Physics definitions and explanations

Quantities in italics are required definitions or explanations in the 2009 IB DP physics syllabus (there is no analogue to this in 2016 syllabus)
Where the definition, etc, is from an exam markscheme (2009 IB DP Syllabus)
I have left the semicolons (;) in to indicate the number of points the definition was worth one semicolon per mark.
any words in brackets are not needed to gain the mark.
OWTTE means or words to that effect ie equivalent phrasing is acceptable
Textbook references:
W+H refers to Essential Principles of Physics by Whelan and Hodgson (2nd edition John Murray)
Muncaster refers to A-level Physics by Roger Muncaster (Stanley Thornes)
Web resource references :
Porter refers to definitions from Simon Porter : http://mrsimonporter.wikispaces.com/
Forster refers to definitons written by Alan Forster : http://physicsib.com
YELLOW HIGHLIGHTS INDICATES HIGHER LEVEL
BLUE HIGHLIGHTS REMOVED FROM SYLLABUS (BUT WILL STILL APPEAR IN PAST PAPERS FROM OLD SYLLABUS)
RED HIGHLIGHTS HAVE NOT BEEN CHECKED AGAINST NEW SYLLABUS

quantity definition reference

Topic 1 Measurement and Uncertainties

a system of physical I units ) based on the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin,
units ( S
SI units candela, and mole, together with a set of prefixes to indicate multiplication or division by a Forster
power of ten.
fundamental units the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela, and mole Forster
-2
derived units units derived from formulaes such as force (N), which has the units kgms Forster
is the way that scientists easily handle very large numbers or very small numbers. For
scientific notation Forster
example, instead of writing 0.0000000056, we write 5.6 x 10-9.
order of magnitude quoting a quantity to the nearest power of ten Forster

Adadpted from document Adapted From IB Physics Steve Udy page 1 of 22 physicsib.com
 (usually called absolute error - but "error" connotes "mistake", and these are NOT mistakes) is
absolute uncertainty the size of the range of values in which the "true value" of the measurement probably lies. If a Forster
measurement is given as , the absolute uncertainty is 0.1 cm
fractional (percentage)
the absolute uncertainty divided by the true value (x 100 for percentage) Forster
uncertainty
the process by which uncertainties (errors) are combined when values are added, subtracted,
propagating uncertainties Forster
multiplied, divided or raised by a power (see formula booklet)
systematic error an error which is identical for each reading Porter
random error measurements are above and below the true value with equal probability Porter
directly proportional a graph of two directly proportional quantities will be a straight line through the origin (0,0). Porter
linear produces a straight line Porter
inversely proportional y is proportional to 1/x or yx = constant Porter
precise high number of significant figures and/or a small spread of results Porter
accurate near to the true value Porter
vector a quantity with magnitude and direction Porter
scalar a quantity with magnitude only Porter
the process by which a vector quantity is expressed as two other vectors, in DP Physics this is
resolution of vectors Forster
limited to two vectors perpendicular to each other

Adadpted from document Adapted From IB Physics Steve Udy page 2 of 22 physicsib.com
Topic 2, 6, 10 Mechanics, Circular Motion, Fields (Just
Gravitational)
is the branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points (alternatively
kinematics "particles"), bodies (objects), and systems of bodies without consideration of the masses of Forster
those objects nor the forces that may have caused the motion.
displacement of a particle is the length and direction of a line drawn to the particle from the
displacement, s [m] W+H p28
origin
rate of change of position with time
velocity, v [m s-1]

instantaneous velocity, v [m
is the rate of change of displacement with time at one particular time. Porter
s-1]
rate of distance travelled along a path
-1
speed, v [m s ]

average velocity , v [m s-1] change in displacement divided by time taken over a period of time Porter
rate of change of velocity with time
acceleration, a [m s-2]

is a form of motion in which an object or particle (called a projectile) is thrown near the
earth's surface, and it moves along a curved path under the action of gravity only. The only
projectile motion Forster
force of significance that acts on the object is gravity, which acts downward to cause a
downward acceleration.

