reactions. Albemarle has applied
several techniques limiting these
secondary reactions, while enhanc-
ing the primary cracking reaction.
Minimising rare earth has long been
used as a way to reduce hydrogen
transfer. The Albemarle Developed
Zeolites (ADZ) for this application
not only minimise hydrogen trans-
fer by low rare earth exchange but
also employ a very low unit cell
size and disperse the acid sites as
far as possible while retaining
acceptable intrinsic activity.
Additionally, hydrogen transfer is
minimised by producing catalyst
particles with a high accessibility,
allowing the olefnic products to
more rapidly diffuse from the
catalyst particle. Classical hydrogen
transfer is a bimolecular reaction
requiring reactants to be close to a
pair of acid sites. Reducing olefn
contact time by increasing accessi-
bility reduces hydrogen transfer.
2
Augmenting the base catalyst
addition and unit inventory with
ZSM-5 additive is an effective solu-
tion for increasing propylene yield
in the FCC unit. This approach
gives the refner a great deal of fex-
ibility, as additive usage can be
adjusted to respond to propylene
demand and to optimise operations
within unit constraints while
maximising unit proftability.
As previously mentioned, ZSM-5
generates propylene by selectively
cracking olefns in the gasoline boil-
ing range. As the concentration of
ZSM-5 additive in the catalyst
inventory increases, the incremental
yield of propylene produced per
percentage of additive decreases.
Propylene yield tends to plateau
with about 10% ZSM-5 crystal
concentration in the catalyst inven-
tory. The diminishing effectiveness
of ZSM-5 at higher concentrations
occurs primarily due to the deple-
tion of the gasoline olefn
precursors.
The base catalyst formulation and
technology dictate the maximum
potential propylene yield from the
FCC unit. Figure 5 shows the maxi-
mum propylene yield that may be
produced by four different host
FCC catalysts augmented with a
variety of ZSM-5 additives. The
yield response of the ZSM-5 varies
with the properties of the base cata-
lyst; the maximum propylene yield
is dependent on the base catalyst
properties.
The average 7.5 angstrom pore
opening of the Y-zeolite is too small
to allow the access of high molecu-
lar diameter feed molecules.
Catalysts commonly incorporate
larger (>100 angstrom) pore open-
ings and some cracking activity in
the matrix design to pre-crack the
large feed molecules into smaller
components. The relatively weak
acid site cracking provided by the
matrix produces olefnic precursors,
which can be further cracked to
lighter olefns with special zeolites.
Impact of hydrogen transfer
We can estimate the relative activ-
ity of FCC catalysts for generating
secondary reactions using the
hydrogen transfer index (HTI) for
catalysts tested under constant
conditions with the same feed. The
HTI can be defned in several ways,
including the ratio of iso-butane
over total C
4
s.
Catalysts with a lower HTI gener-
ate fewer secondary reactions,
preserving a greater quantity of the
gasoline boiling range olefns,
which can be subsequently cracked
to lighter olefns.
The four base catalysts tested (see
Figure 5) demonstrate the effect of
HTI on propylene generation. As
seen in the fgure, the propylene
yield increases as the HTI of the
base catalyst is reduced.
Further testing under constant
conditions demonstrates that
suppressing hydrogen transfer by
6
9
8
7
5
4
3
2
1
0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0

P
r
o
p
y
l
e
n
e

y
i
e
l
d
,

w
t
%
ZSM-5 cryst al , wt %
0
D e c re a sin g b a se c a ta lyst
h yd ro g e n tra n sfe r in d e x
Figure 5 Effect of base catalyst technology on propylene
2 . 5
3 . 5
3 . 0
2 . 0
1 . 5
0 . 2 6 0 . 2 8 0 . 3 0 0 . 3 2 0 . 3 4 0 . 3 6 0 . 3 8 0 . 4 0
Base cat al yst HTI at 72 wt % conversi on
1 . 0
S C T-R T te st d a ta . R e sid .
R
2
= 0 . 9 5

C
3

=
l
o
g
(
1

+

%
Z
S
M
-
5
)
Figure 6 Base catalyst HTI infuences propylene yield potential

maximising the availability of olefn
precursors is the key to maximising
propylene. Multiple catalysts were
mixed with varying amounts of
ZSM-5 additive (see Figure 6). The
relative propylene yield shows a
strong correlation with the HTI of
the base catalyst.
Catalyst properties can be modi-
fed by several techniques to
suppress hydrogen transfer reac-
tions. Controlling the zeolite acid
site density and optimum disper-
sion of these acid sites is crucial in
minimising hydrogen transfer.
Reducing the number of acid sites
may be accomplished by minimis-
ing the zeolite unit cell size (UCS).
The zeolite UCS may be reduced by
several techniques; as the alumina
ions are removed, the intrinsic
activity of the zeolite decreases.
Minimising rare earth exchange
also produces a reduced UCS.
Hydrogen transfer activity may
also be mitigated by producing a
zeolite with a highly accessible pore
structure, which enhances diffusion.
A catalyst designed with high
accessibility allows the olefnic
produced from primary cracking to
rapidly diffuse from the catalyst
particle. Since hydrogen transfer is
a bimolecular reaction requiring the
reactants to be in close proximity to
a pair of acid sites, reducing the
residence time of olefns within the
catalyst particle reduces the rate of
hydrogen transfer.
Increasing the preservation of the
olefns initially results in reduced
LPG selectivity but increased LPG
and gasoline olefnicity. This results
in more precursors for the subse-
quent generation of propylene.
Albemarles worldwide equilib-
rium catalyst database shows a
clear example of how high catalyst
accessibility technology affects
HTI. Albemarle routinely tests
equilibrium catalysts collected
from FCC units all over the world
in a standard micro reactor test
called the fuid simulation test
(FST). This test is conducted with
constant feed quality and reaction
conditions, allowing direct compar-
isons of various catalyst yield
selectivities. Albemarles catalyst
technology exhibits a lower
HTI compared to two major
competitive catalyst technologies
(see Figure 7).
Based on these principles (low
hydrogen transfer, high accessibil-
ity, proprietary selective cracking
technology), Albemarle developed
the AFX family of catalysts. This
new FCC catalyst design was
specifcally developed to provide
maximum propylene selectivity
while cracking feeds ranging from
relatively clean gas oil to highly
contaminated resids. Furthermore,
it does not require the use of a
separate ZSM-5 additive. AFX cata-
lysts combine a high accessibility
structure with the optimum rare
earth level required to meet the
desired yield objectives. The FST
test data shown in Figure 8 illus-
trate the reduction in HTI that is
achieved with a high accessibility
catalyst structure.
For gas oil feed applications, the
additional reduction in hydrogen
transfer provided by the AFX cata-
lyst allows for maximum
preservation of olefn precursors
that can be cracked to propylene.
Maximisation of propylene poses
additional catalyst challenges when
processing heavy, contaminated
feeds. In addition to including the
features referred to above, the cata-
lyst must incorporate exceptional
metals tolerance and hydrothermal
stability. In part to provide these
features, a target level of rare earth
is exchanged into the zeolite struc-
ture. The reduction in hydrogen
transfer obtained from high catalyst
accessibility allows a somewhat
higher rare earth content, providing
an activity maintenance advantage
relative to low accessibility product.
When applied to a resid FCC opera-
tion, the AFX system is formulated
to minimise hydrogen transfer while
retaining maximum tolerance for
heavy metals and activity retention.
0 . 3 0
0 . 4 0
0 . 3 5
0 . 2 5
0 . 2 0
6 0 6 2 6 4 6 6 6 8 7 0 7 2 7 4 7 6 7 8 8 0
E
c
a
t

H
-
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r

i
n
d
e
x
Ecat FST conversi on, wt %
0 . 1 5
A lb e m a rle s h ig h A A I te c h n o lo g y
re su lts in lo we r H T I
C o m p e tito r A
A lb e m a rle h ig h A A I
C o m p e tito r B
Figure 7 HTI for various catalyst technology platforms
0 . 3 0
0 . 2 5
0 . 2 0
0 . 1 5
M a x
H
T
I
Rare eart h on zeol i t e
0 . 1 0
H ig h a c c e ssib ility A F X
L o w a c c e ssib ility
Figure 8 High accessibility reduces hydrogen transfer index
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Since the maximum propylene
yield is closely correlated with the
inherent hydrogen transfer activity,
catalysts designed to achieve an
equal target propylene yield have
the same base HTI. Zeolite stability
and activity begin to decline more
rapidly than the HTI as the zeolite
rare earth content approaches zero.
The activity advantage provided by
high catalyst accessibility increases,
since the target propylene yield also
increases, as additional zeolite can
be added to the catalyst particle.
For maximum propylene applica-
tions requiring the lowest HTI, the
activity advantage provided by a
high accessibility structure rapidly
increases (see Figure 9).
Commercial application
AFX catalysts have been thoroughly
evaluated and approved for
commercial application by several
third-party testing facilities. Various
grades of the AFX catalysts have
been tested on both a bench and
pilot scale, with feed qualities rang-
ing from relatively light, clean gas
oil to heavy, contaminated residual
sources. Figure 10 shows one exam-
ple of AFX catalyst testing results
compared with competitive cata-
lysts specifcally formulated to
maximise propylene while process-
ing a relatively clean gas oil quality
feed.
While laboratory testing demon-
strates the value of AFX catalysts,
their performance in FCC units that
target maximum propylene is even
more important and more impres-
sive. Due to its performance in FCC
units, AFX is widely recognised as
a leading catalyst for maximum
propylene.
7
It has been successful in
challenging applications at or close
to the plateau level of propylene, in
high-pressure FCC unit operations,
and in resid fuid catalytic cracking
(RFCC) units processing heavy resi-
due. It is also the preferred catalyst
for grassroots modern FCC units,
which are all in some way operat-
ing on the edge of what it possible.
There are many FCC units using
AFX catalysts to maximise propyl-
ene. The remainder of this article
focuses on a recent application of
the AFX catalyst to a newly
commissioned RFCC unit.
The multi-functional AFX catalyst
system provided this refner with
the capability to not only maximise
propylene yield but also the fexibil-
ity to maintain the most proftable
yield distribution while processing
highly contaminated feedstocks.
The excellent propylene selectivity
provided with this catalyst has led
to reduced ZSM-5 additive being
added to the catalyst inventory,
signifcantly reducing the activity
dilution impact on the circulating
catalyst inventory.
Taiyo Oil Company has recently
brought on stream a grassroots
RFCC unit at its Kikuma refnery in
Ehime, Japan. This unit has been
designed to process 25 000 b/d of
untreated atmospheric tower
bottoms derived from a variety of
crude oils from the Middle East and
Asia Pacifc regions. This unit is a
UOP design incorporating the latest
technology, including the high-
severity RxCat reactor confguration.
To meet its stringent yield require-
ments, Taiyo selected Albemarles
AFX catalyst augmented with low
levels of DuraZoom additive to
trim the propylene yield. This
catalyst system, combined with the
high-severity cracking environment
provided by the unit, has met the
high propylene yield goals set by
the refner.
This RFCC confguration has been
designed to provide the operating
fexibility necessary to maximise the
light olefn yield while processing a
variety of feed qualities. State-of-
the-art technology components,
including the Optimix feed injec-
tion, VSS riser termination device,
AF spent catalyst stripping and
fow-through catalyst coolers, have
been included in this unit design to
provide operating fexibility while
processing the heavy, contaminated
feedstocks. The reaction zone has
0 . 8
1 . 0
0 . 9
0 . 7
0 . 6
0 . 5
0 . 4
0 . 3
0 . 1 2 0 . 1 6 0 . 2 0 0 . 2 4 0 . 2 8 0 . 3 2
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

z
e
o
l
i
t
e

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
Hydrogen t ransf er i ndex
0 . 2
I n c re a sin g p ro p yle n e
H ig h a c c e ssib ility A F X
L o w a c c e ssib ility
8 1 % h ig h e r
re la tive a c tivity
2 4 % h ig h e r
re la tive a c tivity
Figure 9 Activity advantage of AFX catalysts (high accessibility)
1 4
1 3
1 2
1 1
1 0
9
7 4 7 6 7 8 8 0 8 2 8 4 8 6
P
r
o
p
y
l
e
n
e
,

w
t
%
Conversi on, wt %
8
O th e r A lb e m a rle te c h n o lo g y
C o m p e titive te c h n o lo g ie s
A F X te c h n o lo g y
Figure 10 Third-party testing of AFX catalyst technology
incorporated RxCat technology,
which is intended to provide
increased conversion as well as
light olefn and coke selectivity
advantages by mixing regenerated
catalyst with a recycled carbonised
catalyst back to the riser prior to
introducing the feed. This allows
the catalyst density in the riser to
be varied without generating incre-
mental coke, as well as effectively
increasing the catalyst-to-oil ratio
and resulting conversion and
increased light olefn, primarily
propylene, selectivity.
8
Following the successful start-up
of this RFCC unit in October 2010,
the unit has been continuously
processing untreated residual feed
from various crude sources. The
AFX catalyst system allowed Taiyo
to maximise propylene and main-
tain a proftable yield distribution
while processing highly contami-
nated feedstocks. The propylene
selectivity provided by this system
has reduced the need for ZSM-5
additive, signifcantly decreasing
the activity dilution impact on the
circulating catalyst inventory. The
feedstock for this unit includes a
signifcant level of non-distillable
material, with high Conradson
carbon and sulphur levels (see
Table 6).
Despite the relatively poor qual-
ity feed being processed in this
unit, the combination of effective
reaction zone design, catalyst cool-
ers and a very coke-selective AFX
catalyst system has resulted in a
low delta coke. As Table 7 shows,
the cracking conditions have been
optimised. The resulting high cata-
lyst circulation rate combined with
the high cracking temperature and
highly effective catalyst activity
RFCC feed Heavy case ATB + VTB
Specifc gravity @15C 0.931
UOP K/MW 12.0/400
H
2
, wt% 12.5
S, wt% 0.80
Con carbon, wt% 5.77
N, total, wt ppm 867
Ni, wppm 7.7
V, wppm 5.2
Taiyo Oil Co RFCC feed quality
Table 6
Operating conditions
Reactor temperature, C 536
Reactor pressure, kg/cm
2
1.8
Regenerator temperature, C 735
Catalyst (from regen)-to-oil 8.1
Catalyst activity 67.5
Catalyst Ni, wppm 5300
Catalyst V, wppm 1950
CRC, wt% 0.03
Taiyo Oil Co optimised operating
conditions
Table 7
Yields Wt%
C
2
- 3.25
C
3
2.05
C
3
= 10.27
Saturate C
4
6.40
Total C
4
= 9.65
Gasoline 40.35
LCO 13.25
MCB 6.50
Conversion, vol% 80.25
C
c
recovery, wt% 97.1
C
3
=/total C
3
0.834
Gasoline (R+M)/2 92.15
LCO/MCB 2.04
Taiyo Oil Co average yield distribution
Table 8
facilitated the reactions necessary to
optimise the yield distribution.
Despite the varying feed quality,
the operating fexibility provided
by the units design and the AFX
catalyst have allowed the propylene
yield to be maintained at the 10
wt% target level (see Table 8).
Propylene recovery and olefnicity
have remained excellent despite the
varying feed quality.
Upgrading the heaviest feed
components into lighter, more valu-
able liquid products was an
important objective for Taiyo Oil.
While the relatively severe reaction
conditions contribute to cracking a
portion of these heavy feed compo-
nents, the selectivity is to upgrade
the high molecular weight fraction
to a lighter boiling range. This
provides more valuable products
by maximising the precursors for
propylene production.
Since the initial start-up, the Taiyo
unit has been processing a blend of
untreated atmospheric and vacuum
tower bottoms derived from vari-
ous Middle East and Asia Pacifc
crude oils. The high nickel-to-vana-
dium ratio and low sulphur content
in the combined feed refect the
predominant level of the indige-
nous Asia Pacifc crude in the feed
blend. While the hydrogen content
of the feed blend would seem to
indicate a moderately crackable
feed, the high carbon residue, heavy
metals and non-distillable content
would typically constrain the oper-
ating severity, limiting the potential
propylene production.
The operating conditions are
closely monitored and adjusted to
optimise the yield distribution,
typically maximising propylene, for
varying feed qualities. In order to
meet the maximum propylene
demand, the cracking temperature
and catalyst circulation rate (includ-
ing recycled spent catalyst) were
maximised by optimising the reac-
tor/regenerator heat balance, with
the fow through catalyst coolers.
One of the design objectives was to
minimise hydrogen transfer by
incorporating a short contact time
riser reactor plus a state-of-the-art
riser termination device, the VSS
system. The hydrocarbon/catalyst
contact time in the riser could be
further minimised with the use of
riser diluents. Once the operating
conditions have been set, the key
variable becomes optimising the
catalyst system; in this case,
Albemarles AFX catalyst. This cata-
lyst system allows Taiyo to
successfully process heavy contami-
nated feed components by
combining excellent dry gas and
coke selectivity, metals tolerance,
particularly effective for the high
nickel loading, and bottoms upgrad-
ing to lighter, more valuable
products. In addition to the excel-
lent propylene selectivity, this
catalyst is very selective to
gasoline.
Table 8 summarises the average
yield distribution while processing
the feed blend described in Table 6
at the cracking severity shown in
Table 7. The propylene yield repre-
sents record-high production
derived from cracking untreated
residual feed. The high C
3
olefnic-
ity and resulting propylene yield
refect the low hydrogen transfer
activity provided by the fexibility
of a state-of-the-art reactor design
utilising the appropriate catalyst
system. The AFX catalyst incorpo-
rates a commercially proven
bottoms cracking function reected
by the excellent LCO-to-main-
column-bottoms (MCB) ratio. This
was important to Taiyo, requiring
that the MCB solids or ash content
be very low. In order to meet this
requirement, the MCB passes
through a solids separation device
with a limited capacity. Excessive
MCB yield could potentially
constrain the RFCC units feed rate.
Summary
Achieving record-high propylene
and conversion from a wide range
of feed qualities offers considerable
challenges to the catalyst design.
The impact of feed composition and
process variables on the yields and
heat balance is signicant and thus
requires a good understanding of
the chemistry to design the right
FCC catalyst for a unit. AFX cata-
lysts, with their low hydrogen
transfer, high accessibility and
powerful matrix technology, are
proven catalysts for maximum
propylene.
Upgrading the heaviest feed
components to lighter, more valua-
ble liquid products was an
important objective for Taiyo Oil.
While the relatively severe reaction
conditions contribute to cracking a
portion of these heavy feed compo-
nents, the selectivity to upgrade the
high molecular weight fraction to
lighter boiling range, more valuable
products, as well as maximise the
precursors for propylene produc-
tion, was provided by the AFX
catalyst. This operation demon-
strates the performance that can be
obtained by applying the appropri-
ate catalyst system to meet reners
goals while remaining within unit
constraints. This particular opera-
tion shows how AFX catalyst
technology can be applied to take
maximum advantage of a unique,
advanced reactor design with oper-
ational excellence.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Alan Kramer,
FCC Additives Specialist with Albemarle
Corporation, for his valuable contributions to
this article.
References
1 Greensfelder B S, Voge H H, Good G M, Ind.
Eng. Chem., 1949, 41, 2573.
2 Feugnet F, Echard M, Gauthier T, Pilot Plant
Testing for Resid to Propylene, 2009, 8th FCC
Forum, 17.
3 Nieskens M J P C, Maxwell I E, Heinerman
J J L, The assessment of Carbenium-ion and
Radical Cracking in Fluid Catalytic Cracking,
Akzo-workshop The MON of FCC naphtha,
1987, 2.
4 Venuto P B, Habib E T, Fluid Catalytic Cracking
with Zeolite Catalysts, Marcel Dekker, New York,
1979.
5 Plain C, Hyvahl -R2R (RDS-RFCC) The Ideal
Partnership, BBTC Barcelona 2008, 22.
6 Lappas A A, Iatridis D K, Vasalos I A,
Production of Liquid Biofuels in an FCC Pilot
Plant using Waxes produced from Biomass to
Liquid Process (BtL).
7 Pouwels A C, The quintessence of FCC
catalyst design to maximize propylene, ME
Tech 2011, 13.
8 www.uop.com, Rening, Process Technology
and Equipment, RxCatTM FCC Technology,
Process Description.
Jack R Wilcox is the Fluid Catalytic Cracking
Process Specialist in the Applications
Technology group of Albemarle Corporation.
He has over 40 years experience providing
FCC technical services, process development
and design engineering for Rening Process
Services, Akzo-Nobel, Filtrol Catalysts and UOP
Inc. He holds a BS in chemical engineering from
the University of Illinois and is a registered
Professional Engineer in Illinois.
Takuya Amano is a Technical Service
Specialist in the Asia Pacic Renery Catalysts
Technology group of Albemarle Corporation.
He has 14 years experience providing HPC
catalyst production technology and technical
services for Nippon Mining and Japan Energy
Corporation, and six years experience
providing FCC technical services for Albemarle
Corporation. He holds a BS in chemistry from
the Gakushuin University.
Carel Pouwels is the Global FCC Resid
Specialist in the Applications Technology group
of Albemarle Corporation. He has 25 years
experience at Albemarle, predominantly in the
eld of FCC catalysts. His experience includes
the development and application of novel FCC
catalyst technologies and testing equipment.
He holds a degree in chemical engineering
from Delft University of Technology.
Takakazu Matsuura is the General Manager in
Rening Department 2 of Taiyo Oil Co., Ltd and
is responsible for the operation of the resid uid
catalytic cracking (RFCC) complex in Shikoku
Operations. He has over 10 years experience
in process design engineering and seven years
experience in plant operations. Takakazu also
has experience in the construction of RFCC
complexes.
Our new clean-fuels
plant is straining the
auxiliary units!
How can we boost their capacity
without major construction?
Read more on this topic at
www.amistco.com
TO MEET CLEAN FUELS require-
ments for gasoline, a medium-sized
Midwestern renery added a low-
sulfur fuels technology plant. Gasoline
throughput was unchanged. However,
the sharp increase in sulfur removal
required more hydrogen from the
hydrogen unit and sent more sulfur
gases to the amine treaters and
downstream sulfur units. These
auxiliary units became bottlenecks,
overdriven at the cost of product
purity and amine consumption.
On studying the hydrogen, amine, and
sulfur units, ACS-Amistco found many
opportunities for improving separation
efciency and capacity. The problems
were solved without major construction
by applying modern technology to mist
eliminators, liquid-liquid separators,
and tower trays and packing. Results
included haze-free product and
reduced amine consumption. Now a
diesel clean-fuels plant is being added.
Prore: 281-331-595 Fax: 281-585-1Z80
amistco@amistco.com
21-rr Erergercy 3erv|ce: 800-839-3Z1
ACS-AMISTCO
albemarle.indd 10 1/6/12 13:16:31
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exxonmobil.indd 1 1/6/12 11:46:09
Challenges and opportunities of 10 ppm
sulphur gasoline: part 1
T
he worldwide rening indus-
try has undergone a major
transformation in the last
decade due to changes in regula-
tory and market forces, such as
uctuating crude prices, tighter
regulation on product quality and
renery emissions, shifting crude
quality and fundamental changes in
fuel demands. These forces can be
seen clearly in the North American
market, where crude quality has
become heavier due to increasing
amounts of lower-cost heavy, sour
Canadian bitumen and where regu-
lations have become more severe
by limiting the sulphur level in
fuels to 15 wppm in diesel and 30
wppm in gasoline. In addition to
these feed and product quality
changes, the overall demand for
transportation fuels is shifting from
a traditionally gasoline-oriented to
an increasingly diesel-oriented
market.
Regulatory specications for the
gasoline and diesel pool, which are
constantly evolving, have been in
the forefront of reners challenges
in the last 10 years. In particular, the
gasoline sulphur and benzene regu-
lations have been the main drivers
for the recent remodelling of the
renery conguration. This transfor-
mation has been seen all around the
world, but particularly in Europe,
Asia and North America. Other
countries are following the trend
and a common worldwide gasoline
sulphur specication is on the hori-
zon. Indeed, the overall gasoline
sulphur content is likely to level off
at 10 ppm across the globe. As a
consequence, most reners will face
renewed challenges to be able to
meet the new ultra-low-sulphur
Prospect of a worldwide standard for ULSG and the challenges of increased heavy
crude supplies demand careful consideration and selection of renery conguration
DELPHINE LARGETEAU, JAY ROSS, MARC LABORDE and LARRY WISDOM
Axens
gasoline (ULSG) specications.
However, in view of other market
forces, there may also be new oppor-
tunities for reners.
This article will identify these
new opportunities by reviewing the
processing options and conse-
quences of such regulation, focusing
mainly on North American rener-
ies and drawing on the European
and Asian experience of meeting
the 10 ppm ULSG regulations. The
issues, challenges and opportunities
of each option will be presented
and discussed. In a second article, a
detailed economic assessment of
each conguration will be applied
in a case study.
Gasoline sulphur regulation
There has been a steady downward
trend in the sulphur content of fuels
to reduce emissions from cars and
trucks. Many countries mandated
the production of low-sulphur
gasoline (LSG) some time ago, but
in recent years regulations in
Western Europe, some Asian coun-
tries and California in the US have
brought in even tighter specica-
tions to lower the gasoline sulphur
to 10 ppm.
The different regional approaches
to the gasoline sulphur specication
C o u n trie s m a y a p p ly lo we r lim its fo r d iffe re n t g ra d e s, re g io n s/c itie s, o r b a se d o n a ve ra g e c o n te n t.
D iffe re n t in fo rm a tio n o n lim its a n d re g u la tio n s c a n b e fo u n d a t www. ifq c . o rg
Figure 1 Maximum gasoline sulphur limit around the world
Source: International Fuel Quality Center
Region Gasoline sulphur, wppm
Europe: EU 2005 specication 50
EU 2009 specication 10
USA: Tier 2 (2004-2006) 30
CARB 3 (California) 10
2010+ CARB 4 (California) 5
Japan: 2007 specication 10
Current gasoline sulphur specication
Table 1
axens.indd 1 2/6/12 17:26:28
compliance with gasoline sulphur
regulations.
FCC pretreatment vs post-treatment
When the Tier 2 regulations were
proposed, many were convinced
that CFHT would be the solution of
choice due to the resulting large
improvement in FCC performance.
However, the high capital cost
requirement for the FCC pretreat-
ment option coupled with low
refnery margins resulted in the
wide application of FCC post-treat-
ment to reduce gasoline sulphur.
Another factor that can infuence
the decision between pretreatment
and post-treatment is FCC fue gas
emissions. Limits on refnery emis-
sions and in particular those from
the FCC have led to refnery-specifc
regulation via consent decrees with
the EPA, resulting in much lower
SO
x
and NO
x
emissions. The
preferred refnery confguration
may well have been different had
the limits on emissions and product
sulphur been regulated in concert.
More recently, there has been an
important trend towards the process-
ing of increasingly heavier crudes,
in particular heavy Canadian crude
or bitumen. By 2015, there is an
expected increase of about 2 million
b/d of Canadian bitumen, which
will be largely exported to the US as
raw bitumen (DilBit) or synthetic
bitumen (SynBit) after partial
upgrading at the production site.
These very heavy crudes are a chal-
lenge for processing in existing
refnery assets due to a high acid
content (TAN), high aromaticity and
low hydrogen content, along with
very high contaminant content:
sulphur, nitrogen, Conradson carbon
and metals. A sampling of heavy
crude components, which may be
considered potential FCC feed, are
show in Table 2 to highlight the
challenges of processing bitumen-
derived materials.
As a result of these feedstock
trends and a renewed focus on
cleaner fuels, lower emissions and
even a shift in gasoline/diesel
production, the topic of pretreat-
ment versus post-treatment is upon
us again. More specifcally, we will
focus on the pretreat and post-treat
issues around the FCC as it relates
set out in Table 1 show a clear trend
towards ULSG. Other countries are
following the same path to either
meet their domestic regulatory
specifcations or be able to export
and sell on the international ULSG
market (see Figure 1).
Although the majority of coun-
tries still have gasoline sulphur
specifcations well above 10 ppm,
the overall trend clearly shows that
in the near future ULSG production
will become the norm worldwide.
Current refnery confguration
Refnery confgurations vary widely,
depending on crude availability,
local demand, export markets and
regulatory constraints. In the same
way, each market has its own set of
dynamics and means of complying
with the new fuel regulations.
In Europe, regulations for ULSG
were adopted early and somewhat
infuenced by a market demand,
which is more heavily skewed
toward diesel than gasoline. The
options for ULSG compliance were
infuenced by:
Processing of relatively light and
low-sulphur crude oil
Relatively good-quality FCC feed
(little cracked gas oil such as heavy
coker gas oil)
Undercutting of FCC gasoline to
maximise diesel production.
The EUs 10 ppm ULSG is
produced mainly by using moder-
ate severity FCC post-treatment.
Many catalytic feed hydrotreater
(CFHT) units installed in Asian
refneries were designed to meet
modern fuels and emission regula-
tions. As such, many are designed
for high desulphurisation levels to
meet refnery and SO
x
regulations
from the FCC fue gas, resulting
in low-sulphur FCC gasoline.
Consequently, most refneries in
Japan have met the new ULSG limit
of 10 ppm by adding low-severity
post-treatment units.
In the US, the refnery confgura-
tion was infuenced by a large
demand for gasoline coupled with
limited fuel oil outlets, resulting in
the installation of bottom-of-the
barrel conversion units and high
FCC feed sulphur. The US Tier 2
gasoline sulphur and California Air
Resources Board (CARB) regula-
tions led to a sharp increase in the
number of FCC feed pretreatment
and FCC gasoline post-treatment
units over a short period of time
(see Figure 2). Essentially, all of the
US refneries now have pre- and/or
post-treatment units to ensure
2001 2010
P re -tre a t o n ly
P o st-tre a t o n ly
P re - a n d p o st-tre a tm e n t
Figure 2 FCC pretreatment and gasoline post-treatment trend in US refneries
Canadian bitumen Coker HCGO Syn. bitumen Mexican Blend Arabian Light
VGO
API gravity 13 13 18 22 26
Sulphur, wt% 3.3 4-5 1.7 2.2 2.2
Nitrogen, ppm 2100 4000 1500 1000 700
Hydrogen, wt% 10.7 10.5 11.5 11.7 12.4
ATB
API gravity 5.7 9 6 17
Sulphur, wt% 4.9 3.6 3.6 3.1
Nitrogen, ppm 5000 3500 3000 1900
Hydrogen, wt% 9.2 10.8 9.8 11.4
Concarbon, wt% 15.3 11.2 11.6 8.1
Ni + V, ppm 325 200 258 49
FCC feed quality from heavy feeds
Table 2
axens.indd 2 2/6/12 11:36:00
to FCC performance, emissions and
the level of product gasoline post-
treatment required.
FCC pretreatment options
The benefts of FCC feed pretreat-
ment in a CFHT are well known
and extend beyond simply reduc-
ing the sulphur level in the FCC
feed. The reduction in sulphur and
other contaminants is helpful in
terms of reducing the FCC product
sulphur level and lowering the fue
gas emissions from the FCC, but
the interaction with improved feed
quality and increased FCC perform-
ance is also very important.
Environmental regulations, and in
particular the need to produce very
low-sulphur gasoline, have put
increased emphasis on CFHT
performance and reliability.
Concurrently, a lower demand
for fuel oil coupled with the
processing of heavier crudes has
resulted in the installation of resi-
due conversion units such as
delayed cokers. These conversion
units produce signifcant amounts
of hydrogen-defcient, heteroatom-
rich (N and S) vacuum gas oils
(VGO, HCGO), which need to be
deeply hydrotreated prior to
conversion in the FCC unit.
As a result, modern CFHT units
need to process increasingly more
refractory feedstocks while achiev-
ing high desulphurisation levels to
meet gasoline sulphur specifca-
tions. The increased contaminants
also make it more diffcult for the
CFHT to upgrade the quality of the
FCC feed to maintain the required
yield of gasoline and LPG. In addi-
tion to the objective of
hydrodesulphurisation, hydrodeni-
trogenation and polynuclear
aromatics (PNA) saturation, the
processing of cracked stocks in a
CFHT, often with high end-point to
maximise refnery economics,
requires a careful selection of the
catalytic system to take into account
the potential for higher metals
(nickel, vanadium, arsenic, silicon)
and asphaltenes, along with the
higher fouling propensity of these
aromatic-rich feeds.
On the other hand, this problem
can turn into an opportunity to
increase the severity of the CFHT,
not only to meet sulphur targets
but also to change the diesel-to-
gasoline ratio by operating in mild
hydrocracking (MHC) mode and
taking advantage of low-cost natu-
ral gas to further increase volume
swell. These adjustments will
require some modifcations to the
operating conditions, selection of
the optimum catalytic system and
distributor internals, increased
hydrogen consumption and likely
upgrades throughout the unit. One
of the challenges of operating in the
MHC mode is the ability to meet
ultra-low-sulphur diesel (ULSD)
specifcations throughout the MHC
cycle. Moderate-pressure MHC
units generally do not meet the
required diesel specifcations, there-
fore post-treatment is required. One
option to meet this challenge is the
HyC-10 technology developed by
Axens to integrate diesel upgrading
within the MHC high-pressure loop
while decoupling operating condi-
tions.
1,2
Another important factor in
MHC/CFHT design is the ability to
maintain desulphurisation targets
while meeting optimum VGO qual-
ity throughout the cycle length.
In conclusion, a deep understand-
ing of the feedstock type and the
chemical reactions involved in a
CFHT (kinetics, thermodynamics,
contamination/poisoning) coupled
with their impact on the FCC oper-
ation is paramount to selecting
optimum CFHT operating condi-
tions and design of the optimum
catalyst system. The following
section will examine the infuence
of the CFHT operation on the FCC
units performance.
Impact of CFHT on FCC performance
The FCC unit has long been the
workhorse in the refnery to achieve
relatively low-cost conversion of
heavy crude components (VGO,
HCGO and some atmospheric resi-
due) into gasoline, butenes for
high-octane alkylate production,
propylene and LCO diesel blend
components. Although the chemis-
try and catalyst systems can be
complex, generally speaking the
FCC unit is a hydrogen redistribu-
tion system with some carbon
rejection as coke, which is consumed
in the process. The performance of
the FCC unit and the yield of valua-
ble products is therefore linked to
the hydrogen content of the feed.
This trend is shown in Figure 3,
where the conversion potential and
gasoline yield increase sharply with
the hydrogen content of the feed.
The CFHT therefore plays a vital
role in improving the FCC feed
quality to enhance the yield and
overall refnery proftability. As the
feed contaminants of sulphur and
nitrogen are reduced to improve
product quality and reduce FCC
emissions, multi-ring aromatics are
saturated and the crackability of the
feed increases. Sharp gains in
conversion and gasoline yield result
from the frst incremental increase
in hydrogen and there is some
degree of diminishing returns (see
Figure 3). When propylene yield is
of interest, the increased hydrogen
6 5
8 5
8 0
7 5
7 0
6 0
5 5
5 0
4 5
4 0
1 0 . 5 1 1 . 0 1 1 . 5 1 2 . 0 1 2 . 5 1 3 . 0 1 3 . 5
w
t
%
Feed hydrogen, wt %
3 5
1 2
2 0
1 8
1 6
1 4
1 0
8
6
4
2
w
t
%
0
P
r
o
p
y
le
n
e
p
o
t
e
n
t
ia
l
F u e l o il
C o n ve rsio n
G a so lin e
Figure 3 FCC yield vs feed hydrogen content
axens.indd 3 2/6/12 11:36:13
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signifcantly help control the
sulphur level when producing
ULSG, as is done in Europe.
Considering the dependence of
FCC gasoline on both CFHT
performance and precise fractiona-
tion of the gasoline product,
meeting ULSG targets through
CFHT alone is possible but chal-
lenging. There will be little room
for error or deterioration in CFHT
performance over the course of a
production run or cycle.
input is always benefcial, and in
many cases high hydrogen input
can be justifed, particularly when
hydrogen is relatively inexpensive.
3
As the severity of the CFHT
increases, there is also the opportu-
nity for co-produced diesel in the
CFHT via mild hydrocracking to
shift the overall refnery balance
between gasoline and diesel.
Defning the optimal balance
between severity, hydrogen input,
cracking and FCC mode of opera-
tion within the existing constraints
of a refnery confguration is there-
fore very complex.
Within the context of ULSG, the
more traditional role of the CFHT
to consider is that of desulphurisa-
tion and the impact on the FCC
gasoline produced. As the sulphur
content in the FCC unit feed
decreases and the extent of feed
hydrotreating increases, the types
of sulphur left in the FCC feed alter
and the amount of sulphur found
in the gasoline decreases. Figure 4
shows this general trend for feeds
that are hydrotreated and for non-
hydrotreated feeds of varying
sulphur content.
If one were to target the new
ULSG pool sulphur level of 10 ppm,
the CFHT must reduce the feed
sulphur to about 200-300 ppm,
considering a ratio of between 20:1
and 30:1 of the hydrotreated feed
sulphur to the gasoline sulphur.
This will be true even if we consider
that the FCC gasoline is only about
one-third of the pool and the other
blend stocks are nearly sulphur-
free, as refners will leave some
margin below 10 ppm to ensure
compliance.
When looking at the sulphur in
FCC gasoline, one needs to be very
clear about the gasoline cut point
and the distillation tail on the
produced gasoline product. In
Figure 5, we can see a carefully
analysed commercial FCC gasoline
and the cumulative full-range gaso-
line sulphur versus true boiling
point (TBP).
Figure 5 clearly demonstrates the
importance of defning the gasoline
boiling range when discussing the
sulphur level. In the US market,
gasoline has been traditionally
over-cut relative to the standard
430F (220C) cut and often
extended to 450-480F (230-250C),
thereby including not only benzo-
thiophene but also some
methyl-benzothiophenes in the
gasoline. These compounds enter
the gasoline cut just at the standard
cut point and complicate accurate
measurement of gasoline sulphur
from non-ideal industrial samples.
With the increased interest in distil-
late production, undercutting the
gasoline to less than 430F will
Table 5
6 0
1 0 0
8 0
4 0
2 0
2 5 5 0 7 5 1 0 0 1 2 5 1 5 0 1 7 5 2 0 0 2 2 5 2 5 0
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

s
u
l
p
h
u
r
,

%
Temperat ure, C
0
T h io p h e n e
C 1 -T h io p h e n e
C 2 -T h io p h e n e
B e n zo -
T h io p h e n e
A lk yl-B e n zo -
T h io p h e n e
S
S
M e rc a p ta n s
Figure 5 FCC gasoline sulphur profle
Typical Feed sulphur, wppm Product sulphur, wppm
Western Europe 200-1000 10-20
North America 500-2000 30-50
California 100-300 10-20
South America 500-2000 30-100
Japan/Korea 50-200 10
FCC gasoline post-treatment unit design
Table 3
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0
0 . 0 1 0 . 1 1 1 0
G
a
s
o
l
i
n
e

S
,

w
t

p
p
m
Feed sul phur, wt %
1
H yd ro tre a te d
S tra ig h t ru n
Figure 4 FCC gasoline sulphur vs feed sulphur and treatment
axens.indd 4 2/6/12 17:27:18
FCC post-treatment options to
meet ULSG
In order to comply with low-
sulphur gasoline regulations, a
majority of refners across the world
have already invested in a FCC
post-treatment unit. However,
processing schemes vary greatly
from one site to another, depending
on sulphur specifcation, overall
refnery confguration and crude
diet (see Table 3).
Most refneries in California and
Japan are equipped with FCC feed
pretreaters, which explains the low
sulphur level in FCC naphtha.
Conversely, FCC naphtha sulphur
tends to be high in the Americas,
and high-severity post-treaters will
be required to meet the 10 ppm
gasoline sulphur target.
The Prime-G+ process selectively
desulphurises FCC full-range naph-
tha (FRCN) while ensuring minimal
octane loss. It is a widely used
cracked gasoline desulphurisation
technology, with over 190 licensed
units throughout the world.
4
The
technology has proven to be highly
fexible, with several Prime-G+
processing schemes offered accord-
ing to the targeted severity of the
unit (see Figure 6).
Exploiting existing Prime-G+ units
Depending on the existing Prime-
G+ confguration, meeting new
ULSG regulations at 10 ppm while
using the existing assets could be
achieved in different ways. First,
one potential solution that does not
require any additional investment
would be to simply increase sever-
ity (essentially reactor temperature)
to lower the existing Prime-G+
product sulphur. The increased
HDS level would lead to a higher
octane loss and hydrogen consump-
tion, coupled with a potential cycle
length reduction. Switching to
higher selectivity and activity
Prime-G+ catalysts may help miti-
gate these drawbacks, but could
prove insuffcient in many cases.
Another solution would involve
the co-processing of other sulphur-
rich streams in the Prime-G+ unit
that previously did not require any
treatment to meet the earlier
sulphur specifcations. The streams
could be light such as light coker
naphtha or visbroken naphtha that
can be handled in the frst step
(selective hydrogenation unit
SHU and splitter section). Light,
straight-run naphtha, natural gaso-
line could also be co-processed
either in the SHU upstream of the
splitter or directly in the HDS
section. One of the drawbacks of
co-processing is possible hydraulics
limitations in the unit. In addition,
SHU HDT
ULSG
FCC
FRN
Low/moderate HDS
P rim e -G +1 -sta g e H D S
Moderate/high HDS
SHU
HDT
1&2
ULSG
FCC
FRN
P rim e -G +2 -sta g e H D S
SHU
HDT
ULSG
FCC
FRN
P rim e -G +1 st ste p S H U & sp litte r / 1 -sta g e H D S
Very high HDS
SHU
HDT
1&2
ULSG
FCC
FRN
P rim e -G +1 st ste p S H U & sp litte r / 2 -sta g e H D S
Figure 6 Prime-G+ processing schemes
axens.indd 5 2/6/12 11:36:41
adding sulphur-rich streams could
lead to a higher HDS level coupled
with a higher octane loss and,
again, the potential for a reduced
cycle length.
An alternative option would be to
decrease the Prime-G+ feed sulphur
to maintain a similar HDS level
across the unit to ensure constant
octane loss and cycle length.
Lowering the feed sulphur could be
achieved in different ways. The
short-term solutions would be to
use sulphur reduction additives in
the FCC unit or to process low-
sulphur crudes. Both of these
options have limitations and are
generally not practical for a signif-
cant sulphur reduction without a
heavy penalty on refnery fexibil-
ity. More realistically, a reduction
in the FCC naphtha end-point or
changes in the CFHT could be envi-
sioned to reduce the sulphur in the
FCC naphtha. In Western Europe, it
is common to reduce the FCC naph-
tha end-point, as it also maximises
diesel production to meet market
demand.
Revamping FCC post-treatment
units
As most refneries are equipped
with a FCC post-treatment unit to
control gasoline sulphur, it is
instructive to take a closer look at
the revamping options around the
selective FCC naphtha desulphuri-
sation unit to meet the new ULSG
requirements. There are a number
of ways to revamp an existing
sation unit to meet tighter sulphur
specifcations, which display differ-
ent levels of complexity and
associated cost:
Option 1: Install a Prime-G+ frst
step if not existing
Option 2: Add a SHU (selective
hydrogenation unit) or HDS reactor
if the cycle length is a limitation for
the new product sulphur target
Option 3: Route the medium cata-
lytic naphtha (MCN) cut to the
NHT/reformer
Option 4: Process the medium
catalytic naphtha (MCN) and the
heavy catalytic naphtha (HCN)
streams separately
Option 5: Install a second-stage
HDS section.
In option 1, the installation of a
FCC naphtha splitter downstream
of the existing (or new) SHU is the
Prime-G+ frst step. The SHU oper-
ating conditions and catalyst design
allow for the selective hydrogena-
tion of diolefns, which may foul
the desulphurisation section, and
also the conversion of light sulphur
species such as mercaptans to heavy
boiling sulphur compounds. As a
result of the chemical reactions
taking place in the SHU, the down-
stream splitter produces a sweet,
low-sulphur, light catalytic naphtha
(LCN) stream rich in olefns and a
heavy FCC naphtha (HCN), which
is routed to the HDS section. Such
a HCN stream with its lower olefns
content can be selectively desul-
phurised through the use of tailored
catalysts to meet the ULSG target
while controlling olefns saturation
and thus octane loss. Addition of
the splitter reduces the throughput
to the HDS section and hydrogen
consumption. This solution also
allows the co-processing of other
streams containing sulphur, such as
coker naphtha, visbroken naphtha,
straight-run naphtha or natural
gasoline.
For option 2, the addition of a
SHU upstream of an existing split-
ter will produce a sweet
low-sulphur LCN stream and
provide benefts similar to those
described in option 1. In case cycle
length becomes limited, implemen-
tation of an additional HDS reactor
in series with the existing one can
be envisioned. Options 1 and 2 are
easy to implement and lead to
moderate capital expenditure. The
typical block fow diagram of
Option 3 is shown in Figure 7.
This option involves revamping
the existing splitter into a three-cut
column in order to withdraw a
heart cut (MCN) rich in olefns that
contains some sulphur and exhibits
a moderate octane number (espe-
cially MON). The MCN is then
mixed with the normal feed to the
NHT unit and reformer unit.
Sending the MCN to the reformer
will lead to a gasoline octane gain.
However, there may be limitations
in terms of capacity for both NHT
and reformer sections that need to
be carefully assessed and taken into
account for the evaluation of the
overall revamp cost. In addition,
potential increased benzene produc-
tion in the reformer could lead to
issues in meeting the MSAT II gaso-
line benzene specifcations. The
addition of an integrated reformate
splitter/benzene hydrogenation
(Benfree) resolves this issue.
5

