Contents

Preface xi 2.2 Motion with constant

A note to the reader xii acceleration – Core 48
Acceleration 48
Part I Core and AHL 1 Measuring speed and acceleration 54
More on graphs 56
Topic 1: Physics and physical
measurement 2 2.3 The concept of force – Core 63
Forces and their direction 64
1.1 The realm of physics – Core 2
Hooke’s law 67
Orders of magnitude and units 2
Fundamental interactions 5 2.4 Newton’s first law – Core 69
Newton’s first law 69
1.2 Uncertainties and errors – Core 8
Equilibrium 70
Errors of measurement 8
Significant digits 11 2.5 Newton’s second and
Line of best fit 12 third laws – Core 76
1.3 Mathematical and graphical Newton’s second law 77
techniques – Core 14 The inclined plane 82
Multiplicative changes 14 Newton’s third law 83
Straight-line graphs 15 2.6 Linear momentum – Core 87
Getting a linear graph 16 The concept of momentum 87
Interpreting graphs 17 Impulse 89
Sine curves 18 The law of conservation of
Making assumptions 18 momentum 91
1.4 Vectors and scalars – Core 21 Proof of momentum conservation 93
Vectors 21 Two-dimensional collisions 95
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar 22 2.7 Work, energy and power – Core 99
Addition of vectors 22 Work done by a force 99
Subtraction of vectors 24 Gravitational potential energy 102
Components of a vector 25 The work–kinetic energy relation 103
1.5 Graphical analysis and Conservation of energy 104
uncertainties – Core 31 Frictional forces 107
Logarithmic functions 31 Power 108
Propagation of errors 33 Kinetic energy and momentum 110
The problem of least time 112
Topic 2: Mechanics 38 2.8 Circular motion – Core 119
2.1 Kinematic concepts – Core 38 Circular motion and centripetal
Displacement and velocity 38 acceleration 119
Frames of reference 42 Centripetal forces 122
Graphs for uniform motion 44 Angular momentum 123
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2.9 The law of gravitation – Core 127 4.2 Travelling-wave characteristics – Core 216
Newton’s law of gravitation 127 What is a wave? 216
Gravitational field strength 129 Transverse and longitudinal waves 217
Wave pulses 218
2.10 Projectile motion – AHL 132
Travelling waves 218
Parabolic motion 132
Wavefronts 224
Launch at an arbitrary angle 134
Effect of air resistance forces 138 4.3 Wave phenomena I: reflection and
refraction – Core 228
2.11 Motion in a gravitational field – AHL 142
The principle of superposition 228
Gravitational potential energy 143
Reflection and refraction of waves 231
Escape velocity 145
Huygens’ principle 234
Orbital motion 146
Equipotential surfaces 149 4.4 Wave phenomena II: diffraction and
The binary star system 151 interference – Core 238
Diffraction 238
Topic 3: Thermal properties of matter 158 Interference 240
3.1 Thermal concepts – Core 158 4.5 The Doppler effect – AHL /
Temperature 158 SL Option A 244
Heat as energy 159 The Doppler effect 244
The atomic model of matter 160
4.6 Standing waves – AHL / SL Option A 251
3.2 Thermal properties – Core 163 Standing waves on strings and tubes 251
Specific heat capacity 163 Resonance and the speed of sound 255
Change of state 165
4.7 Diffraction – AHL / SL Option A 259
Measuring specific heats 167
Diffraction 259
Evaporation 168
Single-slit diffraction 261
The kinetic theory of gases 169
4.8 Resolution – AHL / SL Option A 267
3.3 Ideal gases – AHL 174
The Rayleigh criterion 267
Pressure 174
The Boyle–Mariotte law 175 4.9 Polarization – AHL / SL Option A 271
The volume–temperature law 176 What is polarization? 271
The pressure–temperature law 177 Malus’s law 272
The equation of state 178 Polarizers and analysers 273
Polarization by reflection 274
3.4 Thermodynamics – AHL 183
Optical activity 275
Internal energy 183
Practical applications of
Work done on or by a gas 185
polarization 276
The first law of thermodynamics 187
The second law of thermodynamics 188
More on the second law 192 Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism 280
5.1 Electric charge – Core 280
Topic 4: Oscillations and waves 195 Properties of electric charge 280
Coulomb’s law for the electric force 285
4.1 Simple harmonic motion – Core 195
Oscillations 195 5.2 Electric field and electric
Kinematics of simple harmonic motion 196 potential – Core 289
Energy in simple harmonic motion 204 Electric field 289
Damping 207 Electric potential 292
Forced oscillations and resonance 208 The electronvolt 295
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 Contents v

5.3 Electric field and electric The Rutherford model of the atom 369
potential – AHL 299 The Bohr model 369
Electric fields 299 Nuclear structure 370
Electric potential and energy 300 The forces within the nucleus 371
Equipotential surfaces 304 6.2 Radioactivity – Core 373
The connection between electric The nature of alpha, beta and
potential and electric field 305 gamma radiations 373
Similarities between electricity Radioactive decay equations 376
and gravitation 306 The law of radioactive decay 377
5.4 Electric current and electric 6.3 Nuclear reactions – Core 380
resistance – Core 310 The unified mass unit 380
Electric current 310 The mass defect and binding energy 381
Electric resistance 312 Nuclear reactions 384
Electric power 314 Nuclear fission 385
5.5 Electric circuits – Core 318 Nuclear fusion 385
Emf 318 6.4 Interactions of matter with
Simple electric circuits 320 energy – AHL / SL Option B 389
Ammeters and voltmeters 325 The photoelectric effect 389
Sensors based on the potential De Broglie’s wavelength 394
divider 327
6.5 Quantum theory and the uncertainty
5.6 Magnetic fields – Core 336 principle – AHL / SL Option B 398
Magnetic field 336 Atomic spectra 398
The magnetic force on a current 338 The ‘electron in a box’ model 399
The magnetic force on a The Schrödinger theory 400
moving charge 339 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle 402
Ørsted’s discovery 341 6.6 Nuclear physics – AHL / SL Option B 407
The force between two Scattering experiments and distance
current-carrying wires 343 of closest approach 407
5.7 Electromagnetic induction – AHL 350 The mass spectrometer 408
A wire moving in a magnetic field 350 Beta decay and the neutrino 409
Faraday’s law 351 Nuclear energy levels 410
Lenz’s law 354 The radioactive decay law 411
Faraday’s disc 356
Topic 7: Energy, power and climate
5.8 Alternating current – AHL 360 change 415
The AC generator 360
7.1 Energy degradation and power
Power in AC circuits 361
generation – Core 415
The transformer 363
Degradation of energy 415
Transformers and power
Electricity production 417
transmission 365
Energy sources 417
Fossil fuels 418
Topic 6: Atomic and nuclear physics 367
Nuclear power 420
6.1 The atom and its nucleus – Core 367 Solar power 423
The discovery of the nuclear atom 367 Hydroelectric power 425
Consequences of the Rutherford Wind power 427
(Geiger–Marsden) experiment 368 Wave power 428
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7.2 The greenhouse effect and global A5 Resolution – SL 481

warming – Core 434 A6 Polarization – SL 481
The black-body law 434
Solar radiation 436 SL Option B – Quantum physics
The greenhouse effect 438 B1 Quantum physics – SL 482
Global warming 444
B2 Nuclear physics – SL 482
Sea level 447
Effects of global warming on climate 448
SL Option C – Digital technology
Topic 8: Digital technology C1 Analogue and digital
signals – SL 483
8.1 Analogue and digital signals – AHL /
SL Option C / SL and HL Option F 454 C2 Data capture and imaging using
Binary numbers 454 CCDs – SL 483
Analogue and digital signals 455 C3 Electronics – SL 484
Compact disks 458
Other storage devices 459 C4 The mobile phone system – SL 484
Advantages of digital storage 461
SL Option D – Relativity and particle
8.2 Digital imaging with charge-coupled physics
devices – AHL / SL Option C 463
Capacitance 463 D1 Introduction to relativity – SL 485
The charge-coupled device 464 D2 Concepts and postulates of special
CCD imaging characteristics 466 relativity – SL 485
Medical uses of CCDs 467
D3 Relativistic kinematics – SL 485
Part II Options 471 D4 Particles and interactions – SL 486
The content of Options A–D (except D5 Quarks – SL 486
Option A1) is identical to that in the
appropriate chapter in the Core and SL and HL Option E – Astrophysics
AHL material, to which the reader is
referred (details are given in the text). E1 Introduction to the universe – SL
and HL 487
SL Option A – Sight and wave phenomena The solar system 487
Beyond the solar system 489
A1 The eye and sight – SL 472 The motion of the stars 491
The structure of the human eye 472
Depth of vision 473 E2 Stellar radiation – SL and HL 494
Accommodation 474 The energy source of stars 494
Scotopic and photopic vision 474 Luminosity 495
Colour 475 Black-body radiation 496
Colour blindness 476 Stellar spectra 498
Colour addition 476 The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 499
Colour subtraction 477 Types of stars 500
Perception of colour and light 478 E3 Stellar objects – SL and HL 506
A2 The Doppler effect – SL 480 The parallax method 506
Absolute and apparent magnitudes 507
A3 Standing waves – SL 480
Spectroscopic parallax 510
A4 Diffraction – SL 480 The Cepheids 511

