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IB Higher Level Physics core + AHL definitions

Term Definition √
Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement
accuracy small systematic error
frame of reference a set of rulers and synchronised clocks (at rest with respect to one another) that are used by observers who are at rest in the frame to
describe the motion of an object
fundamental units kg, m, s, K, mol, A, cd (candela)
precision small random error
random error Error due to inexperience of the observer and the difficulty of reading instruments. Can be reduced by repeated measurements.
scalar a physical quantity with magnitude only (e.g. mass)
systematic error Error due to incorrectly calibrated instruments. It is the same for all data points, and cannot be reduced by repeated measurements.
vector a physical quantity with magnitude and direction (e.g. force)
Topic 2: Mechanics
acceleration (a) a = Δv/Δt (vector)
centripetal acceleration a = v² / r. Acc due to a changing velocity direction. It points towards the centre of the circular path.
centripetal force any force or resultant of individual forces that points towards the centre of a circular path
displacement (s) distance in a given direction from a fixed origin (vector)
efficiency efficiency = useful output (in J or W) / input (in J or W)
energy conservation Energy cannot be destroyed or created. It can be transformed from one form into another.
Hooke's law F = -kx. The tension in a spring is proportional but in opposite direction to its extension.
impulse (Δp) total change in momentum of a system as a result of a force acting on it (vector)
momentum conservation for a system of isolated bodies, the momentum is always constant
Newton's first law a body will remain at a constant velocity unless an external unbalanced force is acted upon it
Newton's second law F = ma. Force is proportional to the product of mass times acceleration.
Newton's third law if body A exerts a force on body B, then body B will exert an equal and opposite force on body A
power (P) P = ΔW/Δt = Fv. The rate at which work is being performed (vector).
translational equilibrium the state of a system where the net external force is zero
velocity v = Δs/Δt (vector)
weight the force of gravitation on a body
work (w) w = Fd, where d is in the same direction as F (scalar)
Topic 3: Thermal physics
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Avogadro's constant (NA) NA = 6.02 × 10²³. The number of molecules in 1 mol of a substance.
Boyle-Mariotte law at constant temperature, a fixed quantity of an ideal gas obeys p₁V₁ = p₂V₂
heat (thermal) capacity the energy needed for a body to undergo a unit increase in temperature
idea gas a gas with no intermolecular forces that obeys the ideal gas law (PV = nRT) at all temperatures, pressures and volumes
internal energy the total KE and PE of the molecules of a substance
pressure (P) P=F/A
pressure-temperature law at constant volume, a fixed quantity of an ideal gas obeys P₁ / T₁ = P₂ / T₂
specific heat capacity (SHC) the energy needed for a unit mass to undergo a unit increase in temperature
specific latent heat of the energy required to melt/vaporise a unit mass at constant temperature
fusion/vaporisation (L)
temperature a measure of the average KE of the molecules of a substance
volume-temperature law at constant pressure, a fixed quantity of an ideal gas obeys V₁ / T₁ = V₂ / T₂
Topic 4: Oscillation and Waves
amplitude (A) the max displacement of a wave
coherent two sources of identical waves with a constant phase difference (same freq)
critical damping damping in a system such that, when displaced from equilibrium, the system returns to equilibrium in as short a time as possible
without preforming oscillations
damped oscillations oscillations under the action of a resistive force
diffraction A phenomenon shown by all waves. The spreading of a wave as it passes through an aperture past an obstacle. It is substantial only
when the size of the aperture/obstacle is comparable to λ.
electromagnetic (EM) waves Transverse waves that travel at the speed of light and can propagate in a vacuum. They range from short-λ gamma rays to long-λ
radio waves. The λ of the visible spectrum range is 400nm (blue light) to 750 nm (red light).
frequency (f) the number of full waves emitted per unit time
interference When two similar coherent waves meet. The resulting wave will have a large amplitude if the waves meet crest to crest
(constructive), or a small amplitude if they meet crest to trough (destructive).
longitudinal wave a wave in which the displacement is in the same direction as energy transfer (e.g. sound)
overdamping damping in a system that experiences a large resistive force, so that the system returns to its equilibrium position in a long with
without performing oscillations
path difference The difference in distance from each of two sources. If path difference is a whole number of wavelengths (nλ), then constructive
interference takes place. If path difference is an odd number of half-wavelengths (n+½)λ, interference is destructive.
period (T) the time to create a full wave
ray a line at right angles to a wavefront, indicating the direction of energy transfer of a wave
refractive index (n) n = c / c in given medium
resonance A system that has a natural freq is resonant when the external periodic force acting on the system also has the same freq. It results in
large-amplitude oscillations.