While this solution offers some
advantages in terms of octane, the
decreased gasoline yield should
also be considered. Overall, this
option may be attractive, but has
more implications than just making
modifcations to the existing FCC
post-treatment section.
NHT
Prime-G+
Reformer
S R N
H C N
F R C N
L C N
M C N
H C N
C o k e r N
Isom
Splitter
Splitter
Benfree
MoGas
pool
Figure 7 FCC naphtha heart cut (MCN) to reformer
axens.indd 6 2/6/12 11:36:54
Decoupling of the MCN and
HCN can also be utilised to treat
these streams in two separate selec-
tive HDS sections. This is option 4
and is illustrated in Figure 8.
This innovative and patented
scheme by Axens has the additional
advantage of offering greater exi-
bility to route the desulphurised
HCN either to the MoGas or diesel
pool, according to the economics of
the renery.
6
Both MCN and HCN
selective HDS sections are designed
to minimise octane loss while
achieving 10 ppm product sulphur.
Compared to the previous option,
option 4 incurs more revamping
costs, as a new MCN HDS section
needs to be installed. But the addi-
tional cost could be easily offset by
the improved octane retention
compared to treating the combined
MCN and HCN in a single one-
stage selective HDS section at ULSG
levels and by the additional exibil-
ity that this option offers.
The last option explored here,
option 5, is the inclusion of a
second-stage HDS section to mini-
mise octane loss and maintain or
even increase the catalyst cycle
length. The typical block ow
diagram is shown in Figure 9.
Although the splitter is shown here
upstream of the HDS section, Axens
also has experience of designing a
two-stage HDS section on full-range
FCC naphtha with no upstream
splitter.
In a typical one-stage HDS cong-
uration, olens saturation, and thus
octane loss, increases rapidly above
98% HDS. At a high HDS level, the
addition of a second-stage HDS
section helps improve octane reten-
tion and minimise hydrogen
consumption.
Several Prime-G+ units have been
designed for two-stage operation
and many are in operation.
Although this option requires addi-
tional capital investment, there is a
real incentive to pursue this solu-
tion when the renery is octane
tight or hydrogen constrained.
These options provide commer-
cially proven solutions for reners
to meet new ULSG specications
with existing or modied post-
treatment units. In view of the low
renery margins and octane-long
position resulting from the ethanol
mandate, the debottlenecking of a
sation unit will likely be the
preferred solution for many ren-
ers, assuming no signicant changes
in their crude diet.
A number of reners are,
however, envisioning the process-
ing of heavy crudes such as those
derived from Canadian oil sands
due to their lower cost coupled
with geopolitical reasons. Processing
of these heavy crudes requires a
complete renery reconguration
with bottom-of-the-barrel conver-
sion units such as coking or
ebullated-bed hydrocracking. As
was discussed earlier, the resulting
VGO and HCGO streams are very
refractory with high levels of
sulphur and nitrogen and a very
low hydrogen content. Such feeds
require deep pretreatment prior to
feeding the FCC unit to maintain
acceptable yields. Since FCC
pretreatment (CFHT) is mandatory
in those cases, one may wonder
whether a post-treatment unit is
required or not. In a second article,
an economic evaluation will illus-
trate the pros and cons of FCC
pretreatment only or in combina-
tion with post-treatment.
Conclusion
North American reneries need to
adapt to tightening sulphur speci-
cations and the prospect of ULSG
at 10 ppm. This challenge will be
exacerbated by the increased
proportion of heavy crudes and the
gasoline/diesel imbalance. This
article has presented commercially
proven congurations that are
available to meet these constraints
and maintain protability. A combi-
nation of pre- and post-treatment
Prime-G+
selective
hydrogenation
SHU
Splitter
F R C N
H
2
m a k e -u p
H C N
1 5 0 F +
U ltra -lo w-su lp h u r
g a so lin e to M o G a s
H
2
S
1st stage
HDS
2nd stage
HDS
U ltra -lo w S L C N to P o o l,
TA M E o r A lk y U n it
Prime-G+
selective
hydrogenation
SHU
Splitter
F R C N
MCN
HDS
HCN
HDS
Process
integration
U ltra -lo w S L C N to P o o l,
TA M E o r A lk y U n it
U L S M C N :
1 5 0 -3 0 0 F to M o G a s
U L S H C N :
3 0 0 F -F B P to
M o G a s o r d ie se l
Figure 8 Decoupling MCN and HCN processing
Figure 9 Revamp of Prime-G+ HDS into two-stage conguration
axens.indd 7 2/6/12 11:37:12
may be necessary, depending on the initial refnery
confguration, local market demands, emissions regula-
tions and the crudes processed.
A second article will present a detailed economic
evaluation to allow comparison of the costs and returns
between the FCC feed pretreatment alone and post-
treatment options, as well as the optimum
desulphurisation and cycle length for the CFHT when
considered in combination with a post-treatment.
These confgurations will be applied in the context of a
refnery being revamped to process heavy Canadian
crudes and maintaining its FCC unit. The VGO feed-
stock considered for this economic evaluation will be a
55 000 b/d blend of straight-run VGO and heavy coker
gas oil with 4.2 wt% sulphur.
Acknowledgement
The paper was frst presented at the 2011 AFPM (or NPRA) Annual
Meeting.
References
1 Bonnardot J, et al, Direct Production of Euro-IV Diesel at 10 pm Sulphur
via the HyC-10 Process, ERTC 9th Annual Meeting, Nov 2004.
2 Sarrazin P, et al, New mild hydrocracking route produces 10-ppm-
sulphur diesel, Hydrocarbon Processing, Feb 2005.
3 Roux R, et al, Resid to Petrochemicals Technology, ERTC 13th Annual
Meeting, Nov 2008.
4 Debuisschert Q, Prime-G+ Commercial Performance of FCC Naphtha
Desulphurization Technology, AM-03-26, NPRA Annual Meeting, Mar
2006.
5 Largeteau D, et al, Benzene Management in a MSAT 2 Environment,
AM-08-11, NPRA Annual Meeting, Mar 2008.
6 Debuisschert Q, et al, Technology Solutions addressing gasoline and
diesel imbalances, Platts European Refning Market 4th Annual Meeting,
Sept 2010.
Delphine Largeteau is Technology Manager for Olefns & Light Oil
Hydroprocessing, Axens. She joined Axens in 1998 as Process Engineer
and moved to the North American offce in November 2001, where
she served as Proposal & Technology Engineer, focusing on light ends
and Prime-G+ technologies, before attaining her current position. She
holds a degree in chemical engineering from Universit Technologique
de Compigne (UTC) in France and a masters in refning, engineering
and gas from the IFP School.
Jay Ross is a Technology and Marketing Manager covering the feld of
transportation fuels, including FCC, catalytic reforming, isomerisation
and biodiesel production. He has over 30 years of experience in the
refning and petrochemical industry, including process engineering
design, R&D, licensing and technical assistance. He holds a degree in
chemical engineering from Princeton University. He has served on the
NPRA and ERTC expert panels, and has authored several patents and
numerous technical papers and articles. He is currently stationed in
Singapore.
Marc Laborde is Strategic Marketing Engineer in Axens Marketing
Department. After a frst experience with ExxonMobil, he joined
Axens in 2010 at his current position. He holds a degree in chemical
engineering from Ecole Nationale Suprieure de Chimie in Caen and a
masters in refning, engineering and gas from the IFP School.
www.eptq.com
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Natural gas fuels the integration of
refning and petrochemicals
R
ising oil prices and weak fuel
demand in the recent past
have had a signifcant impact
on gross refnery margin (GRM).
Historical data show that refneries
with bottom-of-the-barrel process-
ing facilities and an integrated
petrochemicals complex have
performed well to stay ahead of the
competition because of their greater
fexibility to maintain a healthy
GRM. A robust refnery confgura-
tion that is fexible enough to
process a variety of crudes, includ-
ing diffcult opportunity crudes,
along with an integrated petro-
chemicals complex is key to
sustaining a healthy GRM.
However, simple integration of a
refnery and a petrochemicals
complex may not be enough.
Integration should be smart enough
to address volatility in the market
by ensuring a healthy GRM and
minimising environmental impact
by reducing carbon footprint. Use
of natural gas fuel addresses this
issue to some extent by enabling
the recovery of valuable compo-
nents from refnery off-gases and
facilitating the release of a good
quantity of naphtha for the genera-
tion of a valuable petrochemicals
feedstock. It also enables the
production of more middle distil-
late from bottom-of-the-barrel
processing and helps reduce the
carbon footprint of the overall
complex. The price differential
between crude and natural gas,
especially in countries where natu-
ral gas is readily available, makes
the use of gas a hugely proftable
proposition. Even in countries
where both natural gas and crude
are imported, there is a case for gas
Maximising the use of natural gas in a refnery-petrochemicals complex offers
higher margins and lower carbon emissions
TanMay TaRaphdaR, pRaveen yadav and M K e pRasad
Technip KT India
that needs to be looked into. This
article aims to explore various
options available to refners to
enhance their GRM and reduce
their carbon footprint through the
use of natural gas.
Refnery fuel consumption and
generation
A refnery consumes fuel gas and
fuel oil produced from various
refnery processes. No supplemen-
tary fuel is required for refnery
operation. Generally, naphtha is
used as feed and fuel for the hydro-
gen generation unit and gas
turbines. A typical fuel consump-
tion pattern in a refnery is shown
in Figure 1.
Fired heaters in various process
units consume about 40-50% of fuel.
The utility system, including boilers
and gas turbines, consumes about
30-40% of fuel and the hydrogen
generation unit consumes about 15-
20% of fuel. The contribution of the
hydrogen generation unit includes
both feed and fuel. Typically, a
refnery with secondary processing
facilities such as fuid catalytic
cracking (FCC) and hydrocracking
consumes about 8-10 wt% of crude
throughput as fuel, including naph-
tha used in the hydrogen generation
unit and gas turbines. If the refnery
is integrated with a petrochemicals
complex, which is highly energy
consuming, fuel consumption is
signifcantly higher. This fuel
requirement is satisfed by fuel oil
and fuel gas generated from vari-
ous process units.
Fuel oil is mainly generated from
the vacuum distillation unit and the
FCC units main fractionator
bottoms in the absence of bottom-
of-the-barrel processing facilities in
the refnery. Vacuum residue is
generally taken through a
visbreaker unit to produce fuel oil.
Generation of fuel oil can vary
between 5 and 50% of feed to the
vacuum distillation unit, depending
upon the type of crude processed,
while fuel oil from the FCC units
main fractionator bottoms can vary
between 4 and 6 wt% of the FCC
units feed.
H yd ro g e n p la n t
U tilitie s
P ro c e ss h e a te rs
Figure 1 Fuel consumption pattern in a refnery
technip.indd 1 1/6/12 14:19:33
distillate from the refnery.
Additional naphtha generated from
the delayed coker can be used as
feedstock for the naphtha cracker.
Moreover, off-gas from the delayed
coker contains good amounts of
ethylene, ethane and propylene.
Ethylene and propylene can be
recovered and used as petrochemi-
cals feedstock after suitable
treatment for the removal of impu-
rities, while ethane can be sent to a
steam cracker for the production of
petrochemicals feedstocks. Thus,
replacing fuel oil with natural gas
not only eliminates low-value fuel
oil generation, but also enhances
refnery and petrochemicals integra-
tion along with high-value middle
distillate production. This changeo-
ver, replacing fuel oil by natural
gas in the existing fred heaters,
requires careful evaluation of the
thermal, mechanical and hydraulic
adequacy of existing hardware,
particularly with respect to burners,
tube metallurgy, refractory, air
preheater systems and so on.
Natural gas as feed and fuel for
steam reforming
Hydrogen is one of the most impor-
tant utilities in the refnery. It is
required to remove impurities,
including sulphur and nitrogen,
from various refnery products and
intermediate streams. Hydrogen is
produced mainly by the steam
reforming of naphtha. The hydro-
gen requirement varies widely,
depending on the crude processed
and the refnerys product
specifcations.
Typically, four tons of naphtha
are required as feed and fuel to
produce one ton of hydrogen, while
about 3.5 tons of natural gas are
required to produce one ton of
hydrogen. Use of natural gas as
feed and fuel for the hydrogen
plant will release a good quantity
of naphtha. This naphtha can be
utilised further for producing value-
added petrochemical feedstocks. A
switch from naphtha to natural gas
requires certain modifcations in
various sections of the hydrogen
generation unit:
Feed pumping/compression and
preheating Naphtha pumps, naph-
tha vaporisers and superheaters are
A typical contribution of fuel gas
generation from various process
units of a refnery using Arabian
Heavy and Arabian Light crude
mix is shown in Figure 2. Delayed
coker, FCC unit, gasoline block
(catalytic reforming unit with isom-
erisation or alkylation), crude
distillation unit and hydrocracker/
hydrotreaters (naphtha, kerosene,
diesel and VGO) contribute typi-
cally about 40%, 16%, 17%, 2% and
25% respectively towards fuel gas
generation from the refnery.
Many modern refneries have an
integrated petrochemicals complex
to improve proftability. A signif-
cant amount of fuel gas is also
generated from the naphtha cracker
complex, while a small amount of
fuel gas is generated from the
aromatics complex (excluding the
catalytic reforming unit). Typically,
about 16-17 wt% of feed is
converted into fuel gas in the
ethane cracker, while about 17-18
wt% of feed is converted into fuel
gas in the naphtha cracker. Fuel oil
generation from the ethane cracker
is negligible, but it can be as high
as 10 wt% of feed for the naphtha
cracker.
A petrochemicals complex is also
a major energy consumer. A steam
cracker consumes lot of power in
its cracked gas compressors and
refrigeration compressors. Typically,
600-620 kWh of power is required
for one ton of ethylene production.
Generally, a naphtha cracker is a
net exporter of fuel gas and fuel oil,
while an ethane cracker is a net
consumer of fuel gas. A paraxylene
complex is a net consumer of fuel
gas/fuel oil and power. About 0.3
tons of fuel gas and 320-360 kWh of
power are required for one ton of
paraxylene production. Refnery
products such as fuel gas, fuel oil,
naphtha and diesel are used to
satisfy the fuel and power require-
ment of the steam cracker and
aromatics complex. Natural gas can
be utilised as fuel for an integrated
r ef i ner y- cum- pet r ochemi cal s
complex while maintaining fexible
product objectives.
Use of natural gas in the refnery
Natural gas or regasifed liquid
natural gas can be used in a refn-
ery for various purposes:
Fuel for process and utility heat-
ers, replacing fuel oil
Feed and fuel for the hydrogen
generation unit, replacing naphtha
Fuel for gas turbines, replacing
naphtha
Fuel for process heaters, replacing
fuel gas.
Each of these cases will be
discussed in detail.
Natural gas as fuel for process and
utility heaters, replacing fuel oil
Use of natural gas as a fuel to
replace fuel oil provides the oppor-
tunity to either reduce or eliminate
fuel oil generation from the refnery
by utilising bottom-of-the-barrel
processing technology. So far, the
delayed coker unit is one of the
most economical options for this
type of processing. Other technolo-
gies that are available and used
presently offer lower yields of
distillates and do not eliminate fuel
oil generation completely. New
technology such as slurry hydroc-
racking, which is on the verge of
commercialisation, promises to offer
a better distillate yield and mini-
mum residue generation. However,
our discussion is restricted to the
delayed coker, since it has a proven
operational track record. Typically,
a distillate yield (combining naph-
tha and diesel) of about 65% is
obtained from the delayed coker,
which may result in 10-12% more
M S b lo c k , 1 7 %
D C U , 4 0 %
F C C U , 1 6 %
C D U , 2 %
H C U & H D Ts, 2 5 %
Figure 2 Fuel gas generation in a refnery
technip.indd 2 1/6/12 14:19:45
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not required, while a natural gas
compressor may be required
Hydrodesulphurisation If regasi-
fed liquid natural gas is used as
feedstock, pre-desulphurisation is
not required due to the very low
sulphur content of the feed.
Additionally, natural gas is olefn
free, so there will be no threat from
olefns to the reformer catalyst
Reformer fring The stoichiometric
air requirement will be changed due
to the change in the hydrogen-to-
carbon ratio of the fuel, which will
call for burner tip modifcations
High-temperature shift reaction,
steam generation and pressure swing
adsorption A lower load on the
high-temperature shift reactor and
lower steam generation due to less
fring are to be expected. Pressure
swing adsorption is generally not
affected by this change-over.
Replacing naphtha with natural
gas as feed and fuel for the hydro-
gen plant not only helps the refners
to produce more valuable products
but also helps to reduce the carbon
footprint of the refnery. Typically,
the changeover from naphtha to
natural gas will help refners to
reduce CO
2
emissions from the
hydrogen generation unit by 25%.
Natural gas as fuel for gas turbines
The gas turbine is the main work-
horse for power generation in the
refnery. A part of the power
requirement of the refnery is satis-
fed by steam turbines utilising the
cogeneration potential to generate
various levels of steam required in
the refnery. The balance part of
the power requirement is satisfed
by gas turbines. Generally, naph-
tha is used as fuel for gas turbines.
Typically, 0.25 tons of naphtha is
required to generate 1 MWh of
power from a gas turbine. When
naphtha is replaced by natural gas
as fuel for a gas turbine, it releases
a signifcant amount of naphtha
which can further be utilised for
valuable product generation.
About 0.2 tons of natural gas are
required for 1 MWh of power
generation. This switchover also
helps refners to reduce CO
2
emis-
sions from a gas turbine by
25-30%.
Natural gas as fuel for fred heaters,
replacing fuel gas
Fuel gas is mainly generated from
the following refnery sources:
Saturated gas from the crude
distillation unit
Off-gases from hydrodesulphuri-
sation/hydrotreating units: naphtha
hydrotreater, kerosene hydrotreater,
diesel hydrotreater and vacuum gas
oil hydrotreater
Off-gas from the catalytic reform-
ing unit
Off-gas from the FCC unit
Off-gas from the hydrocracking
unit
Off-gas from the delayed coker
unit
Aromatics complex
Naphtha cracker complex.
Typical off-gas yields from vari-
ous refnery units, the aromatics
complex and the naphtha cracker
complex are shown in Figure 3.
Total fuel gas generation from the
refnery accounts for about 8-10
wt% of crude throughput, whereas
on integration with a naphtha
cracker and aromatics complex it
can be as high as 15 wt% of crude
throughput.
Table 1 shows the valuable
components present in off-gases
from various refnery process units,
an aromatics complex and a steam
cracker complex.
A refnery that is processing
crudes with light ends typically has
a saturated gas unit to recover LPG.
Figure 3 Units producing refnery off-gases
CDU
NHT
CRU
Cracker
Aromatics
HCU
FCCU
KHT
DHT
VDU
DCU
VGO
HDT
C ru d e
o il
0 -2
Yie ld ,
wt% o f fe e d 0 . 5 1 2 3 4 -5 1 0 -1 2 2 -3 3 -4 1 6 -1 8 5
Fuel gas pool
technip.indd 3 2/6/12 17:31:34
sation of the C
5
naphtha stream.
However, if we use the C
5
stream
to produce valuable products (such
as ethylene and propylene) in a
steam cracker, an alkylation unit
can be considered for octane boost-
ing. Isobutane reacts with olefns
such as propylene and iso-butylene
to produce alkylates in the presence
of solid or liquid catalyst in an
alkylation unit. Generally, FCC C
4
cut is a good feedstock to produce
alkylates with a RON of 92 and
above.
A signifcant quantity of ethylene
and propylene can be recovered
from FCC and coker off-gases. In
addition, ethane and propane
recovered from saturated gases
from the crude distillation unit and
from FCC and coker off-gases can
be utilised to produce ethylene and
propylene by processing in a steam
cracker. Hence, the steam cracker
can be designed as a dual feed
cracker (both liquid and gas) to
take advantage of off-gases and
any surplus naphtha, leading to
more fexibility of operation. A
Technip-designed steam cracker is
capable of taking any feed, from
ethane to gas oil, providing a great
deal of fexibility. Spyro from
Technip is frst principle-based
software capable of predicting
yield and run length accurately for
any feed. It is used by ethylene
producers worldwide to monitor
and control cracking furnace
performance.
A great deal of synergy exists
between the refnery, aromatics
complex and steam cracker
complex. Off-gases from the FCC
However, saturated off-gas from
this unit, primarily consisting of
methane and ethane, still contains
some propane. Ethane and propane
from saturated gas unit off-gas can
be recovered in a cryogenic separa-
tion unit after suitable purifcation
and can be fed to the steam cracker
for the production of ethylene and
propylene.
Hydrogen recovery from refnery
off-gases is an important factor in
reducing the size of an on-purpose
hydrogen generation unit. This can
be achieved by developing a hydro-
gen balance model across the
refnery, identifying the constraints/
fexibility of hydrogen usage, and
hydrogen pinch analysis for possi-
ble alternatives of hydrogen reuse
from off-gases. It should be noted
that a careful techno-economic
evaluation is required before imple-
menting any project for hydrogen
recovery from off-gases. The reason
behind is that, on the one hand, it
reduces the size of the hydrogen
generation unit and thus CO
2
emis-
sions, while, on the other hand, it
degrades the quality of off-gases in
terms of calorifc value and reduces
the opportunity to burn hydrogen
to reduce CO
2
emissions. However,
for a larger hydrogen contributor, a
dedicated recovery system is justi-
fed. A catalytic reformer is one
such source for hydrogen recovery.
Technip has developed a dedicated
tool called HyN.DT for hydrogen
management to help refners opti-
mise hydrogen recovery and the
size of on-purpose hydrogen gener-
ation units.
Off-gas from the FCC unit and
delayed coking units contains a
good quantity of ethane, ethylene,
propylene and some propane.
Separate recovery of ethylene and
propylene through cryogenic sepa-
ration after suitable treatment may
be economical if the quantity of gas
is signifcant. Otherwise, a
combined recovery section with a
cracker complex may be considered.
Ethane and propane separated from
off-gases are sent to the cracker for
further production of ethylene and
propylene.
Recovery of valuable components
such as hydrogen, ethylene and
ethane from off-gases signifcantly
reduces the available fuel gas in the
refnery, leading to a requirement
for an external fuel such as natural
gas. In other words, the use of
natural gas as fuel for the refnery
will help to recover valuable
components from off-gases, leading
to enhanced refnery proftability. A
changeover from fuel gas to natural
gas needs careful evaluation of
existing hardware, especially fred
heaters, with respect to thermal,
mechanical and hydraulic
adequacy.
Synergies between refning and
petrochemicals production
Use of natural gas as refnery fuel
unleashes a host of opportunities in
terms of synergies between a refn-
ery and petrochemicals complex.
The availability of full-range naph-
tha (C
5
-165C cut) as a result of
utilising natural gas for steam
reforming and gas turbines can be
fruitfully used as feedstock for a
petrochemicals complex. From this
full-range naphtha, a portion of
naphtha (light naphtha, mainly C
5
)
can be utilised in a steam cracker
for the production of ethylene and
propylene, while C
7
-C
9
cut naphtha
can be utilised for the production of
aromatics such as benzene, toluene
and paraxylene. The middle cut can
be blended in the gasoline pool.
Recent specifcations of gasoline
limit the aromatics content in gaso-
line, thus restricting the blending of
reformate in the gasoline pool and
leading to the use of alternate
octane boosters such as isomerate
and alkylate. Octane booster
isomerate is produced by isomeri-
Source Yield, wt% of feed
CDU 0-2 Depending on presence of light ends in crude, source
for ethane
CRU 10-12 Source for hydrogen
FCCU 3-4 Source for ethane and ethylene
DCU 4-5 Source for ethane and ethylene
HCU 2-3 Used as fuel gas primarily
NHT 0.5 Used as fuel gas primarily
KHT 1 Used as fuel gas primarily
DHDT 2 Used as fuel gas primarily
VGO HDT 3 Used as fuel gas primarily
Aromatics complex
(excluding catalytic reforming) 5 Used as fuel gas primarily
Steam cracker complex 16-18 Source for hydrogen
Refnery off-gases with valuable components
Table 1
technip.indd 4 2/6/12 17:31:48
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Process
Optimizing CO
2
Capture,
Dehydration and
Compression Facilities
Insight:
The removal of CO
2
by liquid absorbents is widely implemented in the
le|d ol gas process|rg, crer|ca| producl|or, ard coa| gas|lcal|or. Vary poWer p|arls
are |oo||rg al posl-corousl|or C0
2
recovery lo reel erv|rorrerla| regu|al|ors ard
lo produce C0
2
lor errarced o|| recovery app||cal|ors. Tre lgure oe|oW |||uslrales
aclua| dala ol lue| corsurpl|or |r 2005 ard ar esl|rale ol erergy derard lor
var|ous lue|s lror 2010 lo 2030. Tre Wor|d erergy derard W||| |||e|y |rcrease
al rales ol 10-15 every 10 years. Tr|s |rcrease cou|d ra|se lre C0
2
emissions
oy aooul 50 oy 2030 as corpared W|lr lre currerl |eve| ol C0
2
er|ss|ors. Tre
|rduslr|a| courlr|es (Norlr Arer|ca, weslerr Europe ard 0EC0 Pac|lc) corlr|oule
lo lr|s jurp |r er|ss|ors oy Z0 corpared lo lre resl ol lre Wor|d, ard rore lrar
0 ol lrese er|ss|ors W||| core lror poWer gereral|or ard |rduslr|a| seclors.
0esp|le lre slrorg recorrerdal|ors lror cerla|r goverrrerls, lrere
are very leW aclua| |rveslrerls |r C0
2
caplure lac|||l|es geared loWard reduc|rg
greerrouse gas er|ss|ors ra|r|y oecause ol lre r|gr cosl ol C0
2
recovery lror
lue gas. C0
2
caplure cosls car oe r|r|r|zed, roWever, oy des|gr|rg ar erergy
ellc|erl gas aosorpl|or process. 8ased or lre lrd|rgs ol recerl corceplua|
erg|reer|rg slud|es, lTC Purerergy esl|raled lre producl|or cosl lo oe u3S 19/lor
CO
2
(u3S 51/ lorre C0
2
) lor 90 C0
2
recovery ol 1 ro|e C0
2
corlerl |r lre lue
gas ol N0CC poWer p|arls. A separale sludy sroWed lre cosl lor 90 C0
2
recovery
ol 12 ro|e C0
2
lror a coa| lred poWer p|arl lo oe u3S 30/lor C0
2
(u3S 33/lorre
CO
2
). Tre cosl ol C0
2
recovery lror coa| poWer p|arl lue gas |s suoslarl|a||y |ess
lrar lral ol N0CC poWer p|arl lue gas due lo lre r|grer C0
2
corlerl |r lre leed.
Tre erergy ellc|ercy ol a C0
2
caplure p|arl deperds pr|rar||y or
lre perlorrarce ol lre so|verl ard opl|r|zal|or ol lre p|arl. lr lrad|l|ora| lue
gas p|arl des|grs, VEA Was lre pr|rary so|verl ard Was ||r|led lo 20 Wl lo
r|r|r|ze equ|prerl corros|or. Recerl deve|oprerls |r corlro|||rg corros|or ard
degradal|or ras a||oWed ar |rcrease |r lre so|verl corcerlral|or lo aooul 30 Wl
lrus decreas|rg lre requ|red c|rcu|al|or ard suosequerl slear derard. A recerl
00E sludy sroWs lre slear corsurpl|or lor ar ex|sl|rg C0
2
p|arl us|rg 18 Wl
VEA (Kerr Vc0ee Process) |s 3.15 |o ol slear per |o ol C0
2
lor ar|re regereral|or.
A roderr process lral uses 30 Wl VEA |s expecled lo use 1.Z |o ol slear per |o
of CO
2
lor ar|re regereral|or. Tre lTC lorru|aled so|verl |s a propr|elary o|erd
ol ar|res ard ras a |oWer slear usage lrar lre corverl|ora| VEA so|verl. 8ased
or lre raler|a| ard erergy oa|arces lor lre p|arl des|gred |r lre recerl sludy, lre
reoo||er slear corsurpl|or |s esl|raled al aooul 1.1Z |o slear/|o C0
2
us|rg lre
proposed lorru|aled so|verl W|lroul |rp|ererl|rg ary sp||l loW corlgural|ors. Tr|s
|s rucr |ess lrar lre reporled slear usage lor lre VEA so|verl.
Tre des|gr ol a lac|||ly lo caplure 90 ol lre C0
2
lror lre lue gas ol
a coa| lred poWer p|arl |s oased or lre spec|led lue gas cord|l|ors, C0
2
producl
spec|lcal|ors, ard corslra|rls. us|rg lre ProVax process s|ru|al|or sollWare lror
8ryar Researcr & Erg|reer|rg, C0
2
caplure ur|ls car oe des|gred ard opl|r|zed
for the required CO
2
recovery us|rg a var|ely ol ar|re so|verls. Tre lo||oW|rg lgure
represerls a s|rp||led process loW d|agrar lor lre proposed C0
2
Caplure P|arl.
Tre lao|e oe|oW preserls lre ra|r lrd|rgs lor C0
2
caplure lror lre
coa| lred poWer p|arl ard lre N0CC poWer p|arl, eacr des|gred lo produce aooul
330Z lor per day (3,000 TP0 relr|c). To produce lre sare capac|ly ol C0
2
, or|y
ore lra|r W|lr sra||er co|urr d|arelers |s requ|red |r lre case ol lre coa| poWer
p|arl ard lWo lra|rs W|lr |arger co|urr d|arelers are requ|red |r lre N0CC PoWer
P|arl case. Tr|s |s ra|r|y due lo process|rg a |arger lue gas W|lr |oWer C0
2
corlerl
|r lre N0CC poWer p|arl. Corsequerl|y, a suoslarl|a| reducl|or |r lre cap|la| ard
producl|or cosl Was reporled lor lre coa| lred poWer p|arl C0
2
recovery lac|||ly.
For rore |rlorral|or aooul lr|s sludy, see lre lu|| arl|c|e al
www.bre.com/support/technical-articles/gas-treating.aspx.
bre.indd 1 1/6/12 11:59:52
unit and coker containing ethylene
and propylene can be integrated
with the cold section of the steam
cracker. On the other hand, pyroly-
sis gasoline produced from the
steam cracker contains a good
quantity of xylenes and can be inte-
grated with the aromatics complex.
Propylene produced from the steam
cracker complex and benzene
produced from the aromatics
complex are feedstocks for the
production of cumene and phenol
for producing bis-phenol and poly-
carbonates. Figures 4 and 5 show
enhanced integration between a
refnery and a petrochemicals
complex when natural gas is used
as fuel.
Reducing carbon footprint: a bonus
In addition to achieving good
synergy between a refnery and a
petrochemicals complex, the use of
natural gas as refnery fuel helps in
reducing the carbon footprint of the
refnery, especially when fuel oil is
replaced by natural gas. Typically,
the replacement of fuel oil with
natural gas gives about a 30%
reduction in CO
2
emissions and *
the replacement of fuel gas with
natural gas gives about a 5-10%
reduction in CO
2
emissions from
fred heaters. This is in addition to
a reduction of 25% in CO
2
emis-
sions from the hydrogen generation
unit and 25-30% from gas turbines,
which can be achieved by replacing
naphtha with natural gas.
Case study
This study concerns a base case of a
refnery complex of 15 million t/y
capacity with a steam cracker and
aromatics complex. The refnery
consists of a CDU/VDU primary
unit, a catalytic reforming unit and
alkylation for gasoline production,
an FCC unit and once-through
hydrocracker unit as secondary
units, and a delayed coker is
considered for bottom-of-the-barrel
processing. Hydrotreating of all
products such as kerosene, diesel,
naphtha and VGO is considered to
meet the product specifcations
required for downstream units and
to meet environmental regulations.
Since light naphtha (mainly C
5
cut),
which is fed into the naphtha
cracker, is not available for isomeri-
sation for boosting the octane
number of gasoline, an alkylation
unit is considered for the purpose.
C
4
cut from the FCC unit is the feed
to the alkylation unit. Light naph-
tha (C
5
cut) from a naphtha
hydrotreater and hydrocracker,
along with hydrocracker bottoms,
is the main feed to the naphtha
cracker. Pyrolysis gasoline gener-
ated from the naphtha cracker goes
through an aromatics separation
unit, the aromatics are fed into a
paraxylene complex and raffnate is
recycled back to the naphtha
cracker. A butadiene extraction unit
is considered within the naphtha
cracker complex. Hydrogen is
recovered from catalytic reformer
and naphtha cracker off-gases
through pressure swing adsorption.
The sulphur block includes an
amine treating unit, sour water
stripper, amine regenerator unit
and sulphur recovery unit. A block
fow diagram for the base case
refnery confguration is shown in
Figure 6. A linear programming
model was developed based on this
confguration, with maximisation of
GRM as the objective on the follow-
ing basis:
Capacity: 15 million t/y (300 000
b/d)
Crude: 50% Arab Heavy and 50%
Arab Light
Desired products: ethylene,
propylene, LPG, butadiene, gaso-
line, aviation turbine fuel, diesel,
benzene and paraxylene
A base case (without supplemen-
tary fuel such as natural gas)
material balance is performed using
this model and product yields are
shown in Table 2 under base case.
With the same confguration, the
model was rerun with natural gas
as fuel, replacing off-gases and
naphtha as feed and fuel for hydro-
gen generation and gas turbines.
Integration between a refnery
and a petrochemicals complex is
maximised by optimising the
Sat gas released
from fuel gas pool
FCC and coker off
gases released from
fuel gas pool
M o re e th yle n e
p ro d u c tio n
M o re p ro p yle n e
p ro d u c tio n
Cracker
E th a n e
E th yle n e
a n d
p ro p yle n e
E th yle n e a n d p ro p yle n e
E th a n e
E n h a n c e d e th yle n e
p ro d u c tio n
E n h a n c e d p ro p yle n e
p ro d u c tio n
Sat gas to purification

and recovery section
of cracker complex
E th a n e
E th yle n e a n d
p ro p yle n e re c o ve re d
a s p ro d u c t
FCC and coker off

gases to purification
and recovery section
of cracker complex
E n h a n c e d e th yle n e
p ro d u c tio n
E n h a n c e d p ro p yle n e
p ro d u c tio n
Light naphtha to
steam cracking
M o re P X p ro d u c tio n
M o re b e n ze n e
p ro d u c tio n
C7-C9 cut naphtha to

aromatics complex
E n h a n c e d g a so lin e
p ro d u c tio n
Middle cut (C6-C7 cut)