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 Contents vii

E4 Cosmology – SL and HL 514 F4 Channels of communication – SL

Olbers’ paradox 514 and HL 574
The expanding universe 516 Copper wires 574
The Big Bang: the creation of space Wire pairs 575
and time 517 Coaxial cables 575
The development of the universe 517 Optic fibres 575
Radio waves 576
E5 Stellar evolution – Extension HL 521
Microwave transmission through
Nucleosynthesis 521
free space 577
Evolutionary paths and stellar
Satellite communications 578
processes 525
Pulsars and quasars 529 F5 Electronics – Extension HL 584
The operational amplifier (op-amp) 584
E6 Galaxies – Extension HL 533
The non-inverting amplifier 588
Types of galaxy 533
Reshaping digital pulses – the
Galactic motion 536
Schmitt trigger 590
Hubble’s law 537
The evolution of the F6 The mobile phone
universe 539 system – Extension HL 596

SL and HL Option F – Communications SL and HL Option G – Electromagnetic

F1 Radio communication – SL
waves
and HL 544 G1 Light – SL and HL 598
Modulation 544 The speed of light 598
Amplitude modulation (AM) 546 Electromagnetic waves 599
Frequency modulation (FM) 548 Properties of EM waves 601
Comparing AM and FM 550 The laser 603
The AM radio receiver 550
G2 Optical instruments – SL and HL 607
F2 Analogue and digital signals – SL Lenses 607
and HL 554 Optical instruments 617
Binary numbers 554 Lens aberrations 620
Analogue and digital signals 554
G3 Interference and diffraction –
Bit rate of a digital signal 554
Extension HL 624
The transmission and reception of
Two-source interference 624
digital signals 557
Young’s two-slit experiment 626
Time division multiplexing 558
Intensity in two-slit interference 628
The advantages of digital
Multiple-slit diffraction 629
communication 558
The diffraction grating 631
F3 Optic fibre transmission – SL
G4 X-rays – Extension HL 634
and HL 562
The production of X-rays 634
Total internal reflection 562
X-ray diffraction 635
Optical fibres 564
Dispersion 565 G5 Thin-film interference – Extension
Attenuation 567 HL 640
Detection 569 Parallel films 640
Noise 570 Thin air wedges 641
Regeneration 571 Measuring small distances 642

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viii Contents

HL Option H – Special and I3 Radiation in medicine – HL 712

general relativity Biological effects of radiation
and dosimetry 712
H1 The principle of special
Radiation therapy 716
relativity – HL 644
Frames of reference 645
The speed of light 647 HL Option J – Particle physics
The principle of special relativity 648 J1 Particles and interactions – HL 718
Particles and antiparticles 718
H2 The effects of special relativity – HL 652
The elementary particles 719
Time dilation 652
Quantum numbers 720
Length contraction 657
Antiparticles 720
Addition of velocities 659
Spin 721
H3 Consequences of and evidence for The Heisenberg uncertainty
special relativity – HL 663 principle for time and energy 722
Relativistic energy 663 Virtual particles 723
Evidence for special relativity 666 Interactions and exchange particles 723
The Michelson–Morley experiment 667 Feynman diagrams 725
The constancy of the speed of The range of an interaction 728
light 669
J2 Detectors and accelerators – HL 731
H4 Relativistic mechanics – HL 671 The need for high energies 731
Momentum and energy Resolution 732
(momenergy) 671 Accelerators 733
A point about units 673 Synchrotron radiation 738
A free electron cannot absorb Available energy 738
(or emit) a photon 674 Detectors 740

H5 General relativity – HL 677 J3 Quarks and leptons – HL 746

The principle of equivalence 677 Hadrons – baryons and mesons 746
The tests of general relativity 680 Baryon number 748
The structure of the theory 682 Strangeness 748
Black holes 683 The spin of hadrons 749
Time dilation in general Colour 749
relativity 685 Gluons 750
Confinement 751
The interaction between nucleons 752
HL Option I – Biomedical physics
Quarks, leptons and the standard
I1 The functioning of the ear – HL 690 model 752
The ear 690 Lepton number 753
Intensity of sound 693 The Higgs particle 753
Hearing defects 697
J4 Experimental evidence for
I2 Medical imaging – HL 700 the standard model – HL 758
Properties of radiation 700 Gell-Mann’s prediction of the
X-ray imaging 702 omega-minus 758
Other imaging techniques 705 The direct evidence for quarks 758
Ultrasound 707 Asymptotic freedom 761
Diagnostic uses of radioactive The discovery of the Z0 and
sources 709 neutral currents 761
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 Contents ix

J5 Cosmology and strings – HL 764 3 Astronomical data 780

The Boltzmann equation 764
4 Some important mathematical
Matter and antimatter 765
results 781
Strings 766
5 Nobel prize winners in physics 782
Physics and the theory of
knowledge (TOK) – SL and HL 770 Answers to questions 788

Appendices Glossary of selected terms 819

1 Physical constants 777 Index 832
2 Masses of elements and
selected isotopes 778

© Cambridge University Press 2008

Preface

Physics is a fundamental science, and those eye and sight, which is not part of the AHL core).
who study it will gain an understanding of the Three options (Option E, Astrophysics; Option F,
basic laws that govern everything from the very Communications; and Option G, Electromagnetic
small subatomic to the very large cosmic scale. waves) are available to both SL and HL students.
The study of physics provides us with an Finally, there are three options (Option H, Special
unparalleled power of analysis that is useful in and general relativity; Option I, Biomedical
the study of the other sciences, engineering and physics; and Option J, Particle physics) that are
mathematics, as well as in daily life. available to HL students only.

This fifth edition of Physics for the IB Diploma The division of this book into chapters and
follows the previous edition, but contains sections usually follows quite closely the
material for the new syllabus that will be syllabus published by the International
examined for the first time in May 2009. It Baccalaureate Organization (IBO). This does not
covers the entire International Baccalaureate mean, however, that this particular order
(IB) syllabus, including all options at both should be followed in teaching. Within reason,
standard level (SL) and higher level (HL). It the sections are fairly independent of each other,
includes a chapter on the role of physics in the and so alternative teaching sequences may be
theory of knowledge (TOK), along with many used. It must also be stressed that this book is
discussion questions for TOK. Each chapter not an official guide to the IB syllabus, nor is
opens with a list of objectives, which include this book connected with the IBO in any way.
the important formulae that will be covered in
The book contains many example questions and
that chapter. The questions at the end of each
answers that are meant to make the student
chapter have been increased, and there are
more comfortable with solving problems. Some
answers at the end of the book for all those
are more involved than others. There are also
involving calculation (and for some others too).
questions at the end of each chapter, which the
Part I of the book covers the core material and the student should attempt to answer to test his or
additional higher level (AHL) material. The title her understanding. Even though the IB does not
and running heads of each chapter clearly require calculus for physics, I have used
indicate whether the chapter is part of the core or calculus, on occasion, in the text and in the
AHL. Part II covers the optional subjects. There are questions for the benefit of those students
now four options that are available to SL students taking both physics and mathematics at higher
only (Option A, Sight and wave phenomena; level. They can apply what they are learning in
Option B, Quantum physics; Option C, Digital mathematics in a concrete and well-defined
technology; and Option D, Relativity and particle context. However, calculus is not essential for
physics). The material for these is the same as the following the book. It is assumed that a student
corresponding AHL material, and so these four starting a physics course at this level knows the
SL options are neither repeated nor presented basics of trigonometry and is comfortable with
separately (except for one chapter, Option A1, The simple algebraic manipulations.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