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simple harmonic motion (SHM) a = -ω²x. Oscillatory motion of a system where there is a fixed equilibrium position and the acceleration of the system is proportional
and in the opposite direction to the displacement.
Snell's law sinθ₁ / c₁ = sinθ₂ / c₂
standing wave A wave formed by the superposition of two identical travelling waves moving in opposite directions. It does not transfer energy.
superposition when two waves meet, the resulting displacement is the sum of the individual displacements
transverse wave a wave in which the displacement is normal to the direction of energy transfer of the wave (e.g. EM waves)
travelling wave a wave that transfers energy
underdamping damping in a system that experiences a small resistive force, so that the system oscillates with decreasing amplitude
wave speed v = fλ. The speed at which energy is transferred by a wave.
wavefront a surface at right angles to the direction of energy transfer of the wave consisting of points in phase
wavelength (λ) the length of a full wave (distance between consecutive crests)
Topic 5: Electric currents
current the amount of charge per unit time that passes through the cross-sectional area of a conductor
electric power P = IV = I²R = V² / R. The rate t which electrical energy is dissipated in a conductor.
electron-volt (eV) the work done to move one e⁻ through a potential difference of 1 V
electromotive force (e.m.f.) the amount of energy converted by a power supply to electrical energy, per unit charge
Ohm's law for a metal conductor at constant temperature, the current flowing through it is directly proportional to the voltage across it
potential difference (p.d.) the work done in moving a unit charge from one point to another
resistance (R) R = V / I. A measure of the opposition a component offers to the flow of electric current.
Topic 6: Fields and forces & Topic 9: Motion in fields (AHL)
equipotential surface The set of points that have the same gravitational potential. OR a surface where the potential is constant.
escape speed the minimum speed an object must have (at the surface of a planet) so that it can move an infinite distance away, v = √(2GM/r).
gravitational field strength The gravitational force experienced by a point test particle of unit mass. The field strength due to a spherical or point mass M is g =
GM/r².
gravitational potential The work done in bringing a point test particle of unit mass from infinity to a point in a gravitational field. In the gravitational field of a
spherical or point mass M, the potential is V = - GM/r (scalar).
gravitational potential energy ΔEc = mgΔh. The work that must be done in order to raise a mass m by a vertical distance Δh.
difference
gravitational potential energy Eg = - GMm/r. The work done in moving two point masses M and m, which are initially infinitely far apart, until they are separated by
of two point masses a distance r.
law of gravitation There is an attractive force between any two point masses, given by F = G(m₁m₂/r²) where r is their separation. It is directed along the
line joining the masses.
orbit the path of an object when under the influence of just the force of gravitation
orbital speed the speed of a body in orbit, v = √(GM/r)
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work done in a gravitational The work done in moving a mass m from one point to another in a gravitational field is W = mΔV. It is dependent of the path
field followed.
Coulomb's law There is an electric force between two point charges given by F = k(Q₁Q₂/r²) where r is their separation. The law also holds for two
spherical charges, far apart, in which case r is the centre-to-centre separation. The force is attractive for unlike charges and repulsive
for charges.
electric field The electric force per unit charge experienced by a positive test charge (vector). A point or spherical charge Q produces an electric
field of magnitude E = k(|Q|/r²). The electric field is zero inside a conductor.
electric potential The work per unit charge performed in bringing a positive test charge from infinity to a given point in an electric field (scalar). A point
or spherical charge Q produces an electric potential V = k(Q/r). The electric potential is constant inside a conductor and equals its
value at the surface.
path in an electric field the path of a charged particle in a uniform electric field is (1) a parabola or (2) a straight line if the particle moves along a straight line
potential difference (between the work done in moving a unit charge from one point to the other
two points)
Topic 7: Atomic and nuclear physics
activity (A) A = A0e^(-λt) = λN (λ = decay constant, N = # of radioactive nuclei in sample).The number of decays per second of a radioactive
sample measured in Bq.