naphtha to MS
Naphtha available when NG is used in steam reformer and GT
Figure 4 Additional naphtha for petrochemicals production
Figure 5 Recovery of components from refnery off-gas for petrochemicals production
technip.indd 5 1/6/12 14:20:20
refnery confguration to generate
more value-added products such as
ethylene, propylene, butadiene,
benzene and paraxylene. The
revised (natural gas) cases material
balance is performed with natural
gas as the refnery fuel. A compari-
son of the material balances of the
base case and the revised case is
shown in Table 2.
For the base case, a part of the
heavy products such as vacuum
residue and FCC bottoms is utilised
for the generation of fuel oil to
satisfy the fuel requirement of the
complex. However, for the natural
gas case, all heavy products are
sent to the delayed coker, resulting
in more distillates and a marginal
increase in coke production.
Fuel and loss are estimated based
on the total consumption of fuel
gas, naphtha used for hydrogen
generation and gas turbines, and
fuel oil consumption in boilers and
heaters for the base case. For the
natural gas case, estimates are
based on natural gas and fuel gas
consumption.
Comparison of the base case and
natural gas case material balances
shows that about 7 wt% of crude is
converted into valuable products
such as ethylene, propylene, LPG,
butadiene, gasoline, benzene and
paraxylene when natural gas is
used as a supplementary fuel in the
refnery. The increase in production
of these petrochemicals feedstocks
is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 shows that the increase
in production of ethylene, propyl-
ene, butadiene, benzene and
paraxylene is 64%, 19%, 33%, 40%
and 43%, respectively, which has a
signifcant impact on GRM. In addi-
tion, there is a signifcant reduction
in CO
2
emissions, about 2.5%, for
the entire complex. This reduction
can be achieved despite the
increased production of petrochem-
icals feedstocks, which consumes
additional energy.
Conclusion
Use of natural gas as refnery fuel
unleashes a host of opportunities to
make a refning and petrochemicals
Feed/product Base case NG case
KTA wt% KTA wt%
Crude 15 000 100 15 000 100
Ethylene 490 3.3 805 5.4
Propylene 650 4.3 775 5.2
Butadiene 75 0.5 100 0.7
LPG 715 4.8 730 4.9
Gasoline 2050 13.7 2300 15.3
ATF 2640 17.6 2645 17.6
Diesel 4250 28.3 4285 28.6
Benzene 235 1.6 330 2.2
Paraxylene 450 3.0 645 4.3
Coke 1025 6.8 1050 7.0
Sulphur 315 2.1 315 2.1
Fuel and loss 2105 14.0 1020 6.8
Natural gas 0 0 1225 8.2
Comparison of base case and natural gas case material balances
Table 2
N o te : lin e s a re n o t c o n n e c te d wh e re th e y c ro ss.
CDU
NHT
HGU GT
SRU
ARU
SWS
ATU
PSA
PSA
LPG treat
KHT
CCRU
DHT
ALK
VDU
DCU
VGO
HDT
C ru d e
o il
HCU
FCCU
LPG treat
Blending
Blending
Mix sep
Aromatic
complex
PRU
Naphtha
cracker
H
2
H
2
S u lp h u r
F G
L P G
E th yle n e
P ro p yle n e
B u ta d ie n e
G a so lin e
AT F
D ie se l
B e n ze n e
P -Xyle n e
C o k e
Figure 6 Base case refnery confguration
technip.indd 6 1/6/12 14:20:32
business more effcient. It benefts
an integrated complex in multiple
ways:
Use of natural gas releases a good
quantity of naphtha, which is
normally used as feed and fuel for
steam reforming and gas turbines.
This naphtha can further be utilised
for producing value-added petro-
chemicals feedstocks such as
ethylene, propylene and paraxylene
Use of natural gas as fuel for the
refnery gives the opportunity to
recover valuable components such
as hydrogen, ethane, ethylene and
propylene from off-gases
Replacement of fuel oil by natural
gas enables a refnery to process
complete vacuum residue in the
delayed coker to enhance distillate
yield.
In addition to these possibilities,
which help to improve signifcantly
the GRM, the use of natural gas as
fuel reduces the carbon footprint of
a refnery substantially. The price
differential between natural gas and
crude and, more importantly, the
price differential between natural
gas and petrochemical feedstocks
such as ethylene, propylene, buta-
diene, benzene and paraxylene will
CDU
NHT
HGU GT
SRU
ARU
SWS
ATU
PSA
PSA
LPG treat
KHT
CCRU
DHT
ALK
VDU
DCU
VGO
HDT
C ru d e
o il
N G
HCU
FCCU
LPG treat
Blending
Blending
Mix sep
Aromatic
complex
PRU
Naphtha
and gas
cracker
H
2
H
2
S u lp h u r
F G
L P G
E th yle n e
P ro p yle n e
B u ta d ie n e
G a so lin e
AT F
D ie se l
B e n ze n e
P -Xyle n e
C o k e
N o te : lin e s a re n o t c o n n e c te d wh e re th e y c ro ss.
Figure 7 Natural gas case refnery confguration
be a key driver to consider natural
gas as refnery fuel for better inte-
gration with a petrochemicals
complex.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the management
of TPKTI for their kind permission to publish
this article.
SPYRO is a mark of Technip KT India.
References
1 Taraphdar T, Reducing carbon footprint
an integrated programme of process
integration techniques lowers CO
2
emissions
levels in refneries through energy savings,
PTQ, Q2 2011, 65-73.
2 Ratan S, van Uffelen R, Curtailing refnery
CO
2
through H
2
plant, PTQ Gas 2008.
Tanmay Taraphdar is Group Leader,
Refnery & Petrochemicals, in the Process
& Technology Department of Technip KT
India Ltd., New Delhi. He holds a masters in
chemical engineering from Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT), Kanpur, India.
Email: ttaraphdar@technip.com
Praveen Yadav is a Process Engineer in the
Refning, Process and Technology Division of
Technip KT India Ltd. He holds a degree in
chemical engineering from Indian Institute
of Technology, Kharagpur, and a masters in
processes and polymers from IFP School, Paris,
France. Email: pryadav@technip.com
M K E Prasad is Head of the Process and
Technology Department of Technip KT India
Ltd. He has over 30 years experience in process
design and holds degree in chemical engineering
from Osmania University, Hyderabad, India.
Email: mkeprasad@technip.com
Figure 8 Percent incremental production of petrochemicals feedstocks
Lthylene
64%
l9%
33%
40%
43%
Propylene 8utadiene 8enzene Paraxylene
NG case
8ase case
technip.indd 7 2/6/12 17:35:36
X3072.indd 1 5/23/2012 8:37:04 AM
linde.indd 1 1/6/12 12:15:29
Offine tools for on-site control
implementation
P
rocess control engineers are
always challenged to be more
effective, to successfully
commission new, advanced regula-
tory control strategies and
multivariable control applications.
To address the challenge, the practi-
tioner needs to continuously improve
and apply an understanding of both
control technology in general and
the process technology specifcs rele-
vant to each control project. This
article discusses some of the newer
productivity tools and work process
approaches that are now becoming
more widely deployed.
The development programs of
control product software vendors
continuously improve core and
auxiliary products. Although one of
the outcomes of these programs is a
migration to product suites, with
user interfaces based on a workfow
perspective, there is still a vast range
of designed-in capability and
functionality. Also, as knowledge
and experience flter through the
user community, the practical conse-
quences of software enhancements
are that improvements to product
features enable capabilities that are
beyond the original implementation
rationale. These capabilities also
have to be understood and internal-
ised. Software product improvements
are also obviously tied to particular
releases. In combination, these
factors lead to the challenge of mini-
mising the time to modify and
update control project work proc-
esses to fully incorporate effciencies
facilitated by software product
improvements.
As well as establishing effective
general control project work proc-
esses, the practitioner is further
Application of productivity tools and work process changes can expedite
advanced control projects and reduce effort in refning applications
Ken Allsford, BhAsKAr Iyer and ArIc TomlIns
Advanced Solutions, Honeywell International
challenged to be specifcally effcient
in regards to the execution of each
and every project. Practically, this
requires the practitioner to develop
a deep understanding of the actual
process unit(s) relevant to the control
project. And this needs to happen
over a relatively short duration.
Early understanding helps to flter
inputs such as comments from oper-
ations and to identify upfront any
issues that may challenge project
success. Early understanding also
enables better defnition of the
control problem and, as such, selec-
tion of an appropriate solution from
among the available options. These
activities have a parallel in terms of
the front-end engineering design
(FEED) phase typical for engineering
projects in the process industries. On
completion of the design and selec-
tion of the solution to the control
problem, the project moves on to
implementation. This corresponds to
the detailed design, construction and
commissioning phase typical for
engineering projects in the process
industries. A primary technical
objective here is the identifcation of
the relationships of the independent
variable(s) (manipulated and distur-
bance variables, MV and DV) to the
dependent variable(s) (controlled
variables, CV). A secondary techni-
cal objective is the discovery of
reasonable control application
tuning parameters given the selected
control product technology. During
implementation, the practitioner is
once again challenged to continue to
be effective.
established approaches
Integration of the knowledge and
experience of plant operations and
engineering personnel into the selec-
tion and implementation of the
control problem solution has always
been integral to the success of a
controls project. The core aspect of
this knowledge and experience can
be viewed as tacit knowledge. This
is knowledge that is neither
expressed nor declared openly, but
rather implied or simply understood
and is often associated with intui-
tion. As such, the capture of this
knowledge is not well defned
control project work processes
usually deploy both structured inter-
views and ad hoc discussions as tools
to help in this knowledge transfer to
the control project team. This knowl-
edge transfer is primarily aimed at
the higher level of process under-
standing and the initial defnition of
the control problem solution (in
terms of CV, MV and DV). It is
usually done in conjunction with
historical data review, including
visualisation, regression analysis
and use of general spreadsheet-
oriented tools.
The goal of advanced process
control is successful projects leading
to a competitive advantage for the
organisation through superior proc-
ess operations. Roll-out was done by
engineers, many renown and with a
background in chemical engineering.
As such, toolkits based on process
engineering models were sometimes
developed to support this activity.
This was particularly the case for
refning and other large-scale petro-
chemical processes. These toolkits
were typically developed initially
with the limited focus of providing
output just for process control.
Examples include toolkits for frac-
tionators (based on distillation
honeywell.indd 1 1/6/12 14:27:36
state gain and some defnition of the
time-dependent path to steady state.
Generally, accuracy for the former is
prioritised over accuracy for the
latter, as (relative) steady-state gains
are used for both control and
economic optimisation, and can also
be used in validating the viability of
the selected control solution. In
addition, the tacit knowledge trans-
fer between process operations and
the control project team discussed
above is often more successful for
some general aspects of the dynamic
relationship (such as dead time and
frst-order time constant) than for
steady-state gain.
Initially, these tools were not inte-
grated with their input data
generation, and control practitioner
organisations would emphasise
their work practices that enable eff-
cient collection of this input data
with minimum explicit effort and
disruption to the process unit.
Nevertheless, in some circles, the
mindset was that identifcation was
a very costly process with long
elapsed times. And this is not to
mention the impact of changes on
controller design as a consequence
of a revised requirements defnition
or increased understanding of the
best solution to the control
problem.
Control product vendors
responded by integrating the data
generation step with the identifca-
tion step in real time. Indeed, these
tools have received signifcant write-
up in the technical press, including
many documented successes. The
frst generation of such tools
required the process that is being
identifed to be operated in open
loop while identifcation is
performed by stepping the process.
In practice, this leads to the selection
of small steps and the identifcation
on small sub-groups of independent
and dependent variables at a time,
in order to minimally interfere with
the process operational goals. As the
tools have evolved, the current state
of the art now allows what is termed
automated closed-loop stepping and
identifcation. This means that the
controller simultaneously controls
the plant during the testing and
identifcation process. This leads to
the largest reduction in effort for
principles), delayed coking and plat-
forming. The degree of technology
openness and toolkit productisation
varies. Commercialisation of such
toolkits represents a challenge, as
often a toolkit is focused on a partic-
ular process unit and there are only
so many installations of that process
unit worldwide. Where available
and maintained, these toolkits
remain a key component of the
control solution for certain proc-
esses. However, the focus and
narrative of control product software
vendors moved relatively quickly
towards data-centric modelling and
effciency tools that have broad
applicability to all control projects.
The earliest advanced control soft-
ware products included control
model identifcation tools. The tools
analyse plant data, and a key output
is statistically validated time-domain
relationships between independent
and dependent variables.
Relationships of independent to
dependent variables are generally
sought in terms of a linear steady-
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both project owner and project
implementer. In turn, this simultane-
ous control aspect associated with
the online identifcation requires a
seed model, which is an estimate of
the time domain relationships for
the independent and dependent
variables that is suffcient for
constraint control as a minimum.
Opportunities
These improvements to data-centric
modelling and effciency tools
change the basis by which a control
project organisation can defne itself
as effcient in implementing control
projects. Now the emphasis is on
provision of the seed model and
being able to understand and select,
to utilise as appropriate, from the
many continual additions to the
control product software suite. In
tandem, other technologies that can
potentially be used to meet this chal-
lenge of requirements change for
control project effciency have also
developed. Three such technologies
that have evolved in capability and
practice within the industrial engi-
neering environment are: the
enhanced built-in functionality of
generic process engineering model-
ling tools; knowledge management
deployment; and use of virtualisa-
tion technologies.
Application of process modelling
tools
What is the direction of process
engineering modelling? At a high
organisational level, the concept of
model life cycle and its associated
management is receiving increased
attention given the expansion of
both the role of dynamic modelling
during engineering design and the
use of high-fdelity operator training
simulators (OTS). This has impacted
the development programs of simu-
lation vendors. Another consequence
is more frequent inclusion of a proc-
ess-matching activity as part of the
scope of specifc simulation projects.
At the higher technical level, simu-
lation vendors are providing better
support for connectivity and data
exchange, including OPC, for both
reporting and other uses. At a more
detailed technical level, both the
number of unit operations selectable
from the operations palette and their
predictive capability and reliability
continue to increase. While examples
are dependent on the simulation
product, for the former the inclusion
of multivariable control operations
from the major vendors can be refer-
enced; whereas for the latter,
improved representation of the
performance characteristics of rotat-
ing equipment can be referenced.
Historically, some organisations
have had diffculty integrating the
control project engineering discipline
with process modelling disciplines.
So, it is worthwhile to note potential
benefts from utilising process
models to develop seed models.
These include:
Process models can be run
anywhere. Process model predic-
tions engage users and give them
something to think about
In terms of stepping, process
models can be treated as exactly
repeatable for steps of the size rele-
vant to control model identifcation.
A process model has to be stepped
only once and the data captured for
identifcation, whereas the real plant
must be stable and still subjected to
multiple steps to reduce identifca-
tion uncertainties arising from noise,
unmeasured disturbances and real-
life non-linearities. Also, conceptually,
the model step size is not constrained
on the high side, whereas in the real
plant the step size refects a trade-off
between obtaining a suffciently high
signal-to-noise ratio and not creating
a process operations problem.
Finally, measured disturbance varia-
bles can be stepped in process
models, whereas this may not be
possible for the real plant
Dynamic process models generally
run faster than real time, and report-
ing can be confgured to be visually
engaging. As such, they can be set
up as a concept demonstration for
those on the periphery of a control
project implementation. For the
control project team, they provide
opportunities to investigate control
structure and optimisation strategy;
calculate benefts pre-implementa-
tion; evaluate outputs from
data-centric tools; evaluate compro-
mise tuning through use as a
simulator (real-world non-linear
model) for the controller; and
explore the effect of unmeasured
disturbances for the controller.
The frst two points above are
neutral with respect to whether the
process model is steady state or
dynamic, although conceptually
more information can be obtained
from the latter. For example, a
steady-state process model will be
able to provide insight into process
gains but not, explicitly, process
dynamics.
So, having noted the benefts,
what are the concerns? To general-
ise, concerns relate to fear of the
unknown, both in terms of develop-
ment effort and practical validity for
purpose. What about development
effort? As a guideline, if the simula-
tor application development does
not involve research (that is, it is
essentially a well-defned confgura-
tion activity, such as a hydrocarbon
separation column), the effort esti-
mate for a relevant process-matched
model is similar to the estimate for
more conventional step testing in
the feld based on the use of data-
centric modelling tools. Even if a
suitable starting point may not be
available, it may still be pragmatic
to develop a process-matched model.
This is especially so where step test-
ing is a challenge, such as greenfeld
projects; offshore; and processes
where either tight control is para-
mount or steady-state operation
rarely occurs for the duration rele-
vant to step the process to obtain
control models. This would be all
the more so if the organisations
strategy leans towards process-
model centric. As a library of
pre-existing process engineering
models becomes available, an exten-
sion to new scenarios can be
expected to be both at a reduced
cost and with improved reliability of
the effort estimate.
Concerns about the validity of a
model for a particular purpose
refect uncertainty in the concept
(actually work process) of process
matching of the model. Process
matching and model validation is a
broad subject and only a few aspects
are discussed here. This skill devel-
ops from an understanding of the
implemented key modelling deci-
sions, which, in turn, relate to
available options and model use
objectives. The central focus of many
contributors, wikis are useful for
tackling the challenge of reducing
the time to update control project
work processes to incorporate eff-
ciencies facilitated by software
product improvements. In addition
to the organisations offcial Subject
Matter Experts (SME), wiki users
can identify other knowledgeable
contacts to arrange short discussions
by noting the major wiki contribu-
tors in any particular technical area.
In the FEED phase of a control
project, the sharing of knowledge on
wikis helps to hone in on the
controller design. The posting of
expectation matrices for linear multi-
variable control; expected
inferentials; transform expectations
for linearisation (column purity,
valve positions as examples); and
informal notes relevant to process
unit control all help in this regard.
Following on from design, the shar-
ing of repeatables can help expedite
control project implementation. One
example of a repeatable is pre-proc-
essed data model libraries for
different expectation matrices (suita-
bly edited to protect confdential
information and documented with
respect to engineering units, plant
percentage loading, and so on).
Application of virtualisation
technologies
Virtualisation technologies enable an
integrated system that formerly
comprised two or more physical
computing platforms to now run on
a single computer through use of
multiple virtual machines. For exam-
ple, for greenfeld projects,
virtualisation simplifes the use of
OTS to develop and verify advanced
control applications. Virtualisation
offers several other productivity
opportunities for control projects,
particularly associated with reduc-
ing hardware costs and minimising
software conficts. Also, through
having an exact copy of a site instal-
lation available, virtualisation
enables superior and more compre-
hensive support. Examples include
using offine virtual machines for
frst verifcation of control confgura-
tion maintenance and maintaining
snapshots of virtual machines for
possible rollback during a software
upgrade.
processes is the reactor and, if
present, this will likely form the start
point for determining the usefulness
of the process model for seed model
generation. In-house expertise may
be available to provide guidance.
Moving beyond the reactor, if model
predictions under process turndown
conditions are of interest, the
approach to predict pressure profle
and heat transfer performance under
these conditions should be evalu-
ated. Note that steady-state models
are often simpler in implementation
concept than dynamic models.
Pressure profle may be fxed and
energy integration refected through
trivial balancing without considering
equipment performance capabilities.
For all models, boundary condition
stream compositions and specifca-
tions needs to be understood and
possibly modifed prior to use.
(Dynamic models are usually based
on fxed pressure boundaries with
fow calculated, although sometimes
boundary fow may be fxed and
pressure calculated. For the usual
case of fxed pressure boundaries at
the inlet to a dynamic process
model, a real or artifcial fow
controller is confgured to set the
fow.)
How best to balance the potential
benefts of utilising process models
while mitigating the concerns? This
will depend on the specifcs of an
organisations continuously evolving
hard and soft structures. But, gener-
ally, a target will be more
co-ordination and/or integration of
the simulation and process control
application teams. Specifcally,
model use can frst be deployed,
where judged appropriate, as part of
the toolset for control structure and
optimisation strategy design, and for
supporting the implementation of
more narrowly focused strategies.
For the latter, in many organisations,
tuning deployed for advanced regu-
latory control strategies within an
OTS is used as the starting point
during actual commissioning.
Application of knowledge
management deployment
Knowledge management deploy-
ment takes the form of
restricted-access wikis and repeata-
bles, with various options for
moderating postings. An objective is
the leveraging of experience of indi-
viduals within the team to other
members of the team. Through the
hosting of recordings, documents
and directly posted notes of knowl-
edge and experience, wikis are
effective for the internal transfer of
tacit knowledge. This includes, as
examples, suggestions for both
generic learnings on the roles of and
trade-offs for different tuning
parameters and best practices for
control of a particular process unit.
Repeatables can be viewed as tools
owned and managed by project
teams rather than product develop-
ment teams.
Due to the large pool of potential
1. Use an existing model? I s th is a se c o n d tra in o r se c o n d p la n t?
C h e c k g a in s: va lve s a n d e q u ip m e n t sizin g m a y
b e d iffe re n t.
2. Evaluate historical data. A c tu a l se e d m o d e l id e n tific a tio n p ro c e e d s

with a m o d ifie d wo rk p ra c tic e if th e e va lu a tio n
su g g e sts p o te n tia l.
3. Use models from a

library?
B e wa re th ro u g h p u t, e n g in e e rin g u n its, e tc .
4. Use pre-step data? F u ll d e ta ils n e e d to b e lo g g e d d u rin g p re -ste p .
5. (Consultants) knowhow? A lso fro m c lie n t s o p e ra tio n s a n d e n g in e e rin g

te a m s.
6. Can a process
engineering model be used?
D yn a m ic ; ste a d y sta te ; m a y b e E x c e l b a se d .
S te a d y sta te c a n p ro vid e g a in s a n d p ro c e ss
e n g in e e rin g in sig h t.
7. Combination of
approaches.
P rim a ry o b je c tive : p ro te c t a g a in st c o n stra in ts.
Ta rg e t o b je c tive : m e e t fin a l d e p lo ym e n t
re q u ire m e n ts.
Figure 1 Seven steps to fnding a seed model
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Seizing the opportunities
The objective dened earlier is to
identify a seed model that is at least
sufcient for constraint control
during closed loop control model
identication for a control project.
Figure 1 shows six separate potential
strategies for achieving this goal. A
nal practical strategy combines
these six strategies. Knowledge
management is deployed within
steps 3 and 5, while process models
are deployed within step 6.
But actually the practitioner is
especially interested in a seed model
that is sufcient for nal deploy-
ment, rather than just for constraint
control during closed-loop control
model identication. This is where
process models offer further
potential. And it is also worth noting
that process models are not limited
to process simulators. The following
example describes the use of a proc-
ess model developed within a
spreadsheet.
The actual application is simpli-
ed for this discussion and is shown
in Figure 2. It basically consists of a
surge drum with three ows into
and one ow from a drum. The
control application has two MVs,
two CVs and two DVs. The ow out
of the drum is MV1. One of the
ows into the drum is MV2. The
two other ows into the drum are
DV1 and DV2. The drum level is
CV1 and the ratio of DV1/(DV1
+MV2+DV2) is CV2.
Vessel dimensions and level tap
information from the unit process
and instrumentation diagrams
(P&IDs) enable the process gains
between CV1 and each of the MVs
and DVs to be calculated by spread-
sheet formula. Spreadsheet formula
can also be used to calculate the
process gains between ratio CV2 and
DV1, MV2 and DV2. Here, the gains
depend on operating conditions, but
it is relatively trivial to calculate the
variability of the gains across the
operating region planned for the
controller and to then select reason-
able gains. (Alternately, the
controller design could be revisited
by looking to replace or transform
CV2 or by deciding to dynamically
update controller gains for CV2
online; ie, while the control applica-
tion is in service.) The control
models identied from this spread-
sheet analysis were found to be
consistent with control models
obtained by conventional identica-
tion that used a few days of data
mined from the DCS historian as
input data. Based on this validation,
the control models identied from
spreadsheet analysis were used for
commissioning of the multivariable
controller without step testing. Here,
the process model (spreadsheet
formulae in this case) provided
insight into gain non-linearity across
the process operating conditions that
is not typically available from
conventional identication.
More signicant examples have
also been discussed in the literature.
One such example involved the
design, test and installation of multi-
variable controllers during the
engineering and construction phase
of a 1300 mmscfd gas plant shown
in Figure 3.
1
Multivariable controllers
were applied to the units for (a) feed
gas separation and condensate stabi-
lisation; (b) dehydration and feed
liquid separation; and (c) NGL recov-
ery. Dynamic process models
developed during engineering design
were enhanced for the multivariable
control application development. In
particular, multivariable process
controllers were incorporated
directly into the process models as
unit operations. This has the advan-
tage that the controller performs
consistent with design intent at high
model real-time factors.
F C
R e c yc le
M V2
F C
P rim a ry
fe e d
D V1
C V1
F C
S e c o n d a ry
fe e d
D V2
L I
F C
M V1
Feed
drum
C V2 =
D V1
D V1 +M V2 +D V2
C V2 =
D V1
D V1 +M V2 +D V2
Figure 2 Simplied surge drum controller application
Feed gas
separation and
condensate
stabilisation
Gas treating
NGL recovery
Gas rejection
or sale
Dehydration and
feed liquid
separation
C o n d e n sa te
p ro d u c t
C o n d e n sa te o r
N G L p ro d u c t
N G L
p ro d u c t
Figure 3 Gas plant facility
In the NGL unit, one enhancement
arising from the evaluation of regu-
latory control loop interactions
within the process model was the
addition of ratio controllers that
were also used as MVs for the multi-
variable controller. The NGL unit
process model also demonstrated
that deployment of the multivariable
controller application increased
ethane recovery by 1.37% in ethane
recovery mode, which has the poten-
tial benet of $ millions per annum.
The controller commissioned on the
virtual plant was designed consist-
ent with the KISS (Keep It Simple,
Sir) principle. However, the NGL
unit process model could also be
used to demonstrate additional
potential benets through expand-
ing the controller scope (MVs and
CVs).
In this example, the applicability
of the control models identied
from the process engineering model
to the real plant was judged in part
by comparing with control models
identied by a more traditional
approach for a different application
of the same gas plant process
technology.
Conclusion
As has been discussed, the maturing
of closed-loop step testing and iden-
tication technology for advanced
control reduces the effort required
for testing and identication for an
advanced control project. However,
it requires a seed model and, as
such, the interim milestone of
providing this seed model will
receive more focus. And, naturally,
there will also be the desire for the
seed model to be more than just a
seed model it should basically be
suitable for control deployment
without step testing. This will lead
to the adaption of control project
engineering work processes, on an
opportunity basis, to move towards
meeting these desires. As the future
evolves, work processes are likely to
more widely incorporate the use of:
Latest features of data-centric
modelling and efciency tools
Steady-state process engineering
model analysis
Dynamic process models
Organisationally supported knowl-
edge management deployment
Virtual platforms standardised for
the organisation.
Of course, tools with proven
historic value, such as process model
engineering toolkits for control, will
continue to be deployed where
appropriate.
Reference
1 Sakizlis V, Coward A, Vakamudi K,
Mermans I, Advanced process control in the
plant engineering and construction phase,
Hydrocarbon Processing, Oct 2010.
Ken Allsford is a Simulation Discipline Lead
based in Houston, Texas, with the Advanced
Solutions group of Honeywell International. He
holds a PhD in chemical engineering from the
University of Birmingham, UK.
Email: Ken.Allsford@Honeywell.com
Bhaskar Iyer is a Control Discipline Lead based
in Houston, Texas, with the Advanced Solutions
group of Honeywell International. He holds a
BTech in chemical technology from Nagpur
University, India.
Email: Bhaskar.Iyer@Honeywell.com
Aric Tomlins is a Control Discipline Lead based
in Houston, Texas, with the Advanced Solutions
group of Honeywell International. He holds a
BSc in chemical engineering from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, USA.
Email: Aric.Tomlins@Honeywell.com
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APC2: aligning people with control
A
dvanced process control
(APC) can take on many
avours and levels of sophis-
tication. With regard to digital
control systems (DCS), advanced
regulatory controls can create value
using property predictions cascaded
to DCS controllers, or feed forward
or decoupling signals can be added
to improve stability and robustness
of controls. In order to take on
entire units of control, medium to
large multivariable controllers have
been developed to handle process
interactions and to drive the unit to
the most economical combination
of constraints. Multi-unit control
and optimisation in the form of a
larger linear program provides a
A lead practitioner explains how renery-wide involvement of people underpins a
major advanced process control programme
RAYMOND COKER
BP Texas City renery
tool to coordinate ows and opti-
mal targets across the renery.
More detailed effects can be
modelled and included in the linear
program solution as new knowl-
edge is incorporated into the
solution. Fuel gas, steam, hydrogen,
amine, cooling water, tanks, ship-
ments, electricity and process
line-ups create opportunities to
synergise across multiple units.
Aligning people with control
(APC2) provides the mechanism to
design controllers, commission
controllers and sustain value long
term. Critical resources include
advanced control engineers, unit
control engineers, process engi-
neers, operations personnel, and
economics and planning personnel.
Economics and planning provide
the big picture view of the renery
and help identify the gold nuggets
for control personnel. Advanced
control personnel help planning by
adding greater delity to the
models and trade-offs between
quality and production, as well as
by commissioning model-based
controllers to coordinate moves
across each unit and to reach the
targets set by planning. Unit control
personnel help with control system
congurations, regulatory controls
and advanced controls. Process and
operations provide critical process
and constraint information.
The extended team includes
P ip e still F e e d 4 3 2 4 % 4 9 0 %
Rate
MBPD
Margin
Profit/B
%
Improvement
Stream Unit APC annual
benefits %
profit/year
1 6
APC project %
costs
1 . 4 2
C a t c ra c k e r F e e d 8 6 4 % 1 6 9 0 % 1 6 1 . 1 4
Benefit/cost % on APC
D ie se l h yd ro tre a te r D ie se l 8 6 4 % 1 6 9 0 % 8 2 . 2 7
A ro m a tic s F e e d 4 3 4 % 3 2 9 0 % 2 0 0 . 9 1
C o k e r F e e d 8 6 4 % 8 9 0 % 1 2 0 . 7 6
R e fo rm e r G a so lin e 8 6 4 % 4 9 0 % 1 2 0 . 3 8
H yd ro c ra c k e r F e e d 4 3 4 % 1 6 9 0 % 1 6 0 . 5 7
To ta ls 1 0 0
2 3
1 8
1 8
1 8
9
5
9
1 0 0
R e fo rm e r
H yd ro c ra c k e r
D ie se l h yd ro tre a te r
C o k e r
A ro m a tic s
C a t c ra c k e r
P ip e still
APC project % costs
R e fo rm e r
H yd ro c ra c k e r
D ie se l h yd ro tre a te r
C o k e r
A ro m a tic s
C a t c ra c k e r
P ip e still
APC annual benefits % profit/year
Figure 1 Estimated benets of an APC programme
bp.indd 1 1/6/12 14:31:53
and stakeholders required to dene
scope, schedule, cost, benets and
infrastructure
APC pretest report Control, proc-
ess, operations and maintenance
resources required to update
design, transform, calculate, repair
instruments, modify regulatory
controls and prepare for test
Inferential calculations Control,
process and analyser maintenance
resources to develop and imple-
ment inferential calculations with
updates from lab, analyser or rigor-
ous calculations
Dynamic models Control, process
and operations resources to test,
develop and verify dynamics and
steady-state gains
Controller performance Control,
process, planning and operations
resources to commission controller
economics, speed and priorities
As-built documentation Control,
process, operations and training to
document nal solution in sufcient
detail to train operators and support
applications.
Benets drive APC
Once the APC projects are ordered
by year, the estimates can be further
rened to improve the scope, costs,
schedule and benets (see Figure 2).
These costs reect only the project
costs. The maintenance costs for
APC range from 15-20% of the orig-
inal project effort per year. The
largest factor in the maintenance
costs is how often and how much
the unit changes over time.
Start with the end in mind: the
benet mechanisms drive the APC
solutions. APC studies are an excel-
lent way to leverage the knowledge
of operations, process engineers,
process consultants and modellers,
control engineers, instrument and
analyser maintenance, environmen-
tal engineers and safety personnel.
There are many gold nuggets
(benet opportunities) in the minds
of these people working on the
units or supporting the units. By
asking leading questions and
understanding the process and
constraints, the APC leader can
discern the most important benet
mechanisms to go after and develop
the control objectives.
The APC design will grow as new
management sponsors, instrument
and analyser personnel, environ-
mental personnel, laboratory
personnel, corporate technical lead-
ers and sponsors, commercial
managers, upstream suppliers and
downstream customers.
Create the vision
In order to get an APC programme
off the ground, there must be a
credible story to initiate interest and
support from management at multi-
ple layers. Using rules of thumb
(3-5% improvement, 90% utilisation,
average stream margin and average
stream ow rate) for APC benets
for each unit, a table of estimated
benets can be calculated (see
Figure 1). The priority or order of
execution of the projects depends
on the benet-to-cost ratio (plan-
ning and economics and project
management), condition of unit,
condition of instruments, condition
of systems, TAR schedule, other
project schedules and availability of
key resources (operations, process
engineering, control engineering,
instrument and analyser mainte-
nance, and system support).
It is very important to build good
alignment with your management
team early in the APC programme.
Without their initial support, it will
be difcult to drive through the
obstacles ahead. The following
people are critical to the success of
the programme:
Management Supports resources,
projects and funds
APC engineers Lead APC studies
and projects
Unit control engineers and digital
control personnel APC design, regu-
latory controls, database points,
displays
Planning and economics Stream
values and utility costs, quality and
production targets
Process engineers Equipment and
process limits, process models
Instrument and analyser staff
Support valve, instrument and
analyser repairs
Operations staff APC design,
operating objectives, dynamic and
steady-state concerns
Environmental engineers Environ-
mental limits and permits,
compliance requirements
Safety personnel Ensure manage-
ment of change provides proper
communication and approvals,
compliance
Information and network technol-
ogy personnel Develop and maintain
system and network architecture.
The following are important for
the proper execution of the APC
studies and projects:
APC study report All disciplines
P ip e still F e e d 2 0 1 1
Stream Unit APC annual
benefits %
profit/year
1 6
APC project %
costs
1 . 4 2
C a t c ra c k e r F e e d 2 0 1 2 1 6 1 . 1 4
Benefit/cost Year
D ie se l h yd ro tre a te r D ie se l 2 0 1 1 8 2 . 2 7
A ro m a tic s F e e d 2 0 1 2 2 0 0 . 9 1
C o k e r F e e d 2 0 1 3 1 2 0 . 7 6
R e fo rm e r G a so lin e 2 0 1 4 1 2 0 . 3 8
H yd ro c ra c k e r F e e d 2 0 1 3 1 6 0 . 5 7
To ta ls 1 0 0
2 3
1 8
1 8
1 8
9
5
9
1 0 0
1 2 0
1 0 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
2 0
2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7
A
c
c
u
m
u
l
a
t
e
d
c
o
s
t
s
,

%
Year
0
3 0 0
2 5 0
2 0 0
4 5 0
4 0 0
3 5 0
1 5 0
1 0 0
5 0
2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7
A
n
n
u
a
l

b
e
n
e
f
i
t
s
,

%
Year
0
Figure 2 Rened estimates improve the scope, costs, schedule and benets of an APC
programme
bp.indd 2 1/6/12 14:32:05
mechanisms are identied. The
product of the study is an APC
design that includes the manipu-
lated, disturbance (or feed forward)
and controlled variables.
Build relationships
Seek out the right people to help
grow and support the APC
programme. It is important to focus
on the relationships in the organisa-
tion that will gain you a broader
understanding of the site economics
while the details of each project are
being developed. Good resources
are planning and economics, senior
process engineers, commercial
managers and business leaders.
These meetings can be spread out
from weekly to quarterly for short
periods of time such as 30 minutes
to an hour. Select topics that will
enhance your current projects or
ones in the next year.
Sometimes gold nuggets (value
opportunities) are identied
through these discussions as the big
picture person understands more of
your details and as the detailed
person understands the big picture
of how the various units or streams
work together.
Furthermore, the organisation of
DCS, consoles and networks can be
further improved by looking at how
the various process units relate to
each other through streams
and energy connections. This
opportunity engages information
technology, systems personnel and
DCS administrators.
Control and optimisation technol-
ogy is available to complete large
unit or multi-unit control and opti-
misation systems. The right DCS
and system architecture can acceler-
ate this development. Too many
breaks in the network or too many
DCS will make it more difcult and
more costly to implement control
and optimisation strategies across
the site. Examples of gold nuggets
are as follows:
Maximise gasoline on the reactor
this does not necessarily equate
to maximising gasoline overall
Utilise APC gains to understand
the cost of quality shifts for
commercial decisions
Utilise plant linear program
economic information, needed for
APC benets, for studies and
post-audits
Set quality targets close to the
limit, reducing giveaway, and align
APC targets with planning targets
Use third-party resources to expe-
dite benets
Use corporate and other site
resources to expedite benets, build
win-win relationships and leverage
lessons learned
Develop calculations or inferen-
tials that connect downstream
constraints to upstream controllers
(open loop or closed loop).
Kick-off and pretest
The purpose of the APC project
kick-off is to establish roles and
responsibilities. In addition, it is
another great opportunity to build
support for the preliminary testing
and instrument review (pretest).
During the pretest, the team
reviews or changes instrument
measurements, valves, tuning,
lters, regulatory structure, identi-
es move sizes and time to steady
state for independent variables
(manipulated or disturbance), iden-
ties and installs calculations and
inferential calculations, installs
computer hardware and software,
starts data collection, and updates
the control design and objectives.
The regulatory controls and meas-
urements are the foundations of
APC. By reviewing the current and
historical data with the unit control
engineers and the process engi-
neers, the best regulatory control
structure can be assessed and
improved. The analyser technicians
and engineers can provide insight
into the reliability and accuracy of
the analyser systems and measure-
ments. Frequently, these analyser
systems limit the reliability of APC.
The issues can be identied in the
sample or analyser systems. It is
important to identify all of the proc-
ess, control, instrument and
analyser shortcomings as early as
possible and to then put together a
plan to push through these
obstacles.
In order to reduce the time to
steady state for a controlled varia-
ble based on an analyser, an
inferential calculation is used to
reduce the dead time and lag in the
analyser measurement. The inferen-
tial shown in Figure 3 reduces the
dead time by 45 minutes and lag
time by 30 minutes.
Inferential calculations are also
useful for predicting quality
between analyser updates. Figure 4
0 . 6
1 . 0
0 . 9
0 . 8
0 . 7
0 . 5
0 . 4
0 . 3
0 . 2
0 . 1
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 2 4 0
0 . 0
Figure 3 Inferential calculation reduces the time to steady state for a controlled variable
based on an analyser
It is important
to identify all
of the process,
control, instrument
and analyser
shortcomings as
early as possible
bp.indd 3 1/6/12 14:32:14
Test and model
The purpose of the APC project test
is to identify dynamic and steady-
state models for the process. Plant
is tested to identify dynamic rela-
tionships between independent and
dependent variables (controlled).
Typically, the test time is 10 times
the number of independent test
variables times the average time to
steady state. This time can be short-
ened by parallel testing or by
utilising automated testing soft-
ware. Data collection must be
uncompressed, reliable and contain
a list of instruments and calcula-
tions necessary for present and
future APC needs. Modelling
includes transforming variables,
calculating variables, identifying
dynamic models, building a model
for the multivariable controller and
correcting conditioning problems
with steady-state gains. Simulating
includes determining costs for each
manipulated variable, tuning inde-
pendent and dependent variables,
applying transforms, establishing
limits for variables and simulating
the controller using different oper-
ating scenarios to observe controller
behaviour.
Most process units have operators
that have been on the unit for many
years. Sometimes these seasoned
veterans have moved into other
positions in the organisation. It is
worthwhile fnding out who they
are and building a relationship with
these key individuals. Their experi-
ence goes well beyond anything
that will be observed on a single
APC project, no matter how
detailed the lead APC engineer may
be. They will likely know where the
process cliffs or edges are and what
to stay away from. They may or
may not know why the process
behaves the way it does, but their
experience will give insight into
where are the safest and most relia-
ble areas to operate a step test.
Unless you enjoy falling off cliffs,
carefully consider the wisdom of
the operators and experienced proc-
ess engineers.
During the step test, the dynamic
models are continuously improved
with each day of new data. The
models are reviewed with the team
in order to make adjustments to
shows how well the inferential
calculation predicts the analyser
updates. The inferential calculations
are based on process measurements.
The selection of inputs to the infer-
ential calculations can be discerned
by reviewing the data with the unit
control engineer and the process
engineer. The fat lines are the time
between analyser updates.
Use of off-line rigorous process
models assists in defning process
gains, non-linearities, transforms or
inferential calculations. Rigorous
spreadsheet calculations can be
used for pressure-compensated
temperatures, energy balances or
physical properties. Explicit deriva-
tives of calculations may be used to
calculate model gains in the APC,
while custom calculations can be
used to update the model gains or
controller gains every control cycle
based on engineering principles.
In order to create a simpler online
calculation for the reactor section,
the following concepts were used:
Energy of activation is needed to
get the right relationship between
temperature and conversion or
quality
Effect of feed rate or residence
time must be well understood
Reactor pressure and mole frac-
tion gains and exponents are
needed
Effect of poisons on reaction
needs to be understood
A more rigorous model can be
used to create data to make a
simpler model to be used online as
a controlled variable:
Reaction = A * (Exp(-Ea/RT)^B * (F)^C * (P)^D
* (Mi)^Ei * ...
Where A, B, C, D, Ei are coeff-
cients, R is the Ideal Gas Law
constant, T is temperature in abso-
lute scale, F is fow, P is pressure in
absolute scale and Mi is mole frac-
tion or %.
The data needed to create this
relationship can be generated from
rigorous kinetic models developed
by process engineers, or from
simplifed reactor equations devel-
oped by the site linear program
engineer.
All of the methods require infor-
mation from a number of resources
such as process engineers, planning
personnel and the site linear
program developer. It is critical to
the success of the APC project to
identify and leverage the resources
that can help with key calculations
and relationships (frst and second
derivatives over process operation).
Table 5
9 6 0 1 0 8 0 1 2 0 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 4 0 1 5 6 0 1 3 8 0 1 8 0 0 1 9 2 0
0 . 1 5 0 0
0 . 1 5 4 2
0 . 1 5 8 3
0 . 1 6 2 5
0 . 1 6 6 7
0 . 1 7 0 8
0 . 1 7 5 0
0 . 1 7 9 2
0 . 1 8 3 3
0 . 1 8 7 5
0 . 1 9 1 7
0 . 1 9 5 8
0 . 2 0 0 0
Figure 4 Inferential calculation predicts analyser updates
Rigorous spreadsheet
calculations can be
used for pressure-
compensated
temperatures, energy
balances or physical
properties
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move sizes and to times between
the moves to improve the models.
After the models are completed by
the APC team, they are reviewed
with operations and process engi-
neers for accuracy and consistency.
Next, the models are adjusted to
improve the conditioning of the
model matrix based on variable
gains that are proportional with
respect to independent variables or
dependent variables, or both. This
step requires a good understanding
of the process. The value of each
manipulated variable can be deter-
mined from information from the
process gains as well as from the
stream values and utility costs
collected from the economics and
planning department. Controlled
variable priorities, control objectives
and operating strategies are deter-
mined from conversations with the
process engineers, unit control engi-
neers, planning personnel and
operations personnel. Finally, the
controller is simulated to ensure
that the priorities, objectives and
strategies are met. At this point, all
of the ideas, lessons and wisdom
from the key stakeholders have
been considered and implemented
into the simulated controller.
Commission and audit
The purpose of project training
and commissioning is to deliver a
successful APC solution with a full
explanation of objectives, design
and use to the operating staff.
Operators need training on the use
of multivariable control, control
design, objectives, dynamic models,
calculations and priorities.
Engineer training is completed on
a mentoring basis for all of the
project steps.
An interface needs to be installed
for the multivariable controller,
manipulated and controlled varia-
bles turned on, the controller tuned
and models adjusted to meet
controller objectives, as well as the
design changed as new constraints
become active or old constraints are
eliminated. As-built documentation
needs to be provided for the multi-
variable controller, including details
necessary to understand what is
needed and why it is there. Finally,
data must be collected and it is
important to ensure all control
objectives have been met, to esti-
mate benefts and to issue a
post-audit report. Figure 5 shows
the growth of benefts in 2012 by
month.
Alternatively, the APCs perfor-
mance can be shown as incremental
benefts each month compared to
its potential performance. The ratio
of actual benefts to potential bene-
fts is an indication of the APCs
effectiveness. It is important to
report to all stakeholders the APCs
performance, success stories and
challenges. If the right people know
what the challenges are for lower
utilisation, they can take appropri-
ate action to solve the problems.
For example, low analyser utilisa-
tion can be resolved by the analyser
group, and tight manipulated vari-
able limits can be adjusted by the
process engineer in conjunction
with the operations management.
As new information is gathered
from studies, projects, meetings and
informal discussions, the APC
programme can be adjusted on a
monthly or quarterly basis.
Conclusion
In order to create and maintain an
APC programme, the following key
steps are critical to success and
necessary to get good organisa-
tional alignment:
Develop an APC plan with suff-
cient detail to provide costs and
benefts by year
Prioritise work based on avail-
ability of DCS, unit and personnel
and cost-to-beneft ratio
Establish a solid front-end load-
ing of projects via studies or by
leveraging existing controllers
Rally the right team and stake-
holders around each APC project
and study
Communicate study reports, proj-
ect progress and APC results to
project stakeholders and the leader-
ship team.
Raymond Coker is Advanced Control Team
Lead with BP Texas City refnery, USA. He has
32 years experience in process and process
control, completed his frst DMC application
in 1985 and his last DMCplus 7.2 application
in 2012, and has led multivariable predictive
control projects on a wide range of refning and
petrochemical units. He holds a BS in chemical
engineering from the University of Texas at
Austin, and is a professional engineer and a
project management professional.
1 2
1 6
1 4
1 0
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 4 5
B
e
n
e
f
i
t
s
,

%

o
f

m
a
x

y
e
a
r
Mont hs
0
P o te n tia l
A c tu a l
Figure 5 Growth of benefts by month for an APC project
Communicate study
reports, project
progress and APC
results to project
stakeholders and the
leadership team
bp.indd 5 1/6/12 14:32:48
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Focusing on your safety
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Oct ober 1-3, 2012
AFPMs Q&A and Technology
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afpm.indd 1 1/6/12 13:20:03
Alarm foods and plant incidents
M
ost of the incident investiga-
tions performed by the US
Chemical Safety Board
(CSB) cite alarm foods as being a
signifcant contributing cause to
industrial incidents. In fact, alarm
management has become identifed
as one of the key issues listed on the
cover of recent CSB investigation
reports. The British-based organisa-
tion Engineering Equipment &
Materials Users Association
(EEMUA) came to the same fnding
in its report from 1999 when it
analysed major incidents around the
world, including Three Mile Island,
Bhopal and Texaco Milford Haven.
1

Therefore, the connection of alarm
foods to incidents has been well
documented for over 12 years. On
the whole, industrial progress
controlling foods in those 12 years
has been nil. Many corporations and
plant locations are attempting to do
so, but many engineers, including
alarm management vendors, do not
know what it takes to control foods
under all operating conditions. This
article shows examples of good
alarm management programmes
and how they successfully control
alarm foods under all operating
conditions.
Defnition and impact of an
alarm food
An alarm food has been defned by
ANSI/ISA 18.2 as being 10 or more
annunciated alarms in any 10-
minute period per operator.
2
Since
ISA issued the 18.2 standard over
two years ago, recent OSHA audits
have reported that questions on the
subject came up during inspections
of the plant. An attorney presenting
on the topic at the Global
Alarm foods and their contribution to industrial incidents can be controlled
successfully through all process states
DUSTIN BEEBE, STEVE FERRER and DARWIN LOGEROT
ProSys Inc
Conference on Process Safety 2012
stated that alarms and alarm
management were now frequently
coming up in audits. It is obvious
that OSHA considers the ISA 18.2
standard to be recognised and
generally accepted good engineer-
ing practices (RAGAGEP). As a
result, plant managers should be
ready to have their alarm perform-
ance scrutinised.
Obviously, plants that do not
currently meet the ISA 18.2 guide-
lines under all operating conditions
must remediate or face the conse-
quences. The consequences that
occur are not only when OSHA
audits come to the plant. Consider
these items:
It is commonly reported that 70%
of plant incidents occur on startup
or shutdown. Shutdown periods
are where many alarm foods occur
because of the sudden changes from
the run state. Could the occurrence
of these incidents be caused by one
or more critical alarms being
hidden under the food of
hundreds of alarms typical during
shutdown? What about startup
after a shutdown where alarm
foods have occurred? Until the
alarms have cleared, the operators
are fying blind without alarms
until reactivated. What are the odds
of an incident occurring when start-
ing up your plant without alarms
to annunciate?
Are your safety-critical alarms
immune to infuence by alarm
foods? Even special-sounding
alarms can be missed when a
cacophony of hundreds of fooding
alarms are sounding
What about product quality, plant
proftability or equipment damage
have any of these issues suffered
when an alarm food was a signif-
cant distraction for the operator
while operating the process?
Has your plant ever performed an
incident review to fnd that a criti-
cal alarm was missed? Was
personnel action taken against the
board operator for poor perform-
ance? Was the food of alarms even
considered as a distraction for the
board operator?
Does your plant have any data on
how many alarms are missed due
to distractions? How many redun-
dant alarms annunciate alarms
with little or no meaning at your
plant? How many loss of contain-
ment incidents, injuries or worse
can be tracked back to an alarm
food?
From the beginning
Over the last 30 years, the number
and frequency of alarms have
changed with technology. In the old
days of pneumatic controls, install-
ing a new process alarm had
signifcant costs. Since the use of
computer-based control systems,
new alarms cost nothing. As a
result, the number and frequency of
alarms has increased signifcantly
over the years. This phenomenon
has reached a point where a term
was needed to defne the experi-
ence when numerous alarms are
annunciating in a stream an
alarm food.
Alarms are typically confgured
for a single operational state run.
Alarm foods typically occur upon
a change of state in the process.
This could be from run to shut-
down or run to upset, or can even
include a change from state 1 to
prosy.indd 1 1/6/12 14:43:26
Consistent and reliable reporting
of alarm metrics
Improvements in alarm philoso-
phy document
Improving the quality of alarms
Dynamic alarm management.
Reduction in operator errors
Honeywell, in its paper presented
to the AIChE 1996 Safety
Conference, estimated that the total
loss due to operator error is $10
billion per year in the US alone.
3
Also, it has been commonly
reported that 70% of process inci-
dents occur during startup or
shutdown. Therefore, when the
process is changing from one state
to another and alarm foods have
the greatest propensity to occur, it
makes sense that lots of errors
would occur during alarm foods.
Proper alarm management is just
the beginning of minimising opera-
tor errors. The priority of
minimising errors during critical
changes in operating mode must be
the highest priority because of what
an error can mean during these
critical process transition periods.
The signifcance of errors and the
consequence of a mistake during
these periods while at an increased
risk of error during an alarm food
is justifcation alone for aggressive
investment to eliminate alarm
fooding.
Consistent and reliable reporting of
alarm metrics
Many plants have reported having
alarm management systems that
report results but require a signif-
cant amount of an engineers time
to routinely produce and send these
reports. Since the metrics are some-
what limited, some have even
resorted to augmenting the
system with several spreadsheets,
taking even more time from
productive assignments.
Since so many of the alarm
reporting tools contain manual
intervention, some managers have
allowed process upsets or shut-
downs with associated foods to be
fltered out of reports. Although
this makes the results look better,
fltering these results can hinder
actually resolving the problem
because those results are removed
state 2. This is because operating
parameters change upon a change
of state in the process and those
changes cause the foods. This
phenomenon can affect hundreds
or even thousands of alarms.
Therefore, upon process state
changes, many alarms can sound in
a short period of time. The frst
alarm or two indicate the initiating
event, alerting the operator to the
change. After this, many unneces-
sary and redundant alarms resulting
from the same root cause are
annunciated and displayed to the
operator. If another situation devel-
ops, those alarms would be added
to the existing food of alarms with-
out any differentiation between the
two root causes for the operator.
The operator is faced with evaluat-
ing these alarms for any process
information they might provide,
then acknowledging them. So many
alarms can show up at once that
this job can become very diffcult.
In fact, the observation has been
made that so many alarms are
going off that, by cause and effect,
acknowledging alarms becomes the
only response of the operator.
What is the problem?
The EEMUA, when speaking about
the impact of alarm foods on cata-
strophic incidents, said they were
a major contributor, and the loss
incidents frequently involved the
operator being overloaded with
alarm foods.
1