xii Preface

In many questions and examples I have not Important results, laws, definitions and
resisted the temptation to use 10 m s-2 as the
significant formulae
numerical value of the acceleration due to
Particularly important material, such as
gravity. I have also followed the conventions of
important results, laws, definitions and
symbols used by the IBO in their Physics Data
significant formulae, appear in a shaded box.
Booklet, with one major exception. The Data
Booklet uses the symbol s for displacement.
Almost universally, the symbol s is reserved for Example questions
distance, and so s stands for distance in this These occur in nearly all of the chapters. They
book, not displacement. Also, I have chosen to are indicated by the heading ‘Example
call initial velocities, speeds, etc. by v0 rather question(s)’ and all have a full answer. It is a
than the IBO’s u. good idea to attempt to solve these problems
before reading the answers. There are over 500
I wish to thank my wife, Ellie Tragakes, for her
such example questions in this book.
great help and support. I am indebted to fellow
teacher Wim Reimert for his careful reading of
the book and his extensive comments that have Material for higher level students
improved the book – I thank him sincerely. I This material is highlighted in a shaded box
would like to thank Geoff Amor, who has edited that is labelled ‘HL only’.
the new material for the fifth edition,
implemented my changes, and made many
suggestions for its improvement. Material that is outside the IB syllabus
Some material is included that is outside the IB
K. A. Tsokos syllabus and will not be examined in the IB
Athens exams. It is included here for two reasons. The
May 2007 first is that I believe that it clarifies syllabus
material and in some cases it does so in
essential ways. The second is that it gives the
interested student a more rounded view of the
A note to the reader subject that is not bounded by the rigid
syllabus content. Such material is highlighted
The main text of each chapter contains a in a shaded box that is labelled ‘Supplementary
number of different features, which are clearly material’. There is also a small amount of other
identified by the use of headings or by other similar material with different labels.
typographical means, as outlined below.

Questions
Learning outcomes/objectives Each chapter ends with a set of numbered
These are provided as bullet lists at the questions. Answers to all those that involve
beginning of each chapter, and indicate what calculation are given at the end of the book.
you will have learned or be able to do when you Answers are also provided for some other
have finished studying the chapter. questions where it is useful for students to be
able to check their answers.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER 2.1
0.0 Core – Mechanics
Part title

Chapter title
Kinematic concepts
Motion is a fundamental part of physics and this chapter introduces the basic quantities
used in the description of motion. Even the simplest of motions, such as a leaf falling
from a tree, can be a fairly complicated thing to analyse. To learn how to do that requires
that we sharpen our definitions of everyday concepts such as speed, distance and time.
As we will see, once we master motion in a straight line, more complicated types of
motion such as circular and parabolic motion will follow easily.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• describe the difference between distance and displacement;
• state the definitions of velocity, average velocity, speed and average speed;
• solve problems of motion in a straight line with constant velocity, x = x 0 + v t ;
• appreciate that different observers belonging to different frames of
reference can give differing but equally valid descriptions of motion;
• use graphs in describing motion;
• understand that the slope of a displacement–time graph is the velocity
and that the area under a velocity–time graph is the change in
displacement.

Displacement and velocity concept of displacement. The displacement of a

point from O will be a quantity whose
Consider the motion of a point particle that is numerical value will be the distance and its
constrained to move in a straight line, such as sign will tell us if the point is to the right or
the one in Figure 1.1. Our first task is to choose left of O. Thus a displacement of 4 m means
a point on this line from which to measure the point is at a distance of 4 m to the left of O,
distances. This point can be chosen arbitrarily whereas a displacement of 5 m means a
and we denote it by O. distance of 5 m to the right of O. Displacement
is a vector; for the case of motion in a straight
When we say that the distance of a point P from line, the displacement vector is very simple. It
O is 3 m, we mean that the point in question can be determined just by giving its magnitude
could be 3 m to the left or right of O. To and its sign. We will use the convention that
distinguish the two points we introduce the positive displacements correspond to the right
P' O P of O, negative to the left. (This is entirely
arbitrary and we may choose any side of the
Figure 1.1 To measure distance we need an origin origin as the positive displacement; this takes
to measure distances from. care of cases where it is not obvious what

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.1 Kinematic concepts 39

‘right’ means.) We will use the symbol x for Answer

displacement in a straight line (we reserve the The total distance is 5 m  12 m  17 m. The
symbol r for displacements in more than one change in displacement is 5 m  12 m 
dimension) and s for distance (from the Latin −7 m. The mass now finds itself at a distance of
spatium). Displacement, being a vector, is 7 m to the left of the starting point.
represented graphically by an arrow that
Q3
begins at O and ends at the point of interest.
An object has a displacement of 5 m. It moves
(See Figure 1.2.)
a distance to the right equal to 15 m and then
a distance of 10 m to the left. What is the total
distance travelled and final displacement of the
B s=4m O s=5m
A object? What is the change in displacement of
the object?
x = –4 m x = +5 m
Figure 1.2 Displacement can be positive (point A) Answer
or negative (point B). The distance travelled is 15 m  10 m  25 m.
The object now finds itself at a distance of 0 m
from O and thus its displacement is zero. The
We will use the capital letter S to stand for the original displacement was x = −5 m and thus
total distance travelled, and x for the change the change in displacement is x = 0 m
in displacement. The change in displacement is −(−5 m) = +5 m.
defined by

x = final displacement  initial displacement

Speed
If the motion consists of many parts, then the If an object covers a total distance S in a total
change in displacement is the sum of the time T , the average speed of the object is
displacements in each part of the motion. Thus, defined by
if an object starts at the origin, say, and
S
changes its displacement first by 12 m, then by v̄ =
T
4 m and then by 3 m, the change in
displacement is 12 − 4 + 3 = 11 m. The final Suppose that you drive your car for a given
displacement is thus 11 + 0 = 11 m. amount of time, say 50 minutes. The odometer
of the car shows that in those 50 minutes a
distance of 30 km was covered. The average
Example questions speed for this motion is
Q1
A mass initially at O moves 10 m to the right and 30 km km
v̄ = = 0.60
then 2 m to the left. What is the final 50 min min
displacement of the mass? 1000 m
= 0.60 = 10 m s−1
60 s
Answer
Using the concept of the average speed is only
x = + 10 m  2 m  8 m. Hence the final
a crude way of describing motion. In the
displacement is 0 m + 8 m = 8 m.
example above, the car could, at various times,
Q2 have gone faster or slower than the average
A mass initially at O, first moves 5 m to the right speed of 10 m s1. Cars are equipped with an
and then 12 m to the left. What is the total instrument called a speedometer, which shows
distance covered by the mass and what is its the speed of the car at a particular instant in
change in displacement? time. We call the speedometer reading the

© Cambridge University Press 2008

40 Core – Mechanics

instantaneous speed or just speed. Speed is In order to avoid a proliferation of deltas, we

defined by measuring the distance the car will mostly use the capital delta; when
(or whatever it is that is moving) covers in a infinitesimal quantities are involved, we will
very short interval of time (see Figure 1.3). If simply state it explicitly.
this distance is δs and the time interval δt then
the instantaneous speed is
Example question
δs
v= Q4
δt
A car of length 4.2 m travelling in a straight line
takes 0.56 s to go past a mark on the road. What
s+δs is the speed of the car?

O Answer
s
From v = st
, we find v = 7.5 m s1. This is taken
Figure 1.3 Speed at a given time t is defined in
terms of the small distance δs travelled in a as the speed of the car the instant the middle
small interval of time δt right after t . point of the car goes past the mark on the road.