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 In circumstances of constant acceleration, these simpler equations of motion are usually
equations of motion (SUVAT) referred to as the "SUVAT" equations, arising from the definitions of kinematic quantities: Forster
displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a), and time (t).
is the highest velocity attainable by an object as it falls through air. It occurs once the sum of
terminal velocity (speed) the drag force (Fd) and buoyancy equals the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the Forster
object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has zero acceleration.
equilibrium a body in equilibrium has zero resultant force acting on it and therefore has zero acceleration W+H p65
translational equilibrium is no resultant force in any direction but object is Porter
are diagrams used to show the relative magnitude and direction of all forces
acting upon an object in a given situation. A free-body diagram is a special
free body diagram example of the vector diagrams that were discussed in an earlier unit. Forster

the weight of an object is the gravitational attraction of a massive body (eg Earth) for that
weight, W [N] W+H p37
object
any quantity which is conserved maintains a constant total value
kinetic energy is conserved in elastic collisions
total mechanical energy is conserved when friction is negligible and KE and PE are not
conserved
changed to other forms (such as sound, internal energy)
total mass is conserved in all non-relativistic situations
total mass-energy is conserved in all situations
Newtons 1st law a body will remain at constant velocity unless a net force acts on it
the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it

Newtons 2nd law

This simplifies to when the mass of the body remains constant

when two bodies A and B interact the force that A exerts on B is equal and
Newtons 3rd law opposite to the force that B exerts on A; N04H2 B3
or

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 when a force acts on a body, an equal an opposite force acts on another body
somewhere in the universe; [1 max]
Award [0] for action and reaction are equal and opposite unless they explain what is meant
by the terms.
the constant of proportionality that relates the force of friction to the normal contact force, it is
coefficient of friction different for static and dynamic friction, s or d. Forster

normal contact force, reaction

The force acting perpendicular to a surface on an object resting on the surface. Forster
force
static friction the frictional force between two surfaces that are not moving relative to each other. F sR Forster
dynamic friction the frictional force between two surfaces that are moving relative to each other. F dR Forster
the product of a bodys mass and its velocity (therefore momentum is a vector with the same
direction as the velocity)
linear momentum, p [kg m s-1]
momentum is mass x velocity;
M05H2 TZ2 B1
allow an equation, with symbols explained.
the change in momentum of a body,
impulse, p [kg m s-1] or [N s] impulse is forcextime or change in momentum;
M05H2 TZ2 B1
allow an equation, with symbols explained
if the total external force acting upon a system is zero / for an isolated system;
the momentum of the system is constant; M05H2 TZ1 B1
Award [1 max] if the answer is in terms of collisions.
(vector) sum/total of momenta is constant;
M05H2 TZ2 B1
law of conservation of for isolated system;
momentum if the net external force acting on a system is zero;
then the total momentum of the system is constant (or in any one direction, is
constant); N04H2 B3
To achieve [2] answers should mention forces and should show what is meant by conserved.
Award [1 max] for a definition such as for a system of colliding bodies, the momentum is

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 constant and [0] for a system of colliding bodies, momentum is conserved.
work, W [J] force distance (moved) in the direction of the force M03H2 B2
the energy associated with a body because of its motion
kinetic energy, EK [J]

the energy possessed by a system due to the relative positions of its component parts (ie due to
potential energy, EP [J]
the forces between the component parts)
energy stored in a solid that is stretched elastically, often given by the equation below if it
elastic potential energy Forster
obeys hookes law
is a principle of physics that states that the force needed to extend or compress a spring by
Hookes law some distance is proportional to that distance. That is: where is a constant factor characteristic Forster
of the spring, its stiffness. The law is named after 17th century British physicist Robert Hooke
principle of conservation of says that energy cannot be made or destroyed, only changed (transformed) from one form to
energy another.
Forces that do not store energy are called non conservative or dissipative forces. Friction is a
non conservative force, and there are others. Any friction-type force, like air resistance, is a
non conservative force Forster
non conservative force. The energy that it removes from the system is no longer available to
the system for kinetic energy.
power [W] [Js-1] is the rate at which energy is transferred (or the rate at which work is done). Porter
efficiency is the ratio of useful energy to the energy transferred (useful energy out/energy put in). Porter
elastic collision a collision in which the total KE is conserved
a collision in which some kinetic energy is transferred to other forms (eg internal energy,
inelastic collision
sound), therefore the total KE is less after the collision than before
Newtons Universal law of states that the gravitational force between two point masses is proportional to the product of
gravitation the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

period [s] the time taken for an object to complete one revolution
Forster
frequency [s-1] [Hz] the number of revolutions per second, f = 1/T
Forster

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radians [rad] the unit used to measure angles in a circle which works with the equations for circular motion
Forster
uniform circular motion is the motion of an object traveling at a constant speed on a circular path.