EEMUA Publication 191 provides
several high-profle examples where
poor alarm system performance
(foods) contributed to fnancial loss,
environmental damage, injuries or
death. Based on this information,
the following equality has been
proposed to emphasise proper
thinking and priority of alarm
management projects for corporate
managers, operations managers, and
managers of industrial health, safety
and environmental departments:
Floods = incidents = loss
Conversely, the control of alarm
foods will result in fewer incidents,
less loss and, as a result, lower risk.
Industrial plants have reported
lower insurance rates as a result of
lower risk attributed to superior
alarm management performance.
Process state changes are critical
periods where operators need their
alarm system to be fully functional.
Unfortunately, these periods are
exactly when alarm foods occur.
The fact that alarm foods can occur
in a process control room is prob-
lematic for four reasons:
A deluge of alarms can cause the
operator to miss critical alarms
Floods of alarms can be a signif-
cant distraction while the operator
is trying to deal with upsets in the
plant. At times, the operator is
forced to acknowledge alarms with-
out review to silence alarms in
order to think
Floods can be an indication of
larger systemic safety issues
With ISA 18.2 becoming
RAGAGEP, plant managers can
expect to be asked by OSHA to
show documentation that they meet
the ISA 18.2 guidelines under all
operating conditions. Now that
foods are recognised to be a major
contributor to plant incidents,
OSHA will defnitely be seeking
actual plant metrics for peak rates
(or foods). The fltering of upset
conditions and shutdowns from the
results will not be acceptable. The
General Duty Clause allows OSHA
to investigate anything including
an alarm food during an inspection
or as a result of hearing about one
in an operator interview.
What are the opportunities
in industry?
The reduction in alarm foods when
the process is running and stable is
relatively easy and not a factor for
most plants. The key to alarm
management is the ability to
perform under all operating condi-
tions, including startup, shutdown
and any other operating mode
change the process might experi-
ence. The opportunity in industry is
to implement an alarm manage-
ment programme that properly
manages and reports alarms under
all operating conditions.
Several key opportunities for
industry will be examined as they
relate to successful alarm
management:
Reduction in operator errors
prosy.indd 2 1/6/12 14:43:36
www.eptq.com
from the discussion. Many managers take these steps
because they do not believe they can achieve better
results or they cannot justify the investment to get
better results. The frst belief is false because the means
for producing results that meet ISA 18.2 metrics under
all operating results does exist today and has for many
years. In the second case, if the alarm management
solution is not getting the job done then management
needs to see the results to be aware that investment
will be necessary to achieve the desired results.
Consider the reaction OSHA inspectors would have
once they discover negative results (alarm foods) were
fltered by manual intervention of an engineer at the
plant. This situation might be uncovered through an
operator interview and review of the fltered alarm
metric results.
Unfortunately, many plants are inconsistent in their
collection of data and production of reports because of
the man-hours of effort required for the reports. Also,
the priority of alarm reporting projects are typically
low and the engineer assigned to the task is often
pulled to take on a more important project. Many
times, the project dies when the engineer never goes
back to it.
Recent advancements in alarm reporting software
tools now allow the data collection and email or
SharePoint reporting process to be completely auto-
mated for an enterprise. These enterprises can be made
up of multiple distributed control systems (DCS) of
different manufacturers and versions in a given plant
location, several plants in a specifc country or even a
worldwide enterprise. The key is that the entire proc-
ess can gather, process and report versus ISA 18.2
metrics without the need for human intervention.
Once the actual alarm performance results versus a
standard are known, corrective action can be justifed.
In addition to funding, these engineering projects must
be appropriately prioritised with the commitment
necessary to get the project done. Unfortunately, with-
out proper funding for these projects, priority and
commitment will not follow.
Improve alarm philosophy document
Some sites have not yet developed an alarm philoso-
phy document that contains the specifcs necessary to
eliminate debate and disagreement during the rational-
isation process. As a result, the time requirement for
the rationalisation process goes up, as do expenses for
the project.
Another reason to revise the alarm philosophy docu-
ment is that many companies have not yet updated
their alarm rate targets to the most recent ISA 18.2-
2009 Standard. As a result, plant managers do not have
the means to justify expenditures to achieve better
performing alarm rates, particularly alarm foods,
because the targets set do not require improvement
from the less than adequate results currently attained.
Improve the quality of alarms
A common misconception in industry is that the objec-
tive of alarm management is to reduce the number of
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prosy.indd 3 1/6/12 14:43:47
alarms annunciated to the operator. While the reduc-
tion in alarm rates will almost always be a result of a
well-designed and implemented alarm management
project, it is not the primary objective. The objective of
alarm management is to improve the quality of alarms.
Additionally, the goal is to provide operators with a
consistent and reliable alarm interface that supports
their efforts to safely, reliably and effciently operate
the process.
Every alarm should:
Be clear and relevant to the operator
Indicate an abnormal process condition or event
Have consequences of inaction
Have a defned response
Be unique.
In short, a quality alarm is an annunciated process
condition or event to which the operator can and
should take corrective action in order to return the
process to stable and safe operation. Another way of
stating these objectives is to provide the operator with
alarms that are necessary and meaningful, but not those
that are unnecessary, confusing or redundant.
The way alarm quality is improved is through a
complete and systematic alarm rationalisation. Every
plant is divided into systems and subsystems. Plant
operating procedures, P&IDs, PHA documentation, and
interviews with operations and engineering personnel
are all important parts of the overall process. The qual-
ity of this process rises and falls with the quality of the
facilitator. The facilitator should be an experienced,
professional engineer with extensive process and alarm
management experience. This position should not be a
note taker but one that can challenge the participants
where necessary, guide the discussion to avoid rabbit
trails, and keep the process on track to meet the overall
objectives.
Alarm rationalisation is the most important element
of alarm management, and the approach used in ration-
alisation will be a prime determinant in the success or
failure of the overall effort. A number of practices have
emerged with the intent to reduce alarm rates. Most
only affect average alarm rates. In fact, the ASM
Consortium reported that after evaluating 37 consoles
and over 90 months of data peak alarm rate is not
closely correlated with the degree of rationalisation.
4

Only one process, dynamic alarm management, has
proven to control alarm foods.
Dynamic rationalisation is alarm rationalisation for
more than one process state. Static rationalisations can
become dynamic when the question when is added
to the discussion for each point. As a result, the
increased cost for performing a dynamic rationalisation
versus a static one is not as signifcant as one might
think. Additionally, using the answers generated from
the when questions allows engineers to properly
confgure alarm management software to enable and
deactivate alarms appropriately for whatever the
current state is for the process.
Answering the when question involves using oper-
ating experience and process knowledge to determine
the detectable operating states of each section of the
Table 5
distributor design and its installation as the potential
root cause of high radial temperature spread in the bed
outlet.
Details related to the distributor tray selection and
tray installation have been previously addressed.
Improving hydrocracker re|iabi|ity
Reactor quench zone design and thermometry selec-
tion are critical for a hydrocracker units reliability. A
fast-response multipoint device for the thermometry
provides early warning of potential temperature excur-
sions. If temperature wave propagation from bed to
bed is not corrected, bed inlet temperature spread will
translate into excessive bed outlet temperature spread,
resulting in poor temperature control, premature shut-
down for catalyst change-out, or temperature
excursions.
remature unit shutdown for cata|yst change-out and
unit re|iabi|ity
Hydrocracker reactors are generally designed for a
high hydrogen partial pressure. Consequently, the
catalyst deactivation rate is often less than 2F (1C)
per month. A high radial temperature spread at the
bed outlet may cause the reactor shell to reach its
metallurgical temperature limit, while the actual
weighted average bed temperature of the catalyst is
lower than the estimated end-of-run temperature,
resulting in a premature unit shutdown. It is also
important to recognise that the number of skin ther-
mocouples may be limited. Consequently, the actual
highest metal temperature may be higher than the
measured highest temperature reading, leading to
reactor reliability issues.
Conc|usions
Both optimised distributor and quench box design can
improve catalyst utilisation (or catalyst cycle length)
and unit reliability. An optimised mixing chamber
using swirling action alleviates concerns when an
increase in the quench gas rate is required for reactor
excursion control. A compact quench zone design with
a reduced number of manways can reduce capital costs
while shortening unit turnaround time. Reactor ther-
mometry selection is critical to provide a fast response
and reliable radial temperature reading for improving
unit reliability.
keferences
1 H2Advunce US luLenL 7,112,212 26, SepL 2006.
2 US luLenL 2,S02,44S 24, Mur 1970.
3 US luLenL S,690,896, 2S Nov 1997.
4 US luLenL S,62S,14S, 2 ]un 1997.
5 US luLenL 4,826,989, 6 ]un 1989.
6 Chou 1 S, Hydrocrucker rellublllLy lmprovemenL, /!Q, Q2 200S.
1ai-Sheng Chou ls u Hydroprocesslng SpeclullsL wlLh H2Advunce,
HousLon, 1exus, und hus 22 yeurs' reInlng experlence, speclullslng ln
hydroprocesslng reucLor lnLernuls deslgn. He hus deslgned 82 dlsLrlbuLors
und 49 quench zones Ior hydroprocesslng reucLors und holds u lhu ln
chemlcul englneerlng Irom Lhe UnlverslLy oI HousLon.
/ma||. ta|s|eaqcao|.com
www.eptq.com 119
achieved using the metal-based additive at one-fourth
the dosage of the incumbent product. Through the use
of the scavenger programme, this refner was able to
S
alarms reported (see Figure 7). This programme has
been in commercial use for more than fve years. It has
also resulted in fewer environmental incidents and
greater peace of mind for the refner, workers and
-
eration because there is a signifcant risk of exposure to
people, equipment and the environment. Asphalt is
generally transferred at loading racks, where personnel
manning the loading rack may be exposed to toxic
vapours. Transport to terminals and application of the
fnal product are also situations where exposure to
S may
occur. The viscous nature of asphalt and the high
temperatures needed to work with this material make
for a dangerous combination when even low levels of
S
from asphalt can be accomplished through the proper
application of a chemical scavenger. An additive
-
ogy and test methods can optimise additive dosage,
improve scavenger response and allow refners to meet
A thorough understanding of the asphalt blending
confguration, tank residence times, available mixing
equipment and injection points is critical to designing a
programme that produces the desired results while
ensuring an optimised chemical programme. Diffculties
-
bly can also be an issue. With the proper additive,
-
eries to increase employee safety, comply with
environmental regulations and minimise capital
ls Munuger oI Lhe 1echnology SupporL Group Ior luel
AddlLlves wlLh uker Hughes und hus 12 yeurs oI Iuel uddlLlves lndusLry
S
scuvengers, dlsLllluLe cold ow lmprovers und mercupLun scuvengers. She
ls ulrecLor oI Lhe leLroleum AddlLlves Group wlLh uker
Hughes, hls prevlous roles wlLh Lhe compuny lnclude Senlor SynLheLlc
ChemlsL Ior Lhe keInery lrocess Group, Munuger Ior AnLlIoulunLs und
Corroslon Groups, und Munuger oI k&u Ior Lhe OllIeld Chemlculs Group.
He hus u lhu ln lnorgunlc chemlsLry Irom Kunsus SLuLe UnlverslLy und
to increase emp|oyee safety and
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prosy.indd 4 1/6/12 14:43:59
plant. The team determines key
operating data and a logic struc-
ture, which will be utilised to
identify the current state. Once the
states and logic are determined, it
is a straightforward exercise to
determine when (during which
operating states) each alarm is to be
active and inactive.
Other rationalisation methods
Other common rationalisation
methodologies do not improve the
quality of alarms. In fact, some do
just the opposite. Most of these
approaches are pursued as a means
to reduce the cost of the project.
Unfortunately, in every case they
insure the plant will not reduce
foods to the levels required by ISA
18.2:
Bad actor management This meth-
odology focuses on the handful of
alarms with the highest annuncia-
tion rates. The process typically
repeats over and over again. The
risk is that legitimate alarms have
been disabled without considera-
tion for the overall process. This
process can reduce average alarm
rates but does nothing to impact
alarm foods
Partial rationalisation Partial
rationalisation focuses the effort on
the alarms that annunciated over
the last three to six months. Much
like bad actor management, this
methodology is focused on a subset
of the total alarms and is not
considering the process as a whole
system
Static rationalisation This is an
alarm rationalisation for a single
process state usually the run
state. Most processes have several
states, therefore, when non-run
states are current, lots of alarms can
sound. This is because system read-
ings do not match the run state set
points. This rationalisation method
can usually result in a reduction in
average alarm rates, but has been
proven not to have an impact on
foods (see ASM Consortium report
comment above).
4
Dynamic alarm management
Most alarm management practices
and procedures only produce
desired results in the area of aver-
age alarm rates. Certainly, reducing
average alarm counts is positive;
however, reducing foods (peak
rates) is vastly more important for
everyone operators, managers
and the community. The reason this
is true is that peak rates are respon-
sible for operators missing critical
alarms and average rates are not.
Disastrous incidents affecting lives,
property and the environment can
begin when an operator misses a
single alarm.
Dynamic alarming is not state-
based alarming, although many
practitioners use these terms inter-
changeably. The difference between
the two is subtle but exceedingly
important:
State-based alarming This is
where the operator authorises a
change or the control system auto-
matically changes alarm settings to
appropriate set points upon a
change of state. Unfortunately, this
change can be abrupt because there
is little to no transition manage-
ment. Also, without managing this
transition of set points from one set
to another, the change can actually
create a food of its own. The time
when a process is changing state is
very critical and the worst possible
time for the operator to deal with a
food. Many software vendors are
limited in the number of points that
their software can handle. As a
result, they limit the number of
total points to about 30 for state-
based alarming
Dynamic alarming Although simi-
lar to state-based alarming, the key
distinction is that the automatic
alarm settings go through a transi-
tion manager when changing from
one setting to another. This allows
each alarm a far smoother, custom-
ised transition and eliminates the
causation of foods. True dynamic
alarm management software is able
to handle over 700 dynamic points
per operator.
Dynamic alarm management is
the most effective form of alarm
management and, as a result, many
claim it, but few companies actually
have the ability. Alarm foods are
reduced to the lowest possible
levels, and plants using dynamic
alarm management have no prob-
lem meeting and exceeding alarm
metrics set by ISA 18.2.
Results of dynamic alarm
management
The results produced by well-
conceived, planned and implemented
dynamic alarm management systems
are nothing short of exceptional.
These differences are reported by
some operators to be amazing or
unbelievable.
The following narrative is a
specifc case that illustrates several
key differences dynamic alarm
management can make in a work-
ing control room. At the central
control room of a large US refnery,
a trip of the compressed air supply
for the plant caused a complete
shutdown of the refnery.
Fortunately, about half of this
centralised control room had just
implemented a comprehensive
dynamic alarm management
program. Within a few minutes of
the shutdown, this side of the
control room complex was rela-
tively calm, operators were going
about the necessary shutdown
activities, and the group was well
aware of where they were and
knew what actions needed to be
taken. They did not experience any
alarm foods.
The other side of the control room
was in disarray. Alarms were
annunciating by the hundreds,
someone was assigned the role of
acknowledging alarms so the others
could fnd out where they were and
what actions were necessary.
Alarms were continuing to annun-
ciate so fast that the alarm summary
screen could not keep up. In fact, a
number of alarms were completely
lost and never found. The senior
operator had a very diffcult time
assessing the situation. In time, he
was fnally able to piece together
what state the plant was in even
though he still had a number of
unknowns.
The operations manager for the
plant happened to be in the control
room complex when the plant shut-
down occurred. This manager was
able to experience both sides of
the control room under the same
shutdown conditions. After seeing
the difference dynamic alarm
management made under those
real-life conditions, he insisted on
implementing it in the other half as
prosy.indd 5 2/6/12 17:56:03
soon as possible instead of waiting
for the next year.
Comparison of alarm rationalisation
methodologies
The data in Table 1 were acquired
from three different sites using vari-
ous rationalisation methodologies.
Shutdowns and upsets occurred for
each of the units during the time
period.
The actual results generated from
bad actor management show very
little improvement of either average
or peak alarm rates. None of the
bad actor management readings
were even close to the requirements
for meeting the ISA 18.2 guidelines.
Static rationalisation improves aver-
age alarm rates to where they can
often meet ISA 18.2 metrics, but
peak alarm rates (foods) show very
little improvement at all before and
after static rationalisation. Dynamic
rationalisation is the only successful
means of controlling both average
and peak alarm rates to levels that
meet or exceed ISA 18.2 metrics.
The results shown in Table 1 indi-
cate how signifcant dynamic
rationalisation can be for a process.
Plant results
The results that can be obtained
using dynamic rationalisation can
eliminate a signifcant number of
redundant alarms, thereby reducing
distractions, load and potentially
errors for the operators. Figure 1
shows a comparison of alarm data
for the same time period in the
same process, the only difference
being that the green line was gener-
ated after the system was
dynamically rationalised. The red
line was recreated from the exact
same event and timeline, showing
alarms that would have occurred
had dynamic alarming not been
implemented.
In Figure 1, the red line indicates
that without dynamic alarming a
food of about 150 alarms would
have occurred between 8:48 and 9:03
or over about fve minutes. Within
that same fve-minute period, the
green line shows the actual alarm
rate. Note that at about 8:58, three
alarms sounded, one of which was a
critical alarm, not related to the orig-
inal event, which could have led to
a signifcant incident if it were
missed by operators. The critical
alarm was a fuel gas fail to close the
alarm from the SIS system. As a
result of so few unnecessary alarms
annunciating, the plant manager felt
dynamic alarm management played
a major role in helping to avert a
signifcant, potentially catastrophic
event from occurring.
Figure 2 shows about one month
of alarm rate data in 12-hour
segments. Near the end of the
month, the unit tripped and was
completely shut down as a result.
This process state change would
generally trigger hundreds and, in
some cases, thousands of alarms in
a very short period of time.
Eliminating the redundant or stand-
ard shutdown alarms accomplished
many goals, including improving
the effectiveness of the operator. In
this case, the frst 12-hour period
containing the trip experiences only
50 alarms. This signifcant reduction
in alarms during a shutdown
improved the ability to spot critical
alarms by making them more obvi-
ous to the operator. Also, reduced
distractions provide time for the
operator to think ahead of the proc-
ess and avoid potential problems
before they develop.
Figure 3 is a close-up of the shut-
down period highlighted in Figure
2. Please note that the actual peak
rates never approached the ISA 18.2
peak alarm limit of 60 alarms per
hour.
Practical steps to control alarm
foods
The items listed below are some
keys to begin the process of obtain-
ing the results that meet or exceed
ISA 18.2 metrics:
Management commitment is an
important key to success. Without
this commitment, resources for the
project will not be available. Keep
them appraised of progress by
communication about your
progress. Develop a metric report
with the right level of details that
they want to see regularly. If your
Point summary ISA 18.2 Dynamic Static Bad actor
Metrics[2] rationalisation rationalisation management
Number of areas 2 2 2
Points 3641 3327 2552
Q3 2010 avg. alarm rate per hour 6 4 5 12
Q4 2010 avg. alarm rate per hour 6 4 6 26
Q3 2010 peak alarm rate per hour <=60 39 1266 402
Q4 2010 peak alarm rate per hour <=60 42 702 954
Note: fgures shown in red do not meet ISA 18.2 Metrics
Comparison of results by rationalisation method
Table 1
Figure 1 Comparison of dynamic versus typical alarm management
120
200
160
80
40
8.45 9.00 9.15 9.13
14
0
Static
Dynamic
176
prosy.indd 6 1/6/12 14:44:20
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alarm metric reporting tool is not
getting the job done, identify
one that does and ask for manage-
ments support to get the necessary
resources. Without automatic and
reliable reporting on a plant-wide
basis, an
OSHA audit might be a very
unpleasant event for your boss
The alarm reporting tool should
have the following capabilities:
Automatic data gathering and
Figure 2 Example of ood control using dynamically managed alarm rates upon unit trip
and shutdown: data in 12-hour segments
Figure 3 Example of ood control using dynamically managed alarm rates upon unit trip
and shutdown: data in hourly segments
60
80
ISA 18.2 target average. 6 a|arms/hour
70
50
40
30
20
10
m
a

2
1

0
1
0
2
/
2
1
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2
m
p

2
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m
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60
ISA 18.2 peak a|arm target. 60 a|arms/hour
70
50
40
30
20
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reporting for multiple control
systems of different manufacturers
and versions
Alarm results compared directly
with ISA 18.2 targets
Routine alarm reports to be
emailed to appropriate users
Management reports to be
emailed as a routine to managers
The alarm reporting tool is
pivotal to the justication of further
investment of resources in this
project. This data is important;
make sure an engineer is not work-
ing him or herself to death to get it
Hire a consultant with process
and alarm management experience
to guide the plant through the proc-
ess of upgrading your alarm
philosophy document. This docu-
ment must have the specicity to
handle issues that might be points
of disagreement during the next
phase. Addressing those issues in
this document simplies and
minimises the cost of the next step
dynamic rationalisation
Do not be tempted to save money
during the rationalisation phase by
only doing some subset of total
points and leave the rationalisation
incomplete and open to oods. The
end result is the rationalisation will
need to be repeated, requiring addi-
tional investment of resources and
time
The rationalisation team should
be made up of operations, process
engineering and controls engineer-
ing along with an experienced
rationalisation facilitator
The facilitator for the dynamic
rationalisation process should be a
professional engineer with exten-
sive process and alarm management
experience. Hiring an outside
consultant is usually helpful to
minimise political issues with
operators
The selection of a dynamic alarm
management solution is very
important to the success of the
project. Before any purchase is
made, a designate should talk to at
least three references of other plants
with PSM processes that are now
meeting or exceeding ISA 18.2
guidelines under all operating
conditions. The alarm management
software should add to the capabili-
ties of the control system, not
replace anything. One of the
features critical to achieving
dynamic alarm management is
proper management of transitions
from one state to another. This
process should be customisable by
point and not require multiple
alarms to be activated at once. The
logic tool within the software
should be congurable to allow
majority voting (for example: 2 of 3,
3 of 5) to change process states
prosy.indd 7 1/6/12 14:44:31
The alarm shelving tool furnished
with the software should be confg-
urable with automatic re-enabling.
One popular alarm shelving tool
also has intelligent re-enabling that
re-enables the alarm automatically
when it is no longer having an
issue.
Conclusion
Although progress has been reported
in the reduction of average alarm
rates, only very few locations have
seen the necessary improvement in
alarm foods. Incident investigations
reported over the last 12 years have
indicated loss incidents frequently
involving the operator being over-
loaded with alarm foods.
1
Therefore,
if this is true, the equation foods =
incidents = loss is true. As a result,
it is fair to state that the control of
alarm foods will lead to fewer loss
incidents and, as a result, fewer
health, safety and environmental
incidents and their associated losses
and expenses.
Several cases have shown that
alarm foods can be controlled
successfully through all process
states. Managers must emphasise
the importance of controlling foods
and provide resources in order to
achieve results that meet the ISA
18.2 metrics for alarm foods. When
plants are able to consistently
achieve the metric for alarm foods,
the risk of incident and loss will be
better controlled.
References
1 Appendix 16 - The Cost of Poor Alarm
Performance, Alarm Systems, A Guide to
Design, Management and Procurement EEMUA
Publication 191, Edition 2, 2007, ISBN 0 85931
155 4, Imprint Reference 7-2007.
2 ANSI/ISA 18.2 - 2009, Management of Alarm
Systems for the Process Industries.
3 Cochran E, Bullemer P, Abnormal Situation
Management: Not by New Technology Alone,
AIChE 1996 Safety Conference.
4 Andow P, Zapata B, Reducing Alarm Flood
Severity, Highlights from the ASM Consortium
2008.
Additional reference not cited:
5 US Chemical Safety Board (CSB)
Investigations, www.CSB.gov/investigations/
default.aspx.
Dustin Beebe is the CEO of ProSys, Baton Rouge,
LA. He holds a BS in chemical engineering from
the University of Arkansas and is a registered
Professional Engineer. He is a member of the
ISA 106 committee and employs members of
the ISA 18.2, 101 and 106 committees, is a
member of the Chemical Engineering Advisory
Boards for both the University of Arkansas
and Louisiana State University, and frequently
presents on alarm management and human
machine interface (HMI) and on other process
control subjects.
Steve Ferrer is Business Development Manager
at ProSys. Prior to joining ProSys, he spent 25
years in consulting sales and service to the
chemical, refning, paper and textile industries.
He holds a BS in microbiology from Louisiana
State University and is a member of AIChE, ISA
and LCIA.
Darwin Logerot is a Senior Consulting Engineer
at ProSys and is one of the companys leaders
in the areas of model predictive control and
alarm management. He has more than 35
years experience in the process chemical
industry, holds a BS in chemical engineering
from Louisiana State University and is a
registered Professional Engineer in Louisiana
and is a member of AIChE and ISA.
Adding value to the oil,
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Minimise corrosion while maximising
distillate
S
ustained growth in the demand
for jet fuel, diesel and other
middle distillate products is
expected to have a continuing
impact on unit operations, product
pricing, product selection and refn-
ing margins into the foreseeable
future. As more and more new
facilities come online to supply the
demand for tighter product sulphur
specifcations, refners will continue
to maximise distillate production in
their atmospheric distillation units
to take advantage of favourable
product pricing. However, maximis-
ing the production of these fuel
streams requires a continual assess-
ment of the entire processing system
beyond the mechanical capability of
pumps, piping and valves to ensure
reliable operation of the unit in a
market environment that favours
distillate production. As refneries
continue to lower tower top temper-
atures in an effort to increase
product draws in the distillate
sections of the column, the condi-
tions for introducing salt fouling
and corrosion mechanisms into
areas that previously were not
affected come to the forefront.
Refners must address the hazards
of unmonitored distillate maximisa-
tion on corrosion in the crude
distillation column top section and
overhead system. In this article,
overhead corrosion control strate-
gies and guidelines are discussed to
help refners maintain reliable unit
operation while maximising distil-
late production.
Overhead salt point and lower tower
top temperatures
Crude unit overhead corrosion
deals with corrosion affecting the
Reducing atmospheric fractionator overhead temperatures to maximise middle
distillate production requires a full understanding of resulting corrosion mechanisms
BRandOn Payne
GE Water & Process Technologies
upper sections of the crude unit
atmospheric fractionation column,
including the top tower trays, over-
head condenser system and top
pumparound circuits. Corrosion in
the crude unit overhead system is
primarily due to acid attack at the
initial water condensation point
(ICP), resulting in low pH condi-
tions and the associated aggressive
corrosion of the systems metal
surfaces. Secondary corrosion
mechanisms in the tower top and
overhead are typically due to
amine-chloride salt deposition driv-
ing under-deposit corrosion.
Neutralisers are used to control
the pH of condensing overhead
waters within an optimal range to
maximise the reduction of corrosion
rates while minimising the tendency
for salt deposition caused by the
neutralisation reaction with the
acidic species. The type of neutral-
iser used in an overhead system is
selected based on three primary
factors: neutralisation capacity (the
strength of the neutraliser), the
water partition coeffcient (the rate
at which it will enter the frst water
droplets formed in the overhead
system) and the neutralisers salt
point.
The salt point is defned as the
temperature at which the frst
neutralisation salts begin to precipi-
tate from the vapour phase. These
salts can be very corrosive them-
selves and can also give rise to
under-deposit corrosion at certain
points in the system. In order to
control the deposition and corrosiv-
ity of these salts, a water wash is
often used to provide a means of
diluting and washing the corrosive
salts from the overhead system. In
these cases, the salts are scrubbed
from the overhead vapour, washed
from the overhead piping and
condenser system, and fow into the
overhead receiver. However, as the
overhead process temperature is
lowered in an effort to force addi-
tional material into the distillate
draw section of the column, the
location of the salt point tempera-
ture moves further upstream into
the overhead line, pumparound
circuits and tower top internals
where there is no water wash.
Without the means of removing
deposited salts in these areas, corro-
sion can be severe and equipment
failure rapid. Therefore, it is critical
to continuously re-evaluate the
neutraliser being used to determine
if it is still appropriate for changes
in overhead and operating condi-
tions. The ideal neutraliser for the
system will form its amine chloride
salt at a temperature that is 15F
(8C) lower than the water dew
point in the system. To protect
against the deposition of precipi-
tated amine-chloride salts inside of
the distillation column, the neutral-
iser salt point temperature must
also be 25F (14C) lower than the
tower top temperature.
Corrosion in the
crude unit overhead
system is primarily
due to acid attack
at the initial water
condensation point
ge.indd 1 1/6/12 16:22:41
effects. While chloride control is a
relatively direct and straightfor-
ward effort, lowering levels of
tramp amines can be much more
diffcult. This is often because oper-
ational practices prevailing in the
refnery will give rise to high levels
of tramp amines cycling up in the
crude unit overhead. These prac-
tices are often caused by units
outside the crude unit boundary.
Four primary sources of tramp
amine entry are the sour water
stripper, steam production,
alkanolamine scrubbing units, and
amines entering the refnery with
the incoming crude oil. An overall
understanding of tramp amine
backgrounds, surges and sources is
necessary to enable targets and
intervention for control of these
species. Levels as low as 5 ppm of
certain tramp amines can have a
dramatic impact on salt points and
associated corrosion. Figure 1 illus-
trates typical tramp amine cycles.
The tendency for all these amines
to cycle up in the system is largely
driven by overhead receiver pH
and desalter effuent brine pH. As
the pH rises above 5.5, the tendency
for these species to cycle up is
substantially increased. This is
because the partitioning rate at
which amines migrate from the
hydrocarbon to the water phase are
strongly infuenced by pH. Once
cycled up, the rate at which amines
will blow down is dependent on
the pH of both the desalter effuent
brine and the overhead receiver
waters, as well as the relative rate
of amine input. A lower pH will
cause a faster blow-down at a
constant input of amines to the
recycling system. The dynamic
aspects of amines having reduced
partitioning rates, reduced recycling
rates and increased blow-down
rates as pH is lowered has impor-
tant consequences.
GE Water & Process Technologies
(GE) has developed a comprehen-
sive methodology to address the
drivers of system salt points, salt
deposition rates and subsequent
corrosion rates in systems with
signifcant salt fouling problems
through a systematic review of
amine inputs. By properly control-
ling these inputs and system pH,
Role of excess chlorides and
tramp amines
Chloride control in the overhead
system is one of the most important
aspects of a good corrosion control
programme. This is because altering
chloride levels has the largest over-
all impact on the corrosion potential
by dramatically affecting both pH
and the salt point deposition
temperatures. The lower chloride
levels entering the distillation
column are, the greater the degree
of corrosion control that is possible
from a treatment programme.
Therefore, with the desalter having
the greatest impact on the condition
of the charge to the distillation
tower, all efforts should be made to
ensure optimal desalter perform-
ance, reducing desalted crude
chlorides to the lowest possible
levels. However, maintaining low
chlorides alone is not suffcient to
guarantee good overhead corrosion
control. The amines present in the
system are equally important to the
overhead systems fouling and
corrosion potential.
Neutralising amines that are
intentionally added to control over-
head pH conditions are not the only
amine species that play a role in
overhead salt formation. The pres-
ence of tramp amines may play a
larger role in undesired salt forma-
tion in the overhead and tower top
than the injected neutraliser amines.
Tramp amines are broadly defned
as any amines, other than the
appropriate neutraliser being used,
found cycling in the system. Tramp
amines that are entering and recy-
cling in the system will strongly
affect overhead pH and typically
have very high salt points. Sources
of these tramp amines include
incoming crude and slop oils, steam
neutralisers, alkanol amine units,
sour water strippers, H
2
S scav-
angers and cold wet refux. Such
amines can make it virtually impos-
sible to either keep salt points
below the water dew point or to
drop pH to desirable levels. The
most desirable condition is to have
overall tramp amines in the system
low enough to enable the usage of
a quality neutraliser with a low salt
point. If tramp amine levels are
high enough, the net system salt
point can negate the impact of a
quality neutraliser. This situation
can cause salt point temperatures to
exceed the tower top temperature
and cause various deposition prob-
lems that can become quite severe
and affect tower operation and
charge rates. Efforts should always
be taken to understand total amine
loading.
Both elevated chloride levels and
amine levels will negatively impact
overhead corrosion due to salt point
Tank
farm
Fractionation
column
Desalter
Accumulator
Wa sh
w a te r
S trip p in g
ste a m
To w e r to p re flu x
A m in e
re c yc le
A m in e
re c yc le
N e u tra lise r
A m in e
Wa te r w a sh
Figure 1 Typical amine recycle loops
ge.indd 2 1/6/12 16:23:12
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the most rapid reduction in deposi-
tion and corrosion potential can be
achieved. Although lowering pH
offers positive benefts, as described
above, iron should be monitored in
the overhead waters. The effective
minimum pH will be dictated by
the onset of increased iron produc-
tion due to ICP corrosion at the
water dew point. The pH should
never be lowered beyond this level
in order to keep ICP corrosion
under control.
Overhead water wash systems
Water washing is used as a means
of forcing the water dew point
temperature to higher levels and to
physically dilute and wash salts.
This is accomplished by raising the
amount of free liquid water in the
system. This free water will then
dilute corrosive species at the ICP
and also wash away any neutralisa-
tion salts formed at temperatures
below the wash water injection
temperature, or mixed exit temper-
ature. However, it should be noted
that an inadequate water wash can
be worse than no water wash.
Water wash should be injected in
two stages using high-effciency
nozzles in a co-current confgura-
tion to provide a small droplet size
with a large surface area and
dispersal pattern. This will impact
both the wall wetting capability of
the spray, as well as the vapour
scrubbing effciency.
The frst injection stage should be
a single point injected into the over-
head vapour line near the top of the
column, while the second stage
needs to be multiple points injected
in parallel just prior to the
exchanger inlets. In a well-
controlled unit, the frst-stage wash
injection should provide just
enough water to form 20% of total
liquid water and primarily saturate
the overhead vapour. The second
injection stage should then inject
the remainder of the total water
needed to achieve the wash water
target. Enough water should be
added to achieve a minimum of 5%
free water. While 5% is a minimum
value, 10-15% water wash can be
even more effective. However, care
must be taken to make sure that the
overhead receiver can handle the
additional amount of water fux
and still provide acceptable water
separation. Water carry-over in the
overhead refux can be a very
signifcant problem, as high levels
of water-soluble amine salts will be
carried back to the tower. This can
lead to a large cycling effect that
will dramatically increase salt
points, as well as place salts directly
on tower internals. Additionally,
the water can cause wetting of
already existing salts and increase
their corrosion potential considera-
bly. Care should also be taken to
ensure that overhead vapour veloc-
ity stays within a range of
30-80 ft/s.
Caustic usage
A target of <15 ppm chlorides, with
<5 ppm upside variation, is an ideal
target. While effective programmes
can be maintained with higher
levels of chlorides, it generally
becomes more diffcult and expen-
sive if either chlorides or variation
increase. A large variation in chlo-
ride levels can be very detrimental,
as either low pH acid attack or high
pH salt deposition can occur.
Therefore, efforts should be priori-
tised to maintain effective chloride
control within control ranges. The
injection of caustic (NaOH) into the
desalted crude oil can be used as a
polisher to further reduce chlorides
after the best performance is
obtained from the desalters.
However, caustic usage must be
carefully evaluated and monitored
to determine accurately the down-
stream impacts and the critical
threshold concentrations. It should
not be used as a replacement for
optimising desalter operation.
Proper selection of flming corrosion
inhibitors and neutralisers
In order to properly control corro-
sion in a crude unit overhead
system, a three-pronged strategy
comprised of an organic neutralis-
ing amine, a flming inhibitor and a
water wash should be implemented.
Every corrosion control programme
will utilise these three elements to
varying degrees, based upon the
unit design, crude diet and operat-
ing envelope. Therefore, the
selection of the proper treatment
chemistry is critical to the
programmes success and the units
equipment reliability.
Under normal conditions, the
ideal neutraliser utilised will form
its amine-chloride salt at a tempera-
ture that is at least 15F (8C) lower
than the water dew point in the
system. Calculating the ICP and salt
point are critical to controlling
corrosion. The use of modelling
software, such as GE Water &
Figure 2 LoSalt ionic equilibrium model input
Selection of the
proper treatment
chemistry is critical
to the programmes
success and the units
equipment reliability
ge.indd 3 1/6/12 16:23:24
As such, they help reduce the risks
associated with salt fouling due to
amine-based neutralisers or tramp
amines present in the system.
Filmers have been used with
success in the dispersion of depos-
ited salts in areas where no water
wash is present, such as pumpa-
round circuits and tower trays.
Unlike neutralisers, flming inhib-
itors will not vaporise in the
overhead system and will remain
liquid. Therefore, flmers must be
atomised into the overhead at the
point of injection. Nozzles and dilu-
tion streams must be used to
achieve proper distribution. Since
the flmer injection exists as an
entrained droplet distribution in the
overhead vapour stream, it follows
a two-phase fow profle. Liquid
droplets will impact with and coat
the wall through direct interaction.
Both the choice of application point
and the droplet size distribution of
the injected liquid play a large role
in the overall effectiveness of a
flmer. Larger droplets in the fow
feld have a tendency to impinge
onto the outside wall of any bends
or turns in the line. A loss of flmer
coverage can be caused by 90-
Process Technologies proprietary
LoSalt Ionic Equilibrium model (see
Figures 2 and 3), allows for the
rapid and effcient prediction of the
overhead system salt point. These
modelling tools can be used to
quickly determine the best neutral-
ising amine and/or operating
parameters by predicting salt points
for various amines and the ICP for
various operating conditions.
The LoSalt Ionic Equilibrium
model has been effectively used to
assist refners in optimising tower
top temperatures by establishing
the operating limits they must not
exceed in order to prevent salt
formation and deposition in the
system. In one case, the operational
changes made, based on the infor-
mation provided by the ionic
modelling analysis, allowed the
refnery to decrease average over-
head corrosion rates by 80% to a
corrosion rate of <5 mpy (verifed
by consecutive UT thickness
readings).
Filming inhibitor chemistries are
the mainstay of the overhead corro-
sion inhibitor programme. Filmers
work by coating the metal surface
with a hydrophobic barrier, which
prevents corrosive species from
reaching and reacting with the
metal surface. While a neutraliser
has a maximum theoretical limit to
the overall reduction of corrosion
rates, flmer chemistries are not
constrained by such a limit. The
level of corrosion protection from a
flming corrosion inhibitor can
approach 100%, given adequate
dosage and the proper conditions.
However, the practical aspects of
the flmer application generally do
not allow such a degree of protec-
tion. It is, however, relatively easy
to realise 90-95% protection for
coated surfaces at reasonable
dosages. Traditional flmers require
a pH above 4 to maintain optimal
flm stability. The newest flmers in
the GE Water & Process
Technologies pHilmPlus line can
offer flm stability down to a pH of
2. This is especially important
during desalter upsets and high-
chloride events, which can drive
overhead system pH to very low
levels. In addition to providing a
signifcant further reduction in
corrosion rates, over and above that
available with a neutraliser, certain
flmers can act as salt dispersants.
2 3 0
1 8 0
1 3 0
8 0
1 0 3 0
1 . 7
5 . 0
8 . 3
1 1 . 5
5 0 7 0 9 0 1 1 0
S
a
l
t

p
o
i
n
t
s
N
e
u
t
r
a
l
i
s
e
r

r
a
t
e
Chl ori des i n boot , ppm
3 0 1 . 7
3 . 7
5 . 7
7 . 7
9 . 7
1 1 . 7
1 3 . 7
1 7 . 7
1 5 . 7
1 9 . 7
2 1 . 4
O p e ra tin g p o in t
Wa te r d e w p o in t
To p te m p e ra tu re
A m in e
A m m o n ia
G P D
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
O p e ra tin g p o in t a t in te rse c tio n o f p H p ro file a n d re d lin e
6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 0 0
p
H

a
t

2
5
C
Wat er condensed, %
0
1 4 . 8
1 8 . 1
Figure 3 LoSalt ionic equilibrium model output
ge.indd 4 1/6/12 16:23:36
degree elbows or U-bends due to
the momentum of the travelling
droplets forcing them to move to
the outside wall of the curves via
centripetal forces. Also, vapour-
liquid route preferencing and
maldistribution can cause poor
flmer coverage downstream of
splits, T-s and in manifolds. Droplet
sizes larger than 50 microns will
have a greater tendency to be lost
prematurely to the wall for systems
with complex bends. For this
reason, high-quality hydraulic
nozzles that are properly designed
for the system fows and pressures
should be utilised to achieve a
minimum droplet size distribution.
Also, at least two stages of flmer
distribution are recommended for
most systems, similar to a water
wash system.
The frst stage should be near the
beginning of the overhead vapour
line, preferable into the 90-degree
elbow pointing down the vertical
pipe near the side of the tower.
The second stage should be distrib-
uted over parallel legs, just
upstream of the individual
exchangers. The injection direction
should be co-current with the fow,
and each injection point should use
its own carrier stream that is
metered and controlled. Filmer
injection points should be at least
10 pipe diameters away from
other injection points. The frst
flmer injection is preferred
downstream of the neutraliser
injection point, and both should
be signifcantly upstream of the
water dew point and salt point
locations.
Conclusion
As refners reduce atmospheric
tower top temperatures to maxim-
ise diesel and middle distillate
production, a thorough understand-
ing of the ICP, salt point and
control of amine recycle loops is
critical to maintaining plant reliabil-
ity in changing plant operational
conditions. By practising good
operational diligence, treatment
programme stewardship and utilis-
ing predictive diagnostic tools, such
as GEs proprietary LoSalt Ionic
Equilibrium model to predict amine
salt points, refners can establish
safe operating regimes for diesel
and middle distillate maximisation
and ensure the long-term safety
and proftability of refnery assets.
LoSALT and pHilmPLUS are trademarks
of General Electric Company and may be
registered in one than one country.
Brandon Payne is a Product Applications
Specialist with GE Water & Process
Technologies Refnery Corrosion Center of
Excellence. He is responsible for global support
of refnery corrosion treatment programmes,
and has over 14 years of refnery engineering
and process treatment experience.
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ge.indd 5 2/6/12 17:39:51
zyemeflow.indd 1 1/6/12 14:55:17
Reliable design of sour water strippers
O
il refning always generates
sour water, and within a
refnery there are numerous
sources. Most refnery sour water
systems contain very little CO
2
. The
H
2
S content makes water sour,
and H
2
S levels can become very
high. The capacity of ammonia
solutions for H
2
S is a direct result
of ammonias alkalinity, which
neutralises the hydrogen ion liber-
ated by H
2
S dissociation when it
dissolves into the solution.
Although not the usual case, in
principle, and with enough H
2
S
partial pressure, there can even be
more H
2
S than ammonia. The
potentially very high H
2
S content
can make sour water extremely foul
and, if the H
2
S is not recovered,
pollution levels would be
completely out of hand. Many sour
4

water sources have been noted.
1

Sources include the following:
Many refning units use live
steam and heat for fractionation,
and live steam for velocity assist
and temperature control in fred
heaters. Nitrogen in the presence of
heat and a hydrogen source (such
as a hydrocarbon) forms ammonia.
The steam is condensed and recov-
ered in the overhead circuit of the
crude unit, FCC unit or coker unit
In the case of refnery hydrotreat-
ing, hydrogen gas and a metal
catalyst are used to saturate olefns.
Hydrotreating also converts
sulphur-containing hydrocarbons to
H
2
S, and nitrogen-bearing hydro-
carbons to ammonia
Although ammonia is considera-
bly more volatile than most
alkanolamines, it has a high affnity
for water. Ammonia is removed
from hydrocarbon products by
A simulation model aims to raise confdence in the reliability of sour water
stripper design
NAthAN hAtcher and rAlph WeilANd
Optimized Gas Treating
injecting wash water into the gas
and cooling the mixture at an
elevated pressure to condense the
water. This provides an irresistible
invitation for ammonia to enter the
aqueous phase
Wash water prevents the accu-
mulation of salts and the corrosion
of heat exchange surfaces, espe-
cially in areas where there are gas
liquid interfaces and where there
are sudden temperature changes on
heat transfer surfaces, such as when
heat transfer is controlled by liquid
level in an exchanger
Amine regenerator refux water
purges can also be a signifcant
source of ammonia.
The sour water generated in refn-
eries is generally classifed as being
either phenolic or non-phenolic.
Non-phenolic water contains almost
exclusively NH
3
, H
2
S and possibly
a trace of CO
2
; it is generated by
refnery hydrotreating (hydrodesul-
phurisation, or HDS) units. When
stripped of contaminants, non-
phenolic water can typically be
recycled for reuse in the HDS as
wash water, or it can be used as
make-up water to the crude desalt-
ing process. This article considers
only non-phenolic water. Phenolic
(or, more broadly, non-HDS) water
contains compounds that can harm
upstream units if used as wash
water in them. Typical contami-
nants include salts, phenols and
caustic. However, make-up water
to processing units must frst be
treated, so maximising water reuse
is desirable to minimise attendant
operating costs. Other sources of
water to sour water stripping units
are process drums, crude desalting
units, scrubbing of hydrocarbons
following caustic treatment for
mercaptans, COS and fnal H
2
S
removal, TGU quench columns, and
various effuent drains for remov-
ing the water used to prevent salt
deposition in equipment.
1
It may be useful to point out that
ammonia and hydrogen sulphide
have almost unlimited solubility in
water when they are present
together. This is a possibly interest-
ing consequence of the fact that the
reactive component of the solvent,
ammonia, is volatile and, if present
in the gas phase, it will continue to
absorb as long as it becomes proto-
nated as a result of H
2
S
co-absorption. Thus, it is conceiva-
ble that a particular sour water
stream may be a lot more concen-
trated in both ammonia and
hydrogen sulphide than the solubil-
ity of either component alone
would suggest.
Basic sour water stripping process
At frst glance, sour water stripping
is a simple process in which either
external steam, steam generated by
a reboiler, or even a hot hydrocar-
bon stripping vapour is used to
shift chemical reaction equilibria by
heating the sour water. Stripping
vapour is the gaseous solvent
used to remove and carry the
ammonia and H
2
S out of the
system. In other words, the applica-
tion of heat generates internal
stripping steam (equivalently, live
steam injection or stripping gas can
be used) and removes ammonia,
H
2
S and CO
2
from the water by:
Heating the sour water feed to
boiling point
Reversing chemical reactions
Diluting the partial pressure of
ogrt.indd 1 1/6/12 16:46:21
Chemistry of ammonia with
acid gases
Ammonia is a relatively weak base
capable of being mono-protonated.
For example, in aqueous solution, it
forms ammonium ion (protonated
ammonia) to a limited extent:

NH
3
+ H
+
NH
+
4
(1)
This reaction is in perfect parallel
with amine protonation, so in this
sense ammonia can be thought of
as nothing more than just another
reactive amine. There is a great deal
of nonsense written in various
books and other publications
concerning the reactions of H
2
S and
CO
2
with ammonia. All reactions
involve ionic species and all reac-
tion products are ions. Ions do not
form ionic compounds except possi-
bly when materials begin to
precipitate. As long as all species
are in solution, they exist as indi-
vidual ions and are not associated
with each other. All ions are freely
foating and the only associations
are ones that result in solution non-
ideality. Thus, there is no such
thing as ammonium carbonate,
ammonium bicarbonate, ammo-
nium bisulphide or diammonium
sulphide in solution. It is very hard
to make sense of reaction equilibria
unless one discards the existence of
such compounds.
The reactions that occur when
H
2
S and CO
2
dissolve in solution
are the same as in any other aque-
ous, primary or secondary amine
system. The reactions are:

H
2
O H
+
+ OH
-
(2)

H
2
S H
+
+ HS
-
(3)

HS
-
H
+
+ S
=
(4)

CO
2
+ H
2
O H
+
+ HCO
-
3
(5)

HCO
-
3
H
+
+ CO
=
3
(6)

NH
3
+ CO
2
NH
2
COO
-
+ H
+
(7)
Ammonia drives all these reac-
tions to the right by serving as a
proton sink per reaction (1).
Understanding sour water strip-
pers, understanding the way
ammonia behaves as a solvent for
acid gases, and understanding what
the gases stripped by furnishing
excess steam.
The process is very similar to
amine regeneration. Figure 1 shows
a typical sour water stripper column
with heating by the injection of live
steam. Since a sour water stripper
does not form a closed loop in the
same sense that an amine regenera-
tor does, maintaining a water
balance is unnecessary. This means
that live steam can be used as a
stripping agent either alone or in
conjunction with a conventional
reboiler, and the additional water
added by the condensate is simply
added to the refnerys water inven-
tory. Typical energy usage in the
stripping process is in the range
1.0-1.5 lb of 50 psig equivalent satu-
rated steam per gallon of sour
water.
When an external reboiler is used,
steam pressure can often be higher
than in an amine regenerator to
minimise the heat exchange surface.
In an amine regenerator, amine
degradation limits temperatures. In
a sour water stripper, there is little
or no ammonia in the stripped
water in the reboiler, so these
concerns do not exist. However,
there is a practical limit of 400-
450F, where coking heavy
hydrocarbons can lead to fouling
and solids deposition in the
reboiler. Corrosion is always a
concern.
Higher NH
3
and H
2
S concentra-
tions require more stripping energy.
Since H
2
S solubility relies on the
presence of ammonia, the molar
concentration of H
2
S very rarely
exceeds that of ammonia, and then
usually only in dilute systems. A
typical molar ratio of H
2
S to ammo-
nia is 0.5-0.8 in the combined sour
water stripper feed water of a typi-
cal refnery. Ammonia levels in the
water are often determined by
upstream process conditions, and
they can be highly specifc to the
process licensor and crude slate in
operation. Obviously, higher
concentrations of NH
3
and H
2
S are
preferred from a water consump-
tion perspective. However, there is
a practical limit of between one and
several weight per cent ammonium
bisulphide equivalent in the sour
water feed before metallurgy must
be upgraded.
Trays have historically been used
in sour water strippers, but random
packing is beginning to see use in
units processing relatively clean
water. Trays with directional, fxed
valves have been reported to be
more resistant to fouling, because
the horizontal velocity imparted as
the gas leaves each valve tends to
sweep clean the area near the
valves.
2
Stripped sour water specifcations
for NH
3
and H
2
S can be highly
dependent upon the locale where
the unit is installed and the fnal
discharge requirements. NH
3
is
harder to strip than H
2
S, and typi-
cal targets for NH
3
are 30-80 ppmw
in the stripped water versus unde-
tectable to less than 0.1 ppmw for
H
2
S. Typical recent installations
3,4
involve 35-45 actual trays, with
overall tray effciencies quoted
anywhere from 25 to 45%.
S o u r
w a te r
F e e d /
b o tto m s
L ive
ste a m
S trip p e d
w a te r
S WS
A G
1 1
7
1 2
1 0
SWS
Pump-1
Cooler
3 5
4
8
9
Figure 1 Sour water stripper with live steam injection
ogrt.indd 2 1/6/12 17:27:11
dupont.indd 1 23/2/12 15:04:26
happens to ammonia in amine
regenerators depends on knowl-
edge of:
Vapour-liquid equilibria
Kinetics of the carbamate-forming
reaction, Equation 7
An appreciation for mass transfer
as a rate process where Henrys
Law applies.
The thermodynamic framework
on which the vapour-liquid calcula-
tions are based involves a model
for the activity coeffcients via
extended Debye-Hckel theory.
Thus, the basic modelling approach
for ammonia is the same as for any
other amine, with one exception:
ammonia is highly volatile and this
leads to different distributions in
absorption and especially regenera-
tion equipment compared with
amines. Its volatility is often respon-
sible for it getting into the sour
water system in the frst place
(through condenser water blow-
down, for example), but volatility
also allows it to be recovered rela-
tively easily from the same sour
water. Heat stable salts and alkali
salt contaminants also affect the
distribution of ionic species in solu-
tion and their presence must be
considered, too, and is the subject
of a future article.
Simulating sour water strippers
Traditionally, sour water strippers
have been modelled as a series of
equilibrium stages, with overall
stage effciencies quoted anywhere
in the range of 15% to 45%; that is,
ranging over a factor of three.
However, the mass transfer rate-
based approach to the simulation of
amine contactors and such hard-to-
model distillation processes as
extractive, azeotropic and reactive
distillation have been in commercial
use since the mid- to late 1980s.
Their extension to sour water strip-
ping is a natural progression and,
in December, 2011 a commercial
mass transfer rate-based sour water
stripper model became available as
part of the ProTreat simulation
package. The remainder of this arti-
cle uses the ProTreat simulators
sour water stripper model to reveal
some rather surprising facts and
behaviours of sour water strippers.
Phase equilibrium
The vapour pressure of ammonia
and acid gases above sour water
plays a key (but by no means the
only) role in determining the extent
to which a given column and proc-
ess confguration will purify sour
water and how the process operat-
ing conditions affect the separation.
We have developed an activity
coeffcient model for phase behav-
iour for sour water that uses the
Deshmukh-Mather approach
10
for
activity coeffcients, and the Peng-
Robinson equation of state for the
vapour. The thermodynamic model
has been ftted to all public-domain-
phase equilibrium data for the
CO
2
-H
2
S-NH
3
-H
2
O system, a total
of some 550 separate experiments,
most involving ammonia and either
one or both of the acid gases H
2
S
and CO
2
. Figure 2 is a set of parity
plots indicating partial pressure

H
N

d
e
t
a
l
u
c
l
a
C

l
a
i
t
r
a
p

a
P

,
e
r
u
s
s
e
r
p
Measured NH
3
partial pressure, Pa

H

d
e
t
a
l
u
c
l
a
C
2

l
a
i
t
r
a
p

S
a
P

,
e
r
u
s
s
e
r
p
Measured H
2
S partial pressure, Pa

O
C

d
e
t
a
l
u
c
l
a
C
2
l
a
i
t
r
a
p
a
P

,
e
r
u
s
s
e
r
p
Measured CO
2
partial pressure, Pa
Figure 2 Parity plots of VLE data for the system NH
3
-H
2
S-CO
2
-H
2
O
ogrt.indd 3 2/6/12 17:43:16
It should be noted that this is not
an overall tray effciency. Tray
overall effciencies are based on
ideal stage calculations to deter-
mine the number of theoretical
(ideal) stages. ProTreat studiously
avoids such calculations because,
when combined with the averaging
that is done through overall eff-
ciencies, and the possible use of
thermal effciencies to force-match
measured temperature profles,
they completely obscure what is
really going on in SWSs. The inter-
esting behaviours that occur in sour
water strippers are caused by mass
transfer effects; ideal stage approxi-
mations ignore tower internals as
mass transfer devices and smooth
out most of the physics of the real
mass transfer device by considering
only vapour-liquid equilibrium. The
missing physics cannot be recov-
ered by an overall tray effciency
for the column. Consequently, an
ideal stage stripper model is, at
best, only as good as its guessed
effciencies. The Murphree vapour
effciency, on the other hand,
provides a quantitative measure of
how close to perfect equilibrium
each real tray actually operates.
Unfortunately, a mass transfer rate
model is needed to predict the
Murphree effciencies, so one might
as well use a mass transfer model
in the frst place and avoid effcien-
cies altogether. The real value of the
Murphree vapour effciency is to
show how far from equilibrium real
trays perform and how radically
performance can vary from tray to
tray. It is worth emphasising that
there is absolutely no relationship
between Murphree vapour and
overall tray effciencies.
As can be seen from Figure 3, H
2
S
effciency varies enormously
throughout the tower and is also a
very sensitive function of the steam-
to-sour-water ratio, especially when
steam rates are relatively high.
Generalising the Murphree vapour
effciency for H
2
S is utterly impossi-
ble because it varies from a few per
cent to 50%. Trays become
extremely ineffcient when the last
vestiges of H
2
S are being removed
from the water. Obviously, the tray
count and the steam required
depend heavily on the treated water
ranges in Pascals, and the goodness
of ft.
Mass transfer rate model
The sour water stripper model in
ProTreat deals with the separation
of ammonia, the acid gases and
water as governed by the particular
mass transfer rate of each individ-
ual component. Ammonia is treated
as reactive towards CO
2
in the same
sense that any other primary or
secondary amine is reactive, and
transfer rates are determined by
individual (vapour and liquid)
phase mass transfer coeffcients,
interfacial areas and concentration
difference driving forces. The
details of mass transfer rate model-
ling have been described at length
elsewhere
5,6
and will not be
repeated here. Suffce it to say, the
kinetics of the NH
3
-CO
2
reaction
(see Equation 7) have been properly
accounted for using known kinetic
parameters and the usual enhance-
ment factor approach. The resulting
process model is a virtual plant on
a computer in which all the funda-
mental physical and chemical
processes occurring are properly
accounted for. The computer simu-
lation is a direct one-for-one
prediction of both column and
process performance completely
without recourse to user estimates
of any parameters whatsoever. All
that is required is the actual process
fow sheet confguration, tower
internals details and values for
process parameters corresponding
to such operating conditions as sour
water fow and composition, tower
pressures and imposed heat loads.
The sour water stripper model
itself has been validated against at
least a half dozen sets of stripper
performance data by two refning
companies and an engineering frm,
with what were reported by them
as excellent results. Using a virtual
plant in the form of a precise
computer model, the remainder of
this article examines the effect of
the steam-to-water ratio and strip-
per operating pressure on sour
water stripper performance, as
measured by such parameters as
Murphree vapour effciency and
residual ammonia and H
2
S in the
stripped water. The simulation
cases use live steam injection as the
source of stripping vapour because
this tends to be the most effective
way of providing thermal energy
for stripping; however, reboiled
strippers add less make-up water
and can be simulated just as easily.
Exploring strippers
Figure 1 shows the simplest possi-
ble confguration of a sour water
stripper. For this exercise, the strip-
per contained 40 one-pass valve
trays on 2ft spacing with 2in weirs.
Sour water was fed to Tray 6 (from
the top), live 50 psig saturated
steam entered below the bottom
tray and, in all cases, the column
was sized for 70% of jet and down-
comer food. Except for the case
study involving stripper pressure,
where a fxed temperature approach
of 20F was used, the sour water
feed to the stripper was kept at
235F. Table 1 gives the conditions
of the sour water used for this case
study.
Ratio of steam to sour water
Four steam rates were used 0.78,
0.92, 1.20 and 1.48 lb/USgal
covering the range normally used
in sour water stripping. (Gantz
7

shows performance data for steam
rates from 0.6 to 4.0 lb/USgal,
although, commercially, rates at
and above 1 lb/USgal are more
usual.) One of the performance
parameters of interest is the
computed Murphree (1925) vapour-
phase effciency.
8
Taylor and
Kooijman
9
defne the Murphree
vapour effciency, E
mw

i,n
, for compo-
nent i on tray n (from the top) as:

E
MV
=
y
i,n
- y
i,n + 1
(8)
i,n y
i,n
- y
i,n + 1
where y is the mole fraction
Total fow, lb/h 150 000
Temperature, F 235
Pressure, psia 70
Water, mol% 96.4
Hydrogen sulphide, mol% 1.5
Carbon dioxide, mol% 0.1
Ammonia, mol% 2.0
Sour water feed conditions
Table 1
ogrt.indd 4 1/6/12 17:27:37
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specifcations to be met. Thus, the
designer is faced with a diffcult
decision, because more trays and
more stripping energy lead to lower
effciency. These effects cannot be
modelled or accounted for with an
ideal stage model, even when a
guessed overall tray effciency is
used. Providing optimal, cost-
effective designs using theoretical
stages is a rather seat-of-the-pants
enterprise.
Before tackling corresponding
effciencies for ammonia, it is
revealing to look at the vapour- and
liquid-phase concentration profles
of ammonia, as well as the simu-
lated vapour profle compared
directly with the equilibrium
vapour composition. Figure 4 shows
tray-by-tray profles of the liquid-
and vapour-phase mole percentages
of ammonia. The surprising thing is
the bulge, or maximum, displayed
at boil-up rates at the low end of
the range.
We have observed and reported
the existence of similar maxima in
ammonia concentration in the
context of ammonia control in refn-
ery amine units.
11
Indeed, it was
found that in an amine regenerator
only the bottom few trays were
effective in stripping ammonia. In
the present case of a sour water
stripper, ammonia stripped in the
lower part of the column is actually
reabsorbed in the upper part
because the H
2
S is high enough
there to react with and fx a signif-
cant part of the ammonia back into
the liquid. When the steam-to-sour
water ratio is high enough,
however, the H
2
S concentration is
too low everywhere to remove
enough ammonia to result in a
maximum in the ammonia concen-
tration. We note in passing that
there is a strictly monotonic
decrease in H
2
S concentration as the
sour water moves down the
column.
When the boil-up rate is at the
lower end of the spectrum and a
maximum in ammonia concentra-
tion occurs away from the ends of
the stripper, the Murphree vapour
effciency for ammonia exhibits
seemingly odd behaviour. Figure 5
shows very surprising effciency
trends from tray to tray at stripping
steam rates of 0.78 and 0.92 lb
steam/USgal. At the lowest steam
rate, the apparent effciency ranges
from -100% to +120%, and at 0.92
lb/USgal the apparent effciency
reaches +200%. The reason is that
the lines corresponding to actual
and equilibrium vapour-phase mole
fractions cross (as they must do
because a bulge implies that strip-
ping gives way to absorption at
some point in the column) and they
have a maximum on immediately
adjacent trays rather than on the
same tray. Figure 6 shows the
actual (y) and equilibrium (y*) lines
for the steam rate of 0.92 lb/USgal,
from which it can be seen that both
exhibit a maximum, the lines cross,
and they have peak values on
different trays. Referring to
Equation 8 (defnition of effciency),
it is easy to see that if the numera-
tor or denominator changes sign, or
the concentration difference in the
denominator becomes very small,
apparent effciencies can become
not only large but negative.
At frst glance, much of this odd
effciency behaviour may seem a
little academic; however, when a
constant effciency is applied to an
equilibrium-stage model, the maxi-
mum in ammonia concentration in
the interior of the column, well
away from the ends, will not be
revealed and simulation results will
tend to be quite optimistic in terms
of sour water quality and stripped
gas ammonia levels. This may go
some way to explaining the wide
variations reported in tray effcien-
cies (15% to 45%) in this application.
It is worth noting that when strip-
ping steam rates are moderate to
high, the Murphree effciency turns
out to be between 35% and 40%,
with variations of only one or two
1 0
0
5
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
T
r
a
y

f
r
o
m

t
o
p
H
2
S eff i ci ency, %
4 0
F e e d tra y
0 . 9 2
0 . 7 8
1 . 2 0
1 . 4 8
1 0
0
5
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0
T
r
a
y

f
r
o
m

t
o
p
NH
3
i n vapour, mol %
4 0
F e e d tra y
0 . 9 2
0 . 7 8
1 . 2 0
1 . 4 8
Figure 3 Calculated Murphree vapour effciencies for H
2
S
Figure 4 Ammonia concentration profles in the SWS
ogrt.indd 5 1/6/12 17:27:49
percentage points across the whole
column.
Effect of stripper pressure
From time to time, one hears it
stated that higher stripper pressures
favour sour water stripping, so we
decided to put this old wives tale
to the test. Table 2 shows the effect
of column head pressure in residual
ammonia and H
2
S levels in stripped
water for the same process confgu-
ration and sour water composition
shown in Figure 1 and Table 1,
respectively. The simulated
performance corresponds to a steam
rate of 25 000 lb/h of 50 psig steam
(1.40 lb/USgal) with the cross
exchanger set to a temperature
approach of 20F to minimise the
effect of temperature differences
across the stripping section. The
table shows that, contrary to anec-
dote, higher pressure has a negative
(albeit relatively small) effect on
water quality with respect to
ammonia, but can cause an 80-fold
increase in residual H
2
S content of
the stripped water under these
conditions. Higher pressures do not
seem to favour ammonia stripping,
and they certainly have a negative
effect on stripped water quality vis-
-vis H
2
S.
Summary
Perhaps the most important
message of this article is that genu-
ine mass transfer rate-based
modelling allows the construction
of a virtual plant on a computer.
There is no reliance on what might
be termed fudge factors to
achieve agreement between calcula-
tions and reality.
A mass transfer rate-based sour
water stripper model provides a
virtual sour water stripper on a
computer. Engineers can now
design sour water stripper units
with unprecedented accuracy and
reliability. Plant operations person-
nel can answer a wide range of
what-if questions to troubleshoot
operations and to optimise existing
units with complete confdence in
the results.
After overall tray effciencies,
Murphree vapour effciencies are
probably the most commonly used
type of effciency for tray calcula-
tions. Overall effciencies are an
invention of the 1920s, developed
to allow ideal stage distillation
calculations to approximate reality
more closely, and as 90-year-old
technology they have served the
distillation business well. However,
the whole equilibrium-stage
approach was superseded by mass
transfer rate calculation methods in
the mid- to late 1980s, already more
than 25 years ago. The gas treating
industry deals with far more
complex separations processes than
1 5
0
5
1 0
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
4 0
1 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0
T
r
a
y

n
u
m
b
e
r

f
r
o
m

t
o
p
NH
3
eff i ci ency
0 . 7 8 lb ste a m / U S g a l.
F e e d tra y
1 5
0
5
1 0
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
4 0
5 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0
T
r
a
y

f
r
o
m

t
o
p
NH
3
eff i ci ency
0 . 9 2 lb ste a m / U S g a l.
F e e d tra y
Figure 5 Murphree vapour effciencies for ammonia at low steam rates
1 0
5
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0
T
r
a
y

n
u
m
b
e
r

f
r
o
m

t
o
p
Ammoni a i n vapour, mol e%
4 0
y* n )
y n )
M a x im u m a t y 1 2 )
M a x im u m a t y* 1 3 )
F e e d tra y
Figure 6 Actual and equilibrium ammonia concentrations in the vapour phase at low
steam rates
ogrt.indd 6 1/6/12 17:28:05
distillation, but, unfortunately, it
has been remarkably slow to catch
on to the new technology. Genuine
mass transfer rate-based simulation
is an extremely powerful tool in gas
treating.
There are several other messages
that pertain directly to sour water
stripping:
H
2
S effciency varies enormously
from tray to tray throughout a sour
water stripper, and the Murphree
effciency is a very sensitive func-
tion of the steam-to-sour-water
fow rate ratio. Any attempt to
generalise H
2
S component eff-
ciency is utterly futile because of
its huge variation from only a few
per cent to 50% across a column
and its dependency on the particu-
lar operating conditions of each
unique situation
With respect to effciencies perti-
nent to H
2
S stripping, the tray count
and the steam required depend
heavily on the treated water specif-
cations to be met. Thus, the designer
is faced with really quite a diffcult
decision more trays and more
stripping energy lead to lower eff-
ciency. What and where is the
balance? Should one use more or
less steam, and more or fewer
trays? These effects cannot be
accounted for with an ideal stage
model, even when it uses effciency.
The process appears to be too
complex to generalise into rules of
thumb
At stripping steam rates in the
lower half of the normal range used
in practice, it is quite possible for
the ammonia concentration in a
sour water stripper to show an
enormous bulge or maximum in
some part of the stripping section
well away from the ends. At this
bulge, the sour water stripper
changes from acting as an ammonia
stripper to an ammonia absorber.
When (and where) the bulge occurs,
there is a high enough H
2
S concen-
tration in the liquid to attract
ammonia into the water phase and
hold it there chemically. Again,
ideal stage models even with eff-
ciency do not show this kind of
behaviour, and they can lead to
either gross overdesign or to a
complete mis-design, depending on
the relative H
2
S and ammonia
concentrations in the sour water
feed
Murphree vapour effciencies for
ammonia in sour water strippers
operating at low to moderate strip-
ping steam rates can vary from
large negative values to positive
values well over 100%. At high
stream rates, on the other hand,
Murphree vapour effciencies for
ammonia stripping are typically
35% to 40%. This huge variation
depending on steam rate and H
2
S-
to-NH
3
ratio may go a long way
towards explaining the wide range
of 15% to 45% overall effciency
often quoted by practitioners
Contrary to a commonly repeated
anecdote, higher stripper pressures
do not favour better ammonia strip-
ping, and they certainly do not
favour H
2
S stripping where a factor
of 80 loss in performance was
predicted, even for the setup in this
study.
In conclusion, this article has
pointed out several aspects of sour
water stripping that either do not
seem to have been recognised here-
tofore, or that offer solid scientifc
explanations for previously observed
and reported characteristics.
ProTreat is a registered mark of Optimized Gas
Treating Inc.
References
1 Stevens D Mosher A, Ogg D, Fundamentals
of sour water stripping, Brimstone Sulfur
Recovery Symposium, Vail, CO, Sept 2007.
2 Hauser R, Kirkey R T, Refnery tests
demonstrate fxed valve trays improve
performance in sour water stripper, AIChE
Spring National Meeting, 31 Mar 2003, New
Orleans, LA T1-2E.
3 Quinlan M P, Hati A A, Processing NH
3
acid
gas in a sulphur recovery unit, Proceedings
of the 2010 Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning
Conference, Norman, OK.
4 Asquith J, Moore A, sour water processing
balancing needs, Proceedings of the 2000
Brimstone Sulphur Recovery Symposium, Vail,
CO.
5 Weiland R H, Sivasubramanian M S, Dingman
J C, Effective amine technology: controlling
selectivity, increasing slip and reducing sulphur,
Laurence Reid Gas Conditioning Conference,
Norman, OK, 2003.
6 Weiland R H, Dingman J C, Column design
using mass transfer rate simulation, Laurence
Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, Norman,
OK, 2001.
7 Gantz R G, Sour water stripper operations,
API Special Report, Hydrocarbon Processing,
May 1975, 83.
8 Murphree E V, Graphical rectifying column
calculations, Ind. Eng. Chem., 17, 1925, 747-
750 and 960-964.
9 Taylor R, Kooijman H, ChemSep Tutorial:
Effciencies, www.chemsep.com/downloads/
docs/ChemSepTutori al_Effi ci enci es. pdf,
downloaded 4 Jan 2012.
10 Deshmukh R D, Mather A E, A Mathematical
model for equilibrium solubility of hydrogen
sulphide and carbon dioxide in aqueous
alkanolamine solutions, Chem. Eng. Sci., 36,
1981, 355-362.
11 Hatcher N A, Weiland R H, Special
treatment, Hydrocarbon Engineering, Jan 2012.
Ralph Weiland began working in gas treating
as a graduate student in 1965 and has been
an active researcher in this feld ever since.
He received BASc, MASc and PhD degrees in
chemical engineering from the University of
Toronto. He taught chemical engineering for
30 years at universities in Canada, Australia
and the US, and spent 10 years doing mass
transfer tray development with Koch-Glitsch
LP in Dallas, TX. He established Optimized Gas
Treating in 1992.
Email: ralph.weiland@ogtrt.com
Nathan Hatcher joined Optimized Gas
Treating, Buda, Texas, as Vice-President,
Technology Development, in 2009. He has
spent almost his entire career in amine
treating and sulphur recovery, and has
extensive experience in the practical
application of process simulation to
operations, troubleshooting and training.
He holds a BS in chemical engineering from
the University of Kansas and is currently a
member of the Amine Best Practices Group.
Email: nate.hatcher@ogtrt.com
Stripper head pressure, psig Treated water
Ammonia, ppmw H
2
S, ppmw
10 17.2 0.00002
15 21.1 0.00013
20 26.0 0.00058
25 31.5 0.00197
Effect of stripper pressure on residual NH
3
and H
2
S levels in stripped water
Table 2
ogrt.indd 7 1/6/12 17:28:21
sulzer.indd 1 1/6/12 16:12:23
Monitoring and treatment to maximise
light cycle oil
C
urrent global trends in prod-
uct demand favour the
increasing production of
diesel fuel over motor gasoline
because the demand growth for
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the demand growth for gasoline for
some time.
2
In fact, the US is now a
net exporter of refned petroleum
products (mostly middle distillates)
for the frst time since 1949.
3

Furthermore, the demand for gaso-
line from refneries has declined
due to increases in the average fuel
economy and the use of renewable
fuels.
5

Decline in gasoline demand
5
in
the US resulted in a reduction in
refnery capacity, particularly in
PADD I (East Coast), which
increased cost sensitivities through-
out the US refning market. US
demand for propylene continues to
rise at a rapid pace because steam
crackers are switching to ethane
feeds, and propylene and diesel
continue to command a price
premium over most other refned
products.
8
These changes in product
demand mix and market over-
capacity have resulted in refners
focusing on increasing middle
distillate production with minimal
additional capital and operational
costs.
The question many refners are
now facing is how can existing refn-
ery assets be used to economically
increase diesel and propylene
production. Refners have many
options to increase middle distillate
and propylene production.
Unfortunately, many of the options
have signifcant negative conse-
quences or additional capital costs.
Changes in operation are often
Fouling control, simulation software and tower scanning can improve operations
and reliability when maximising middle distillate and propylene production
GREG SAVAGE
Nalco
constrained by existing equipment
limitations, and changing the prod-
uct mix can reveal new bottlenecks.
2

Capital investment options
Crude distillation units and delayed
coker units have some fexibility to
increase distillate production, but
are constrained by feed slate and
mechanical limitations. Most US
refneries only have two to fve
trays between the fash zone and
the distillate draw, which results in
less precise distillate cuts. In
contrast, European refneries that
are historically optimised for diesel
production may have 10 to 14 trays
in the same zone to ensure good
separation. Some US refners are
now adding distillate draws on
vacuum towers to maximise distil-
late production and limit the
amount of distillate sent to the FCC
unit, which is chiefy designed for
the production of gasoline and will
convert middle distillate-range feed
to lighter products.
2

Most US refners have invested in
a FCC unit as their main conversion
technology. Changes in operation,
catalyst and feed can optimise the
FCC unit for distillate production.
Increasing diesel in a FCC unit is
challenging, in part because FCC
light cycle oil (LCO) has limited
value as a blend stock for diesel
fuel due to its aromatic, sulphurous
character and because it requires
further hydrotreating before
blending.
6

Construction of new hydrocrack-
ers, which provide increased
fexibility over FCC units and
better-quality gasoline and distillate
products, is ongoing but slow due
to relatively high capital costs and
the resulting increased hydrogen
demand. Tighter sulphur specifca-
tions along with the increased
processing of higher-sulphur feeds
and the rise in production of high-
sulphur intermediate products such
as LCO are increasing the demand
on hydrodesulphurisation units
3 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
2 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
N
H
3

i
n

a
c
c
u
m
u
l
a
t
o
r
,

p
p
m
Chl ori de i n accumul at or, ppm
0
2 5 5 C
2 3 5 C
C u rre n t sa lt 2 6 5 . 5 C
2 4 5 C
Figure 1 NH
4
CI salt formation isotherms
nalco.indd 1 1/6/12 20:58:32
main fractionator towers are partic-
ularly sensitive to salt fouling
because of low temperature and
relatively high concentration of
ammonia (NH
3
) and hydrogen chlo-
ride (HCl) in the overhead system.
An increase in P at the main frac-
tionator at both units can reduce
wet gas compressor capacity and
therefore limit the throughput. An
increase in P across the FCC units
main fractionator increases the
pressure in the reactor and in the
regenerator, which can limit air
blower capacity and coke burn, as
well as the production of propyl-
ene.
1
Therefore, the control of
chlorides into the distillation
columns as well as frequent model-
ling of the salt potential and salt
formation temperature are essential
in adjusting distillation column cut
points. Control of chlorides into the
distillation columns can be accom-
plished through good desalting at
the crude distillation unit and the
injection of caustic downstream of
the desalter. Optimisation of caustic
and neutraliser injections through
automation can reduce the chloride
levels in the crude atmospheric
columns and overhead systems
while minimising the risk of down-
stream impacts such as sodium
poisoning of the FCC catalyst.
Continuous use of salt-dispersant
technologies, controlled on the basis
of salt formation potential, normal-
ised P across the top section of
distillation columns and the heat
transfer modelling of pumparound
exchangers, minimises the risk of
salt fouling by moving deposits out
of the column into the heavy naph-
tha or middle distillate streams.
1

Distillation column scanning
Straight-run middle distillates left
in the FCC gas oil feed are
converted to lower-valued products
during FCC processing. Also, carry-
over of heavy gas oil into the
straight-run middle distillate prod-
uct draw will impact the cold-fow
properties of the eventual distillate
blend.
2
Consequently, exact control
and excellent operation of the distil-
lation columns are necessary for
optimising the production of high-
quality diesel while minimising
downstream impacts. Distillation
(HDS).
4
Moreover, increasing olefn
production at the FCC unit
increases the fouling potential for
downstream HDS units, which can
be controlled with appropriate anti-
foulant additives. HDS capacity is
often a bottleneck for the refnery,
particularly when optimising for
distillate and propylene production.
Therefore, there is a greater poten-
tial for HDS preheat fouling and a
larger associated economic penalty.
Changing cut points
The most common strategy for
increasing diesel production is to
adjust cut points between the naph-
tha and middle distillate draws in
the crude, FCC and coker units.
Often, changes in the cut points are
accomplished by reducing fraction-
ator tower top temperatures. This
reduction will increase ammonium
chloride (NH
4
Cl) salting potential.
Figure 1 shows a plot of ammo-
nium chloride salt deposition
isotherms from a typical FCC unit
on the Gulf Coast, which was
generated using Nalco Pathfnder
simulation software. The plot
demonstrates that the lower the
temperature, the less ammonia and
chloride are necessary to create salt.
Similarly, Figure 2 shows a plot of
overhead temperature versus salt
formation temperature and salting
potential from a typical Gulf Coast
FCC unit, but with constant ammo-
nia and chloride levels. This plot
shows that a 6F reduction in over-
head temperatures can result in
nearly three times the salting poten-
tial. Changes in tower pressure,
overhead temperature or concentra-
tion of amines, ammonia and
chloride alter partial pressures and
therefore salt potential.
Salt deposits in towers and pump-
arounds can result in under-deposit
corrosion and the generation of
corrosion by-product deposits. These
deposits may plug trays in the top
and mid-sections of the tower,
partially or completely block the
heavy naphtha and middle distillate
product draws, as well as severely
limit the pumparound rates and
heat removal from the tower.
Performance of pumparound
exchangers can be modelled using
heat transfer simulation software.
The build-up of salt deposits in trays
can increase the P across the top
section of the tower. Uncontrolled
fouling has resulted in tray fooding,
evidenced by a rapid and signifcant
increase in P, which can have a
negative impact on the fractionation
effciency between gasoline and
middle distillate.
1

The FCC unit and delayed coker
Figure 2 NH
4
CI deposition potential
6 0
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 0
2 7 8 2 8 0 2 8 2 2 8 4 2 8 6 2 8 8 2 9 0 2 9 2 2 9 4
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
,

p
o
u
n
d
s

p
e
r

d
a
y
3 0 6
3 0 8
3 0 4
3 0 2
3 0 0
2 9 8
2 9 6
2 9 4
F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

F
Fract i onat or overhead t emperat ure, F
0
N H
4
C
1
fo rm a tio n te m p e ra tu re
N H
4
C
1
fo rm a tio n p o te n tia l
Salt deposits in towers
and pumparounds
can result in under-
deposit corrosion
and the generation of
corrosion by-product
deposits
nalco.indd 2 2/6/12 17:56:40
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column gamma scanning from
Quantum can help refners assess
hydraulic performance, debottle-
neck columns, monitor operating
changes and detect mechanical
damage to trays. Figure 3 shows
how column scans can troubleshoot
operations to ensure good separa-
tion in the distillation columns.
Changing FCC unit feed, severity,
and catalyst formulation
Modifying operating conditions
(recycle ratio, riser top temperature,
catalyst-to-oil ratio, and so on) and
feeding heavier streams, such as
atmospheric tower bottoms and
vacuum residual oil, to the FCC
unit can increase LCO make.
However, some of these changes
require additional process/hard-
ware technologies such as new
risers/reaction zone designs.
6

Reducing the riser top temperature
will reduce cracking severity and
produce more LCO, but will also
make more coke and bottoms.
Processing resid will increase LCO
production, but resid often contains
much higher levels of sodium,
nickel and vanadium, all of which
poison FCC catalysts. Nickel
competes with zeolite to crack
hydrocarbons, thereby increasing
the dehydrogenation reactions and
resulting in more hydrogen and
coke production, which can limit
wet gas compressor or air blower
capacity. In the regenerator, sodium
and vanadium migrate to the zeolite
and irreversibly destroy the crystal-
linity and/or acidity of the catalyst,
increasing the amount of catalyst
additions necessary to maintain
activity.
Another option for maximising
diesel production in a FCC-centred
refnery is to change the FCC cata-
lyst to reduce activity and gasoline
selectivity. Rare earth is added to
the FCC catalyst to increase gaso-
line selectivity and metals tolerance;
however, rare earth supply is tight
and costs rose dramatically last
year. Many refners are moving to
low or no rare earth catalysts,
because rare earth reduces olefn
and LCO production. This change
of formulation results in less metals
tolerance, higher RON, more olefns
in the gasoline and LCO, reduced
volume swell and increased coke
make.
7
Higher levels of olefns
produced in the FCC unit reduce
stream stability and increase the
potential for fouling in downstream
hydrotreater preheats. Furthermore,
FCC unit debutanisers can foul
through the deposition of gums and
may result in refners missing their
Reid vapour pressure specifcation.
Metal passivation additives such
as antimony oxides are used to
reduce the impact of FCC catalyst
metal poisoning. Over time, nickel
deposited on the catalyst will
oxidise and become inactive.
Antimony oxides quickly and artif-
cially age active nickel present on
the FCC equilibrium catalyst and
active nickel present in the FCC
feed, minimising dehydrogenation
reactions and reducing the effect of
nickel by 50-70% (see Figure 4).
Reducing the impact of nickel on
catalyst gives refners the fexibility
to change FCC unit feeds, catalyst
formulation and severity in order to
optimise for LCO production.
FCC unit slurry fouling
An increase in tower pressure drop
will also increase the desuperheat-
ing (fash) zone pressure in the
tower bottom. This requires a
higher bottom temperature to
achieve the same amount of middle
distillate recovery. Directionally, a
higher bottom temperature in the
FCC units main fractionators can
cause increased fouling in the main
column bottoms slurry circuit.
Additionally, a reduction in gaso-
line selectivity of the catalyst or a
decrease in the FCC feed gravity
can promote fouling of the slurry
circuit by decreasing the total
Figure 3 Trayed tower scan
Figure 4 Nickel passivation results
Resul t i ng pl ot
M ist e lim in a to r p a d
C le a r va p o u r sp a c e
C le a r va p o u r sp a c e
M issin g tra y
D e te c to r re sp o n se
L ig h t fo a m
H e a vy fo a m
H ig h liq u id le ve l
F lo o d e d tra y
We e p in g
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
1 5 0
2 0 0
1 0 0
5 0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5
H
2
,