Note that, by definition, speed is always a

positive number. Velocity
Average speed and instantaneous speed are
positive quantities that do not take into
A word on notation account the direction in which the object
If Q is any physical quantity, we will use Q to moves. To do that we introduce the concept of
denote the change in Q: velocity. The average velocity for a motion is
defined as the change in displacement of the
Q = Q final − Q initial object divided by the total time taken. (Recall
that the change in displacement, x, means
The symbol  will thus represent a finite change
final minus initial displacement.)
in a quantity. The symbol δ Q represents an
infinitesimal change in Q. Thus, δ Q plays x
v̄ =
roughly the same role as the calculus quantity t
dQ. So the definition of instantaneous speed δs δt
is to be understood as the calculus quantity ds : Similarly, the instantaneous velocity at some
dt
that is, the derivative of distance with respect time t, or just velocity, is defined by the ratio of
to time. Equivalently, we may understand it as the change in displacement, δx, divided by the
time taken, δt.
δs s
= lim δx
δt t→0 t v=
δt
If a quantity Q depends on, say, time in a linear
way, then the graph showing the variation of Q (See Figure 1.4.)
with t will be a straight line. In that case (and
only in that case)
O x +δx

δQ Q
=
δt t x
Figure 1.4 The definition of velocity at time t
and each of these quantities represent the involves the small displacement change δx in
(constant) gradient of the graph. the small time interval δt right after t .
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.1 Kinematic concepts 41

We are using the same symbol for speed and Hence the average velocity is zero as before. This
velocity. It will always be clear which of the two example shows that the starting point is irrelevant.
we are talking about. We have the freedom to choose the origin so that
it is always at the point where the motion starts.
Unlike speed, which is always a positive
number, velocity can be positive or negative. Q7
Positive velocity means the object is increasing A car 4.0 m long is moving to the left. It is
its displacement – that is, it moves toward the observed that it takes 0.10 s for the car to pass a
‘right’ by our convention. Negative velocity given point on the road. What is the speed and
signifies motion in which the displacement is velocity of the car at this instant of time?
decreasing – that is, toward the ‘left’. Thus, it is
important to realize that the quantity δx can be Answer
positive or negative. (It is worthwhile to note We can safely take 0.10 s as a small enough
that the magnitude of velocity is speed but the interval of time. We are told that in this interval
magnitude of average velocity is not related to of time the distance travelled is 4.0 m and so
average speed.) the speed is 40 m s1. The velocity is simply
40 m s1, since the car is moving to the left.
Example questions
Motion with uniform velocity (or just uniform
Q5
motion) means motion in which the velocity is
A car starts out from O in a straight line and
constant. This implies that the displacement
moves a distance of 20 km towards the right, and
changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of
then returns to its starting position 1 h later. What
time (no matter how small or large). Let us take
is the average speed and the average velocity for
the interval of time from t = 0 to time t.
this trip?

Answer
If the displacement at t = 0 is x 0 and the
The total distance covered is 40 km. Thus, the displacement at time t is x , then it follows
average speed is 40 km h1. The change in that
displacement for this trip is 0 m because x
v=
displacement = final − initial t
=0m−0m x − x0
=
=0m t −0
So the average velocity is zero. ⇒ x = x0 + vt
Q6 This formula gives the displacement x at
A car moves in exactly the same way as in time t in terms of the constant velocity v
example question 1, but this time it starts out not and the initial displacement x 0 . Note that t
at O but a point 100 km to the right of O. What is in this formula stands for the time for
the average speed and the average velocity for which the object has been moving.
this trip?

Answer
Example questions
The distance travelled is still 40 km and hence the
Q8
average speed is the same, 40 km h1. The
The initial displacement of a body moving with
change in displacement is given by
a constant velocity 5 m s1 is 10 m. When
displacement = final − initial does the body reach the point with
= 100 km − 100 km displacement 10 m? What distance does the
= 0 km body cover in this time?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
42 Core – Mechanics

Answer seconds. When B catches up with A, they will

From have the same displacement and so

x = x0 + vt 3t = 5(t − 6)
⇒ 10 = −10 + 5t ⇒ 2t = 30
⇒ t = 4s ⇒ t = 15 s
So the distance travelled is 20 m. The displacement then is 45 m.
Q9
Bicyclist A starts with initial displacement zero
and moves with velocity 3 m s1. At the same
time, bicyclist B starts from a point with
Frames of reference
displacement 200 m and moves with velocity We are used to measuring velocities with
2 m s1. When does A meet B and where are respect to observers who are ‘at rest’. Thus,
they when this happens? velocities of cars, aeroplanes, clouds and falling
leaves are all measured by observers who are at
Answer
rest on the surface of the earth. However, other
The formula giving the displacement of A is observers are also entitled to observe and record
xA = 0 + 3t a given motion and they may reach different
results from the observer fixed on the surface of
and that for B is the earth. These other observers, who may
xB = 200 + (−2)t themselves be moving with respect to the fixed
= 200 − 2t observer on earth, are just as entitled to claim
When they meet they have the same that they are ‘at rest’. There is in fact no
displacement, so absolute meaning to the statement ‘being at
rest’ – a fact that is the starting point of
xA = xB Einstein’s theory of special relativity. No
⇒ 3t = 200 − 2t experiment can be performed the result of
⇒ 5t = 200 which will be to let observers know that they
⇒ t = 40 s are moving with constant velocity and that they
Their common displacement is then 120 m. are not at rest. Consider two observers: observer
A is fixed on the earth; observer B moves past A
Q10 in a box without windows. B cannot, by
Object A starts from the origin with velocity performing experiments within his box (he
3 m s1 and object B starts from the same place cannot look outside) determine that he is
with velocity 5 m s1, 6 seconds later. When will moving, let alone determine his velocity with
B catch up with A? respect to A.

Answer An observer who uses measuring tapes and

We take object A to start its motion when the clock stopwatches to observe and record motion is
shows zero. The displacement of A is then given by called a frame of reference. Consider the following
three frames of reference: the first consists of
xA = 3t observer A on the ground; the second consists of
and that of B by observer B, who is a passenger in a train sitting
in her seat; the third consists of observer C, a
xB = 5(t − 6)
passenger on the train who walks in the
The formula for B is understood as follows. When direction of the motion of the train at 2 m s1,
the clock shows that t seconds have gone by, as measured by the passenger sitting in her seat.
object B has only been moving for (t − 6) The train moves in a straight line with constant
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.1 Kinematic concepts 43

velocity of 10 m s1, as measured by the observer above, the relative velocity in the horizontal
on the ground. The three observers describe direction between the cannon and the ball is
their situation as follows: A says he is at rest, zero. This is why it falls back into the cannon.
that B moves forward at 10 m s1 and that C
moves forward at 12 m s1. This is because in 1 s Example questions
the train moves forward a distance of 10 m but, Q12
in this same second, C has walked an additional A car (A) moves to the left with speed 40 km h1
distance of 2 m making him 12 m away from A. (with respect to the road). Another car (B) moves
Thus A measures a velocity of 12 m s1 for C. to the right with speed 60 km h1 (also with
Observer B says that she is at rest. As far as B is respect to the road). Find the relative velocity of B
concerned, A is moving backwards (the station is with respect to A.
being left behind) with a velocity of 10 m s1,
and C is moving forward at a velocity of 2 m s1. Answer
Observer C claims he is at rest. As far as he is The relative velocity of B with respect to A is
concerned, A is moving backwards at 12 m s1 given by the difference
and B at 2 m s1.
60 km h1  (40 km h1) = 100 km h1.
Note that we must put in the negative sign for the
Example question
velocity of A.
Q11
A cart moves in a straight line with constant Q13
speed. A toy cannon on the cart is pointed Rain comes vertically down and the water has a
vertically up and fires a ball. Ignoring air velocity vector given in Figure 1.5a (as measured
resistance, where will the ball land? by an observer fixed on the surface of the earth).
A girl runs towards the right with a velocity vector
Answer
as shown. (Again as measured by the observer
The ball will land back into the cannon. For an fixed on the earth.) Find the velocity of the rain
observer moving along with the cannon, this is relative to the running girl.
obvious. This observer considers herself to be at
rest; so the ball will move vertically up and then
fall vertically down into the cannon. As far as an
rain
observer on the ground is concerned, the cart relative velocity
running girl of rain with
moves forward with a certain velocity but so does
ground respect to girl
the ball. The horizontal component of velocity of
the cannon is the same as that of the ball, which (a) (b)

means that the ball is at all times vertically over Figure 1.5.
the cannon.
Answer
This introduces the concept of relative velocity.
Let two observers P and Q have velocities vP and We are asked to find the difference in the vector
vQ as measured by the same frame of reference. velocities of rain minus girl and this vector is
Then the relative velocity of P with respect to Q, given by Figure 1.5b. The rain thus hits the girl
denoted by vPQ , is simply vPQ = vP − vQ . from the front.

(Note that we are subtracting vectors here.) This Q14

definition makes use of the fact that by This is the same as example question 9, which we
subtracting the vector velocity vQ it is as if we did in the last section. We will do it again using
make Q be at rest, so that we can refer to the the concept of relative velocity. Bicyclist A starts
velocity of P. In the example of the cannon with initial displacement zero and moves with
© Cambridge University Press 2008
44 Core – Mechanics

velocity 3 m s1. At the same time, bicyclist B

starts from a point with displacement 200 m and velocity
moves with velocity 2 m s1. When does A
meet B and where are they when this happens?