The force acting towards the centre of the circle that an object is travelling along and at right
centripetal force [N]
angles to the tangential velocity, F = mv2/r, F = mr2 Forster

linear (tangential) velocity

The instantaneous velocity of an object performing circular motion, v = r
[ms-1] Forster

is the angle that a rotating body goes through. For example, if a skater skates in a circle around
angular displacement [rad] the center of the rink, stopping and starting at the same place, his or her angular displacement
Forster
would be 360 degrees or 2 radians. The direction of the rotation is important.

angular velocity [rads-1] is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement, = v/r
Forster
The acceleration acting towards the centre of the circle that an object is travelling along and at
centripetal acceleration Forster
right angles to the tangential velocity, a = v2/r, a = r2

the constant of proportionality in the equation for universal gravitation, sometimes called big
gravitational constant Forster
G.
force exerted per unit mass;
M05H2 TZ1 B2
on a small / point mass;
gravitational field strength
the force exerted per unit mass;
g [N kg-1]
on a point mass; N04H2 B2
Accept small mass or particle.
test mass a small mass which has a negligible effect on the gravitational field in which it is placed

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 is energy an object possesses because of its position in a gravitational field. The most common
use of gravitational potential energy is for an object near the surface of the Earth where the
Forster

gravitational potential energy gravitational acceleration can be assumed to be constant at about 9.8 m/s2
the work done to move a body from infinity to a point in a gravitational field

the work done per kilogram to move a body from infinity to a point in a gravitational field
gravitational potential
U [J kg-1]

speed of object at Earths surface;

escape speed M04H2 TZ1 B4
so that it will escape from the gravitational field / travel to infinity;

Topic 3 Thermal Physics

measure of how hot something is (it can be used to work out the direction of the natural flow
of thermal energy between two objects in thermal contact)
temperature, T [K] N03H2 B4
OR measure of the average K.E. of molecules
it is measured on a defined scale (Celsius, Kelvin etc.)
Kelvin (absolute) temperature proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles. Porter
thermal energy thermal energy is the KE of the component particles of an object thus measured in joules N03H2 B4
heat, Q [J] energy transferred from one body to another due to a temperature difference
2 bodies that are in thermal contact are in thermal equilibrium when the net heat flow between
thermal equilibrium
them is zero, therefore the 2 bodies must have the same temperature
on the scale of atoms and molecules
microscopic
eg the microscopic properties of a gas are particle mass, velocity, kinetic energy, momentum
on the scale of people (ie what we observe)
macroscopic
eg the macroscopic properties of a gas are temperature, volume, pressure, density

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 gas that obeys the equation pV = nRT / no forces between molecules;
M03H2 A2
at all pressures, volumes and temperatures / any other postulate;

ideal gas
obeys the universal gas law / equation or molecules are elastic spheres of negligible M04H2 TZ1 B4
volume;
at all values of pressure, volume and temperature or no mutual force of attraction/repulsion;
a model of the microscopic behaviour of gas particles that explains the macroscopic behaviour
kinetic theory of gases
of the gas (ie the ideal gas law, )
the sum of all random kinetic energies and mutual potential energies of the particles of the
body or system
internal energy does not include the kinetic energy or potential energy of the body as a
whole
internal energy, U [J] an ideal gas has no intermolecular forces therefore the gas particles have no mutual
potential energies therefore the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on the KE of
the particles (temperature of gas)
sum of (random) kinetic (and potential energies);
M03H2 B2
of the molecules of the system (allow atoms or particles);
amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary units as there are carbon
mole, n [mol] W+H p9
atoms in 12 x 10-3 kg of carbon-12
molar mass the mass of one mole of a substance
Avogadro constant, NA the number of atoms in exactly 12 x 10-3 kg of the nuclide carbon-12
specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass
N04H2 B1
through 1 K;
specific heat capacity
quantity of thermal energy (heat) required to raise temperature of unit mass;
c [J kg-1 K-1]
by one degree; M05H2 TZ2 B4
Award [1 max] for use of units, rather than quantities.
Heat (thermal) capacity the amount of energy / heat required to raise the temperature of a substance / object through M05H2 TZ1 A3