S
C
F
/
B
B
L
Day
0
nalco.indd 3 1/6/12 20:58:56
routinely monitored through
laboratory techniques and abated
with antifoulant additives to
maximise LCO production.
Nalco additives for fouling
control and metal passivation along
with simulation software and tower
scanning services have found wide-
spread use in refneries globally.
These additives and services have
minimal impact on downstream
process units while improving
operations and reliability, as well as
increasing conversion. Nalco
dieselisation additives are a cost-
effective way to meet middle
distillate production goals and
minimise the costs of operational
changes.
References
1 Minyard W F, et al, FCC main fractionator
salt fouling solutions, Hydrocarbon Engineering,
Mar 2000.
2 Increasing Distillate Production at US
Refneries Past Changes and Future Potential,
US Energy Information Administration Offce
of Petroleum, Gas, and Biofuels Analysis,
Department of Energy Offce of Policy and
International Affairs, Oct 2010.
3 Gelder A, US downstream transformation
to global export centre, AM-12-02, American
Fuels & Petrochemical Manufacturers AM, San
Diego, California, Mar 2012.
4 Flanders B, et al, Addressing Tier 3
specifcations in a declining gasoline market:
options for the future, AM-12-08, American
Fuels & Petrochemical Manufacturers AM, San
Diego, California, Mar 2012.
5 Arnold E, et al, Gasoline demand analysis
and outlook, AM-12-12, American Fuels &
Petrochemical Manufacturers AM, San Diego,
California, Mar 2012.
6 Niccum P, Maximizing diesel production
in the FCC centered refnery, AM-12-
43, American Fuels & Petrochemical
Manufacturers AM, San Diego, California, Mar
2012.
7 Wormsbecher R, et al, The role of the rare
earth elements in fuid catalytic cracking,
Catalagram, issue 108, 2010.
8 Worldwide Refning Business Digest Weekly,
Hydrocarbon Publishing, 7 May 2012.
Greg Savage is an Industrial Development
Manager for Nalco Energy Services, an Ecolab
company in Sugar Land, TX, and has worked
in the refning and petrochemical industry for
more than 10 years.
Email: gtsavage@nalco.com
conversion and consequently
increasing the production of
bottoms. In order to limit bottoms
production, slurry recycle can be
increased, which increases coking,
regenerator burn and catalyst
losses, all of which can promote
slurry fouling. Also, deep cuts into
FCC unit bottoms to maximise LCO
reduce the stability of the slurry
and result in increased fouling of
the slurry circuit.
Routine monitoring of slurry
characteristics can provide the
refner with guidance on setting the
LCO cut point so as to optimise the
trade-off between slurry fouling
and LCO production. Nalco has
developed a proprietary analytical
technique to characterise the foul-
ing potential of slurry oils. This
method allows for the determina-
tion of the quantity of aliphatic and
aromatic carbons in slurry oil, and
also gives a determination of the
quantity of aromatic carbons that
are substituted or fused (indicative
of a higher fouling potential). The
average lengths (in number of
carbons) of the side chains on the
polycondensed aromatic networks
along with stability measurements
are also quantifed. Analytical data
developed on slurry oil are stored
in a database for comparison and
determination of fouling potential
versus over 100 previously analysed
slurries. A properly designed anti-
foulant chemical programme can
reduce slurry fouling and allow for
a deeper cut into the slurry and
therefore greater LCO production.
Conclusion
In order to take advantage of
premiums on middle distillates and
propylene, refners are adjusting
operations and FCC catalyst formu-
lation, as well as investing in
revamps and hydrocrackers.
However, there are limitations and
additional costs associated with
these changes.
While adjusting cut points, poten-
tial for salting in towers and
pumparounds should be monitored
through rigorous thermodynamic
simulation on a frequent basis.
Salting potential can be reduced
through good desalting and caustic
addition optimised through auto-
mation to reduce the risk to
downstream processes. Salt disper-
sants can minimise the impact of
salting, keeping trays and pumpa-
rounds free of deposits. Regular
gamma scans of distillation columns
enable refners to troubleshoot and
debottleneck operation, maximising
the middle distillate draw and
minimising the diesel fed to the
FCC unit.
For most refners, changes in
operations at the FCC unit are
essential to optimising middle
distillate and propylene production.
Alterations in catalyst formulation,
operating conditions and feed to
the FCC unit will produce more
LCO. However, many of these
changes carry signifcant risks.
Whether the catalyst is reformu-
lated or the gravity of the FCC feed
is reduced, the refner will need to
increase metals level monitoring
and mitigate the effect of metals
poisoning. Reducing the impact of
nickel on catalyst through antimony
passivation gives refners the fexi-
bility to change FCC feeds, catalyst
formulation and severity in order to
optimise for LCO production.
A number of factors will reduce
the stability of slurry and result in
increased fouling, including:
Salting in the FCC units main
fractionator
Changes in catalyst activity
Reduction in feed gravity
Increased slurry recycle to limit
bottoms make
Deep cuts in the slurry to maxim-
ise LCO.
Slurry fouling potential can be
Table 5
A properly designed
antifoulant chemical
programme can
reduce slurry fouling
and allow for a deeper
cut into the slurry
and therefore greater
LCO production
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Monitoring and diagnostics for
reciprocating compressors
T
he only way to ensure safe,
reliable, effcient and economi-
cal operation of reciprocating
compressors is to monitor them
continuously and to take appropri-
ate action based on the information
the monitoring systems provide.
That simple objective, however, is
diffcult to put into practice. The
variety of instruments, systems and
methodologies for machine moni-
toring and diagnostics can be
perplexing. Descriptions and claims
are sometimes similar, often confict-
ing and almost always confusing.
This plain-language guide to system
selection is to help provide clarity
for the decision process. It lists the
essential capabilities a system
should have and explains why those
capabilities are needed.
Systems should be scalable in two
ways. First, they should be func-
tionally scalable, allowing new or
additional capabilities, such as
measuring loops, to be added to an
installed system without inordinate
cost or diffculty. Second, systems
should be scalable in magnitude. In
other words, a system should offer
a means to expand monitoring to
additional machines. Scalability
allows you to take advantage of
new developments and keep your
system state-of-the-art. As your
needs change and your experience
with a system grows, you will likely
wish to extend coverage to other
machines. A truly scalable system
provides a simple, cost-effcient
pathway to realise a think big
start small approach.
Detecting the presence of an
anomaly is one thing. Defning and
pinpointing it is another. Your moni-
toring system should not only warn
A guide to the purpose and terminology of monitoring systems that ensure
effective operation of reciprocating compressors
JOST-A ANDERHUB
Prognost Systems
you about problems, but also
provide an accurate diagnosis with
specifc component identifcation,
location and indication of the extent
of damage. Armed with this infor-
mation, you can make well-founded
decisions about the maintenance
procedures you need to take and
when you need to take them. There
are no shortcuts in developing a
system for automated diagnoses. An
accurate, detailed understanding of
a problem is acquired only through
extensive experience in machinery
monitoring. Equally valuable is the
message your system communicates
to you. In the event of a positive
failure pattern detection, alarm or
shutdown, you need answers. sMod-
ern systems should provide clear
communication about the cause of
the alarm. For example, the message
Discharge valve leakage, Cylinder
2, 89% Match gives the cause of the
problem, location of the problem
and confdence in the diagnosis.
Early failure detection
The days of time-based maintenance
are over. State-of-the-art monitoring
technology gives you the ability to
apply condition-based maintenance,
reliably detecting developing fail-
ures and intervening before
breakdowns have an opportunity to
occur. Early failure detection
prevents machine damage, enhances
safety, avoids unplanned machinery
shutdowns and reduces the costs of
operation. Success depends on the
ability of the monitoring system to
accurately identify mechanical
defects at an early stage, regardless
of operating conditions, without
issuing false alarms. Accurate
anomaly detection is accomplished
by capturing a complex array of
signals and analysing them in a way
that allows even minor changes in
incoming signals to be recognised.
By detecting slight changes and
understanding their consequences,
early failures are detected and false
alarms are avoided.
Vibration analysis
The most important and well-
established technique for machine
monitoring is vibration analysis.
However, not all vibration analyses
are the same. Seemingly minor
differences in data acquisition and
evaluation strategies can have a
dramatic impact on the quality of
signal diagnoses. Choosing the
proper mathematical evaluation
method is the key to reliable early
failure detection and safety protec-
tion. The best approach is to
subdivide the 360 degrees of one
revolution into 36 segments of 10
degrees crank angle each. This is
the most accurate proportion of an
average impact width related to one
revolution. This allows harmless,
but sometimes erratic, machine
behaviour to be rightly identifed as
a good condition, thereby avoid-
ing false alarms. Second, vibration
signals must be evaluated using the
most accurate mathematical analy-
sis. For reciprocating machinery,
only root mean square (RMS) anal-
ysis is proven reliable. RMS analysis
is superior because it considers not
only amplitude, but also the energy
content of an impact.
Optimal compressor performance
The benefts of optimal compressor
performance are clear: improved
operating effciency, reduced energy
prognost.indd 1 1/6/12 17:36:39
be carried out (hazard and
operability). Some phrasing, such
as SIL ready or Equates to SIL,
can be puzzling. However, there
are two ways to clarify the confu-
sion. First, look for a monitoring
system whose vendors provide
genuine SIL certifcates issued by
recognised certifcation institutions.
Keep in mind that the SIL rating
must cover not only the safety
system itself, but also the inherent
components in the safety loop from
sensor to the emergency shutdown
device (ESD). Second, be aware that
SIL ratings should not only be high,
but relevant to your application.
For instance, SIL certifcation for
monitoring over-speed protection is
of no signifcance to a reciprocating
compressor user, but a rating for a
safety system that performs
segmented RMS vibration analyses
may be signifcant for your
machine.
Operating condition changes
The enduring popularity of recipro-
cating compressors is due in part to
consumption and increased produc-
tivity. Tracking performance can
also provide other benefts, such as
early warning of impending gas
leakages. Unfortunately, losses in
effciency often go undetected by
many monitoring systems that
focus on vibration, piston position
and temperature only. Machine eff-
ciency, like other key parameters,
should be monitored continuously
and the monitoring system should
provide comprehensive analyses
that identify how you can restore
optimum operation. They can begin
by detecting any changes in
dynamic pressure during operation
and performing specialised p-V
analyses to identify components
causing reductions in effciency.
They should also incorporate infu-
ences resulting from todays
compressor regulations. Finally,
they must analyse other key values,
such as compression cycle, piston
rod load and piston rod reversal.
SIL certifcation
When it comes to machine
protection, the abbreviation SIL is
very prominent in sales literature.
It is important to understand what
SIL certifcation means and what
it does not mean. Safety integrity
level (SIL) ratings were established
to defne a metric for evaluating a
systems level of operational relia-
bility with regard to safety, as
defned by IEC 61508. As it applies
to machine monitoring systems, a
SIL rating refers to the probability
of failure on demand (PFD value)
of the protection system. A key
point to remember is that SIL
ratings have nothing to do with
monitoring precision, which is
represented by false trips and
missed detects. Keep in mind that,
before a SIL-rated safety system
comes into play, operators have to
determine the appropriate SIL
rating for the machinery that has to
be safety protected. In other words,
IEC 61508 is a risk-based standard
and, in order to apply it, criteria for
the tolerability of risks must be
established for the machine; for
example, a Hazop study must
performance of the distillation proc-
ess. Laboratory analyses are time
consuming and cause a lag between
discovering any discrepancy in
product quality and applying a
corrective response. Optimal
performance of the crude oil distil-
lation unit can only be achieved by
a continuous mode of on-line meas-
urement of the physical properties
and quality of each stream using
accurate, calibrated on-line process
analysers. This enables ongoing
correlation between the crude oil
and the various distillates, as well
as between the distillates them-
selves. Many dedicated ASTM-based
analysers are required to achieve
this goal. However, their cost of
installation and maintenance is
high.
Spectrometry-based correlative
analysers are able to perform
simultaneous multiple measure-
ments of a variety of physical
properties. Spectrometry-based
correlative on-line analysers
provide full coverage of all incom-
ing and outgoing streams, and
enable operators to carry out
immediate processing adjustments.
These tools enable smooth and eff-
cient operation of the crude
distillation unit to produce the
desired distillates at maximum
yield. They also make it possible to
minimise the impact of crude
switching and maximise the yield
and capacity of desired distillates
by appropriate shifting of the cut
points of the required distillation
ranges.
The commitment of each refnery
to increase its refnery margin is
directly linked to its readiness to
install an on-line multiple-stream
process analyser. Before a decision
is taken on which analyser system
is most effective for a refnery, the
differences in properties between
the NIR and MRS methods should
be taken into consideration.
However, the best performance can
only be achieved by an incorpora-
tion of both NIR and MRS
technologies.
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experlence ln Lhe chemlcul und peLrochemlcul
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www.eptq.com 99
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modcon.indd 7 9/12/11 13:52:50
prognost.indd 2 1/6/12 17:36:56
their fexibility. Their ability to
handle different loads, speeds,
volumes and gases makes them a
favourite with operators and a
nightmare for failure detection
modules in condition monitoring
systems. The reason is that varying
operating conditions often result in
dynamic changes in machine behav-
iour; for example, the vibration
fngerprint. Detection of these oper-
ating condition changes and the
alignment of the threshold setting
in parallel can be extremely
complex and, if not done properly,
will lead to inaccurate results.
Operating condition defnitions and
their corresponding threshold
settings can be set manually, but it
takes weeks to drill down the entire
set of thresholds for all analyses, all
measured values and all operating
conditions. Look for a monitoring
system that performs these adjust-
ments automatically. State-of-the-art
applications automatically identify
changing operating conditions,
based on historical trend data of the
machine, and precisely adjust all
affected threshold settings in real
time to avoid false alarms and
missed detects.
Rod position analysis
Rod position analysis is more than
just an indication of wear. The most
effective monitoring systems incor-
porate rod position measurement in
conjunction with analyses of other
parameters to identify impending
failures in drive train integrity. Rod
position is a valuable analysis that
provides alarms and warnings
about two major concerns. First, as
a dynamic signal for safety protec-
tion tasks, it identifes problems
with the mechanical machine integ-
rity, such as drive train status, loose
connections, overload conditions
and more. Second, as a static signal,
rod position analysis serves as an
indicator of wear, especially of
piston rider rings. The machine
may then be shut down to ensure
safety and to perform maintenance
before serious damage occurs to the
rod, piston or cylinder. The moni-
toring is accomplished using an
eddy current sensor to continuously
measure rider ring wear. While the
dynamic component of the signal
can be used to determine loosened
or cracked piston rods, the static
component of the piston rod drop
can identify wear of piston rider
rings only if the right analyses are
applied and confgured correctly.
Many studies have shown signif-
cant, safety-critical problems that
remained invisible with vibration
measurements alone, but were
detected through rod position anal-
ysis (for instance, piston rod
cracks).
Transient data recording
Even the most sophisticated condi-
tion monitoring systems can perform
a safety shutdown of a machine
without leaving enough descriptive
details to pinpoint the root cause.
What option does the operator have?
Restarting the machine for more
evidence risks catastrophic damage.
Exploratory maintenance wastes
time, money and productivity. The
answer lies in a feature called tran-
sient data recording. Think of it as a
fight data recorder carried on an
aircraft. Transient data recording
allows maintenance technicians to
rerun safety shutdown, alert or
machine startup by examining a
gapless recording of all signals in an
uncompressed format. Armed with
this data, maintenance personnel
and analysts can pinpoint root
causes quickly and accurately. Bad
actors can be confdently identifed
and maintenance activities can be
carried out effciently. In machine
failure investigations, stored signal
readings play a major role in reduc-
ing downtime and maintenance
costs.
No monitoring system user
should be left alone. The impor-
tance and complexity of a fully
functional monitoring system
require ongoing support from the
vendor so you can exploit the full
benefts of the system and maxim-
ise your return on investment. The
support you receive should come in
the form of training and assistance
to help you fully utilise your
system, as well as in continuous
product development to keep your
system state-of-the-art for the long-
est possible time span. Choose a
vendor that provides uninterrupted
services. Evaluate initial training
programmes. Make sure customer
support teams are available as soon
as your system is installed, includ-
ing 24/7 hotlines and as much
diagnostic service as you require.
Remember, the most benefcial
customer support contracts are
those that give you fexibility. The
amount of support you need will
decrease over time. Look for service
contracts that allow you to step
down the level of support, enabling
you to pay only for the services you
need as you and your personnel
grow in knowledge of the system.
Last but not least, your monitor-
ing system vendor should share
your goals for safety, effciency,
cost reduction and environmental
compliance. They should have no
competing business objectives that
might infuence machinery health
assessment results, system develop-
ment or technical support. No
vendor interested in long-term
success would put their commercial
concerns above your needs.
However, you can eliminate this
possibility by choosing a condition
monitoring specialist that is inde-
pendent from the vendor of
replacement parts for your machine.
Simply stated, this avoids conficts
of interest. Be wary of any monitor-
ing system vendor with interest in
selling you maintenance services or
components that are vital for
machinery uptime.
Jost-A Anderhub is Director of Marketing
for the Prognost Systems group. He has held
the position for eight years and has a career
spanning more than two decades in high
technology industries.
Email: jost.anderhub@prognost.com
In machine failure
investigations, stored
signal readings play a
major role in reducing
downtime and
maintenance costs
prognost.indd 3 1/6/12 17:37:09
INTERCAT
JM
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Catalyst stripper improves FCC unit
performance
F
CC unit performance is
dictated by a delicate coke and
heat balance
1,2
because the
reactor produces the necessary
amount of coke to satisfy the
unit heat balance. The heat
produced by the combustion of
coke in the regenerator supplies the
required heat (via circulating cata-
lyst) for the endothermic
riser-reactor.
The coke is classifed into four
types: contaminant coke, catalytic
coke, additive coke and catalyst-to-
oil coke. Generally, catalytic,
contaminant and additive coke
production are functions of feed
quality, catalyst type and reactor
operating temperature. However,
catalyst-to-oil coke is a result of the
hydrocarbons entrained within the
spent catalyst as it enters the regen-
erator. This coke includes
hydrocarbons absorbed on the cata-
lyst surface and within the catalyst
pores. It is very important to strip
off these hydrocarbons (coke
precursors) by employing an eff-
cient stripper. Removal of these
hydrocarbons from the catalyst
before it enters the regenerator can
signifcantly improve overall
performance and hence proftability
of the FCC unit. This article
discusses the design and implemen-
tation of Lummus Technologys
patented ModGrid stripper and the
improvements achieved in commer-
cial FCC units.
Coke yield and delta coke
Understanding delta coke and its
relationship to coke yield and heat
balance is important for assessing
the impact of stripper performance
on unit proftability:
Stripper internals with improved mass transfer characteristics improve the
performance of an FCC unit
Rama Rao maRRi and Dalip Soni
Lummus Technology, a CB&I Company
Coke yield = Catalyst-to-oil x (delta coke)
(1)
Delta coke [or (CSC-CRC)] (T
rg
-T
rx
) (2)
Where:
Coke yield is expressed in wt% of
the fresh feed rate to the FCC unit,
which is determined by the heat
balance around the reactor and
regenerator
Catalyst-to-oil is the ratio of cata-
lyst circulation rate to fresh feed
rate, which is dimensionless. In
general, the higher the catalyst-to-
oil ratio, the higher the conversion
of feed to valuable products
Delta coke, or (CSC-CRC), is the
difference between the coke on
spent catalyst (CSC) leaving the
stripper and the coke on regener-
ated catalyst (CRC) leaving the
regenerator, which is expressed in
wt% of catalyst
T
rg
is the catalyst bed temperature
in the regenerator
T
rx
is the riser or reactor outlet
temperature.
The coke yield is essentially set
by operating conditions such as the
riser-reactor outlet temperature and
feed preheat temperature, while the
delta coke is directly infuenced by
catalyst type, feed quality and unit
hardware design. To achieve a
higher catalyst-to-oil ratio and
hence higher conversion, it is neces-
sary to reduce delta coke or reduce
T
rg
for a given T
rx
. T
rg
is a function
of regenerator effciency and CSC
(amount of coke carried from the
stripper to the regenerator).
Therefore, it is important that strip-
per effciency be maximised to
achieve a higher catalyst-to-oil ratio
and conversion.
Characteristics of effcient
stripper design
An effcient catalyst stripper design
is one that maximises mass transfer
between the two phases (the strip-
ping steam fowing up and the
fuidised catalyst fowing down the
stripper vessel). Hydrocarbons in
the catalyst phase need to be
replaced with steam. To enhance
this mass transfer phenomenon, the
stripper internals should have the
following characteristics:
Maximum surface area for mass
transfer per unit volume of the
stripper vessel
Maximum cross-sectional area of
the vessel available for catalyst and
steam to fow through it
Maximum active volume (ie, no
stagnation or dead zones)
Uniform distribution of catalyst
and steam to avoid channelling and
by-passing
Increased contact time and mixing
between the two phases
Excellent fuidisation quality
Plug fow conditions
Mechanically robust to withstand
service.
modGrid design features
The ModGrid stripper design has
all the characteristics described
above and has delivered superior
FCC unit performance in several
commercial units currently in oper-
ation. This design was
conceptualised and then developed
by conducting large-scale cold-fow
model tests that compared the eff-
ciency of this design to the
conventional disk-and-doughnut
baffe design. The tests were done
at various catalyst fux rates to
determine the effect of higher
lummus.indd 1 2/6/12 17:57:20
stripper design will contain two or
three such modular grid
assemblies.
Commercial results
In one US refnery revamp, a
conventional FCC stripper with
disc-and-doughnut-type baffes was
replaced with the ModGrid stripper
design. The refnery was able to
increase the fresh feed throughput
and improve the yield of higher-
value products. The results are
shown in Table 1.
Implementing the ModGrid strip-
per design in a European FCC unit
enabled the refnery to process
heavier feed. The refnery increased
Conradson carbon in the FCC unit
feed and increased the fresh feed
throughput while maintaining the
same regenerator dense bed
temperature as before the revamp.
These results are shown in Table 2.
Assessment of stripper performance
Hydrogen in coke is traditionally
used as a primary indicator when
assessing the performance of a FCC
spent catalyst stripper. Hydrogen in
coke is calculated from regenerator
fue gas composition data. Since the
fue gas data is also the basis for
the heat balance calculations, it will
infuence many of the calculated
operating variables such as unit
coke make, catalyst circulation rate,
heat of reaction and, most impor-
tant, hydrogen in coke.
The implications of using hydro-
gen in coke as a stripper
performance indicator are well
described elsewhere by Grace
Davison.
3
From this reference, the
formula used to estimate hydrogen
in coke is:
Hydrogen in coke = (100 x A)/ [(A+2.979 x
(CO
2
+CO)]
catalyst fux rates on stripping eff-
ciency with the two systems. Figure
1 compares the effciencies in the
two cases. At all fux rates, the
ModGrid stripper designs eff-
ciency is higher than the
conventional design and it does not
drop with an increase in catalyst
fows. The design has been in
commercial operation for more than
six years.
Figure 2 shows the typical
ModGrid stripper internal. This
modular grid consists of baffes that
are angled and oriented such that
fuidised catalyst can easily and
uniformly fow over these baffes
like a curtain. The baffes have
holes, and steam passes from under
the baffes, through the holes and
then through the curtain of fuid-
ised catalyst. The contact of steam
and catalyst occurs over these
baffes, which provide the maxi-
mum surface area for mass transfer
and hence higher effciency. The
manner in which the baffes are
angled and oriented also results in
a maximum cross-sectional area
available for catalyst fow through
the modular grid. This, in turn,
lowers steam and catalyst velocities
and increases contact time, which
further improves mass transfer eff-
ciency. The notches at both the top
and bottom edges along the full
length of the baffes break up steam
bubbles so these bubbles do not
increase in size as they fow up
through the modular grids.
The baffes that form the modular
grid are sized to extend the full
width of the stripper diameter. The
baffes are organised and built into
modular grids for ease of installa-
tion and removal. Figure 3 shows
that four to six modular grids are
grouped to form a section or assem-
bly of modular grids. Each
alternating modular grid is oriented
so that the catalyst takes a 360-540-
degree turn as it fows down the
modular grid assembly. This zigzag
fow pattern provides enhanced
contact between the catalyst and
steam phases, and also reduces the
possibility of channelling and/or
dead spots. A typical ModGrid
6 0
1 0 0
9 0
8 0
7 0
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 0
S
t
r
i
p
p
i
n
g

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

%
Mass f l ux, l bf t
2
sec
0
M o d G rid strip p e r
D isk a n d d o u g h n u t
Figure 1 Stripping effciency comparison
Figure 2 Modular Grid (ModGrid) stripper
internal
Figure 3 ModGrid stripper section
Post-revamp results
Dry gas -0.9 wt%
Gasoline +0.9 wt%
Light cycle oil +1.4 wt%
Stripping steam rate -30%
Feed rate +12%
Benefts of ModGrid stripper internals
(US refnery)
Table 1
lummus.indd 2 2/6/12 17:57:33
Where:
A = 20.95/79.05 x (100-CO
2
-CO-
O
2
) - (O
2
+CO
2
+CO)
CO
2
, CO and O
2
are fue gas
components in mol% carbon diox-
ide, carbon monoxide and oxygen,
respectively.
From these equations, one can
deduce that the hydrogen in coke
may vary between 2 and 15 wt% if
the CO
2
is changed from 14 to 18
mol%. In other words, small inac-
curacies in fue gas analysis can
lead to signifcant variations in the
calculated hydrogen in coke.
Therefore, hydrogen in coke is not
a very reliable indicator of stripper
performance. The following varia-
bles are recommended measured
before and after the stripper revamp
to assess the revamp benefts.
(However, hydrogen in coke can
still be used as a secondary param-
eter to check for consistency
of delta coke/heat balance
calculations.):
Regenerator dense bed tempera-
tures for a given set of riser outlet
temperature and feed preheat
temperature combinations
Product yields corrected for a
specifed boiling range
The combustion air required at a
given oxygen concentration in fue
gas
Feedstock analysis data (Conradson
carbon, nickel, vanadium, and so on)
Coke on the spent catalyst and
regenerated catalyst (to determine
delta coke)
Measured delta coke value
compared with estimated delta coke
value based on fue gas analysis
data.
In other words, the overall
performance of the unit before and
after the stripper revamp should be
used to quantify the benefts of the
stripper revamp.
Conclusions
Use of the ModGrid stripper inter-
nals design signifcantly improves
performance and hence proftability
of an FCC unit. It is important to
understand the coke yield, delta
coke, their relationship to the cata-
lyst-to-oil ratio, and the infuence of
these variables on FCC unit
performance. It is also necessary to
utilise the correct measured varia-
bles to assess the stripper
performance after the revamp.
References
1 FCC heat balance for heavy oils, Oil & Gas
Journal, 21 Oct 1985, 64.
2 FCC Heat Balance Fundamentals with a
Mechanical Prospective, NPRA 2008 (CAT-08-
101).
3 Grace Davison Catalagram, Fall 2009, 106,
33.
Dalip Soni is Director, FCC Technology, with
Lummus Technology, a CB&I Company. He has
30 years experience in process design, research,
development and evaluation of petroleum
refning and synthetic fuel processes; the
majority of his experience has been related
to FCC technology. He holds a bachelors
degree in chemical engineering from Panjab
University, India, where he was awarded gold
medal for the best academic performance, and
a masters degree in chemical engineering from
Oklahoma State University, USA.
Rama Rao Marri is a Senior Principal Process
Technology Engineering Specialist with
Lummus Technology, Houston, Texas. He has
over 19 years experience in FCC process design,
development and technical services and was
the co-inventor of the Indmax FCC process
developed by IOC R&D centre for converting
heavy feeds, including residue, to light olefns.
He has 12 patents to his credit and holds a
masters degree in chemical engineering from
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India.
Post-revamp results
Feed rate + 6%
Feed CCR + 0.4%
Metals in feed +2.7 ppmw
Riser outlet temperature +5C
Regenerator bed temperature No change
Benefts of ModGrid stripper internals
(European refnery)
Table 2
without affecting the regenerator effciency or design
would be to apply downstream equipment such as the
Belco wet scrubbing system. This system has been well
proven to reduce emissions of particulate, SO
x
and NO
x
when LoTO
x
technology is also applied. There is much
to be said about optimising the operation of the FCC
unit without needing to be concerned about emissions,
knowing that such a fue gas cleaning system assures
that regulatory requirements are being met.
Jack wi|cox, I|uid Cata|ytic Cracking rocess Specia|ist,

A|bemar|e, Jack.wi|coxa|bemar|e.com
From an equipment design/operations standpoint,
particulate emissions from the FCC regenerator will
depend primarily on the reliability of a properly
designed solids collection system. This would include
the typical two-stage internal cyclone system and exter-
nal separators, which may include a tertiary cyclone
(third/fourth-stage separator), an electrostatic precipi-
tator or wet gas scrubber.
Obviously, retaining as much of the solids in the
regenerator as possible will minimise the eventual
stack losses. As such, the design of the internal two-
stage cyclone system is critical. From an operating
standpoint, key cyclone design parameters include:
Cyclone inlet vapour loading or velocity
Cyclone inlet solids loading or entrainment rate
Available transport disengaging height
Cyclone dipleg mass fux rate.
Increasing the cyclone inlet vapour velocity will
increase collection effciency, but will also increase the
erosion rate to the refractory lining, reducing the run
length. In order to maintain optimum performance, the
cyclone inlet vapour loading and resulting vapour
velocity should be maintained at some acceptable level,
typically about 60-65 ft/s to the frst stage and 70-75
ft/s to the second stage. This may require small adjust-
ments to the regenerator pressure or reactor/regenerator
pressure balance.
The solids loading or entrainment rate to the cyclones
will depend on the elutriation rate of the solids from
the dense bed. Minimising solids loading to the
cyclones will obviously minimise the amount of solids
eventually lost from the regenerator. Typically main-
taining the regenerator superfcial vapour velocity at or
below about 3 ft/s will minimise the solids entrain-
ment to the cyclones. Again, this velocity may be
limited by adjusting the regenerator pressure or reac-
tor/regenerator pressure balance.
Proper sizing of both frst- and second-stage cyclone
diplegs is essential to provide operating fexibility as
well as to prevent fooded or restricted diplegs, both of
which will lead to increased solids losses from the
regenerator and potentially increase stack emissions.
Proper sealing of the diplegs, either in the dense bed of
catalyst or with a dipleg valve, is essential to maintain
cyclone performance.

which interna|s designs provide the best |eve| of
separation in a disti||ation co|umn, and why?
Ji|| 8urns, Senior kenery Design and App|ications

Lngineer, Su|zer Chemtech USA, Ji||.8urnssu|zer.com
Mark i||ing, Manager of 1echno|ogy, Su|zer Chemtech
USA, Mark.i||ingsu|zer.com
This question can be answered in several different
ways, as separation in a distillation column can be
dependent on the successful design of the inlet feed
distributor, packing and/or trays, or associated inter-
nals such as collector trays and seal pans. All factors
are important in a design.
The industry has seen several evolutions of column
packing and tray designs over the years, and the
current designs of high-performance packing and trays
offer many signifcant advantages over their predeces-
sors. Often, simple modifcations can result in large
improvements in either capacity or effciency.
10 www.eptq.com
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Q&A copy 10.indd 4 8/3/12 11:00:12
lummus.indd 3 2/6/12 17:57:48
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Reactor Turnkey Services
HPA offers all reactor turnkey services from
blinds to blinds using state of the art equipment.
We specialize in inert-entry using the latest life
support units. All our catalyst technicians are
trained in vessel rescue, rst aid, and CPR.
Hydropac Catalyst Dense Loading
The Hydropac allows the sprinkling of catalyst
in a continually uniform pattern at a rate slow
enough to let each particle settle, but fast
enough for acceptable loading time. The
Hydropac sits just six inches below the trays,
is able to rotate both directions, and can
load around transfer tubes and other internal
obstructions.
Catalyst Unloading Services
Our catalyst unloading services make use of
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Vessel Repairs and Retro-Fits
We have our U and R stamp allowing us to do
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515004adhydrocarbonworld100415.indd 1 15-4-2010 9:02:48
hpa.indd 1 23/2/12 12:28:06
Gasifying coke to produce hydrogen
in refneries
O
ne way a petroleum refnery
can meet the hydrogen
demand of hydroprocessing
is to gasify petroleum coke. It can be
especially attractive to a refnery that
includes a coking facility such as a
delayed or fuid coking unit produc-
ing petroleum coke. Refneries have
demanded more hydrogen in the
past two to three decades as more
extensive hydroprocessing (hydrot-
reating and hydrocracking) is
required for the processing or
upgrading of heavy crudes and the
removal of sulphur and nitrogen to
meet the more stringent specifca-
tions of transportation fuels.
To enable the processing of heav-
ier crudes to maximise yields of
valuable distillates or light hydro-
carbons, some refneries have
expanded their complexity by
adding an upgrading unit such as a
hydrocracker, hydrotreater or a ther-
mal cracking unit like a delayed
coker, in addition to a fuid catalytic
cracking (FCC) unit. All of these
units enable the refnery to process
heavier or more sour crude oils,
which typically have a low cost
advantage over the lighter crude
oils, and to maximise the conversion
of heavy crude fractions to more
valuable, lighter distillate products.
The addition of hydrotreating or
hydrocracking units increases the
hydrogen demand of the refnery,
and the thermal cracking units
generate coke and other valuable
distillates or light hydrocarbons. To
meet the increased demand for
hydrogen, refnery managers often
need to select a scheme or schemes
for generating or supplying more
hydrogen from a number of availa-
ble alternatives. These may vary
Coke gasifcation to produce hydrogen for hydroprocessing is more capital intensive
than steam methane reforming, but not so vulnerable to natural gas price variations
Tek SuTiknO and kevin Turini
Fluor Enterprises
from one refnery to another, but
typically include the following:
Recovering hydrogen from refn-
ery fuel gas
Expanding existing catalytic
reformer throughput to increase
hydrogen generation, if available
and viable, to meet the maximum
benzene limit of gasoline
Expanding the steam reforming
unit (or hydrogen production unit),
if available
Installing a new steam reforming
unit, which normally uses fuel gas
or naphtha
Over the fence (OTF) hydrogen
import
Gasifying coke from the existing
or new coking unit to generate
hydrogen.
Among these alternatives, gasify-
ing coke from the delayed coker or
a thermal cracking unit is probably
the least common scheme imple-
mented to date for expanding
hydrogen generation. However,
gasifying coke to hydrogen can be
an economically attractive option
for certain refneries given the
favourable market conditions.
Availability of coke and the price
fuctuation of alternative raw mate-
rials should be considered and
evaluated before fnalising the selec-
tion of a new hydrogen production
scheme for the refnery. This article
presents an overview of coke gasif-
cation for generating hydrogen in
refneries and discusses design
options for optimally integrating the
coke-to-hydrogen plant within the
refnerys operation.
Hydrogen yield from coke
Gasifcation of coke or coal typically
involves licensed processes with
different supplementary, reactant
feed schemes and varying gasifying
reaction conditions. For example, air
is fed directly to air-blown gasifers,
while other gasifers are fed with
high-purity (about 99.5%) oxygen
from an air separation unit. Steam
is also fed directly to some dry feed
gasifers, while others are fed with
coal or coke in a slurry with water.
Reaction conditions typically vary
in pressure from 430 psig to about
1200 psig (30-80 bar) and in reaction
outlet temperature up to about
2700F (1480C). Product composi-
tions vary, depending upon the
selected gasifcation technology and
the characteristics of the petroleum
coke. For the gasifcation of petro-
leum coke, the gasifer generally
produces syngas with typical H
2
-to-
CO molar ratios of less than one.
CO
2
, H
2
O and CH
4
are the second-
ary product components at lower
concentrations relative to those of
H
2
or CO. In addition, the syngas is
contaminated with H
2
S, CO
2
, COS
and other sulphur compounds. Raw
syngas from the gasifer can be
cooled through a steam generation
system or a quench and scrubbing
section, where the raw syngas
becomes saturated with water at a
target temperature adequate for
converting CO and H
2
O to H
2
and
CO
2
in the downstream shift reac-
tion unit.
For a rough estimate at the
conceptual evaluation stage, about
27 scf of hydrogen can be generated
per pound of coke. While the
amount of coke a typical refnery
could generate depends on a
number of factors, such as crude oil
characteristics, refning schemes and
others, a refnery generates an
fluor.indd 1 2/6/12 17:58:13
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As syngas from coke gasifcation
typically contains sulphur
compounds, sour (or sulphur-
resistant) shift catalysts are generally
used in the shift conversion unit,
operating in a pre-sulphided condi-
tion for converting essentially all of
the CO to CO
2
and H
2
. Sweet shift
catalysts can also covert CO to
hydrogen but require, among others,
an essentially sulphur-free feed
stream. An acid gas removal unit
upstream of the sweet shift conver-
sion unit will be necessary to
remove sulphur compounds in the
syngas from the gasifer, and
another acid gas removal unit will
also be needed downstream of the
sweet shift conversion unit to
remove CO
2
.
Producing hydrogen from coke
gasifcation syngas generally
involves two or more shift reaction
stages in series a high-
temperature shift converter and a
low-temperature shift converter,
followed by a methanation reactor
hydrogenating the residual CO to
methane and water, or a pressure
swing adsorption unit to produce
high-purity, 99.9% hydrogen. Low
CO slip (high CO conversion to H
2
)
requires a low-temperature shift
converter and adequate steam-to-
CO ratios in the feed stream. A
higher rate of quench water injected
upstream will increase the steam-to-
CO ratio of the feed stream to the
shift conversion unit, but decreases
the net amount of export steam that
can be generated in the cooling
section of the syngas. It may be
necessary to work together with the
gasifer licensor and shift catalyst
supplier to specify a steam system
approximate average of 12.5 tons of
coke per 1000 barrels of crude oil.
Coke yield varies, depending on
crude properties such as Conradson
carbon content, and generally
increases as crude feed becomes
heavier.
As an example, a 200 000 b/d
refnery generates approximately
2500 t/d of petroleum coke that can
be gasifed, generating approxi-
mately 135 MMscfd of hydrogen. If
LPG is used to generate the hydro-
gen from the conventional steam
reforming process, about 8000 b/d
(excluding fuel requirement) of
LPG would have been required as
the raw material, and steam reform-
ing requires a signifcant amount of
fuel in addition to the raw
materials.
Gasifying coke to hydrogen
Obviously, cost competitiveness,
technological maturity and operat-
ing reliability need to be evaluated
when considering a gasifcation
scheme. Another important aspect
to evaluate is the optimal design
integration of the process units in
the new coke gasifcation facilities
with the existing or planned refn-
ery operation. Optimal integration
will maximise the economic benefts
from gasifying coke for hydrogen
generation and enhance the compet-
itiveness of the overall refnery
operation. Examples of integrating
issues are discussed next.
Figure 1 shows a typical fow
scheme for gasifying coke to
produce hydrogen. Oxygen-blown
gasifers are typically required for
generating hydrogen from coke.
However, the air separation unit for
separating oxygen from ambient air
constitutes a signifcant part of the
total capital cost. Air-blown gasifers
directly utilising oxygen in air
generate syngas with high concen-
trations of nitrogen, and the
resulting syngas is more suitable for
electricity generation using gas
turbines than for producing
hydrogen.
For gasifers where coke is fed as
a pumpable slurry, water instead of
steam is fed to the gasifer. Water or
steam serves as a reactant to gener-
ate hydrogen and a quenching
medium for the gasifer. Syngas
from the gasifer requires cooling
and scrubbing to remove particulate
matter before entering the shift
conversion unit, where CO reacts
with H
2
O to produce H
2
and CO
2
.
Similar to the conventional hydro-
gen manufacturing process via
steam reforming, where design
options with varying levels of steam
generation are available, some
licensed gasifers may offer options
for quenching or cooling the syngas
with varying rates of steam genera-
tion. These options may need to be
evaluated for proper integration
within the existing refnery steam
system or for planned enhancement
of this system. Steam from coke
gasifcation is typically used as a
reactant in the downstream shift
conversion unit, and excess steam
generated can be utilised to reduce
the fuel consumption of the utility
boiler, increase power generation or
operate critical equipment items on
steam turbines for mitigating the
time-dependent fare relief load of
the refnery in the event of power
failure.
Gasification
Air separation
unit (ASU)
Quenching
Cooling
Scrubbing
Shift
conversion
Acid gas
removal unit
(AGRU)
Hydrogen
purification
unit
A ir
o r o x yg e n )
O x yg e n
S la g
Coke or
coke sl urry
S te a m o r
wa te r
B F W/wa te r
S te a m
C O
2
H
2
S 9 9 % +H
2
Figure 1 Coke gasifcation fow scheme to produce hydrogen
fluor.indd 2 2/6/12 17:58:26
optimally integrated with the
renery.
The bulk of the sulphur in the
coke converts to H
2
S in the gasier,
and the remainder mainly to COS.
A provision to hydrolyse COS to
CO
2
and H
2
S may need to be
included in the shift conversion
unit. H
2
S is easier to remove than
COS in the downstream acid gas
removal unit, and not all solvents
available for an acid gas removal
unit effectively remove COS.
Catalytic hydrolysis operation of
COS can generally reduce COS
content to typically less than 10 to
20 ppmv.
Acid gas removal
The acid gas content, mainly CO
2

and H
2
S, of syngas from the shift
conversion unit is removed in the
acid gas removal unit, for which a
number of proprietary solvents and
design schemes are available from
several licensors. Due to high CO
2
concentrations in the acid gas
removal unit feed gas, physical
solvents instead of chemical solvents
can be considered for CO
2
removal
in coke gasication plants.
The acid gas removal unit in coke
gasication typically involves acid
gas absorbers and solvent regenera-
tors. The solvent regeneration
system generates a CO
2
-rich gas
stream and a H
2
S-rich stream. While
venting the CO
2
-rich stream directly
to the atmosphere may be allowed
in certain geographical locations,
compressing this stream through a
pipeline to reservoirs for enhanced
oil recovery or sequestration is
another disposal option. In certain
geographic areas, there are tax cred-
its for CO
2
sequestration or a market
for the use of CO
2
in enhanced oil
recovery that can improve the
economics of gasication.
The H
2
S-rich gas stream from the
acid gas removal unit is sent to a
sulphur recovery unit (SRU),
converting H
2
S to elemental sulphur,
and this requires capacity expansion
of the existing sulphur recovery
facilities of the renery. Oxygen
enrichment of the SRU is a cost-
competitive option for expanding
the existing capacity. If this option
remains viable and can be consid-
ered, the oxygen generation capacity
of the new air separation unit may
be increased to supply the oxygen
demand required for capacity
expansion of the SRU. This integra-
tion of the oxygen supply system
may reduce the capital cost of
generating hydrogen from renery
coke.
Hydrogen demand
Essentially all of the hydrogen
manufactured will be utilised as
make-up hydrogen in the hydro-
processing units of the renery,
and high-purity levels of
make-up hydrogen are desired.
Hydroprocessing units include
hydrotreating and hydrocracking.
Hydrotreating units reduce the
sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and
metal impurities in the renery
streams to meet the allowable
limits. Hydrogenation of olens
and aromatics and hydrocracking
reactions may also take place to a
lesser extent. In the extreme, ring
saturation is targeted to increase
distillate cetane.
Hydrocracking units convert the
feed stream to a lower boiling range
(lighter) product through cracking
and hydrogenation reactions.
Sulphur and other impurities are
also reduced in hydrocracking
units.
Higher partial pressures of hydro-
gen in hydroprocessing reactions
result in improved reaction yields or
longer catalyst lifetimes. The purity
of renery make-up hydrogen is
generally in the range 95 vol% to
higher than 99.9 vol% and is typi-
cally combined with the recycle gas
stream at about 82 to 85 vol% hydro-
gen concentration before entering
the reactor. Generally, 97 vol%
make-up hydrogen purity can be
produced from the acid gas removal
unit followed by a methanation unit
for converting the residual CO and
CO
2
to methane and reducing the
total carbon oxides level to less than
10 ppmv. A pressure swing adsorp-
tion unit can increase the hydrogen
purity to higher than 99.9 vol% at a
hydrogen recovery rate typically
approaching 90%. It may be worth-
while checking with hydroprocessing
catalyst suppliers about the
economic benet of higher hydrogen
partial pressures and comparing it
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S ta n d : D 6 6
fluor.indd 3 2/6/12 17:58:38
steam methane reforming process is
the cost of purchasing natural gas,
which is consumed as feedstock
and fuel.
Depending upon the price differ-
ence between natural gas (or other
hydrocarbon feedstock) and coke,
the unit production cost of hydro-
gen can reportedly be higher for
steam methane reforming compared
to coke gasication, especially when
the natural gas price is on the high
side of the wide volatility range.
For reneries with captive coke
production and also a need to
import expensive natural gas,
producing hydrogen from coke
gasication should be considered
and would minimise the impact of
natural gas price volatility on the
renerys overall protability.
Tek Sutikno is Process Engineering Manager
with Fluor. He holds BSc, MSc and DEngr
degrees in chemical engineering and a MBA
degree, all from the University of Kansas.
Email: tek.sutikno@uor.com
Kevin Turini is a Process Manager at Fluor
with over 13 years experience in the process
industries. He holds a bachelors degree from
the University of Texas at Austin.
with the costs associated with the
higher purity make-up hydrogen.
Additionally, alternate process
schemes are available to signicantly
increase the hydrogen partial pres-
sure at the inlet of the
hydroprocessing reactors without
relying on make-up hydrogen puri-
ties higher than 97%.
The hydroprocessing units of a
typical renery operate at different
reaction pressure levels, which
generally increase as the feeds
become heavier, and some licensors
offer a range of gasier operating
pressures. The different operating
pressures of the hydroprocessing
units and the required hydrogen
make-up rates will need to be
reviewed to determine the optimal
supply pressure of hydrogen from
the new coke gasication plant to
minimise the overall compression
horsepower and the number of
compression stages.
Reliability and costs
Compared to other renery process
units, such as the FCC unit, which
can be operated continuously up to
ve years between major turna-
rounds, the coke gasier typically
requires a scheduled shutdown or
turnaround about once every two to
six months, and this requirement
may vary from one licensed unit to
another. To improve the reliability
and availability of a coke gasica-
tion unit, spare gasiers are typically
installed; for example, 2 x 100% or 3
x 50% gasiers. For the overall gasi-
cation unit, the gasication and
quench/cooling sections have been
reported to cause higher percent-
ages of unplanned shutdowns
relative to the remaining sections.
Conclusion
Compared to the conventional and
common method of producing
hydrogen from the steam reforming
of light hydrocarbons, gasifying
coke to produce hydrogen is gener-
ally more capital intensive. This
results in a high percentage of capi-
tal recovery factor in the unit cost
of hydrogen production from coke
gasication. On the other hand,
about 70% or more of the unit
hydrogen production cost from a
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High-quality products from heavy
sour crudes
R
efners have long faced a
major dilemma in designing
refneries to produce high-
quality products: purchase
high-quality crudes to minimise
investment or invest in expensive
technology to allow low-quality
crudes to be upgraded to meet
product specifcations. This choice
is driven by the relative costs and
availability of low- versus high-
quality feedstocks, as well as the
current and anticipated future
market demands for products. The
continuing depletion of high-
quality crude combined with the
world market demand shifting
toward higher-quality fuels and
other products is putting renewed
emphasis on this choice.
Many of the tried and proven
technologies that have been
employed for decades have seen
evolutionary improvements, which
will extend their usefulness well
into the 21st century. These offer
the refner a viable route to upgrade
existing refneries to accept lower-
cost feedstocks and/or produce
additional high-value products. The
emergence of several revolutionary
technologies may have a dramatic
effect on both the feedstocks to the
refnery and the process steps
utilised within it.
This article reviews trends in
products and product qualities,
crude supplies, evolutionary tech-
nology developments and some
interesting revolutionary develop-
ments, all of which will impact
investment in future refneries.
Evolutionary developments
Market and environmental demand
trends are continuing in the
Application of current and emerging technologies will determine the potential of
poor-quality crudes as sources of high-quality products
MARIA ALDESCU
KBC Advanced Technologies
direction of lower sulphur and
higher hydrogen content of fnal
products. Refneries are still trying
to reduce fuel oil production while
increasing diesel and gasoline. At
the same time, the quality of availa-
ble refnery feedstocks is decreasing.
Evolution in crude supplies
A basic fact: unconventional oil
production is much more expensive
than conventional oil recovery.
Options for producing and distrib-
uting very heavy crude oils vary,
including:
Selling directly to refneries that
can handle less than 10 API crude
oils
Creating a heavy crude oil 20-
25 API, Maya crude equivalent
to be processed at existing high-
conversion refneries
Creating a higher-quality, sweet
30-40+ API crude oil that many
refneries can handle
Producing high-quality fnished
products.
Historically, prices have favoured
sacrifcing quality in order to
produce as much crude oil as possi-
ble. Once a plant is built, recovering
some high-value fnished products
is often desirable, as long as it does
not signifcantly reduce the total
amount of heavy crude oil produced.
This is a way of effectively using
excess heavy oil processing capacity
to upgrade unconventional oils. If
heavy oil production continues until
there is no longer excess heavy oil
treating capacity available, it will
become necessary for producers to
build additional upgrading capacity.
Market prices for heavy crude oil
might drop and producers and refn-
ers will have an incentive to
maximise additional upgrading
capacity. Some upgraders may take
advantage of price fuctuations to
produce a higher-quality product at
the expense of production until
suffcient demand for synthetic
crude matches the upgrading
capacity.
If unconventional crudes are still
in abundant supply, it may be
desirable to expand upgrading
facilities with additional residue
conversion and hydrocracking
capacity, especially if a strong
market materialises in China for
synthetic crude. Expanding hydro-
processing unit capacity will offer
the upgrader the opportunity to
produce either higher-quality prod-
ucts or additional lower-quality
products based on heavy crude oil
and fnished product economics.
There is a wide range of crude oil
upgrading options that can allow a
large selection of upgraded crude
oil qualities, ranging from the
simple process of diluting with
light sweet crude oil (naphtha or
natural gas condensates) to produce
a Maya crude equivalent, to
complex fow schemes that include
Market prices for
heavy crude oil might
drop and producers
and refners will
have an incentive to
maximise additional
upgrading capacity
kbc.indd 1 4/6/12 12:40:51
heavy oils has increased signif-
cantly over the same time period
(notably at Reliance, Jamnagar,
India; Motiva, Port Arthur, USA;
and Marathon Garyville, USA).
Creating a higher-quality sweet,
synthetic crude oil with gravity
between 30 and 40 API opens up
the potential market for upgraded
crude oil by an order of magnitude
because most refneries are capable
of processing crude oils of this
quality. At the present time, it may
be diffcult for the producer to
justify the cost of the additional
upgrading required. However, this
level of upgrading could be phased
in, if necessary, to accommodate
potential market changes in the
future.
Creating high-quality fnished
products from unconventional
crude oils is possible but unlikely
to be economically viable unless the
refnery is located near a large high-
value market for fnished products,
has very economic logistical options
available for product movement or
has a unique specifcation it can
meet. For example, ultra-low pour
point diesel is a high-value product
in western Canada, near the
upgrader site, because of the cold
winter.
Evolution in processing
For grassroots refneries that
depend on a heavy crude oil slate
and specifc market demands (maxi-
mum gasoline or maximum diesel
production), there are several tradi-
tional confgurations that allow
fexibility. The following discussion
should be considered applicable to
a traditional refnery processing
heavy crude or a syncrude upgrad-
ing site.
Heavy oils are very hydrogen
defcient and have high levels of
contaminants, such as sulphur,
nitrogen, organic acids, vanadium,
nickel, silica and asphaltenes.
Options for improving quality to
produce fnished products or
marketable crude oil include carbon
rejection processes such as delayed
coking and hydrogen addition proc-
esses such as LC-Fining or H-Oil.
The lowest cost method of
upgrading heavy oils is dilution
with higher-quality oil to produce a
residue hydrocracking, delayed
coking and multiple high-pressure
hydrocracking units that generate
100% high-quality fnished
products.
The market for selling very heavy
crude oil directly is extremely
limited because very few existing
refneries are capable of receiving
and/or processing such low-quality
crude oils. It is likely that, at most,
50 000 b/d can be sold to these
refneries at distressed prices for
short periods of time.
Producing Maya crude equivalent
is currently an attractive level of
upgrading. Target specifcations for
producing this type of crude are
gravity around 20-25 API and
sulphur content around 3-4 wt%.
There is currently high demand for
this quality crude oil because the
production of Maya and other simi-
lar heavy crude oils has been
declining in recent years. Exports of
Maya crude oil have decreased by
about 1 million b/d over the past
seven years. Capacity of processing
shows the kerosene/diesel gravity
line confguration. The line hydrau-
lic calculations verifed that the
existing confgurations and chim-
ney tray liquid heads were
acceptable for maximum fuel
production mode cases.
ost-modication performance
The pre- and post-retroft perform-
ances are summarised and
compared in Table 1. Since the
kerosene side stripper is part of the
product main fractionator, two
column performances are combined
and described in the product frac-
tionator category. For the
post-retroft performance test run,
the hydrocracker operating mode
with the highest kerosene yield was
selected to verify maximum kero-
sene yield. Table 1 shows that the
kerosene yield is substantially
increased, and the kerosene 5%
distillation temperature and fash
point indicate improved kerosene
product quality at the same time. In
addition, the energy consumption
of the kerosene side stripper
reboiler is reduced.
Although both of the product
fractionator and naphtha splitter
refux ratios are signifcantly
reduced, adjacent product fractiona-
tion effciencies are improved or
unchanged in both columns. These
performance improvements can be
translated as column effciency
improvements. Reduced refux
ratios without sacrifcing product
qualities eventually contributed to
energy savings in this hydrocracker
operation.
G1-Ol1lM ls u murk oI G1C 1echnology.
keferences
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Opetat|oas, GulI lubllshlng Compuny, 2nd
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4 Lee S H, et a|, OpLlmlze deslgn Ior dlsLllluLlon
Ieed, /yJtocatooa /tocess|aq, ]un 2011.
5 Lee S H, et a|, OpLlmlzlng crude unlL deslgns,
/etto|eam !ec|ao|oqy Qaattet|y, Q2 2009.
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muss LrunsIer eIIclency Ior dlsLllluLlon pluLes,
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Sounho Lee ls Munuger oI keInlng AppllcuLlon
Ior G1C 1echnology US, LLC, lrvlng, 1exus,
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gtc.indd 7 8/3/12 17:59:36 kbc.indd 2 4/6/12 12:48:11
product that can be upgraded
further in another facility (see
Figure 1).
Figure 1 shows a simple heavy oil
upgrader. Signifcant amounts of
diluents are needed to upgrade the
heavy oil to the point where it can
be processed in a conventional facil-
ity. Some carbon and contaminants
are rejected in the residue.
The imported diluents in this
operation could be locally available
light crude oil, the products from a
heavy crude oil upgrader or availa-
ble light condensates. In fact, this is
the option used to upgrade low-API
Ku-Maloob-Zap crude oil to extend
the supply of heavy crude oils.
All potential upgrader operations
have a certain amount of high
carbon content bottoms that must
be dealt with. Unless low enough
cost logistics are available to move
the bottoms, a power plant is
usually the most desirable option if
there is a high local power
demand.
From a capital investment point
of view, the simplest upgrader
confguration is a crude and
vacuum unit to produce diluents
with vacuum residue going to a
power plant. Adding a visbreaker
or a deasphalter would be an
improvement over this confgura-
tion that will allow additional
heavy synthetic crude oil to be
produced.
Existing refneries without heavy
end conversion confgurations may
consider evaluating the purchase of
existing delayed coking capacity (or
components from units never built)
at low prices rather than investing
in new thermal upgrading capacity.
The most common true upgrad-
ing confguration includes carbon
rejection with a delayed coker that
produces a high carbon content
product such as petroleum coke
(petcoke). The petcoke can be sold
(if logistics options are economi-
cally available), burned locally to
generate power, or gasifed to
produce H
2
, high-quality diesel via
Fischer-Tropsch (F-T), petrochemi-
cal products or, as a last resort,
simply inventoried in long-term
storage.
Delayed coking has become the
preferred option, although fuid
coking or Flexicoking are also
sometimes considered. Cokers
generate intermediate streams with
a high aromatic and olefn content
that must be upgraded via addi-
tional hydrotreating. There are
many possible hydrotreating confg-
urations. It is usually desirable to
have at least two hydrotreaters to
separately treat lighter and heavier
material because the hydrotreating
severities required vary signif-
cantly with boiling range (<800 psig
versus >1500 psig plus). If the
upgrader is going to produce some
fnished products or even high-
gravity synthetic crude oil, it is
desirable to have additional hydrot-
reaters (see Figure 2).
This confguration allows the
upgrader to produce diesel, jet and
gasoline products or to use any of
the intermediates to produce dilu-
ents that can be used to adjust the
production of different quality
grades of crude oil based on market
demand and price.
The next decision is whether to
Crude
blend
Feed
L ig h t c ru d e
A P I = 3 0 -4 0
M a ya c ru d e e q u iva le n t
A P I = 2 0 -2 5
To p p e d c ru d e
D ilu e n t
2 4 K B D D ilu e n t
R e sid u e
1 4 4 K B D 1 2 0 K B D
To p p e d c ru d e
E x tra h e a vy
c ru d e
A P I = 5 -1 0
Fractionator
facilities
Crude/Vac
Figure 1 Extra heavy oil upgrading
C ru d e CDU
J et
HDS
Naph
HDS
CCR
VDU
SRU
HCU
H
2
plant
Coker
Diesel
HDS
L P G
J e t
M o g a s
D ie se l
U L S
Figure 2 Full-conversion upgrading with hydrocracking
kbc.indd 3 4/6/12 12:41:22
that purchase the synthetic crude
oil. This limits the value of the
synthetic crude oil product. For this
reason, it is recommended that a
delayed coker should be included
to upgrade the bottoms from a resi-
due hydrocracking unit. Figure 3
shows this confguration.
This confguration is signifcantly
more costly from a capital invest-
ment and operating cost perspective
than the confguration without a
residue hydrocracking unit, but the
liquid yields are much higher.
Liquid yields from an upgrader
with a delayed coker are typically
90-95 LV% on feed. By adding a
residue hydrocracker and addi-
tional severe hydrotreating, liquid
yields could be as high as 105-110
LV% on feed.
Adding a fuid catalytic cracking
(FCC) unit to the confguration will
give additional fexibility to produce
larger quantities of gasoline (see
Figure 4).
This confguration could be more
desirable in locations where gaso-
line is valuable or where there are
some limits on the amount of H
2