Answer
The velocity of B relative to A is
time
vBA = vB − vA Figure 1.7 The area under the curve in a
= −3 − 2 velocity–time graph gives the displacement
= −5 m s−1 change.
When B meets A, the displacement of B becomes
zero, since A thinks of herself sitting at the origin. A graph of displacement versus time for uniform
Thus motion also gives a straight line (Figure 1.8).
0 = 200 − 5t
⇒ t = 40s displacement displacement

Graphs for uniform motion

time time
In uniform motion, if we make a graph of (a) (b)
velocity versus time we must get a horizontal Figure 1.8 The displacement–time graph for
straight line. Figure 1.6 shows the v–t graph for uniform motion is a straight line: (a) motion to
motion with constant velocity v. the right, (b) motion to the left.

This is the graph of the equation x = x0 + vt .

velocity Comparing this with the standard equation of a
straight line, y = mx + c , we see that the slope
of this graph gives the velocity. We can also
deduce this from the definition of velocity, x t .
But x
t is also the definition of the slope of the
straight-line x–t graph, hence the slope is the
velocity. In Figure 1.8a the slope is positive,
time
which means, therefore, that the velocity is
Figure 1.6 Uniform velocity means that the
positive, and the mass is moving to the right. In
velocity–time graph is a horizontal straight line.
Figure 1.8b the mass is moving at constant
velocity to the left.
If we wanted to find the displacement from
The slope of a displacement–time graph
t = 0 to time t, the answer would be given by
gives the velocity.
the formula x = x0 + vt . The same answer can,
however, also be obtained directly from the
graph: vt is simply the area under the graph, as The time when the graph intersects the time
shown in Figure 1.7. axis is the time the moving object goes past
point O, the point from which distances and
This means that the area under the graph gives
displacements are measured.
the change in displacement. This area added to
the initial displacement of the mass gives the The corresponding velocity–time graph for
final displacement at time t. negative velocity is shown in Figure 1.9.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.1 Kinematic concepts 45

Example question
velocity
Q15
A mass starts out from O with velocity 10 m s1 and
time continues moving at this velocity for 5 s. The
velocity is then abruptly reversed to 5 m s1 and
the object moves at this velocity for 10 s. For this
motion find:
Figure 1.9 The velocity–time graph for uniform (a) the change in displacement;
motion towards the left. (b) the total distance travelled;
(c) the average speed;
The area ‘under’ the curve is below the time
(d) the average velocity.
axis and is counted as negative. This is
consistent with the fact that negative velocity Answer
takes the moving object towards the left and The problem is best solved through the
thus towards negative displacements. velocity–time graph, which is shown in Figure 1.11.
Consider now the graph of displacement versus v/m s−1
time in Figure 1.10. We may extract the
following information from it. The initial 10
displacement is –10 m. The object moves with a
positive velocity of 2 m s1 for the first 10 s of 0 t/s
5 15
the motion and with a negative velocity of −5
2 m s1 in the next 5 s. The object is at the
origin at 5 s and 15 s. The change in
displacement is +10 m and the total distance Figure 1.11.
travelled is 30 m. The average speed is thus
The initial displacement is zero. Thus, after 5 s the
2 m s1 and the average velocity is 0.67 m s1.
displacement is 10 × 5 m = 50 m (area under first
Make sure you can verify these statements.
part of the curve). In the next 10 s the
x/m
displacement changes by −5 × 10 = −50 m. The
10 change in displacement is thus 0 m. The object
moved toward the right, stopped and returned to
5
its starting position. The distance travelled was
0 t/s 50 m in moving to the right and 50 m coming
5 10 15
−5 back giving a total of 100 m. The average velocity
is zero, since the change in displacement is zero.
−10
The average speed is 100 m/15 s = 6.7 m s1.

Figure 1.10.
Questions
We can thus summarize our findings for
1 A plane flies 3000.0 km in 5.00 h. What is its
uniform motion in a straight line: The graph
average speed in metres per second?
of displacement versus time is a straight line
2 A car must be driven a distance of 120.0 km
whose slope is the velocity. The graph of
in 2.5 h. During the first 1.5 h the average
velocity versus time is a horizontal straight
speed was 70 km h1. What must the average
line and the area under the graph gives the
speed for the remainder of the journey be?
change in displacement. The displacement
after time t is given by the formula 3 A person walks a distance of 3.0 km due
x = x0 + v t . south and then a distance of 2.0 km due east.
If the walk lasts for 3.0 h find
© Cambridge University Press 2008
46 Core – Mechanics

(a) the average speed for the motion; HL only

(b) the average velocity.
7 A particle of dust is bombarded by air
4 Find the displacement–time graph for an
molecules and follows a zigzag path at
object moving in a straight line whose
constant speed v .
velocity–time graph is given in Figure 1.12.
(a) Assuming each step has a length d , find
The displacement is zero initially. You do not
the distance travelled by the dust
have to put any numbers on the axes.
particle in time t .
(b) What is the length of the displacement
v
vector after N steps where N is large?
Assume that each step is taken in a
random direction on the plane. (This
t
problem assumes you are familiar with
the scalar product of two vectors.)
Figure 1.12 For question 4.
8 Two cars are moving on the same straight-line
5 An object moving in a straight line according road. Car A moves to the right at velocity
to the velocity–time graph shown in Figure 80 km h1 and car B moves at 50 km h1 to
1.13 has an initial displacement of 8.00 m. the left. Both velocities are measured by an
(a) What is the displacement after 8.00 s? observer at rest on the road.
(b) What is the displacement after 12.0 s? (a) Find the relative velocity of car B with
(c) What is the average speed and average respect to car A.
velocity for this motion? (b) Find the relative velocity of car A with
respect to car B.
v/m s −1 9 A cyclist A moves with speed 3.0 m s1 to the
10 left (with respect to the road). A second cyclist,
B, moves on the same straight-line path as A
5
with a relative velocity of 1.0 m s1 with respect
0
to A.
4 8 12 t/s (a) What is the velocity of B with respect to the
−5 road?
(b) A third cyclist has a relative velocity with
Figure 1.13 For question 5. respect to A of 2.0 m s1. What is the
velocity of C with respect to the road?
6 Two cyclists, A and B, have displacements 10 Two objects A and B move at a constant speed
0 km and 70 km, respectively. At t = 0 they of 4 m s1 along a circular path. What is the
begin to cycle towards each other with relative velocity of B (magnitude and direction)
velocities 15 km h1 and 20 km h1, with respect to A when the objects are in the
respectively. At the same time, a fly that was positions shown in Figure 1.14?
sitting on A starts flying towards B with a
velocity of 30 km h1. As soon as the fly A

reaches B it immediately turns around and

flies towards A, and so on until A and B meet.
(a) What will the displacement of the two
cyclists and the fly be when all three
meet?
(b) What will be the distance travelled by the B
fly? Figure 1.14 For question 10.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.1 Kinematic concepts 47

11 Find the velocity of the two objects whose 12 An object moving in a straight line has a
displacement–time graphs are shown in displacement–time graph as shown in
Figure 1.15. Figure 1.16.
(a) Find the average speed for the trip.
x/m (b) Find the average velocity for the trip.
15

10
x/m
5

0
5 10 t/s
−5 40

−10
(a)
0 5 10 15 20 t/s
x/m
30

20 Figure 1.16 For question 12.

10

0
2 4 6 8 t/s
−10

−20
(b)
Figure 1.15 For question 11.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER 2.2 Core – Mechanics

Motion with constant

acceleration
To complete our description of motion we need the concept of acceleration. This concept
and its use are introduced here.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• recognize situations of accelerated motion and to define acceleration as
a = vt
;
• describe a motion given a graph for that motion;
• understand that the slope of a displacement—time graph is the velocity;
• understand that the slope of a velocity—time graph is the acceleration and the
area under a velocity–time graph is the change in displacement;
• understand that the area under an acceleration—time graph is the change in
velocity;
• analyse motion from ticker tape, stroboscopic pictures and photogate data;
• solve problems of kinematics for motion in a straight line with constant
acceleration using

v = v 0 + at
x = x0 + v 0 t + 12 at 2
 
v + v0
x = x0 + t
2
v 2 = v 02 + 2ax

(It must be emphasized that these formulae only apply in the case of
motion in a straight line with constant acceleration.)