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C [J k-1] 1K/ C;
evaporation evaporation is the escape of molecules from the surface of the liquid W+H p227
boiling occurs when molecules escape in the form of bubbles of vapour from the body of the
boiling W+H p228
liquid
energy per unit mass required to change the phase of a substance at its phase change
specific latent heat, l [J kg-1]
temperature
the pressure experienced by a body immersed in a fluid is the (normal) force per unit area
pressure, p [pascal, Pa]
exerted by the fluid on the surface of the body
1. A gas consists of a large number of molecules
2. Molecules move with a range of speeds
3. The volume of the molecules is negligible compared with the volume of the gas itself
ideal gas (assumptions) 4. The collisions of the molecules with each other and the container walls are elastic.
5. Molecules exert no forces on each other or the container except when in contact
6. The duration of collisions is very small compared with the time between collisions
7. The molecules obey Newtons laws of mechanics

Topic 4, 9 Waves and Wave Phenomena

distance in a particular direction; (accept in terms of energy transfer)
displacement, x [m] M04S2 TZ1 B2
(of a particle) from its mean position;
amplitude, X0 [m] magnitude of the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position
frequency: number of oscillations/vibrations per unit time;
frequency, f [Hz] M05H2 TZ2 B2
Do not accept specific units e.g. seconds.
period, T [s] time taken for one complete oscillation
phase difference is the time difference or phase angle by which one wave leads or lags another. Porter
monochromatic single frequency / single colour / OWTTE; N04H3 H

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simple harmonic motion the net force on ( or acceleration of) the object is proportional to the displacement of the
N02H2 B4
(SHM) object from equilibrium and is directed towards equilibrium
wavefront line joining (neighbouring) points that have the same phase / displacement M03S2 B1
ray direction in which wave (energy) is travelling M03S2 B1
transverse wave motion of the particles is perpendicular to direction of wave travel N02S2 B3
longitudinal wave motion of the particles is parallel to direction of wave travel
crest
trough
compression
rarefaction
wave displacement
wave amplitude
wave frequency the number of vibrations performed in each second by the source W+H p97
wave period the time for one complete vibration performed by the source
wavelength: distance moved by wave during one oscillation of the source;
wavelength, [m] M05H2 TZ2 B2
Accept distance between successive crests or troughs.
distance travelled per unit time;
wave speed M04S2 TZ1 B2
by the energy of the wave / by a wavefront;
The average amount of energy transported by a wave in the direction of wave propagation, per
wave intensity Porter
unit area per unit time.
ratio of speed of EM waves;
in vacuum to their speed in medium;
Award [0] for quoting from the data booklet without additional information.
refractive index N04H3 H
or
definition as ratio of sin (angle of incidence) to sin (angle of refraction);
explanation of how these angles are measured;
diffraction
superposition
principle of superposition when two (or more) waves meet; M03H2 B1

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 resultant displacement is the sum of the individual displacements;
interference
waves with a constant / predictable phase / OWTTE;
coherent N04H3 H
Be generous as it is hard to describe in a few words. Look for understanding.
polarisation
resolution
states that for a certain angle of incidence ip, monochromatic light is 100% polarised on
brewsters law Porter
reflection. This angle is given by tan = n
when a perfect polariser is placed in a polarised beam of light, the intensity, I, of the light that

passes through is given by

malus law Forster
where I0 is the initial intensity, and i is the angle between the light's initial polarization direction
and the axis of the polariser.

states that two points or lines are just resolved if the peak of the point spread function lies on
rayleigh criterion the first trough of the other point spread function. Porter

optical activity (rotation) is the rotation of linearly polarized light as it travels through certain materials. Porter

Topic 5, 10, 11 Electricity and Magnetism, Fields (Just

Electrical), Electromagnetic Induction
electric potential difference energy per unit charge; (ratio idea necessary)
M04H2 TZ1 B1
V [volt, V] to move positive test charge between points;
volt One Joule per Coulomb Porter
electronvolt, eV the work done to move one electron through a potential difference of 1 V