that can be economically produced.
Hydrogen is normally produced
by steam methane reforming of
inexpensive natural gas. However,
natural gas is not always available
for hydrogen production, particu-
larly in areas such as the oil sand or
tar sand regions. In addition, most
heavy oil upgraders produce larger
quantities of low-value petcoke. A
portion of this can be used for
hydrogen, steam and power produc-
tion. One option is to use it in an
integrated gasifcation combined
cycle (IGCC) power plant.
The clean syngas stream in this
confguration is a mixture of H
2
,
CO, CO
2
and CH
4
that could be sent
to a pressure swing adsorption H
2
recovery unit to produce 99.9%+
purity H
2
instead of producing
power. Gasifcation unit reliability
is lower than typical refnery units.
Therefore, it is recommended that
multiple trains of gasifcation
should be used, with H
2
production
having the highest priority. Export
power sales or, if possible, export
petcoke sales should act as the
balance to consume all of the
petcoke produced.
include residue hydrocracking to
replace the delayed coker unit. LC-
Fining (Chevron Lummus Global)
and H-Oil (Axens) ebullating bed
units are two of the most commer-
cially proven technologies for
hydrocracking residue. Other
competing technologies are sold by
UOP, Veba, Headwaters and others.
Reliability of residue hydrocracking
technologies has been poor in refn-
ery operation, but is somewhat
better as an upgrader because the
feed is more consistent. Increasing
conversion beyond 60-70% has
often caused incompatibility issues,
which can result in high sedimenta-
tion and reactor fouling. As a result,
residue hydrocrackers should not
be operated at full (100%) conver-
sion. These technologies also
produce a hydrogen-defcient heavy
residue product. Some upgraders
have blended this heavy residue
product into the synthetic crude oil
product, but this causes compatibil-
ity issues, usually furnace fouling
of the crude units at the refneries
C ru d e CDU
J et
HDS
Naph
HDS
CCR
VDU
SRU
HCU
H
2
plant
Residual H/C
followed by
coking
Diesel
HDS
L P G
J e t
M o g a s
D ie se l
U L S
Figure 3 Full-conversion H
2
addition refnery with residue hydrocracking
C ru d e CDU
J et
HDS
Naph
HDS
Alky
Naph
HDS
CCR
Butamer
VDU
SRU
HCU
FCC
H
2
plant
Residual H/C
followed by
coking
Diesel
HDS
VGO
HDS
L P G
J e t
M o g a s
D ie se l
U L S
Figure 4 FCC integration in refnery confguration
kbc.indd 4 4/6/12 12:41:35
Over 500 Deci si on Makers - regional and international
Over 75 speakers included in strong technical programmes, comprising:
- Industry Outlook from Leading Consultants & Specialists
- Latest Innovations and Proven Technologies by World Class Providers
- Insights on Major Recent Projects and Future Plans of the Main Oil & Gas Companies
Over 50 Exhi bi ti on Stands
ONE WEEK OF QUALITY NETWORKING!
Sponsored by:
Pl ease regi ster at www.europetro.com
+ 7 495 51 77 709 + 359 2 427 22 05 moscow@europetro.com
RRTC
12th Russia & CIS Refining Technology Conference
20 & 21 September 2012, Lotte Hotel, Moscow
IGTC
4th International Gas Technology Conference
RPTC
11th Russia & CIS Petrochemicals
Technology Conference
MOSCOW REFINING,
GAS & PETROCHEMICALS WEEK
17 - 21 September, Lotte Hotel , Moscow
epc.indd 1 1/6/12 11:52:22
Another option for using the
synthesis gas produced from
petcoke gasication is F-T synthesis
to produce high-quality diesel (see
Figure 5).
If a large amount of power
production is not a viable option
and all petcoke must be consumed
on site, the addition of a F-T reactor
to produce high-quality diesel may
be a viable option. Other options
for the use of synthesis gas
produced via petcoke gasication
are methanol, ammonia, urea or
other petrochemical products.
Revolutionary developments
If current trends continue, it is
likely that diesel demand will
signicantly outpace gasoline
demand. As a result, there could be
a large excess of FCC unit capacity.
There are many possible uses for
this capacity if and when it eventu-
ally becomes available. Adjusting
catalyst formulation and severity to
maximise light cycle oil (LCO) that
can be hydrotreated and blended
into diesel is a possibility, but it is
problematic because the gravity
and cetane numbers of LCO are
poor.
UOP and others licensors have
proposed using FCC-like units to
convert biomass and waste oils into
fungible renery products. This
may be a viable option for a limited
number of reneries that are located
near a large source of biomass
feedstock.
Non-traditional new or novel
technologies may consider over-
cracking at the FCC unit to produce
larger quantities of light olens that
can be polymerised to produce a
high-quality diesel product.
Feeding light naphtha or liqueed
petroleum gas (LPG) to FCC units
and adjusting severity to maximise
production of C
2
/C
3
/C
4
and C
5
olens is also a possibility. Some of
these olens will likely be used to
produce petrochemicals, but it is
also possible that oligimerisation
reactors will be built to convert
olens into high-quality products.
Oligimerisation reactors producing
high-quality diesel currently oper-
ate very reliably in South Africa.
Biological technologies have been
used in the rening industry for
many years. Microorganisms are
routinely used in renery water
treatment plant. Ethanol has been
produced via microbial fermenta-
tion for centuries. The US
Department of Energy has been
conducting a biomass programme
for many years and recently started
to target biochemical production in
a biorenery that uses microorgan-
isms to produce useful building
block chemicals. This development
is still in its infancy, but a bioren-
ery that produces succinic acid
(Myriant Technologies) and 1,3
propanediol (DuPont) from sugar
using a microorganism is already in
operation. There are plans for many
other important building block
chemicals to be produced in
bioreneries.
Longer term it is envisioned that
microorganisms will be developed
to perform many reactions that are
currently being performed in ren-
eries either thermally or catalytically.
Bioengineered microbes may be
produced to selectively convert
heavy hydrocarbons into diesel.
One current vision is that microbes
will digest renery byproducts such
as petcoke or vacuum residue and
excrete useful intermediates that
can ultimately be transformed into
transportation fuels rst as feed-
stocks to existing reneries and
then directly into nished products.
Further reading
1 Chandler D L, Viruses harnessed to split water,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
News Ofce, 12 Apr 2010.
Chandler D L, Solar power goes viral, MIT News
Ofce, 25 Apr 2011.
2 Debut of the rst practical articial leaf,
ScienceDaily, 28 Mar 2011.
3 Synthetic biology explained, Biotechnology
Industry Organization.
4 Research on biological desulphurization of
biogas in Groningen, BioSulfurex, DMT.
5 US Department of Energy, National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Energy
efciency and renewable energy, biomass, top
value added chemicals from biomass, Werpy T
and Petersen G, Editors, Aug 2004.
6 DuPont Tate & Lyle BioProducts, press, 27
Jan 2011.
7 Myriant Technologies site.
Gasifier Scrubber
Fractionator
F-T slurry
reactor
Separator
drum
Petcoke
Sour
Syngas
Sweet
Syngas
Low 8tu
gas to
refinery
P-T liquid
to PCC
feed HT
fractionator
HCU &
separator
drum
Purge gas
Char and slag
Diesel
wax
Hydrocracked wax and lighter
Naphtha
H
2
Figure 5 Fischer-Tropsch ow scheme for gasication addition into an existing renery
Microorganisms
will be developed
to perform many
reactions that are
currently being
performed in
reneries thermally
or catalytically
kbc.indd 5 4/6/12 12:41:49
www.gastech.co.uk/ptq
Showcasing Technical Excellence
& Innovation in Gas Technology
Technological innovation is a key factor in propelling the global
gas industry into the Golden Age for Gas. That is why we are
proud to present the Centres of Technical Excellence (CoTEs)
as a returning feature at the Gastech Exhibition. Once again, we
are working with many of the worlds most-respected industry
associations and organisations to bring together high-level
speakers who will provide signicant insights and updates about
the latest developments in gas technology.
F
R
E
E

to
A
tte
n
d

for all Industry
Professionals
CoTE
Centres of Technical Excellence
GASTECH | EXHIBITION FLOOR SEMINARS
12 Technical streams focused on innovation
4 Days of presentations from leading industry experts
and associations
3 Exhibition show oor seminar theatres
1 Highly anticipated global natural gas gathering
Monday 8 October Chairmen
UK Innovation John Crawford, Deputy Director, UK Trade & Investment (UKTI) Energy Team
Power Generation To Be Conrmed
Engineering Project Delivery To Be Conrmed
Floating LNG Dr. Paul Jukes, Fellow, Institute of Marine Engineering,
Science & Technology (IMarEST), and President, MCS Kenny
Tuesday 9 October
Gas Processing John Shef eld, Consultant, John M. Campbell & Co., and
Senior Manager, M W Kellogg Ltd.
Adrian Finn, Technology Manager, Costain Energy & Process
Martin Mayer, Director of LNG Technology, CB&I
David Healey, Business Development Manager, LNG, Air Products
LNG as a Shipping Fuel To Be Conrmed
Wednesday 10 October
Cryogenics Didier Coulomb, Director, International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR)
Unconventional Gas Trevor Smith, Business Development Manager, Gas Technology Institute (GTI)
Ofshore & Subsea Technology Dr. Bob Allwood, Chief Executive, Society for Underwater Technology (SUT)
Thursday 11 October
Pipelines & Transmission Norman Howell, Director, Pipelines Industry Guild (PIG)
Carbon Capture Storage Jef Chapman, Chief Executive, Carbon Capture & Storage Association (CCSA)
Health, Safety & Environment Peter Hardy, Technical Services Of cer, Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers (IGEM)
Presented by:
Gastech2012COTE-PTQ_a4_240512.indd 1 24/05/2012 12:11 gastech.indd 1 1/6/12 11:49:03
donstream asia.indd 1 4/6/12 12:19:31
Removing fnes from gas scrubbing liquids
T
reating acid gas streams at
refneries, gas plants, cogen-
eration facilities and chemical
manufacturing plants is becoming
more important as stricter environ-
mental rules are being developed.
Further, removing CO
2
for carbon
sequestration is also being adopted
as a control measure for greenhouse
gas. One critical aspect of these
processes is the solid-liquid fltra-
tion technology that is used to keep
the recirculating fuid free of solid
contaminant fnes.
The need for fltration systems in
scrubbing units has been well docu-
mented for keeping downstream
equipment functioning properly
and ensuring maximum scrubbing/
removal effciency. This article
discusses thin-cake candle flter
technology that is used to remove
trace amounts of solid contaminant
fnes from the recirculating fuid
streams in amine, glycol and water
scrubbers. These contaminants orig-
inate from various sources and are
generally less than 1 micron in size,
which makes their removal very
diffcult. Candle flter technology,
and the process of thin-cake build-
ing, is a new approach for the
highly effcient and cost-effective
removal of fnes.
This article begins with a defni-
tion of the problem and a discussion
of the bench-top laboratory tests
that are conducted for problem
analysis, technology selection and
scale-up. The tests include pressure,
flter media, temperature and
viscosity concerns, precoat material
and similar process parameters. The
candle flter technology is examined
for its ability to flter and dry the
contaminants to meet the standards
Thin cake candle flter technology can be applied to a range of refning and gas
processing applications to remove fnes from circulating scrubbing liquids
Barry PerlmuTTer
BHS-Filtration
for solids disposal. Cake washing is
also discussed, as, in some cases,
soluble or insoluble components or
hazardous solvents must be
removed from the solid cake prior
to disposal. The article concludes
with a review of typical case histo-
ries and installation details.
Sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) and carbon
dioxide (CO
2
) removal systems are
installed in many types of applica-
tions such as fuid catalytic cracking
(FCC) and coker units at refneries,
coal-fred power plants, acid plant
tail gas, spent acid recovery plants,
smelters, pulp mills, natural gas,
power generation, cogeneration,
chemical process plants, as well as
process vent streams in sulphur
plants. While the plant location and
type of removal process may vary,
there is a need to remove the fne
particulate matter from the recircu-
lating liquid streams for effcient
scrubbing operations. The particu-
late matter can be catalyst fnes and
other contaminants in the feedstock.
It is diffcult or impossible to remove
particles of this size in settling tanks,
hydrocyclones or centrifuges, so the
particles must be removed by fltra-
tion. The use of thin-cake candle
flter technology has been proven to
be a cost-effective and reliable
approach to removing the contami-
nants, recovering the scrubbing
liquids and drying the cake for easy
landfll disposal.
Defning the problem
Various catalyst and carbonised
particles are carried into the gas
and are captured by the scrubbing
fuid. The fow rate of the scrubbing
fuid can be as high as 200 m
3
/h, so
the fuid must be regenerated and
reused. The fne particles are less
than one micron and will accumu-
late in the scrubbing system as well
as foul the ion-exchange resins that
are used to remove the heat-
stabilised salts (HSS). The scrubbing
fuid can be amines, glycols, water
or some other proprietary fuid.
This article discusses specifcally
the removal of fnes from the scrub-
bing fuids and provides four
illustrative case histories.
Technology of clarifcation and
recovery of slurries
Candle flters are installed for clari-
fcation and recovery applications
from liquids with a low solids
content. They provide clean fuids
to 0.5 micron, with either a dried
cake (no free liquids) or a concen-
trated slurry.
Description and operation of the
candle flter
The BHS candle flter provides for
thin-cake pressure fltration, cake
washing, drying, reslurry and auto-
matic discharge in an enclosed
pressure vessel. Candle flter
systems are available for up to
several hundred square metres of
flter area.
Filter candles and media
The flter candles (see Figure 1)
consist of three components: a
single-piece dip pipe for fltrates
and gas, a perforated core with
outer support tie rods and a flter
sock media. The fltrate pipe is the
full length of the candle and ensures
high liquid fow as well as maxi-
mum distribution of the gas during
cake discharge. The perforated core
can be a synthetic material, stainless
bhs.indd 1 1/6/12 18:22:33
Automatic process cycles
Filling The slurry feed enters the
bottom of the lter vessel
Filtration The slurry is pumped
under pressure into the vessel. Cake
deposits on the outside of the candle;
the separated ltrate ows through
the ltrate pipe and the registers.
This process continues to a maxi-
mum pressure drop, the maximum
cake thickness or the minimum ow
Washing Displacement washing
or recirculation washing
Drying Blowing gas, steam or
shock drying
Cake discharge Gas ows through
the register pipes and down the
ltrate pipe. The lter media gently
expands, allowing for cake
discharge. Alternatively, the cake
can be discharged as a slurry via a
tubesheet design (see Figure 3).
Testing to determine the optimum
ltration technology of vertical
candle lter
Overview of bench top testing
BHS bench top testing is conducted
using the BHS Pocket Leaf Filter (see
Figure 4). The testing analyses cake
depths, operating pressures, lter
media, washing and drying efcien-
cies, cycle times and qualitative cake
discharge. The data collection sheets
are shown in Figure 5.
Theoretical basis
The following equation is the basic
equation that relates the ow rate
through a lter for constant
steel or alloy and is designed for
the full pressure of the vessel. The
outer support rods provide for an
annular space between the media
and the core for a low pressure
drop operation and efcient gas
expansion of the lter sock for cake
discharge. Finally, the synthetic
lter media has a removal efciency
to less than 0.5 microns.
Filter vessel and candle registers for
dry cake discharge
The vessel is constructed of
stainless steel, alloy or carbon steel
lined. Within the vessel are candle
registers. Each candle is connected
to a register with a positive seal to
prevent bypass. Each register may
contain from one to 20 candles
depending upon the lter size. The
registers convey the liquid ltrate
as well as the pressure gas for lter
media expansion. Each register is
controlled with automated valves
to ensure an optimum ow in both
directions. Figure 2 illustrates the
candle lter vessel.
Figure 1 BHS candle showing cake discharge Figure 2 BHS candle lter designed for dry cake discharge
Candle filter
Piltrate
Tubes
Cake space
between tubes
Air in top head
compressed by filter
pump for back
wash-air-bump
cleaning
|nlet
Pilter cake
discharge
Figure 3 Tube sheet design for concentrated slurry discharge
bhs.indd 2 2/6/12 17:44:45
pressure fltration. Various forms of
this equation are used to evaluate
the laboratory data gathered and to
scale up that data to the required
production system:
dV = P = Driving force (1)
1
A dt ((P)
s
{V[c/(1-mc)] /A} + r)
Total resistance
where:
V = slurry volume
A = fltration area
t = time
P = pressure drop across the flter
cake and flter media
= fltrate viscosity
r = resistance of the flter media
= resistance of the flter cake
s = a compressibility constant and
it is 0 for an incompressible cake
and it is 1.0 for a very compressible
cake
= fltrate density
c = the mass fraction of the solids
in the slurry
m = mass ratio of the wet cake to
the dry cake
Equation 1 is integrated and rear-
ranged to determine the amount of
time required to flter a known
quantity of material at a given pres-
sure. The results of the integration
are shown in Equation 2:
t = (P)
s
[(c/(1-mc)] V
2
+ r V (2)
2P A
2
P A
Equation 2 can be further simpli-
fed when the cake is incompressible
and when the resistance of the flter
media is negligible. Equation 2 then
reduces to the following:

t = (b / P) * (V/A)
2
, (3)
where b = [c/(1-mc)]/2
Equation 3 is the fnal equation
that is used to evaluate the labora-
tory data.
Typical laboratory tests:
fltration tests
All fltration and washing tests are
conducted in a 400 ml Pocket Leaf
Filter that has a fltration area of
20 cm and a fll volume of 400 ml.
The flter media is varied based
upon the particle size distribution
and the type of scrubbing applica-
tion. In addition, precoat and/or
body feed may be tested. Finally,
the tests are conducted at various
pressures (1.0-4.0 bars) and various
temperatures.
Typical laboratory tests:
washing tests
Cake samples are then washed with
tap water in a single pass, at vari-
ous pressures and temperatures, in
the Pocket Leaf Filter to determine
the amount of washing required to
remove the amine salts from the
cake. Counter-current washing can
also be tested.
Typical laboratory tests: drying tests
and cake density measurement
The washed cake samples are then
dried in the Pocket Leaf Filter with
ambient temperature air at varying
Figure 2 BHS candle flter designed for dry cake discharge
P re ssu re in d ic a to r 0 -6 b a r
G a s c o n n e c to r N P T
H a n d wh e e l
C o ve r
Ve sse l
L o we r p a rt
C o ve r with p ip e
H e a tin g /c o o lin g
H e a tin g /c o o lin g
H a n d wh e e l
P re ssu re ve sse l
I n te rm e d ia te rin g
F ilte r c lo th
P e rfo ra te d p la te
D ra in b o tto m
S e a lin g rin g
Vito n O -rin g , 5 4 4 )
S e a lin g rin g
S e a lin g rin g
Figure 4 BHS Pocket Leaf Filter (PLF)
Customer: Test number:
Date: Run #
Filter media
Suspension
Filling Volume of slurry
Density of slurry
% solids in feed
Temperature
Filtration Vacuum or pressure
Volume of fltrate
Time for fltration
% solids in fltrate
Wash 1 Wash material
Pressure
Volume of fltrate
Time for fltration
Wash 2 Wash material
Pressure
Volume of fltrate
Time for fltration
Drying Pressure
Temperature
Flow rate
Time for drying
Pressing pressure
Cake Weight
Thickness
% residual moisture
Dry cake weight
Cake discharge OK?
Figure 5 Data collection sheet for BHS
Pocket Leaf Filter
bhs.indd 3 1/6/12 18:22:54
and FCC units. The candle flter is
designed for 11.35 m
3
/h (50 gal/
min) and to remove 95% of all
particles greater than 0.5 microns.
The mass of solids to be fltered
will be 1.36 kg/h (3 lb/h) from 12
m
3
/h (26 351 lb/h) of fuid.
Testing for fltration rate and sizing
The fow rate of amine fuid
through the BHS test flter (0.165 m
2

flter area) at a feed pressure of 30
psig and a differential pressure of
approximately 15 psig was 1.4 gpm.
The flter media is a proprietary
membrane media that does not
require the use of precoat to retain
particles 0.5 microns and larger.
Therefore, the average fow rate per
square metre is 8.35 gpm/m
2
. The
area required for a 50 gpm fow
rate of fuid is 50 gpm/[8.35 gpm/
m
2
] = 5.99 m
2
. The design, including
a safety factor, is for two flter units,
each with 10 m
2
of flter area. The
operation is that one unit is in
operation while the second unit is
in the cake drying and discharge
mode.
Installation
The installation is shown in Figure
6. It consists of two candle flters,
piping, wiring and a complete
programmable logic control (PLC)
system with communication back to
the refnerys distributed control
system (DCS).
Application to water scrubbing
downstream of a clarifer at a
refnery
Description
In this application, the water scrub-
ber and clarifer are installed to
handle the stream from the FCC
unit. The candle flter is designed
for 83.57 m
3
/h (368 gallons/minute)
and to remove particles greater
than 0.5 microns to a fltrate clarity
of 5 ppm.
The fux rate of water clarifer over-
fow slurry through the BHS test
flter (20 cm
2
flter area) at a feed
pressure of 75 psig and a differen-
tial pressure of approximately 35
psig was 0.8 m
3
/m
2
h (3.6 gpm/m
2
).
The flter media is a polypropylene
flter media with the use of precoat
pressures. The drying is accom-
plished by either continuous
blowing or by shock or pulse
drying. Shock or pulse drying is
accomplished by pressurising the
Pocket Leaf Filter and then releas-
ing the pressure through the fltrate
valve. The moisture of the cake and
density is measured.
Scale-up for a production flter
The scale-up to a production system
is the sum of the times of each
process cycle, as follows. The
systems are designed to remove the
fnes by fltration at a constant fow
rate:
Step 1 Filling the flter with
slurry
Step 2 Precoating the flter (if
necessary)
Step 3 Filtration washing (if
necessary)
Step 4 Draining the flter
Step 5 Drying the cake
Step 6 Discharging the dry cake
Alternative Step 6 Steps 4-5 are
eliminated for concentrated slurry
discharge
Each step requires a certain
amount of time and the sum of
these times is the total cycle time.
The minimum size for the flter
occurs when the time for the fltra-
tion step is equal to the sum of the
other steps. But in the case of
precoat operation, it is also desira-
ble for most operating plants to
load the precoat into the system no
more than one time per day.
Therefore, the starting point for
sizing the system is to determine
what size flter would be required
to process the required fow rate
using a 24-hour fltration step. The
time required for the other steps is
then calculated based on the
selected flter.

Application to amine sweetening at
a refnery
Description
In this application, the amine sweet-
ening unit is installed to handle a
combined stream from the coker
Figure 6 Duplex BHS candle flter system
for amine sweetening at a refnery (shown
in the fabrication shop)
Figure 7 Duplex BHS candle flter system with precoat tank and pumps for water scrubbing
downstream of a clarifer at a refnery. Trucks are shown for the dried cake removal
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to retain particles to meet the
5 ppm requirement. The design,
including a safety factor, is two
flter units, each with 100 m
2
of
flter area. The operation is that
one unit is in operation while
the second unit is in the cake
drying and discharge mode.
Precoating of the standby unit
occurs when the operating unit
begins to approach its design differ-
ential pressure.
Installation
7. It consists of two candle flters, a
precoat tank and pumps, piping,
wiring and a complete PLC controls
system with communication back to
the refnerys DCS. The flters, tanks
and piping are heat traced and
insulated.
Grey water at a coal gasifcation
plant
Description
In this application, the grey water
from the gasifer contains coal and
catalyst fnes. These fnes are sent
to the wastewater plant, while the
clean water, with particles removed
to less than 0.5 microns, is returned
to the gasifer. The candle flter is
designed for 182 m
3
/h (800 gal/
min).
In this application, the candle
flters produce a concentrated slurry
from an initial concentration of
0.2% solids. The wastewater plant
is then only required to treat a
much lower rate of the concentrated
slurry every four hours rather than
the full 800 gal/min.
The fux rate of the gasifer grey
water slurry through the BHS test
flter (20 cm
2
flter area) at a feed
pressure of 30 was 6.45 gpm/m
2
.
The flter media is a proprietary
PTFE membrane flter media to
retain particles of 0.5 microns and
smaller. The flter cycle is defned
by the time it takes to build a differ-
ential pressure of 25 psi across the
flter membrane. For a capacity of
182 m
3
/h (800 gpm), the required
flter area is approximately 135 m
2
.
The design, including a safety
factor, is three flter units, each with
66 m
2
of flter area. The operation is
that two units are in operation
while the third unit is in discharge
mode.
Installation
8. It consists of three concentrating
candle flters, including piping and
wiring to junction boxes. The
control system has been designed
by BHS and is operated by commu-
nication with the coal gasifcation
plants DCS.
Regeneration of lean amine in a gas
desulphurisation process
Description
MDEA is used in an amine sweet-
ening process to capture CO
2
and
H
2
S in an acid gas removal process.
The lean amine is to be regenerated
via activated carbon adsorbers and
precoated candle flters. The candle
flters, removing 95% of the
suspended solids above 1 micron,
prevent the suspended solids from
clogging the adsorber and keep the
rate of solids low enough to avoid
foaming in the scrubber. The total
fow to the candle flter is 143 m
3
/h
(630 gpm), from which a slipstream
of 43 m
3
/h (190 gpm) is sent to the
activated carbon adsorbers.
Sizing
The design basis of the lean amine
fltration via the precoated candle
flter is based upon BHS experience
and a specifc rate of 2 m
3
/m
2
h,
thus resulting in 71.5 m
2
. The candle
flter, with 78 m
2
of flter area, is
designed for a maximum operating
pressure differential of 8 bar g and
is equipped with a polypropylene
flter media. The activated carbon
flters are sized based upon a maxi-
mum fux rate of 0.2 cm/sec and a
residence time of 20 minutes. The
candle flter clean fltrate stream is
then split 50:50 and feeds two iden-
tical activated carbon adsorbers.
Installation
As shown in Figure 9, the installa-
tion consists of one candle flter,
one precoat tank, two activated
carbon absorbers, one polishing
flter, with pumps, agitator, piping
and wiring, and a complete PLC
control system with communication
back to the gas plants DCS.
Summary
Scrubbing fuid fltration of particle
fnes is an important part of the
process operation either for envi-
ronmental requirements or overall
effciencies. The benefts can include
Figure 8 Triplex BHS candle flter system for grey water from the gasifer. Candle flters
are manifolded for concentrated slurry discharge (shown in the fabrication shop)
bhs.indd 5 2/6/12 17:46:11
improved HSS removal, reduced
foaming tendencies, reduced energy
for reboilers and heat exchangers,
reduced corrosion and chemical
cleaning, lower chemical treatment
costs and reduced scrubbing liquid
losses. Laboratory tests and instal-
lation results continue to prove the
technical and economic effective-
ness of candle lters for the
clarication/purication of scrub-
bing uids in multiple applications
such as for amine sweetening,
glycol dehydration and extraction,
water scrubbing and grey water,
chlor-alkali brines, coal liquefaction
for synthetic oils and in the
biodiesel/biochemical industries.