Acceleration is the definition of the instantaneous

acceleration. We will mostly be interested in
To treat situations in which velocity is not situations where the acceleration is constant, in
constant we need to define acceleration a. If the which case the instantaneous acceleration and
velocity changes by v in a very short interval the average acceleration are the same thing.
of time t then Such a motion is called uniformly accelerated
motion. In this case the intervals v and t do
v
a= not have to be infinitesimally small. Then
t

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.2 Motion with constant acceleration 49

v t=0s t=1s t=2s

a= 2ms–1 4ms–1 6ms–1
t
v − v0
= t=0s t=1s t=2s
t −0 12ms–1 8ms–1 4ms–1
where t is the total time taken for the trip, v Figure 2.1 In the top part the acceleration is positive.
the final velocity and v 0 the initial velocity. In the bottom part the acceleration is negative.

Similarly, in the top part of Figure 2.2 the velocity

In this case, by rewriting the last equation is increasing (15 m s1 is larger than 20 m s1)
we find and so the acceleration is positive. In the bottom
v = v 0 + at part the velocity is decreasing (8 m s1 is less
This is the formula that gives the velocity than 5 m s1) and so the acceleration is
at a time of t seconds after the start of the negative. In the second case note that the speed
motion in terms of the (constant) (i.e. the magnitude of velocity) is increasing even
acceleration a and the initial velocity. though the acceleration is negative.

–10 m s–1 –15 m s–1 –20 m s–1

If we put a = 0 in this formula, we find that
v = v 0 at all times. The velocity does not change
since there is no acceleration. t=2s t=1s t=0s

Example question –11 m s–1 –8 m s–1 –5 m s–1

Q1
An object starting with an initial velocity of
t=2s t=1s t=0s
2.0 m s1 undergoes constant acceleration. After
Figure 2.2 In the top diagram the acceleration is
5.0 s its velocity is found to be 12.0 m s1. What positive. In the bottom it is negative.
is the acceleration?

Answer Acceleration due to gravity

From v = v0 + at we find We encounter a very special acceleration when
12 = 2 + a × 5 an object is dropped or thrown. This is an
⇒ a = 2.0 m s−2 acceleration that acts on all objects and has the
same magnitude for all bodies independently of
their mass. This assumes conditions of free fall –
For motion in a straight line, positive
that is, only gravity is acting on the body. Air
acceleration means that the velocity is
resistance, friction and other forces are assumed
increasing whereas negative acceleration
absent. Under these conditions (as will be
implies a decreasing velocity.
discussed in detail in later chapters) all objects
experience the same acceleration. On earth
In solving problems it is sometimes confusing the magnitude of this acceleration is about
to decide whether the acceleration is positive or 9.8 m s2, a number we will often approximate
negative. The only criterion is whether the to 10 m s2 for convenience. We always use the
acceleration increases or decreases the velocity symbol g for the magnitude of the acceleration
(and not speed). In the top part of Figure 2.1 the due to gravity. Consider a body falling freely
velocity is increasing and so the acceleration is under gravity. We take, as is customary, the
positive. (The direction of positive velocities is upward direction to be the direction of positive
taken to be toward the right.) In the bottom velocities. On the way up the velocity is
part the velocity is decreasing and thus the decreasing, hence we state that the acceleration
acceleration is negative. due to gravity is negative. On the way down the
© Cambridge University Press 2008
50 Core – Mechanics

velocity is still decreasing (12.0 m s1 is less Answer

than 2 m s1) and so the acceleration due to Applying the equation v = v0 + at we get the
gravity is negative on the way down as well as results shown in Table 2.1.
on the way up (see Figure 2.3). (On the way down
the speed is increasing.)
Time/s 1 2 3 4 5 6 10
1
direction of way up way down Velocity/m s 6 4 2 0 2 4 12
positive velocities 10.0 m s−1
−2 m s−1 Table 2.1.
t = 1s
1 s later
20.0 m s−1 This means that the body stops instantaneously at
−12.0 m s−1
t = 0s t = 4 s and then continues moving. We do not
Figure 2.3 Motion in a vertical straight line under need to know the initial position of the body to
gravity. If the upward direction is the positive solve this problem. Note also that the acceleration
direction for velocity, then the acceleration due is positive and hence the velocity must be
to gravity is negative for both the way up as well
as the way down. increasing. This is indeed the case as shown in
Table 2.1 (e.g. 4 m s1 is larger than 6 m s1).
However, the speed decreases from t = 0 s to
If we had decided, instead, to take the downward
t = 4 s and increases from t = 4 s onwards.
direction as the direction of positive velocities,
then the acceleration due to gravity would have
been positive for both the way up and the way In motion with constant positive acceleration
down. Can you verify yourself that this is the case? the graph showing the variation of velocity
with time is one of the three in Figure 2.4.
Example question
This represents a mass moving towards the
Q2
right with increasing velocity. This is the graph
An object initially at x = 12 m has initial velocity
of the equation v = v 0 + at .
of 8 m s1 and experiences a constant
acceleration of 2 m s2. Find the velocity at The first graph of Figure 2.5 represents a mass
t = 1 s, 2 s, 3 s, 4 s, 5 s, 6 s and 10 s. that starts moving to the right (velocity is

v v v

v0

t t t
v0
Figure 2.4 Graphs showing the variation of velocity with time when the
acceleration is constant and positive. In the graphs above, the only difference
is that the initial velocity v 0 is positive, zero and negative, respectively.

v v v
v0

t t v0 t

Figure 2.5 Graphs showing the variation of velocity with time when the
acceleration is constant and negative. In the graphs above, the only difference
is that the initial velocity v 0 is positive, zero and negative, respectively.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.2 Motion with constant acceleration 51

positive) but is decelerating (negative We can improve the approximation

acceleration). At a specific time the mass stops tremendously by taking more and thinner
instantaneously and begins moving again steps, as shown in Figure 2.7.
towards the left (negative velocity).

v
The acceleration can be found from the
velocity–time graph by taking the slope of
the graph. We see this directly by
comparing v = v 0 + at and the standard
equation for a straight line, y = c + mx . t
If the acceleration is not uniform, the Figure 2.7 The approximation is made better by
velocity–time graph will not be a straight considering more steps.
line. The acceleration at a given point is
found by first drawing a tangent to the
Clearly, the approximation can be made as
curve at the point of interest. The slope of
accurate as we like by choosing more and more
the tangent is the acceleration at that
(and thus thinner and thinner) steps.
point.
The point of the approximation is that during
each step the velocity is constant. In each step,
In the case of uniform motion (no acceleration) the displacement increases by the area under
the area under a velocity–time graph gave the the step, as we showed in the case of uniform
change in displacement. We would like to know motion. To find the total change in
if a similar result holds in the case of displacement for the entire trip we must thus
accelerated motion as well. add up the areas under all steps. But this gives
the area under the original straight line! So we
To do this we will make use of what we learned have managed to show that:
in uniform motion together with a little trick.
Consider the velocity–time graph of an
accelerated motion in Figure 2.6. The trick Even in the case of accelerated motion, the
consists of approximating this motion with change in displacement is the area under
another motion in four steps. We will assume the velocity–time graph, just as in uniform
that during each of the steps the velocity is motion. (See Figure 2.8.)
constant. The velocity then changes abruptly to
a new constant value in the next step. The
v
approximation is shown in the figure. Clearly,
this is a very crude approximation of the actual
motion.

v t
Figure 2.8 The area under the graph is the
change in displacement.

t
Using this result we can now find a formula for
Figure 2.6 The velocity is assumed to increase the displacement after time t. We are given a
abruptly and then remain constant for a period velocity–time graph with constant acceleration
of time. (a straight-line graph in a v–t diagram).
© Cambridge University Press 2008
52 Core – Mechanics

We want to find the area under the line from equation for time
t = 0 to a time of ts. Since the area we have is
v − v0
the shape of a trapezoid, the area is the sum t=
a
of two parallel bases times height divided by
two: and using this value of time in the second
  equation:
v + v0
area = t
2 v − v 0 1 (v − v 0 )2
x = x0 + v 0 + a
This actually gives a useful formula for a 2 a2
displacement for motion with constant 2a(x − x0 ) = 2v 0 v − 2v 02 + v 2 + v 02 − 2vv 0
acceleration. If x0 is the initial displacement
  i.e.
v + v0
x = x0 t v 2 = v 02 + 2a(x − x0 )
2
This is useful when we know the initial and If the initial displacement is zero, then this
final velocities but not the acceleration. reduces to the simpler