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 states that the electric force between two point charges is proportional to the product of the
Coulombs law Porter
two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
electric current, I [ampere, A] the rate of flow of charge past a given cross-section (of the conductor) W+H p372
of a component is the ratio between the potential difference across the component/circuit and
resistance, R [ohm, ] Porter
the current through it.
internal resistance, R [ohm, the resistance of a cell, battery or component (problems in DP only deal with energy sources
Forster
] such as cells and batteries.
electromotive force (emf), is the total energy difference per unit charge around the circuit (it is the potential difference
Porter
[volt, V] when no current flows in a circuit).
When the temperature is kept constant, the current through a metallic conductor is
Ohms law Porter
proportional to the potential difference across it.
source of emf a device which can supply energy to an electric current W+H p388
drifty velocity (speed) is the average speed that a particle, such as an electron, attains due to an electric field.
The total current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current flowing away from
Kirchoffs 1st Law Porter
that junction.
The sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential drops in that
Kirchoffs 2nd Law Porter
loop
the force per unit charge felt by a positive test charge placed in the field N03H2 B3
the force exerted per unit charge;
electric field strength, E [N C-1]
on a small positive (test) charge; [2] N04S2 B3
Accept either small or test or both.
the electric potential energy of a system of charges is the work done to move the charges from
electric potential energy [J]
separation to their current positions
the work done per unit charge;
in bringing a small positive charge;
electric potential, V [J C-1] M04H2 TZ2 B1
from infinity to that point;
A completely accurate definition is necessary for maximum 3 points
the magnetic flux through a region is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing
magnetic flux, [weber, Wb] Muncaster
through the region
magnetic flux linkage product of number of turns in a coil and the flux through the coil Muncaster

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N [weber, Wb]
Faradays law of e.m.f. (induced) proportional to;
M05H2 TZ2 B3
electromagnetic induction rate of change /cutting of (magnetic) flux (linkage);
The induced current will be in such a direction as to oppose the change in magnetic flux that
Lenzs law Porter
created the current
induced emf, [volt, V]
Time constant for a capacitor Time, in seconds, in which the quantity drops to 1/e of its original value ( 1/e ~ 0.37)

Topic 7, 12 Atomic, Nuclear and Particle Physics and Quantum

Physics
the freeing of electrons from the surface of a metal when light of sufficiently high frequency is
photoelectric emission
shone onto the metal
atom the smallest neutral particle that represents an element W+H 16.1 p126
smallest particle of a substance that can exist under normal conditions
molecule W+H 16.2 p127
eg a helium molecule is a helium atom; an oxygen molecule is a pair of oxygen atoms
a species of atom whose nucleus contains a specified number of protons and a specified
nuclide W+H 163.4 p509
number of neutrons
same atomic number but different mass number
M02S2 B3
or in terms of numbers of protons and neutrons
the nuclei of different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons;
but different numbers of neutrons;
isotope M05H2 TZ1 B1
Look for a little more detail than say just same atomic (proton) number, different mass
(nucleon) number.
isotope: nuclei of elements with different number of neutrons;
N04S2 B1
Accept same Z different A / OWTTE.
nucleon a proton or a neutron; Both needed to receive [1]. M04H2 TZ2 B3
nucleon number A number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom (same as mass number) W+H 163.4 p509

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proton number Z number of protons contained in the nucleus (same as atomic number) W+H 163.4 p509
neutron number N number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom W+H 163.4 p509
activity the number of radioactive disintegrations per unit time N00H2 A1
the time required for the activity to drop to half N00H2 A1
the time for the activity of a radioactive sample to decrease to half its initial activity M02H2 B3
radioactive half-life time for the activity to halve in value / time for the number of nuclei to transmute to nuclei of
N04H2 B1
another element / OWTTE;
time for activity/mass/number of nuclei to halve;
M05H2 TZ2 B1
clear indication of what halves original isotope, (not daughters);

unified atomic mass unit W+H 163.4 p509

of mass of carbon 12 atom

probability of decay / constant in expression ;

M04H2 TZ1 B3
decay constant, [s-1]
per unit time / and N explained;
the probability that a nucleus will decay in unit time; N04H2 B1
the mass of a nucleus is always less the total mass of its constituent nucleons, the difference in
mass defect
mass is called the mass defect
either: the energy released when the nuclide is assembled from its individual components;
M01S3 B1
or: the energy required when the nucleus is separated into its individual components;
binding energy
the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual
M04H2 TZ2 B3
nucleons / the energy required to separate a nucleus into its component nucleons / OWTTE;
binding energy per nucleon the binding energy of a nucleus divided by the number of nucleons in the nucleus