Reference
1 Geankopolis C J, Transport Processes and Unit
Operations, 2nd Ed,1983, 750-758.
Barry Perlmutter is President and Managing
Director of BHS-Filtration Inc, Charlotte, North
Carolina.
Email: barry.perlmutter@bhs-ltration.com
Figure 9 BHS candle lter system for gas desulphurisation, including precoat tank, carbon
adsorber and polishing lter
www.int roequipcon.com
A
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M
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T
Int ernat ional Rot at ing Equipment Conf erence
Pumps and Compressors Dsseldorf (GER), 27
th
28
t h
Sept . 2012
AZ Announcement 178x125_ 2012-05.indd 1 26.05.2012 07:44:34
bhs.indd 6 1/6/12 18:23:36
Aerzener Maschinenfabrik
Hall 8.0, stand D38
The Delta Hybrid rotary lobe
compressor range made by
Aerzener Maschinenfabrik has been
extended by another size so that
customers can select the optimal
unit for their application from an
extensive series. With a total of 14
sizes in the range, Delta Hybrid
units now cover intake volume
fows of 110 m
3
/h up to 5800 m
3
/h
and overpressures up to 1500 mbar.
The new sizes D 98 S and D 98 H
are used in the upper volume fow
range of 1470 up to 5900 m
3
/h, with
driving powers of up to 250 kW.
Also in preparation is the size
D152S with volume fows up to
9100 m
3
/h and maximum driving
powers of 400 kW.
Expertise from the worlds of posi-
tive displacement blowers and
screw compressors is the founda-
tion upon which the Delta Hybrid
technology has been developed
the frst series of rotary lobe
compressors.
Delta Hybrid is a synergy of
blower and compressor technology
and offers new possibilities in over-
pressure and negative pressure
generation of air and neutral gases
by combining the technical advan-
tages of both concepts.
A total of seven patents or patent
applications make the Delta Hybrid
one of the currently most innova-
tive products in compression
technology. While low-pressure
applications call for the Roots prin-
ciple of isochoric compression, in
higher-pressure ranges the screw
compressor with its internal
compression becomes the frst
choice for high energy effciency.
The package concept is based on
the Aerzen Delta designs (Delta
Blower and Delta Screw) and has
been upgraded systematically.
The union of both rotary lobe
blower and screw compressor tech-
nologies resulted in the Delta
Hybrid innovation that reduces
energy consumption by up
P
to 15% compared to other
compressors.
Alfa Laval
Hall 4.0, stand D4
Under the theme Recipes for
success, Alfa Laval will show solu-
tions for increasing reliability,
effciency and proftability.
The new Alfa Laval Aalborg fue
gas heat boilers are designed to
help plants increase profts from
waste heat, while the companys
experience in green chemicals and
second-generation ethanol help
during challenging heat transfer,
separation and fuid-handling
duties.
The Alfa Laval Olmi shell-and-
tube heat exchangers are designed
to increase operational reliability in
some of the toughest positions in
ethylene plants.
The company will display a range
of products including the Compabloc
120 welded heat exchanger, the M15
gasketed plate heat exchanger, a
membrane flter unit, the MBPX
810H high-speed separator, the P2
decanter centrifuge and the ART
plate reactor series.
Aveva
Hall 9.2, Stand C29
Aveva will feature its integrated
engineering and design solutions,
which help users to ensure informa-
tion integrity and provide powerful
compare and update and change
highlighting functions for robust
version control throughout the
design process. Demonstrations will
show how PDMS from the Aveva
plant portfolio is tightly integrated
with a wide range of 2D and 3D
engineering and design applications
across every phase of project
execution.
Also showcased will be the new
Electrical product and the latest
release of Instrumentation. In addi-
tion, visitors can see how as-built
data capture is being transformed
by high-resolution 3D laser scan-
ning, extending operational life,
Achema 2012
increasing productivity and improv-
ing the safety of existing assets.
The Borsig Group
Hall B42, Stand 9.1
The Borsig Group, celebrating its
175th anniversary, supplies pressure
vessels, heat exchangers, compres-
sors, membrane technology, boiler
and power plant technology, as well
as power plant and industrial
services. The company will present
its product programme, including
waste heat recovery systems, trans-
fer line exchangers, reciprocating
and centrifugal compressors for
process gases, compressor parts,
membrane technology (such as
emission control units, products
recovery units and gas separation),
fred boilers up to approximately
420 t/h, boiler and power plant
engineering, as well as its broad
service range.
Crane
Hall 8.0, Stand C94
Crane will show its line of fuid-
handling products for the chemical
industry and will hold demonstra-
tions of several products at its
booth throughout the show.
Exhibits include the Krombach
Specialty Products line, including
large quarter-turn v fabricated
butterfy valves, triple offset valves
and check valves. The valves range
in size from 11/4in to 136in. These
valves are typically used in applica-
tions such as steam/water
isolations, condenser isolations and
cooling tower isolations.
The Xomox Lined Ball Valve XLB
allows users to manage corrosive
chemicals through a lined solution
that reduces ownership costs and it
allows for installation in space-
restricted areas. This design also
promotes longer life performance
and lower torque, which translates
into reduced actuation costs and
space savings. Its innovative stem
sealing system provides safety and
long-term fugitive emission control
under extreme conditions.
achema.indd 1 5/6/12 10:12:16
The Saunders XA Diaphragm
offers increased erosion resistance
in both corrosive and abrasive
applications. The new diaphragm
has enhanced fex life, resulting in
reduced down time and improved
productivity, equating to a lower
cost of ownership. It demonstrates
a 25% improvement in elastic recov-
ery, which results in better sealing
performance and lower emissions,
and is considered leak free in accor-
dance with standards MSS SP-88
and BS EN 12266-1.
GEA Wiegand
Hall 4.0, Stand F44
Developments in ejector technology,
optimisation of condenser design
and the combination of ejectors and
liquid ring vacuum pumps (hybrid
systems) lead to a very signifcant
reduction in operating costs. In
many cases, the revamping of exist-
ing vacuum systems with new
components such as ejectors and
liquid ring vacuum pumps helps to
improve the proftability of an old
refnery within a very short time.
In the petrochemical industries,
more and more vacuum systems
with closed circuit are used, some-
times using product vapours as
motive media and liquid product as
cooling media.
In comparison to traditional
systems, the total cost of ownership
over a period of three years is
sharply reduced. The design of the
new system ensures trouble-free
low-maintenance operation.
GEA Wiegand specialises in
vacuum systems, mixers, steam jet
cooling plants and gas cleaning
plants based on jet pump technol-
ogy. The company delivers
evaporation, distillation and
membrane fltration plants for the
concentration and separation of all
types of organic and inorganic solu-
tions, as well as complete
processing plants for bioethanol.
The company also focuses on:
Possibilities for saving energy in
evaporation and distillation plants
Environmentally friendly and
economical product cooling by
means of waste steam
Effcient separation of particles
and colouring agents by membrane
fltration
Cleaning of process gases and
particle separation
Field of application for jet pumps
and jet mixers.
Grabner Instruments
Hall 4.2, Stand J8
Grabner Instruments, a subsidiary of
Ametek Inc, will show its latest
development, the Miniscan IRXpert,
a portable and versatile FTIR
spectrometer for automatic measure-
ment of gasoline, diesel and biofuel
blends. The Miniscan IRXpert
combines superior scanning range
and resolution with the advantages
of mid-IR and near-IR spectroscopy
for high measurement accuracy. The
analyser is confgured to test more
than 40 important parameters for
both laboratory- and feld-tested
fuels. These include oxygenates,
aromatics, benzene, octane boosters
and cetane improvers, as well as
biodiesel content. The instrument
accurately predicts a number of key
fuel properties, such as octane and
cetane number, vapour pressure and
distillation properties, by utilising a
worldwide sample database and by
combining the information from the
mid-IR and near-IR spectrum range
derived from a high-resolution scan.
The spectrometer is an intelligent,
self-learning analyser that allows an
unlimited number of new fuel
parameters to be analysed at the
push of a button.
Grabner Instruments also plans to
exhibit its full line of portable fuel
analysers, including the Minivap
VPXpert vapour pressure tester, the
Minifash Touch fashpoint tester
and the Minidis ADXpert miniatur-
ised distillation unit.
Hoerbiger Holding
Hall 8.0, Stand D28
Hoerbiger is showing new monitor-
ing and maintenance solutions for
reciprocating compressors, plus
developments in valve actuators
and positioners.
Reliable. Effcient. Powerful. We
set Standards is Hoerbigers motto
at Achema. The company will pres-
ent the latest generation of
RecipCom systems monitoring,
protection and diagnostic systems
for reciprocating compressors. With
its modular and scalable structure,
RecipCom can also provide machin-
ery protection for older compressors
a fully customisable and cost-
effective solution. The RecipCom
diagnostic software continuously
informs the operator about the
current status of the compressor,
making any variations in perfor-
mance and effciency immediately
visible. With the option to shut
down the compressor within a few
revolutions, the software can also
prevent severe damage.
In addition, Hoerbiger will unveil
its Upgrade and Revamp service
products. Based on proven compo-
nents and systems, the Hoerbiger
Service Team makes even older
compressors ft for the future, with
solutions that contribute to increas-
ing service life, optimising energy
costs and adapting existing equip-
ment to new operating conditions.
Furthermore, Hoerbiger will be
unveiling BCD packing rings for
reciprocating compressors. The
packing rings enable a space-saving
design of the compressor packing
and cylinders, as well as effcient
and environmentally friendly oper-
ation of reciprocating compressors.
Another highlight will be the
production version of the electrohy-
draulic valve actuator for
applications prone to explosions.
The system developed by Hoerbiger
Automation Technology combines
the sensitivity of electric drive tech-
nology with the power density and
dynamic response of a hydraulic
system. The actuator is operated
electrically through a simple inter-
face and works autonomously
without the need for external
hydraulic lines.
Linde
Hall 9.1, Stand D4
Clean technology by Linde
energy concepts, including the use
of pure oxygen for air oxidation
and special gases, are the focus of
Lindes presentation.
Solutions for sustainable energy
supplies include a process for the
production of green hydrogen
(H
2
) from biomass and concepts for
an area-wide H
2
flling station
network. The company is support-
ing the trend towards natural
gas as an eco-friendly bridge
achema.indd 2 1/6/12 21:55:09
technology with its own energy-
saving technologies. Linde produces
liquefed natural gas (LNG) and has
been operating the frst LNG
terminal in Sweden since 2011.
Linde will introduce solutions for
the use of LNG as a fuel in heavy
goods vehicles and ships.
Also on show is the optimisation
of air oxidation processes in petro-
and basic chemistry by the use of
pure oxygen. With a portfolio of
solutions and systems for oxygen
enrichment, Linde guarantees a
uniform oxygen concentration and
a high level of operational reliabil-
ity. The capacity and productivity
of existing plants can thus be
increased, while expenses for waste
gas treatment are reduced.
Linde is again demonstrating its
competence in special gases: the
spectrum of deliverable pure gas
ranges from acetylene to xenon and
covers practically all felds of
application, from production, work-
place and environmental protection
to research and development. The
company is presenting sampling
systems such as high-performance
pressure reducers and tailor-made
gas supply systems for optimising
gas supplies.
Metso
Hall 9, Stand B21
Metso is introducing control valve
innovations for improved safety
and effciency.
Improved version of Q-Trim noise
reduction technology
Noise and vibration generated by
control valves constitute a typical
environmental issue in process
plants and their surroundings.
Further improvements to Metsos
Q-Trim noise reduction technology
have resulted in advanced noise
and vibration control in challenging
applications. These solutions help
process industry customers improve
personnel and plant safety while
simultaneously increasing effciency
and reliability.
Third-generation valve diagnostics
Metsos new Valve Manager is a
third-generation valve diagnostics
package taking predictive control
valve maintenance to a new level.
With processed and visualised diag-
nostics information, maintenance
engineers and process operators are
capable of making educated deci-
sions concerning control valve
maintenance without deep valve
know-how. Unexpected shutdowns
can be avoided and control valve
performance can be maintained at
an optimum level by taking the
necessary preventive actions based
on the available diagnostics infor-
mation. Also, with the help of the
diagnostics, resources can be more
effciently allocated during
shutdowns by concentrating main-
tenance actions only on valves
really needing maintenance.
New features and services for intelligent
emergency shutdown valves
New additions to Metsos intelligent
emergency shutdown valves (iESDs)
enhance the reliability and availabil-
ity of emergency shutdown valves,
while reducing plant safety costs
and maximising process uptime. The
companys valve sizing and selec-
tion software, Nelprof, provides
improved effciency in safety valve
selection. Supporting preventive
maintenance, by ensuring reliability
of the critical emergency valves and
helping to fulfll SIL requirements,
Metso Valve HealthCare programme
is based on regular checking of valve
conditions and diagnostic analysis
by certifed service technicians. The
service reveals the condition of the
critical valves to avoid unexpected
incidents affecting safety, environ-
ment or production and helps bring
savings in maintenance costs by
focusing on valves needing
attention.
Norgren
Hall 8.0, Stand K76
Norgren will show valve solutions
for both upstream and downstream
applications, a new valve control
system for critical applications, and
new, low-power, manually
controlled valves, all designed to
deliver engineering advantage for
energy sector customers.
Maxseal products from Norgren
are specially designed for upstream
applications and complement the
companys range of Herion
aluminium valves, which are in use
in the chemical and petrochemical
industry worldwide.
The new redundant valve mani-
fold (RVM) system allows the
construction of dual-channel redun-
dant products that guard against
unnecessary malfunctions and
possible valve failures in both
upstream and downstream critical
applications. These systems, obtain-
able in 1oo2, 2oo2 and 2oo3
versions, function effectively at the
most remote locations.
Onis
Hall 8, Stand J8
Onis Line Blinds replace spectacle
blinds, slip blinds and fgure-8
blinds with an inline blind that can
be operated by one person, in a few
minutes without using any tools.
Onis Line Blinds reduce mainte-
nance costs, increase production
time and improve safety by reduc-
ing exposure.
Each Onis blind is custom built to
the specifc data for each applica-
tion. They can be manufactured
from 1/2in to 50in and fanges from
150# to 2500# classes. They can
withstand pressure from vacuum to
6100 psig and temperatures from
-1521400F. The blinds can be used
to isolate reactors, heaters, pumps,
compressors and furnaces when
there is a need to rotate blinds
frequently or a need to minimise
exposure to improve safety during
blinding.
Rockwell Automation
Hall 11.1, Stand E27
Rockwell Automation will be
presenting new features for its
PlantPAx process automation
system, which it launched at
Achema in 2009. The system allows
customers to use the scalable Logix
automation platform to automate
plant-wide control operations and
increase optimisation throughout
the plant. The highlights of
Rockwell Automations participa-
tion at Achema will include
integrated, information-enabled
solutions for process control, drive
and safety applications.
With the PlantPAx system,
Rockwell Automation combines
its core process automation
competencies and technologies with
achema.indd 3 1/6/12 21:55:19
those of ibusiness partners and
companies it has recently acquired.
The result is that all automation
disciplines not only process
automation can be integrated
into a single solution. This allows
customers to achieve business goals
including cost reduction, lower
emissions, and increases in quality
and production. A recently added
capability facilitates the integration
of intelligent motor devices, such as
motor control centres, drives,
compressors, pumps, fans and
measuring equipment, into a
common automation architecture.
This high level of integration has an
immediate, positive effect on asset
availability, plant effciency and
energy management.
Samson
Hall 11.1, Stand C75
Two new products from Samson are
the Type 3291 Valve and the Type
3730-6 Positioner examples of
established Samson devices that
have been enhanced to provide
added value.
The Type 3291 Valve combines
the proven V-port plug and
clamped-in seat. It is particularly
suitable for use in severe operating
conditions in petrochemical appli-
cations, for example. The valve
shows a considerably lower
tendency to hunt. Its design makes
it hard for deposits to form and
clog up the valve a problem
frequently encountered in pure cage
valves.
The valve is easy to service as it
can be assembled using standard
tools. Samsons modular valve
design makes it versatile in use.
Accessories, such as fow dividers,
perforated plugs, insulating
sections, bellows seals, positioners,
limit switches and solenoid valves,
can be easily mounted.
The Type 3730-6 Positioner with
HART communication is a further
development in the Series 3730
Positioners. New pressure sensors
integrated into the positioner moni-
tor supply and signal pressures.
The positioners standard version
comes with the proven Expertplus
valve diagnostics that allow the
entire operating cycle of control
valves used in throttling or on/off
service to be monitored. Partial
stroke testing (PST) provides infor-
mation on whether shut-off valves
function properly on demand and
can be started by hand or automati-
cally. Diagnostic data can be read
much quicker thanks to the
improved HART communication.
Emergency shutdown is guaran-
teed in accordance with IEC 61508
up to SIL 3, which makes an addi-
tional external solenoid valve
redundant.
Siemens
Hall 11.0, Stand C3
Siemens will focus on issues
revolving around plant life cycle
management. Siemens shows how
the process industry can beneft
from the companys products,
systems, solutions and services.
The integrated Siemens portfolio
offers high productivity, fexibility
and effciency throughout the
entire plant and production life
cycle. Siemens presents itself to its
process industry customers as a
reliable partner for sustainable
management in rapidly changing
times. With Siemens products and
services, companies can improve
the performance and energy eff-
ciency of their plants, as well as
save money and reduce time-to-
market by integrating process
control into the plant at the plan-
ning stage.
VFF
Hall 4.0, Stand D66
Vereinigte Fllkrper-Fabriken
GmbH & Co. KG (VFF), Europes
largest producer of catalyst support
material and tower packings, has a
new stand designed over two foors
to show visitors its programme of
tower packings, catalyst support
material, column internals and
demister.
The focus is on VFF-High-
Performance products for high
performance, quality and constant
availability. VFF-TwinPak is the
latest high-performance tower pack-
ing product, showing very low
pressure drop with best mass trans-
fer, already proven in installations.
Within the Duranit range of cata-
lyst support material, Duranit X500
Inert Balls are known for their high
compression strength, resulting in a
maximum level of security in oper-
ation. They can be used in
combination with DuraTop ,which
is a special type of ceramic random
packing with a large free-gap
volume. DuraTop can be added on
top of the catalyst bed as an alter-
native to Inert Balls.
The highlight of the companys
plastic random packing range is the
VFF-NetBall, with high perfor-
mance and easy handling, besides
the highly productive VSP random
packing.
A demo version VFF-tower pack-
ing software can be downloaded
free of charge at www.vff.com.
Worldwide, VFF has over 30
agencies, but is nevertheless inter-
ested in developing new
distribution channels and making
contacts in the chemicals and petro-
chemicals industries.
Yokogawa Europe
Hall 11.1, Stand E16
Yokogawa is featuring its range of
automaton solutions for the chemi-
cal and pharmaceutical industries.
The companys integrated solu-
tions from the initial idea
through startup to care and mainte-
nance of the systems throughout
their entire life are in keeping
with the companys VigilantPlant
concept.
Under the umbrella of
VigilantPlant, key aspects of
Yokogawas offering are:
Safety excellence: functional
safety can be operated
immediately
Asset excellence: availability
partnerships for end-to-end
optimisation
Production excellence: effcient
use of energy as simple as
reversing into a space
Lifecycle excellence: automation
and validation a symbiosis.
Operational excellence depends
on many different parameters and
can therefore only be achieved and
sustained as the outcome of vari-
ous parallel optimisation processes.
The cornerstones of the
VigilantPlant concept safety,
asset and production excellence
apply throughout the entire
lifecycle of a plant.
achema.indd 4 1/6/12 21:55:37
Grace moves into China
rare earths
W R Grace & Co is to acquire the
assets of Chinese fuid catalytic
cracking (FCC) catalysts producer
Noblestar Catalysts. Noblestar,
based in Qingdao, Shangdong prov-
ince, also manufactures catalyst
intermediates and related products
used in the petroleum refning
industry and has been active in the
rare earth metals business for the
last two years. In order to complete
the purchase, Grace established a
new wholly foreign-owned enter-
prise (WFOE) in the Peoples
Republic of China.
According to Grace, the acquisi-
tion provides the company with
immediate local manufacturing
capacity to serve its business in
China and North Asia. Grace also
says that investing in China is part
of its refning technologies global
strategy, which includes creating an
integrated manufacturing network
to align FCC capacity with growth
in demand, and expects to invest in
the Qingdao site towards improve-
ments in environmental, safety and
manufacturing performance.
The deal will enable Noblestar to
focus its business on rare earth
products, says the new Grace
subsidiary. China is by far the larg-
est producer of rare earth minerals.
The countrys restricted supply of
materials including cerium oxide
led to skyrocketing prices for rare
earths and, as a result, much higher
FCC catalyst costs. In response,
catalyst manufacturers including
Grace have developed low- and no-
rare earth catalysts to mitigate the
price rise.
Grace expects to complete the
acquisition as soon as regulatory
clearances have been obtained.
The deal with Noblestar continues
a series of acquisitions by Grace to
provide local manufacturing
support for its most active FCC
catalyst business. The company
earlier signed a memorandum of
understanding to form a joint
P
venture with Al Dahra Agricultural
Company of Abu Dhabi to build
and operate a plant making FCC
catalysts and additives in the
Middle East. The production plant
will be used to supply oil refners in
the Middle East and South Asia
markets, and is expected to come on
stream in 2015.
Gas membranes for Asia
UOP has opened a manufacturing
and operations centre in Penang,
Malaysia, that will produce
membrane elements to support the
natural gas market. The companys
Separex membrane systems remove
impurities from natural gas streams.
Removing impurities is necessary
before the gas can be used as fuel,
as a source for petrochemicals or
distributed by pipeline.
According to UOP, the new centre
will strengthen its ability to meet
demand as natural gas increases its
role in energy production. By 2035,
almost 35% of the worlds growth
in demand for natural gas is
expected to come from Asia, accord-
ing to the US Energy Information
Administration.
Separex membrane systems are
delivered as modular, skid-mounted
units. Depending on the application,
they have lower capital and operat-
ing costs, and consume less energy
than competing processes, accord-
ing to UOP. Its modular construction
enables its installation in offshore
sites such as foating, processing,
storage and offoading vessels, and
remote locations.
Gas processing is an increasingly
important aspect of UOPs activities.
Last year, the company established
a new gas processing and hydrogen
business unit to increase its focus on
developing technology, equipment
and adsorbents, as well as the
design and execution of projects for
natural gas and hydrogen produc-
ers. It also expanded its portfolio of
natural gas treatment technologies
through an alliance with The
Netherlands-based Twister, covering
Industry News
the UOP-Twister Supersonic Gas
Separation System, which is used to
remove water and heavy hydrocar-
bons from raw natural gas.
The Twister system expands
Honeywell UOPs natural gas
processing technologies and equip-
ment that remove impurities such
as water, carbon dioxide, sulphur
compounds and mercury from
natural gas streams, and that sepa-
rate and recover natural gas liquids.
The company also set up a gas
processing design centre in Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, in 2008 that
designs and delivers fabricated
skid-mounted gas processing
plants.
India, China continue to lead
refning growth
Increasing demand for refned
petroleum products, especially in
faster growing countries such as
China and India, will grow the
Asia-Pacifc regions share of the
global refning market, according to
a report by business intelligence
company GlobalData.
The report, Refning Industry in
Asia Pacifc Market Analysis,
Competitive Landscape and Capacity
Forecasts to 2016, predicts that China
will continue to dominate refning
capacity in the Asia-Pacifc region,
with future planned refneries
promising to add capacity in the
region and displaying optimism for
the refning markets future.
China and India were among the
top markets for refning in Asia-
Pacifc during 2011, with national
oil companies having played a key
role in the two countries refning
markets. China Petroleum &
Chemical Corporation and
Petrochina together accounted for
around 89.2% of the total refning
capacity of the country during 2011,
while, in India, government compa-
nies such as Indian Oil, Bharat
Petroleum, Mangalore Refnery
and Petrochemicals, Hindustan
Petroleum and Chennai Petroleum
accounted for more than 50% of the
ind news copy 12.indd 1 1/6/12 22:05:31
countrys refning capacity in the
same year.
Asia-Pacifc will see the addition
of a further 21 new refneries during
2012-2016, accounting for approxi-
mately one-third of all refnery
capacity additions across the world.
China and India will lead the refn-
ery capacity additions in the region
during the period, with China
scheduled to add seven new refner-
ies by 2016, while India will add
three. Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia
and Pakistan will also add two
refneries each.
The total refning capacity of
China in 2011 was 459.8 million t/y
annum, which accounted for 31.4%
of the regions total refning capac-
ity. China will continue to be the
largest refning market in Asia-
Pacifc until 2016, during which
time the country will add 122.4
million t/y of refning capacity.
The refning capacity of Asia-
Pacifc is expected to see an average
annual growth rate of 3.4% during
the period 2011-2016, with the
regions refning capacity increasing
from 1464.7 million t/y in 2011 to
1738.3 million t/y in 2016. The share
of the region in global refning
capacity was 31.4% in 2011 and is
anticipated to increase slightly
31.7% by 2016.
Bigger and cleaner
Plant cleaning company Mogas of
Houston, Texas, has launched a new
division, Momentum Services, to
provide precision cleaning of equip-
ment for stringent service.
According to Mogas, unlike other
clean rooms in the companys oper-
ating region, the new division will
be able to handle heavy components
with two-, three- and fve-tonne
cranes. Mogas has over 3000 square
feet of clean environment, with
more than 1400 square feet of that
footprint dedicated to procedural
cleaning, assembly and packaging.
Emersons level buy-out
Emerson has acquired ISE Magtech
of Pearland, Texas, enabling
Emerson Process Management to
add to its level measurement
options for petroleum refning and
other industries. ISE Magtech
designs and manufactures level
gauges and associated equipment,
and the acquisition will allow
Emerson Process Management to
build on its existing range of level
measurement products including
Rosemount Guided Wave Radar for
the measurement of fuid levels.
According to Emerson, ISE
Magtechs Magnetic Level Gauge
coupled with the Rosemount
Guided Wave Radar combines a
local visual indication of level with
a transmitter to support the need
for visual and automated system
monitoring.
GTL development in Thailand
A new experimental facility for test-
ing microchannel reactors has begun
operations at the PTT Research and
Technology Institute in Wangnoi,
Ayutthaya, Thailand. The new facil-
ity is operated by PTT, the Thai
National Energy Company, and was
set up under the terms of a research
collaboration with Velocys, the US-
based member of Oxford Catalysts
Group. It is intended specifcally to
test microchannel reactors for gas to
liquids (GTL) applications.
The facility has eight research staff
from PTT and is linked to Velocys
via a computer network to enable
US-based researchers to access
experimental data in real time. This
will make it possible for Velocys to
analyse various aspects of catalyst
performance, and to optimise and
validate the long-term performance
of its microchannel steam methane
reforming (SMR) reactors, an
element of Oxford Catalysts modu-
lar GTL technology. It will also
enable PTT staff to gain experience
in the use of microchannel GTL
technology and provide them with
the data necessary to carry out
detailed engineering evaluations of
modular GTL facilities.
PTT is interested in modular GTL
technology as a means to monetise
associated gas from onshore oil
wells that is currently fared.
Energy performance alliance
Schneider Electric and Krohne have
formed a partnership to amalgam-
ate Schneiders PlantStruxure
process automation architecture
and Krohnes instrumentation.
PlantStruxure is intended for
improvements in energy perfor-
mance and productivity by creating
a single environment to measure
energy use, process data, asset utili-
sation and machine performance.
Krohnes instruments provide fow,
level, pressure and temperature
measurements, and perform analyt-
ical tasks for monitoring plant
processes that involve liquids, gases
or solids.
Gasifer for worlds biggest
refnery
Reliance Industries of India has
chosen Phillips 66s E-Gas technol-
ogy for its planned gasifcation
plants at Jamnagar, the largest refn-
ing complex in the world with an
aggregate refning capacity of 1.3
million b/d. The planned gasifca-
tion plants will process petroleum
coke and coal into synthesis gas
utilising E-Gas. The synthesis gas
will be used as feedstock for a new
chemical complex and will fuel the
refnerys existing gas turbine power
generation units.
Phillips 66 will license the technol-
ogy to Reliance, and provide process
engineering design and technical
support relating to the gasifcation
technology process area. E-Gas has
been in commercial operation since
1987. It incorporates a gasifcation
system design that can be applied
with gas and steam turbine
combined-cycle power generation to
produce electric power, as well as
synthesis gas applications for the
production of hydrogen, chemicals
or substitute natural gas.
HF monitoring
Invensys Operations Management
has signed a multi-year licensing
agreement with Valero Energy
Corporation for the use of its
ACA.HF Advanced Alkylation
Measurement Solution. In the frst
phase of the agreement, Valero will
use the technology at seven refner-
ies, where it will monitor and
measure hydrofuoric acid catalyst
levels in real time by analysing
differential responses from online
sensors, helping to improve the
safety, reliability and environmental
performance of the refnery and
creating new opportunities to
reduce operating costs.
ind news copy 12.indd 2 1/6/12 22:05:50
ABB Consulting 73
ACS-Amistco 24 & 27
Aerzener 55
AFPM Q&A and Technology Forum 64
Aggreko 19
AltairStrickland 96
Axens OBC
BASF Corporation, Catalysts Division 11
Borsig 37
Bryan Research & Engineering 44
Burckhardt Compression 100
CB&I 7
Chevron Lummus Global 9
Criterion Catalyst & Technologies 4
Curtiss-Wright Flow Control Company 56
Curtiss-Wright Flow Control - DeltaValve 116
Curtiss-Wright Flow Control - TapcoEnpro 21
www.digitalrefning.com IBC
Downstream Asia 2012 122
DuPont Sustainable Solutions 85
Elliott Group 114
Enersul 41
ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company 8
Flexim 10
Foster Wheeler 74
Gas Asia Summit 2012 127
GasTech 2012 121
GEA Wiegand 12
Grabner Instruments 6
Haldor Topse IFC
Hoerbiger Kompressortechnik Holding 14
Hydroprocessing Associates 108
International Rotating Equipment Conference 129
ITW 99 & 107
Johnson Matthey Catalysts 104
Johnson Screens 95
KBC Advanced Technologies 2
KIDExtractor 8
Linde 48
MAN Diesel & Turbo 88
Metso Automation 63
Moscow Refning, Gas & Petrochemicals Week 119
Mustang Engineering 50
Nalco Downstream Energy Services 61
OHL Gutermuth Industrial Valves 102
Onis International 78
Optimised Gas Treating 113
Process Consulting Services 13 & 15
Prognost Systems 77
Rentech Boiler Systems 53
Sabin Metal Corporation 32
Samson 67
Selas Fluid Processing Corporation 38
Spectro Analytical Instruments 81
Sulzer Chemtech 92
Turbomachinery Symposium 2012 71
UOP 16
Vereinigte Fllkrper-Fabriken 110 & 112
Yokogawa Europe 68
Zyme-Flow 82
Alphabetical list of advertisers
ad index copy 13.indd 1 5/6/12 10:11:01
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dig ref.indd 1 24/2/12 13:30:07
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t h e r st d ay o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e f o r o u r e v e n i n g e v e n t .
N e t w o r k i n a r e l axe d at m o sp h e r e an d sh ar e y o u r t h o u gh t s
f r o m t h e d ay s p r e se n t at i o n s w i t h y o u r i n d u st r y co l l eagu e s.
Fo r m o r e i n f o r m at i o n p l e ase v i si t w w w .t ac o o k .c o m /
am st e r d am
Dear Colleague
Workshop Leaders:
David Fleming, Senior Consultant,
T.A. Cook Consultants
Af t e r i n i t i al l y sp e n d i n g t i m e as an e n gi n e e r i n t h e st e e l i n d u st r y,
Dav i d m ad e t h e t r an si t i o n i n t o e l e c t r o n i c s i n t h e 19 9 0 s w o r k i n g
f o r a n u m b e r o f b l u e c h i p o r gan i sat i o n s, as an En gi n e e r, W o r k
Pr o c e ss Sp e c i al i st , an d as an I n t e r n al Co n su l t an t . H i s f o c u s w as
v e r y m u c h t o w ar d s t h e m an age m e n t o f p r o j e c t s t h at i m p r o v e d
p r o d u c t i v i t y an d r e d u c e d u n i t c o st s, w h i l st e n su r i n g a c o n t i -
n u o u s i m p r o v e m e n t , e n v i r o n m e n t an d c u l t u r e.
Si n ce Dav i d e n t e r e d co n su l t an c y, h e h as b e e n i n v o l v e d i n p e r f o r m an ce i m p r o v e m e n t
p r o j e c t s p ar t i c u l ar l y f o c u si n g o n d ay t o d ay m ai n t e n an c e, i n sp e c t i o n an d t u r n a-
r o u n d s, w h e r e h i s r e sp o n si b i l i t i e s h av e r an ge d f r o m sp e c i c w o r k ar eas, t o o v e r al l
p r o j e c t m an age m e n t . Th i s h as t ake n h i m ac r o ss Eu r o p e an d N o r t h A m e r i c a, an d h e
h as ex p e r i e n ce d b o t h t h e u p st r eam an d d o w n st r eam si d e o f t h e o i l an d gas i n d u st r y.
Successfully Managing your Operations and
Maintenance Programme to Enhance Overall
Plant Performance and Productivity
Th i s f u l l - d ay i n t e r ac t i v e w o r k sh o p w i l l p r o v i d e y o u w i t h a co m p r e h e n si v e r ev i ew i n t o
o p t i m i si n g t h e m ai n t e n an c e an d o p e r at i o n s p r o c e ss. I d e n t i f y an d d e n e t h e go al s
o f a su cc e ssf u l O & M p r o gr am m e, d i sco v e r h o w e e c t i v e y o u r o w n m ai n t e n an c e
st r at e g y i s an d l ear n t h e i m p o r t an c e o f d e v e l o p i n g a h eal t h y o n - si t e c u st o m e r-
c o n t r ac t o r r e l at i o n sh i p . Yo u w i l l h av e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o sh ar e l e sso n s l ear n e d
w i t h f e l l o w d e l e gat e s i n an i n t i m at e e n v i r o n m e n t t o e n su r e t h e saf e, r e l i ab l e an d
e f c i e n t o p e r at i o n s o f y o u r p r o d u c t i o n f ac i l i t y.
Gai n f u r t h e r i n si gh t s i n t o :
Est ab l i sh i n g y o u r o w n go al s w h e n i t co m e s t o su cc e ssf u l O & M m an age m e n t
D e n i n g w h at c an m ake m ai n t e n an c e e e c t i v e an d w h e r e i m p r o v e m e n t s
ar e co n t i n u o u s , as w e l l as su st ai n ab l e
D i sco v e r i n g h o w t h e su cc e ssf u l m an age m e n t o f O & M r e so u r c e s an d t ask s c an
h e l p i m p r o v e o v e r al l p e r f o r m an c e an d p r o d u c t i v i t y
D e v e l o p i n g an d m ai n t ai n a h eal t h y o n si t e c u st o m e r- co n t r ac t o r r e l at i o n sh i p t o
ac h i e v e O & M exc e l l e n c e
U n d e r st an d i n g w h y ac t i v e su p e r v i si o n c an i m p r o v e y o u r p r o d u c t i v i t y
I d e n t i f y i n g t h e i m p o r t an c e o f i m p l e m e n t i n g an e e c t i v e l ead e r sh i p an d
m an age m e n t p r o gr am m e
Th e w o r k sh o p o e r s an exce l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p r o f e ssi o n al s w i t h a b ac k gr o u n d
i n o p e r at i o n s, m ai n t e n an c e o r e n gi n e e r i n g t o m e e t w i t h f e l l o w i n d u st r y ex p e r t s
Pre-conference Workshop
Tuesday, 18 September, 2012
This full-day workshop will run from 9:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. with refreshments and lunch
provided
t o ad d r e ss y o u r o w n O & M i ssu e s, b r ai n st o r m n e w ap p r o ac h e s as w e l l as sh ar e
y o u r o w n ex p e r i e n c e s an d b e st p r ac t i c e s. Take aw ay n e w i d eas an d ap p r o ac h e s i n
o r d e r t o e st ab l i sh y o u r o w n h i gh l y e e c t i v e O & M st r at e g y, t o e n su r e f u l l b u si n e ss
o p t i m i sat i o n .
Workshop Agenda:
Identifying the goal of successful O&M management
W h at i s o p e r at i o n s & m ai n t e n an c e m an age m e n t ?
W h at ar e y o u l o o k i n g t o ac h i e v e?
How efective is your maintenance strategy?
W h at m ake s an e e c t i v e m ai n t e n an c e p h i l o so p h y?
M ai n t ai n i n g e q u i p m e n t r e l i ab i l i t y - t h e co n t i n u o u s c y c l e
The successful tendering and management of contractors on-site
D e v e l o p i n g an d m ai n t ai n i n g a h eal t h y c u st o m e r- co n t r ac t r e l at i o n sh i p
I m p l e m e n t i n g a sh ar e d ap p r o ac h t o O & M exc e l l e n c e
The process of managing resources and tasks
E e c t i v e w o r k p r e p ar at i o n an d f o r w ar d p l an n i n g
Pl an t h e w o r k , w o r k t h e p l an
Active supervision is key to productivity improvement
W h at m ake s an e e c t i v e su p e r v i so r?
W h at ar e t h e i r ke y ar eas o f f o c u s, d u r i n g a t y p i c al d ay?
O&M: Leadership, management and motivation
Th e i m p o r t an c e o f m an age m e n t sy st e m s an d co n t r o l
W h at ar e t h e Ke y Pe r f o r m an c e I n d i c at o r s?
David Woods, Senior Consultant,
T.A. Cook Consultants
Dav i d st ar t e d h i s c ar e e r as a M e r c h an t N av y O f c e r, p r i o r
t o w o r k i n g as a Q u an t i t y Su r v e y o r i n t h e c o n st r u c t i o n
i n d u st r y. H e e n t e r e d c o n su l t i n g i n t h e e ar l y 19 9 0 s an d
h as b e e n i n v o l v e d i n p e r f o r m an c e i m p r o v e m e n t p r o j e c t s
ac r o ss Eu r o p e i n i n d u st r i e s as d i v e r se as i gh t c at e r i n g ,
sh i p b u i l d i n g an d f ac i l i t i e s m an age m e n t .
H i s r e sp o n si b i l i t i e s h av e r an ge d f r o m Pr o j e c t M an age m e n t t o Exe c u t i v e D ev e l o p -
m e n t an d h e h as h e l d se n i o r m an age m e n t p o si t i o n s w i t h l ead i n g co n su l t an c i e s
i n t h e U S an d Eu r o p e . Si n c e j o i n i n g T.A . Co o k i n 20 0 6 , Dav i d h as sp e c i al i se d
i n t h e ar e as o f t u r n ar o u n d an d asse t m an age m e n t . H i s r e sp o n si b i l i t i e s as a
Pr o j e c t M an age r an d Tu r n ar o u n d Tr ai n e r h av e m ai n l y f o c u se d o n m ai n t e n an ce
an d sh u t d o w n m an age m e n t .
Registration and Refreshments
Chairmans Opening Remarks
Dav i d W o o d s, Se n i o r Co n su l t an t , T.A . Co o k Co n su l t an t s
Adapting to a Fluctuating Global Chemical and Petrochemicals Market Short Term Prospects and Long Term Predictions
Ev al u at i n g h o w t h e c u r r e n t co m m e r c i al c l i m at e h as i m p ac t e d an d i s i m p ac t i n g t h e c h e m i c al an d p e t r o c h e m i c al i n d u st r y
A n al y si n g t h e i n u e n c e o f n e w co m p e t i t i v e m ar ke t s t h e M i d d l e East & A si a
Su p p l y an d d e m an d m o v e m e n t s asse ssi n g t h e c u r r e n t p r o d u c t i o n c ap ac i t y i n Eu r o p e
M ar ke t t r e n d s, c h al l e n ge s an d f u t u r e gr o w t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s
Re gu l at o r y t r e n d s an d f u t u r e p r e d i c t i o n s f o r Eu r o p e
Pi e r r e D e Ke t t e n i s, Exe c u t i v e D i r e c t o r, CEFI C Pe t r o c h e m i st r y Pr o gr am m e (A PPE)
BASF Antwerps Journey Towards Achieving On-Site O&M Excellence
Su cc e ssf u l l y m o n i t o r i n g O & M p e r f o r m an c e an d p r o c e sse s at o u r f ac i l i t y i m p l e m e n t i n g O & M KPI s
A cc u r at e l y m easu r i n g t h e e e c t i v e n e ss o f l ead i n g p e r f o r m an c e i n d i c at o r s
En su r i n g a co st co m p e t i t i v e ap p r o ac h t o si t e O & M
Ri sk Base d M ai n t e n an c e (RBM ) e st ab l i sh i n g co st e e c t i v e n e ss an d m ac h i n e u p t i m e
H e r m an Bae t s, Te c h n i c al Go v e r n an c e M an age r, BA SF A n t w e r p
Morning Refreshments
Ensuring the Successful Management and Reliability of Ageing Components within Day-to-Day Plant Operations
Fac i n g t h e i n c r ease d m ai n t e n an c e b u r d e n o f age i n g p l an t s i m p l e m e n t i n g a l o n g- t e r m m ai n t e n an c e st r at e g y
D e gr ad at i o n o f m ac h i n e r y co r r o si o n u n d e r i n st al l at i o n (p i p e s, p u m p s an d f u r n ac e p ar t s)
M e c h an i c al an d asse t i n t e gr i t y m an age m e n t
M ai n t ai n i n g o p e r at i o n al e f c i e n c y an d ke e p i n g co st s d o w n KPI s
Ri sk Base d M ai n t e n an c e (RBM ) co m p o n e n t r e l i ab i l i t y an d h eal t h & saf e t y co n si d e r at i o n s (CO M A H )
O r gan i sat i o n al m an age m e n t o f c h an ge i n m ai n t e n an c e
Ge o r ge s M ad e ssi s, Li l l o Si t e M an age r, I N EO S M an u f ac t u r i n g
Networking Lunch
Asset Life Cycle Management and Risk Based Inspection (RBI) Achieving Reliability & Availability, Reduced Shutdowns
and Increased Turnaround Intervals at Bayer
Fac i n g t h e i n c r ease d i n sp e c t i o n c h al l e n ge o f age i n g asse t s q u al i t at i v e v s. q u an t i t at i v e r i sk an al y si s
H o w RBI l ead s t o t ar ge t e d , sp e c i c i n sp e c t i o n p l an s, an al y si n g t h e p o t e n t i al d am age m e c h an i sm s
Co r r o si o n st u d y an d r i sk b ase d i n sp e c t i o n f o r xe d e q u i p m e n t , p i p i n g an d saf e t y v al v e s
Th e i m p ac t o f RBI t o t u r n ar o u n d d u r at i o n , i n t e r v al s, o r gan i sat i o n an d co st
Ch r i st o s Ch r i st o gl o u , H ead o f Ri sk Base d I n sp e c t i o n A sse ssm e n t (RBIA ) G r o u p , Bay e r Te c h n o l o g y Se r v i c e s
A Fleet Overview Implementing Best-in-Class Operations & Maintenance (O&M) Strategies and the Ef ective Management of
Mature Assets
A n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o o u r e e t
W o r k i n g t o w ar d s ac h i e v i n g b e st - i n - c l ass O & M st r at e gi e s, c h al l e n ge s an d O & M p h i l o so p h y
Est ab l i sh i n g a r e l i ab l e ap p r o ac h t o t h e m an age m e n t o f age i n g p r o d u c t i o n f ac i l i t i e s
I n t e gr at i n g m ai n t e n an c e m e t h o d o l o gi e s ac r o ss t h e p e t r o c h e m i c al s e e t as a w h o l e e n su r i n g o p e n l i n e s o f co m m u n i c at i o n
Co n t r ac t i n g st r at e gi e s i n t h e c u r r e n t co m m e r c i al c l i m at e t h e r i sk s an d r e w ar d s o f O EM v s t h i r d p ar t y v s i n - h o u se m ai n t e n an c e
Sp eake r t o b e co n r m e d
Afternoon Refreshments
Closing Speaker Panel - Analysing New Maintenance Approaches and Strategies for the Chemicals and Petrochemicals
Industry: In-House Operations and Maintenance Teams vs Outsourcing
W h at i s o n o e r at t h e m o m e n t i n t e r m s o f m ai n t e n an c e st r at e gi e s an d ap p r o ac h e s?
D e t e r m i n i n g t h e st r e n g t h s an d w eak n e sse s o f i n - h o u se m ai n t e n an c e p r o gr am m e s:
Re gai n i n g co n t r o l o v e r v i t al sy st e m s an d p r o c e sse s
Fl ex i b i l i t y, av ai l ab i l i t y an d q u al i t y o f w o r k
D o i n - h o u se m ai n t e n an c e t eam s h e l p p r o d u c e r s e st ab l i sh l o n g- t e r m su cc e ss, as w e l l as a co m p e t i t i v e e d ge?
E e c t i v e m an age m e n t o f p r o b l e m at i c co n t r ac t o r s
Th e n an c i al i m p ac t s o f i n so u r c i n g an d o u t so u r c i n g
Feat u r i n g ke y sp eake r s f r o m ac r o ss t h e co n f e r e n c e
Chairmans Closing Remarks and Close of Day One
9.00
9.30
9.45
10.45
1 1.35
12.00
12.50
14.00
14.50
15.50
16.20
17.15
Day One
Wednesday, 19 September, 2012
8.30
9.00
9.10
10.00
10.50
11.20
12.10
13.20
14.10
14.30
15.15
16.00
Registration and Refreshments
Chairmans Opening Remarks and Welcome Back
Dav i d W o o d s, Se n i o r Co n su l t an t , T.A . Co o k Co n su l t an t s
Executing an Ef ective Maintenance Strategy to Maximise Operational Output Decreasing Downtime, Improving Reliability and
Reducing Costs
Re o r gan i sat i o n o f t h e si t e an d co m p an y m ai n t e n an c e st r at e g y : i n so u r c i n g & / o r o u t so u r c i n g b ase d o n c r i t i c al i t y o f sk i l l s an d k n o w - h o w
D e n i n g & i m p l e m e n t i n g an e e c t i v e m ai n t e n an c e p r o c e ss:
N o t i c at i o n an d gat e ke e p i n g
Pl an n i n g , exe c u t i o n an d w o r k o r d e r c l o su r e
Est ab l i sh i n g su cc e ssf u l p e r f o r m an c e m an age m e n t i n c r easi n g t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e m ai n t e n an c e t eam , sc h e d u l e o p t i m i sat i o n an d r e d u c i n g co st s
I n t r o d u c i n g a r e l i ab i l i t y f o c u s gr o u p
Ph i l i p M o r e l , T.A . Co o k Co n su l t an t s
Implementing an Holistic Energy Ef ciency Programme on a Global Level to Achieve Sustainable Operations
Bu i l d i n g a co m p r e h e n si v e e n e r g y e f c i e n c y p r o gr am m e f r o m sc r at c h an d ac h i e v i n g su cc e ssf u l o n - si t e i m p l e m e n t at i o n
A p p l y i n g an i n t e gr at e d ap p r o ac h t o su st ai n ab i l i t y an d o p e r at i o n al exc e l l e n c e
En su r i n g su cc e ss b y e m b e d d i n g e n e r g y e f c i e n c y i n t o t h e o p e r at i o n s an d m i n d se t o f t h e co m p an y
Pr o j e c t r e v i e w m easu r ab l e r e su l t s an d c h al l e n ge s
D r. H e r b e r t M ai e r, H ead o f G l o b al Co m p e t e n c e Ce n t r e En e r g y & U t i l i t i e s, Cl ar i an t Pr o d u k t e

Morning Refreshments
Accurately Identifying the Scope of Turnarounds and Routine Maintenance Activity: Achieving Financial Optimisation and
Sustaining Ef cient Operations
Se l e c t i n g a su cc e ssf u l m ai n t e n an c e ap p r o ac h co r r e c t i v e, p r e d i c t i v e an d p r e v e n t i v e m ai n t e n an c e :
Pl an n i n g an d sc h e d u l i n g t e c h n i q u e s: Pr i m av e r a/ SA P p l an n i n g t o o l s an d i m p l e m e n t i n g a l o n g- t e r m ap p r o ac h t o m ai n t e n an c e sc h e d u l i n g
Co n si d e r i n g t h e n an c i al i m p ac t o f m ai n t e n an c e d e c i si o n s u n d e r st an d i n g / m i n i m i si n g t h e n an c i al i m p ac t o f m ai n t e n an c e st r at e gi e s:
A cc u r at e l y i d e n t i f y i n g k n o w n / e st i m at e d co st s an d t h e m o n e t ar y i m p ac t o f r i sk
Re n i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y, sco p e an d d u r at i o n o f t u r n ar o u n d s d e v e l o p i n g t h e o p t i m u m co m b i n at i o n
Ke v i n M c Q u i l l an , Sp e c i al Pr o j e c t s D i r e c t o r, SA BI C M an u f ac t u r i n g

Networking Lunch
Optimising Turnarounds to Strategically Combat the Challenge of Ageing Assets and to Enhance Future Plant Operations
A n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e sh u t d o w n ke y i n t e gr i t y & r e l i ab i l i t y d r i v e r s
Sh u t d o w n exc e l l e n c e an d su cc e sse s d e l i v e r i n g t h e p r o j e c t o n t i m e an d t o b u d ge t :
Fr o n t e n d l o ad i n g t o c u t p l an t d o w n t i m e
H o w sh u t d o w n s c an b e u se d st r at e gi c al l y t o ex t e n d p l an t l i f e
Tu r n ar o u n d m an age m e n t st a & co n t r ac t o r s
Tar i q M i r za, Eu r o p ean A c e t y l Tu r n ar o u n d M an age r, BP Ch e m i c al s
Afternoon Refreshments
Building a Robust and Ef ective Contractor Management Strategy to Achieve Overall O&M Success
H o w d o y o u m ai n t ai n a se c u r e an d h eal t h y r e l at i o n sh i p w i t h y o u r co n t r ac t o r?
En su r i n g st r i n ge n t q u al i t y m easu r e s ar e p u t i n p l ac e an d m e t b y co n t r ac t o r s se r v i c e l ab e l agr e e m e n t s (SLA )
I m p l e m e n t i n g an i n t e gr at e d ap p r o ac h t o O & M exc e l l e n c e
En f o r c i n g a r o b u st saf e t y c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e O & M o f p e t r o c h e m i c al si t e s m ai n t ai n i n g co n t r ac t o r saf e t y o n si t e
Sp eake r t o b e co n r m e d
Implications of an Ageing Workforce Attracting and Securing Future Generations of O&M Professionals
Th e r e c l i n i n g r e so u r c e p o o l h o w i s t h e i n d u st r y b e i n g a e c t e d ?
W h at i s b e h i n d t h e gr o w i n g d e c l i n e i n n e w o p e r at i o n s an d m ai n t e n an c e st a ?
H o w ar e w e w o r k i n g t o w ar d s se c u r i n g a sk i l l e d l ab o u r f o r c e?
Li v e ex am p l e s o f e e c t i v e so l u t i o n s
Fu t u r e p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e c h e m i c al an d p e t r o c h e m i c al i n d u st r i e s
Cl i n t o n D e v i n e, D o w n st r eam A cco u n t M an age r, N at i o n al Sk i l l s A c ad e m y f o r Pr o c e ss I n d u st r i e s
Chairmans Closing Remarks and Close of Conference
Day Two
Thursday, 20 September, 2012
Co m p an y
A d d r e ss
Po st co d e
Co u n t r y
I n v o i c e A d d r e ss (i f d i e r e n t f r o m ab o v e):
P.O . N o . (i f ap p l i c ab l e)
Po st co d e
Co u n t r y
M ai n co n t ac t f o r t h i s b o o k i n g
Te l e p h o n e
Em ai l
Si gn at u r e
Fu l l n am e
Jo b Ti t l e
Te l e p h o n e
Em ai l
Fu l l n am e
Jo b Ti t l e
Te l e p h o n e
Em ai l
Pr i c e i n c l u d e s e l e c t r o n i c d o c u m e n t at i o n , l u n c h , r e f r e sh m e n t s an d an e v e n i n g
e v e n t f o r c o n f e r e n c e p ar t i c i p an t s. Pl e ase n o t e t h at ac c o m m o d at i o n an d t r av e l
ar e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e r e gi st r at i o n f e e.
Plant owners and petrochemical producers:
Early Bird* * Standard Fee
Conference: 975 * 1190*
Full day workshop: 590* 690*
Service providers and consultancies:
Early Bird* * Standard Fee
Conference: 1190* 1490*
Full day workshop: 590* 690*

* p l u s 19 % D u t c h VAT
* * Ear l y Bi r d d i sc o u n t v al i d u n t i l 27t h Ju l y , 20 12
D i sco u n t s ar e av ai l ab l e f o r p e t r o c h e m i c al an d c h e m i c al p l an t o p e r at o r s an d gr o u p
b o o k i n gs. Pl ease co n t ac t u s f o r f u r t h e r d e t ai l s.
Fax: +44 (0) 121 212 1623
O r r e gi st e r o n l i n e at :
www.tacook.com/amsterdam
Pre - Conference Workshop 18 September, 2012
Two day conference 19 - 20 September, 2012

Pre - Conference Workshop 18 September, 2012
Two day conference 19 - 20 September, 2012

I will attend
U n f o r t u n at e l y I am u n ab l e t o at t e n d t h e e v e n t .
Pl ease se n d m e t h e e v e n t d o c u m e n t at i o n at 350 (n o VAT )
To r e gi st e r f o r t h i s e v e n t p l ease f ax t h i s r e gi st r at i o n f o r m t o :
Fees & Payments
Methods of Payment
Venue & Accommodation
How To Get There
Conference Organisers
Cr e d i t Car d . Pl ease d e b i t m y : M ast e r c ar d V i sa A m ex
Car d N o :
Ex p i r y Dat e : Se c u r i t y N o :
Car d h o l d e r s N am e :
Si gn at u r e :
Ch e q u e Ban k Tr an sf e r Pay m e n t u p o n r e ce i p t o f t h e i n v o i ce
Pay m e n t m u st b e r e c e i v e d BEFO RE t h e co n f e r e n c e
Dorint Hotel
A m st e r d am A i r p o r t , St at i o n sp l e i n , ZW 9 51
A m st e r d am , N L- 1117 - CE Sc h i p h o l O o st
Th e N e t h e r l an d s
Te l : +31 (0 )20 5 4 0 0 7 7 70
Fr o m A m st e r d am Sc h i p o l I n t e r n at i o n al A i r p o r t , t h e h o t e l i s a 10 m i n u t e t ax i r i d e
aw ay. Th e r e i s al so a f r e e sh u t t l e b u s av ai l ab l e, d e p ar t i n g e v e r y 10 m i n u t e s t o t h e
h o t e l b e t w e e n 0 6 .0 0 - 23.45. If y o u ar e d r i v i n g p l ease u se t h e f o l l o w i n g ad d r e ss f o r
y o u r sat e l l i t e n av i gat i o n sy st e m : St at i o n sp l e i n ZW 9 51, H aar l e m m e r m e e r.
T.A. Cook Conferences Ph o n e +4 4 (0 ) 121 20 0 38 10
4t h Fl o o r, M c Lar e n Bu i l d i n gs Fax +4 4 (0 ) 121 212 1623
4 6 Th e Pr i o r y Q u e e n sw ay Em ai l i n f o @t aco o k .co m
Bi r m i n gh am W e b w w w .t aco o k .co m
B4 7LR
Pl ease t i c k t h e b o x i f y o u w i sh t o b e r e m o v e d f r o m o u r m ai l i n g l i st .
(w h e n d o i n g so p l ease w r i t e y o u r n am e ab o v e)
Best-in-Class Operations and Main-
tenance Strategies for Chemicals and
Petrochemicals
Maximising your Operational Ef ciency, Reliability and Availability
18-20 September, 2012, Amsterdam, Netherlands
T.A . Co o k Co n su l t an t s Lt d . VAT r e gi st e r e d i n En gl an d , N o . 78 149 578 8
D at a Pr o t e c t i o n : Pe r so n al d at a i s gat h e r e d i n ac c o r d an c e w i t h t h e D at a Pr o t e c t i o n A c t 19 9 8 . Can -
c e l l at i o n s A l l c an c e l l at i o n s h av e t o b e c o n r m e d i n w r i t i n g. Can c e l l at i o n s t w o w e e k s p r i o r t o t h e
b e gi n n i n g o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e w i l l e n t i t l e y o u t o a r e f u n d l e ss 20 0 ad m i n i st r at i o n f e e . Re gr e t t ab l y ,
n o r e f u n d s c an b e m ad e f o r c an c e l l at i o n s r e c e i v e d l e ss t h an t w o w e e k s p r i o r t o t h e e v e n t . Sh o u l d
t h e r e gi st e r e d p e r so n n o t b e ab l e t o at t e n d t h e e v e n t y o u m ay e asi l y assi gn an o t h e r p e r so n as a
r e p l ac e m e n t . O r gan i se r s Ch an ge s: W e r e se r v e t h e r i gh t t o m ake al t e r at i o n s t o t h e p r o gr am m e
i f n e c e ssar y . I t m ay b e n e c e ssar y f o r r e aso n s b e y o n d t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e o r gan i se r s t o al t e r t h e
c o n t e n t s an d t h e t i m i n g o f t h e p r o gr am m e o r t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e sp e ake r s. Th e o r gan i se r r e se r v e s
t h e r i gh t t o c an c e l i n t h e e v e n t o f an i n su f c i e n t n u m b e r o f d e l e gat e s.
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