However, we do know that v = v 0 + at and so v 2 = v 02 + 2ax

the area (i.e. the change in displacement after
time t) is Example questions

v 0 + at + v 0 Q3
area = ×t A mass has an initial velocity of 10.0 m s1. It
2
moves with acceleration 2.00 m s2. When will
= v 0 t + 12 at 2
it have zero velocity?
Thus, the displacement after time t is this area
Answer
added to the initial displacement, that is
We start with
x = x0 + v 0 t + 12 at 2
v = v0 + at
(We see that when the acceleration is zero, this
formula becomes identical to the one we v=0 and so
derived earlier for constant velocity, namely 0 = v0 + at
x = x0 + v 0 t.) Note that this formula says that
Putting in the numbers we get
when t = 0, x = x0 as it should.
0 = 10 + (−2.00)t
In the previous section an analysis of velocity–
time graphs for motion in a straight line so t = 5.00 s.
allowed us to derive the basic formulae for such Q4
motion: What is the displacement after 10.0 s of a mass
whose initial velocity is 2.00 m s1 and moves
v = v 0 + at
with acceleration a = 4.00 m s2?
x = x0 + v 0 t + 12 at 2
Answer
or
  We assume that the initial displacement is zero so
v + v0 that x0 = 0 .
x= t
2
x = x0 + v0 t + 12 at 2
All of these involve time. In some cases, it is
useful to have a formula that involves velocity so
and displacement without any reference to x = 0 + 2 × 10 + 1
2
× 4 × 10 2
time. This can be done by solving the first = 220 m
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.2 Motion with constant acceleration 53

Q5 Answer
A car has an initial velocity of v0 = 5.0 m s1. See Figure 2.9.
When its displacement increases by 20.0 m, its
velocity becomes 7.0 m s1. What is the t = 0, slow ball starts
acceleration?

Answer t=2s

Again take x0 = 0 so that

v 2 = v02 + 2ax t = 4 s, fast ball starts

So 72 = 52 + 2a × 20 Figure 2.9.
therefore
a = 0.60 m s−2 Let the two balls meet t s after the first ball starts
moving. The displacement of the slow ball is
Q6
x = 4t m and that travelled by the fast ball
A body has initial velocity v0 = 4.0 m s−1 and
5(t − 4) m. The factor t − 4 is there since after t s
a velocity of v = 12 m s−1 after 6.0 s. What
the fast ball has actually been moving for only
displacement did the body cover in the 6.0 s?
t − 4 s. These two displacements are equal when
Answer the two balls meet and thus 4t = 5t − 20 , or
We may use t = 20 s. The common displacement is thus 80 m.

  Q8
v + v0
x= t A mass is thrown upwards with an initial velocity
2
of 30 m s1. A second mass is dropped from
to get directly above, a height of 60 m from the first
  mass, 0.5 s later. When do the masses meet and
12 + 4
x= 6 how high is the point where they meet?
2
= 48 m Answer
See Figure 2.10. We choose the upward direction
This is faster than using v = v0 + at in order to
to be positive for velocities and displacements.
find the acceleration as
The masses experience an acceleration of
12 = 4 + 6a 10 m s2, the acceleration due to gravity. Since
⇒ a = 1.333 m s−2 the motion is along a vertical straight line, we use
the symbol y for displacement rather than x .
and then

x = v0 t + 12 at 60 m mass 2
1
=4×6+ 2
× 1.333 × 36
= 48 m
y-axis
The two examples that follow involve motions
that start at different times.

Q7
positive
Two balls start out moving to the right with
displacements
constant velocities of 5 m s1 and 4 m s1. The
slow ball starts first and the other 4 s later. How
mass 1
far from the starting position are they when they
meet? Figure 2.10.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
54 Core – Mechanics

The first mass moves to a displacement given by Example question

y1 = 30t − 5t 2 . The second moves to a displacement Q9
of y2 = 60 − 5(t − 0.5)2 . The displacements are An object with initial velocity 20 m s1 and initial
the same when the masses meet. Thus displacement of 75 m experiences an
30t − 5t 2 = 60 − 5(t − 0.5)2 acceleration of 2 m s2. Draw the displacement–
⇒ t = 2.35 s time graph for this motion for the first 20 s.

The common displacement at this time is 42.9 m. Answer

The displacement is given by x = −75 + 20t − t 2
and this is the function we must graph. The result
Graphs of acceleration versus time is shown in Figure 2.13.
In a graph of acceleration versus time the area
x/m
under the graph gives the change in velocity.
In Figure 2.11 the area from time zero to 4 s is
20
12 m s1 and thus the velocity after 4 s is 12 m s1
plus whatever initial velocity the object had. 0 t/s
5 10 15 20
−20
a/m s−2
−40
4 −60

2
Figure 2.13.

t/s At 5 s the object reaches the origin and

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 overshoots it. It returns to the origin 10 s later
Figure 2.11 The area under an acceleration–time (t = 15 s). The furthest it gets from the origin
graph is the change in velocity.
on the right side is 25 m. The velocity at 5 s is
10 m s1 and at 15 s it is 10 m s1. At 10 s the
Graphs of displacement versus time velocity is zero.
In motion with constant acceleration, a graph
of displacement versus time is a parabola. In general, if the velocity is not constant, the
Consider a ball that is dropped from rest from a graph of displacement with time will be a
height of 20 m. The graph of displacement curve. Drawing the tangent at a point on the
versus time is shown in Figure 2.12. curve and finding the slope of the tangent gives
the velocity at that point.
y/m
20
Measuring speed and
15
acceleration
10 The speed of an object is determined
experimentally by measuring the distance
5 travelled by the object in an interval of time.
Dividing the distance by the time taken gives
the average speed. To get as close an
t/s
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 approximation to the instantaneous speed as
Figure 2.12 Graph of displacement versus time. possible, we must make the time interval as
The object hits the floor at 2 s. small as possible. We can measure speed
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.2 Motion with constant acceleration 55

electronically by attaching a piece of cardboard between those two dots is

of known length to the object so that a single
0.75
photogate will record the time taken for that v= cm s−1
1/50
known length to go through the photogate, as
in Figure 2.14. The ratio of the cardboard length = 0.375 m s−1
to time taken is the speed of the object when it The distance between dots 2 and 3 is 1.25 cm
is halfway through the photogate. and so the average speed between those dots is

1.25
v= cm s−1
length of cardboard 1/50
photogate
= 0.625 m s−1
timer Between dots 3 and 4 the distance is 1.5 cm and
so
Figure 2.14 Measuring speed with a photogate. 1.5
v= cm s−1
1/50
Speed can also be measured with a tickertape, = 0.750 m s−1
an instrument that makes marks on a paper
We may thus take the average speed between
tape at regular intervals of time (usually 50
t = 0 s and t = 1/50 s to be 0.375 m s1,
marks per second). If one end of the tape is
between t = 1/50 s and t = 2/50 s to be
attached to the moving object and the other
0.625 m s1 and between t = 2/50 s and
end goes through the marker, then to find the
t = 3/50 s to be 0.750 m s1. Thus the average
speed at a particular point we would measure
acceleration in the first 1/50 s is 12.5 m s2
the distance between two consecutive marks
and in the next 1/50 s it is 6.25 m s2. The
(distance travelled by the object) and divide by
acceleration is thus not constant for this
the time taken (1/50 s). In Figure 2.15 the
motion.
dotted lines are supposed to be 0.5 cm apart.
Then the top tape represents uniform motion The third tape shows decelerated motion.
with speed
Related to the tickertape method is that of a
0.5
v= cm s−1 stroboscopic picture (see Figure 2.16). Here the
1/50 moving body is photographed in rapid
= 25 cm s−1 succession with a constant, known interval of
= 0.25 m s−1 time between pictures. The images are then
developed on the same photograph, giving a
multiple exposure picture of the motion.
Measuring the distances covered in the known
time interval allows a measurement of speed.

Figure 2.15 Measuring speed with a tickertape.