Topic 8 Energy Production

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 Energy that has been transformed from one form to a less useful form (generally heat) is taken from Kerr &
degraded energy
degraded energy. Ruth 3rd edition
energy density of a fuel [J m-3] amount of available energy stored in a fuel per unit volume
specific energy [J kg-1] the energy that can be obtained per unit mass
albedo fraction of solar radiation reaching Earth that is reflected back into space
black body a perfect emitter (or absorber of electromagnetic radiation) Forster
surface heat capacity
energy required to raise the temperature of 1 m2 of the Earths surface by 1 K
CS [J K-1 m-2]
coefficient of volume expansion IB Physics Subject
the fractional change in volume per degree change in temperature
[K-1] Guide
Power per unit area emitted by a body is proportional to the absolute temperature to the fourth
Stefan-Boltzmann law Porter
power
is the ratio of energy emitted (per unit area) of a body to the energy emitted by a black body of
emissivity
the same dimensions at the same temperature.
fuel a source of energy in a usable form
Natural: due to naturally occurring levels of the gases
Natural & enhanced
greenhouse effect Enhanced or anthropomorphic (due to man): due to increased concentrations of the gases
which are a result of human-derived processes.
The amount of solar radiation across all wavelengths that is incident in one second on one
solar constant square metre at the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun on a plane perpendicular to the
line joining the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth. (Draw a labelled diagram).

Option D Astrophysics
light year [ly] distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one year
luminosity, L [W] total power radiated by a star
apparent brightness, l [W m-2] power per unit area of radiation from star at location of Earth
absolute magnitude

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parsec [pc]
the density of the Universe at which the Universe expands forever at a slowing rate
critical density
approaching zero.
Hubbles law The recessional speed of distant galaxies is proportional to their distance from earth.
The Universe is homogeneous (the same everywhere) and isotropic (looks the same in any
The cosmological principle
direction)

Option C Imaging
principal axis
the point on the principal axis to which rays parallel to the principal axis are brought to a
focal point focus after refraction by the lens / it is a point on the PA from which rays will be parallel to M03H3 H
the PA after refraction by the lens.
focal length, f [m] the image distance for an infinite object distance W+H p259
linear magnification

power of a convex lens, F [D]

reciprocal of the focal length
dioptre, [D] unit of lens power, 1 D = 1 m-1
the position of the furthest object that can be brought into focus by the unaided eye / OWTTE;
N04H3 H
Accept the distance to the furthest object etc.
far point
For the normal eye, the far point may be assumed to be at infinity and the near point is IB Physics Subject
conventionally taken as being a point 25 cm from the eye. Guide
if the object is nearer than this to the eye then the eye cannot focus it clearly N03H3 H
near point the position of the closest object that can be brought into focus by the unaided eye / OWTTE;
N04H3 H
Accept the distance to the closest object etc.

angular magnification M04H3 TZ2 H

;

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 Allow are shown correctly on the diagram.
aberration the phenomenon of a point object not giving rise to a point image W+H p267
spherical aberration
chromatic aberattion

Option A Relativity
a system of coordinates;
frame of reference that enables the position of various objects to be specified / that enables measurements M08H3 TZ2 G1
to be made / OWTTE;
a reference frame that is moving with constant velocity (or uniform speed in a straight line) M01H3 G
inertial frame of reference
frame moving with constant velocity / frame in which Newtons first law is valid; M04H3 TZ2 G
postulate 1: the speed of light in vacuum is the same for all inertial observers;
M04S3 TZ1 G
postulate 2: the laws of physics are the same for all inertial observers;
speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all inertial observers;
2 postulates of Special Theory
laws of physics are the same for all inertial observers; [2]
of Relativity
The words underlined are needed for the mark. Award [1 max] if both are on the N04H3 G
right lines but not precise. Give benefit of the doubt if inertial is only mentioned
once.
the time as measured on a clock that is stationary in the observers frame of reference N01H3 G
the time interval measured by an observer of an event that happens at the same place
M03H3 G
proper time interval according to that observer
the time interval between two events measured in the reference frame in which the two events
N03H3 G
occur at the same place
the length of an object as measured by an observer who is at rest relative to the object M03H3 G
proper length
the length of an object as measured by an observer at rest with respect to the object N03H3 G
rest mass rest mass is the mass of a body as measured in the bodys rest frame / alternative correct and M04H3 TZ1 G