α-particle a He-4 nucleus emitted in the radioactive decay of certain nuclei (α-decay)
atomic number (A) the number of protons in a nucleus
atomic/nuclear transitions when an e⁻ makes a transition to a lower atomic state, a photon is emitted whose energy equals the difference in energy levels in
involved. ΔE = hf.
β-particle an electron/positron emitted in the radioactive decay of certain nuclei (β-decay)
binding energy the minimum energy required to separate a nucleus into free, unbound nucleons
decay constant (λ) the probability of decay per unit time of a given nucleus
gamma ray a short-λ photon emitted in the radioactive decay of certain nuclei (gamma decay)
half-life the time after which the activity of a radioactive sample halves
isotopes atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
mass defect the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the sum of the masses of its component nucleons
mass number (Z) the number of nucleons in a nucleus
neutrino a low-mass, neutral, very weakly interacting particle, postulated to explain why the energy of electrons in β-decay is not discrete
nuclear fission the splitting of a large nucleus (heavier than Fe) into two smaller ones, plus the release of neutrons, radiation and energy
nuclear fusion the joining of two light nuclei (lighter than Fe) into a larger nucleus, plus the release of radiation and energy
photon A zero-rest-mass neutral particle. Its energy is E = hf.
Rutherford (Geiger-Marsden) An experiment in which alpha particles were directed at a thin foil of gold. Most went through only slightly deflected but a tiny few
experiment were turned back, indicating the existence of a tiny, massive, positive charge inside the atom: the atomic nucleus.
Rutherford model an early atomic model in which electrons orbit the nucleus like planets around the sun
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strong nuclear force the attractive force (very short range) between nucleons in a nucleus that keeps them together and overcomes the force of repulsion
between the protons
weak nuclear force the short-range force acting within the nucleus that is responsible for β-decay
Topic 8: Energy, power and climate change
albedo the ratio of the intensity of radiation scattered and reflected from an object to the intensity of incident radiation
black body a body of emissivity equal to 1
coefficient of volume expansion the fractional increase in volume per unit temperature increase, γ = ΔV / VΔT
(γ)
emissivity (ε) the ratio of power radiated by an object to the power radiated by a black body at the same temperature
energy degradation the fact that energy, while conserved, becomes less useful for the purpose of performing mechanical work
energy density the amount of energy that can be obtained from a unit mass of a fuel
enhanced greenhouse effect Additional warming of the earth caused by increased quantities of greenhouse gases. The increase in the greenhouse gas
concentration is mainly due to human activity.
feedback mechanism A cause creates an effect that in turn affects the cause, which in turns affects the effect etc. An example of positive feedback is the
melting of glaciers and polar ice due to increases in global temperature. This reduces the albedo of the Earth, so less solar energy is
reflected, i.e. more energy is absorbed, leading to further increases in temperature, more ice melting etc.
greenhouse effect The warming of the earth caused by certain gases (greenhouse gases) in the earth's atmosphere. The earth's surface radiates back
some of the energy incident on it, and part of this energy is absorbed by the greenhouse gases, which then re-radiate this energy
back to the earth's surface.
intensity of radiation the power received per unit area of the detector, measured in Wm⁻²
moderator the part of a nuclear reactor where neutrons are slowed down through collisions with atoms of the moderator material (i.e. graphite
or water)
Stefan-Boltzmann law The power radiated by a body of surface area A and surface temperature T is given by P = εσAT⁴. The constant σ is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant. The emissivity ε depends on the nature of the surface. The case e = 1 corresponds to black bodies.
surface heat capacity the amount of thermal energy required or a unit surface area to undergo a unit increase in temperature
Topic 9: Motion in fields (AHL)
See Topic 6: Fields and forces
Topic 10: Thermal physics (AHL)
adiabatic a thermodynamic process in which no thermal energy is exchanged
entropy A measure of the disorder of a thermodynamic system. It is proportional to the natural logarithm of the number of microscopic ways
a given macroscopic state of the system can be realised
first law of thermodynamics The thermal energy Q supplied to a system equals the change in internal energy, ΔU, plus any work done, W. Q= ΔU + W
irreversible process A process in which the entropy increases. Natural processes are irreversible.
isothermal a thermodynamic process in which the temperature stays the same
reversible process an idealised process in which the entropy stays the same
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second law of thermodynamics the entropy of an isolated system (a system on which no work is being done from the outside) never decreases
work The work done by an ideal gas equals the area under the graph of pressure versus volume. For constant pressure it equals W = PΔV.