Adadpted from document Adapted From IB Physics Steve Udy page 18 of 22 physicsib.com
 unambiguous definition;
mass of object in observers frame of reference;
or
M04H3 TZ2 G
mass when not moving;
relative to observer;
spacetime
a frame of reference accelerating far from all masses with acceleration a;
is completely equivalent to a frame of reference at rest in a gravitational field of field strength
M04H3 TZ1 G
equal to a;
Accept the impossibility of distinguishing gravitational from inertial effects for full marks.
principle of equivalence an observer cannot tell the difference between the effect of acceleration (in one direction) and
a gravitational field (in the opposite direction);
Accept It is impossible to distinguish between inertial or gravitational forces N04H3 G
or there is no way in which gravitational effects can be distinguished from
inertial effects / OWTTE.
if an object is dense enough it will cause extreme warping of spacetime such that any light
black hole M03H3 G
leaving the surface will not be able to escape the spacetime surrounding the object
centre is single point to which all mass would collapse;
Schwarzschild radius surface is where the escape speed is equal to c; M04H3 TZ2 G
within this surface, mass has disappeared from the universe;

Option B Engineering
B.1 Rigid Bodies and Rotational Dynamics
T
orque A torque is an influence which tends to change the rotational motion of an object. Calculated
HYPERPHYSICS
by the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the point of rotation.
M
oment of inertia
The reluctance of a body to change its angular velocity

Adadpted from document Adapted From IB Physics Steve Udy page 19 of 22 physicsib.com
 Rotational and
The sum of the clockwise torques is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise torques.
translational equilibrium
The net sum of all force vectors is zero.

B.2 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic
system
indicator diagram graph of pressure against volume for a gas
a process where the volume remains constant, therefore there is no work done (
isochoric (isovolumetric) )
a process that takes place at constant volume M05H2 TZ1 B4
a process where the pressure remains constant
isobaric
a process that takes place at constant pressure M05H2 TZ1 B4
a process where the temperature remains constant, therefore the internal energy remains
isothermal
constant for an ideal gas,
a process where no heat enters or leaves the system,
a process in which there is no energy (heat) exchange;
adiabatic between system and surrounding;
or M05H2 TZ1 B4
all the work done;
either increases or decreases the internal energy of the system;
force on piston = pA;
where A is area of piston. Piston moves distance x;
work (derivation) M03H2 B2
work done = pAx;
Ax = V, so W = p V;
S [J K-1], measure of disorder of a system
entropy, S [J K-1]
the degree of disorder (in the system) M04H2 TZ1 A3

Adadpted from document Adapted From IB Physics Steve Udy page 20 of 22 physicsib.com
 Q = U + W where Q is the thermal energy going into the system (if positive), U is the
1st law of thermodynamics increase in internal energy of the system (if positive) and W is the work done by the system Porter
on the surroundings (if positive).
in any process, (reaction, event etc.) the overall entropy of the universe/a closed system
M04H2 TZ1 A3
increases
2nd law of thermodynamics
total entropy (of the universe);
M04H2 TZ2 B4
is increasing;
heat engine Forster
Thermal efficiency of a heat
is the work done divided by the thermal energy taken from the hot reservoir. Porter
engine
Carnot cycle Forster
B.3 Fluids and Fluid Dynamics
smooth flow OR non-turbulent flow OR flow with low Reynolds number
laminar flow spec papers
streamlines A streamline is a path traced out by a massless particle as it moves with the flow. Nasa
pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all
pascals principle wikipedia
directions throughout the fluid
The force acting in resistance to the fall (of a particle through a liquid) is equal to 6rv, in
Stokes Law Britannica.com
which r is the radius of the sphere, is the viscosity of the liquid, and v is the velocity of fall.
B.4 Forced Vibrations and Resonance
damping the process whereby energy is taken from the oscillating system (usually due to friction)
natural frequency (of that frequency (or frequencies) at which a system oscillates when disturbed from its
vibration) equilibrium state
forced oscillations
a system resonates when a periodic force is applied to it;
resonance and the frequency of the force is equal to the natural frequency of vibration of the system / M05H2 TZ1 B2
OWTTE;

Adadpted from document Adapted From IB Physics Steve Udy page 21 of 22 physicsib.com
Adadpted from document Adapted From IB Physics Steve Udy page 22 of 22 physicsib.com