The net work done in a cyclic process is the area of the loop in a pressure versus volume graph.
Topic 11: Wave phenomena (AHL)
Brewster angle (polarization The maximum displacement of a wave. The sq of the amplitude is proportional to the energy carried by the wave (per unit
angle) length/area of the wavefront, for waves in 2D/3D).
doppler effect the freq received by an observe is different from that emitted if there is relative motion between the receiver and the source of
waves
Malus' law For polarized light incident on a polarizer, the transmitted intensity is I = I₀ cos²θ (I₀ = incident intensity, θ = angle between polarizer
axis and direction of electric field). For unpolarized incident light the transmitted intensity is I₀ / 2.
optical activity the property of a substance, in which the plane of polarization of an EM wave rotates as the wave propagates in the substance
polarization a property of transverse waves where the displacement of the wave stays along the same plane
Rayleigh criterion two distinct sources are said to be JUST RESOLVED, if the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of one source coincides with the
central maximum of the diffraction pattern of the second source
resolution the ability of an instrument to see two distinct sources as distinct
Topic 12: Electromagnetic induction (AHL)
Faraday's law The induced emf (ε) in a loop is the rate of change with time of the magnetic flux linkage through the loop. ε = N(ΔΦ/Δt)
Lenz's law the direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the change that created it
magnetic field The magnetic field is a field that exerts a force on moving charges. Its magnitude is given by the force on a unit charge moving at right
angles to the field with unit velocity.
magnetic field strength (B) The direction of B is at right angles to the force it exerts. The derived SI unit of B is tesla (T = NC⁻¹). Magnetic fields are produced by
currents and magnets. (vector)
magnetic flux linkage Φ = BAN cosθ. The product of the magnetic field strength, the area of a loop, the number of turns of wire in the loop and the cosine
of the angle between the area normal and B. (scalar)
magnetic force A moving charged particle or a current in a magnetic field will experience a force F = qvB sinθ or F = BIL sinθ. The force is always at
right angles to the velocity or the current.
rms current The sqe root of the average of the sq of the current. For sinusoidally varying currents it equals the peak current divided by √2.
rms voltage The sq root of the average of the sq of the voltage. For sinusoidally varying voltages it equals the peak voltage divided by √2.
Topic 13: Quantum physics and nuclear physics (AHL)
threshold (critical) frequency The lowest freq of incident EM radiation that results in electrons being emitted from a metal. It is a property of the metal.
de Broglie wavelength To any particle of momentum p, there corresponds a wavelength λ = h / p. Particles can show wavelike behaviour such as diffraction
and interference. There is a 'probability wave' whose amplitude at a specific place gives the probability of finding the particle there.
photoelectric effect The emission of electrons from a metallic surface when EM radiation is incident on the surface. The maximum emitted electron
energy is E = hf - Φ, where Φ is the work function of the surface. The intensity of the radiation does not affect the electron kinetic
energy, only the number of electrons emitted per second.
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Schrödinger theory The modern quantum theory of atoms and molecules. It applies to many-electron atoms and assigns a wavefunction to an e⁻. The sq
of the absolute value of the wavefunction is a probability density function that gives the probability of finding the electron at each
point in space. Unlike the Bohr theory, it predicts the relative intensities of spectral lines and is consistent with Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle. Like Bohr's theory it predicts energy levels for the electrons.
Heisenberg's uncertainty A fundamental principle of physics that states that it is impossible to measure simultaneously the momentum and the position of a
principle particle with infinite precision, ΔxΔp ≥ h / 4π. The principle implies that the more precise the measurement in one variable becomes,
the more uncertain is the other. Also applies to measurements of energy and time, ΔEΔt ≥ h / 4π.
work function the minimum energy required to eject an electron from a metal
Topic 14: Digital technology (AHL)
analogue signal a continuous signal varying between two extreme values that is proportional to the physical mechanism that created it
capacitance the amount of charge that can be stored on a body per unit electric potential
charged coupled device (CCD) A device where incident light from an object causes the build-up of electric charge in individual pixels producing an image of the
object. The amount of charge is proportional to the intensity of the light.
digital signal a coded signal that can have one of two values (0 or 1)
magnification for a CCD, the ratio of image to object length
quantum efficiency the ratio of the number of electrons emitted to the number of incident photons on a pixel