In the second tape the moving object is

accelerating. The distance between the first two
dots is about 0.75 cm so the average speed Figure 2.16 Measuring speed with a stroboscope.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
56 Core – Mechanics

Once measurement of speed is possible, it climbs the hill and then speed up on the way
acceleration can also be determined. To down until it reaches its original speed on the
measure the acceleration at a specific time, t , level part. The second mass will first speed up
one must first measure the velocity a short on the way down the hill and slow down to its
interval of time before t, say t − T /2 and again original speed when it reaches the level part.
a short time after t, t + T /2 (see Figure 2.17). If Let us make the v−t graph for each mass. The
the values of velocity found are respectively u graphs for A and B must look like Figure 2.19.
and v, then
velocity
v −u
a= A
T
A

time t – T/2 time t time t + T/2 time

velocity B

velocity, u velocity, v
Figure 2.17 Measuring acceleration requires
knowing the velocity at two separate points in time
time. Figure 2.19.

It is then obvious that since the areas under the

More on graphs two curves must be the same (same displacement)
the graph for B must stop earlier: that is, B gets
In kinematics the most useful graph is that of to the end first. The same conclusion is reached
velocity versus time (v−t). The slope of such a more quickly if we notice that the average
graph gives the acceleration and the area under speed in case B is higher and so the time taken
the graph gives the change in displacement. is less since the distance is the same.
Let's examine this in detail. Consider the
following problem, which is hard to solve with Consider the following question. The graph of
equations but is quite easy using a v−t graph. velocity versus time for two objects is given in
Two masses, A and B, are to follow the paths Figure 2.20. Both have the same initial and final
shown in Figure 2.18. The paths are the same velocity. Which object has the largest average
length, but one involves a hill and the other a velocity?
valley.
v/m s−1
A
4
A
B
2

B
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
t/s

Figure 2.18 Which mass gets to the end first? They Figure 2.20 Graph showing the variation of
both travel the same distance. velocity with time for two motions that have the
same initial and final velocity.

Which mass will get to the end first? Average velocity is the ratio of total
(Remember, the distance travelled is the same.) displacement divided by time taken. Clearly,
We know that the first mass will slow down as object A has a larger displacement (larger area
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.2 Motion with constant acceleration 57

under curve). Thus, it has a larger average a

velocity. The point is that you cannot say that
average velocity is half of the sum of initial and
final velocities. (Why? Under what circumstances
can you say it?)

Consider finally the graph in Figure 2.21, which

shows the variation of the displacement of an t/s
object with time. We would like to obtain the 0 1 2 3 4
graph showing the variation of the velocity Figure 2.23 Graph showing the variation of
with time. acceleration with time for the motion in
Figure 2.21.

Questions

In the graphs in this section, the point where

0 t/s the axes cross is the origin unless otherwise
1 2 3 4
indicated.
1 The initial velocity of a car moving on a
straight road is 2.0 m s1 and becomes
Figure 2.21 Graph showing the variation of 8.0 m s1 after travelling for 2.0 s under
displacement with time. constant acceleration. What is the acceleration?
2 A plane starting from rest takes 15.0 s to
Our starting point is that velocity is the slope of take off after speeding over a distance of
the displacement–time graph. We see that initially 450.0 m on the runway with constant
the slope is negative, it becomes less negative acceleration. With what velocity does it
and at t = 2 s it is zero. From then on the slope take off?
becomes increasingly positive. This leads to the 3 The acceleration of a car is assumed constant
velocity–time graph in Figure 2.22. at 1.5 m s2. How long will it take the car to
accelerate from 5.0 m s1 to 11 m s1?
v 4 A car accelerates from rest to 28 m s1 in
9.0 s. What distance does it travel?
5 A body has an initial velocity of 12 m s1 and
is brought to rest over a distance of 45 m.
What is the acceleration of the body?
6 A body at the origin has an initial velocity of
0 t/s
1 2 3 4 6.0 m s1 and moves with an acceleration of
2.0 m s2. When will its displacement
become 16 m?
Figure 2.22 Graph showing the variation of
velocity with time for the motion in Figure 2.21. 7 A body has an initial velocity of 3.0 m s1
and after travelling 24 m the velocity becomes
The slope of the velocity–time graph is acceleration 13 m s1. How long did this take?
and from the graph we see that the slope is 8 What deceleration does a passenger of a car
initially zero but then becomes more and more experience if his car, which is moving at
positive. Hence, the acceleration–time graph 100.0 km h1, hits a wall and is brought to
must be something like Figure 2.23. rest in 0.100 s? Express the answer in m s2.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
58 Core – Mechanics

9 A car is travelling at 40.0 m s1. The driver 13 A window is 1.50 m high. A stone falling from
sees an emergency ahead and 0.50 s later above passes the top of the window with a
slams on the brakes. The acceleration of the speed of 3.00 m s1. When will it pass the
car is 4 m s2. bottom of the window? (Take the acceleration
(a) What distance will the car travel before it due to gravity to be 10.0 m s2.)
stops? 14 A ball is dropped from rest from a height of
(b) If the driver was able to apply the brakes 20.0 m. One second later a second ball is
instantaneously without a reaction time, thrown vertically downwards. If the two balls
over what distance would the car stop? arrive on the ground at the same time, what
(c) Calculate the difference in your answers to must have been the initial velocity of the
(a) and (b). second ball?
(d) Assume now that the car was travelling at 15 A ball is dropped from rest from the top of a
30.0 m s1 instead. Without performing 40.0 m building. A second ball is thrown
any calculations, would the answer to (c) downward 1.0 s later.
now be less than, equal to or larger than (a) If they hit the ground at the same time,
before? Explain your answer. find the speed with which the second ball
10 A ball is thrown upwards with a speed of was thrown.
24.0 m s1. (b) What is the ratio of the speed of the
(a) When is the velocity of the ball 12.0 m s1? thrown ball to the speed of the other as
(b) When is the velocity of the ball they hit the ground?
12.0 m s1? (Take the acceleration due to gravity to be
(c) What is the displacement of the ball at 10.0 m s2.)
those times? 16 Two balls are dropped from rest from the same
(d) What is the velocity of the ball 1.50 s after height. One of the balls is dropped 1.00 s after
launch? the other. What distance separates the two
(e) What is the maximum height reached by balls 2.00 s after the second ball is dropped?
the ball?
17 An object moves in a straight line with an
(Take the acceleration due to gravity to be acceleration that varies with time as shown in
10.0 m s2.) Figure 22.4. Initially the velocity of the object
11 A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an is 2.00 m s1.
initial speed of 10.0 m s1 from a cliff that is (a) Find the maximum velocity reached in the
50.0 m high. first 6.00 s of this motion.
(a) When does it reach the bottom of the cliff? (b) Draw a graph of the velocity versus time.
(b) What speed does it have just before hitting
the ground?
(c) What is the total distance travelled by the
stone?
a/m s –2
(Take the acceleration due to gravity to be
10.0 m s2.)
12 A rock is thrown vertically down from the roof
of a 25.0 m high building with a speed of 6
5.0 m s1.
3
(a) When does the rock hit the ground?
(b) With what speed does it hit the ground?
0 2 4 6
(Take the acceleration due to gravity to be t/s
10.0 m s2.) Figure 2.24 For question 17.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.2 Motion with constant acceleration 59

18 Figure 2.25 shows the variation of velocity 21 Figure 2.28 shows the variation of the
with time of an object. Find the acceleration displacement of a moving object with time.
at 2.0 s. Draw the graph showing the variation of the
velocity of the object with time.
v/m s−1 x
8

t/s t/s
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 2.25 For question 18. Figure 2.28 For question 21.

22 Figure 2.29 shows the variation of the

19 Figure 2.26 shows the variation of the
displacement of a moving object with time.
displacement of a moving object with time.
Draw the graph showing the variation of the
Draw the graph showing the variation of the
velocity of the object with time.
velocity of the object with time.
x
x

t/s t/s
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Figure 2.26 For question 19. Figure 2.29 For question 22.

20 Figure 2.27 shows the variation of the 23 Figure 2.30 shows the variation of the
displacement of a moving object with time. displacement of a moving object with time.
Draw the graph showing the variation of the Draw the graph showing the variation of the
velocity of the object with time. velocity of the object with time.
x
x

0 t/s
1 2 3 4 5 6

t/s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 2.27 For question 20. Figure 2.30 For question 23.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

60 Core – Mechanics

24 Figure 2.31 shows the variation of the velocity 27 Figure 2.34 shows the variation of the velocity
of a moving object with time. Draw the graph of a moving object with time. Draw the graph
showing the variation of the displacement of showing the variation of the displacement of
the object with time. the object with time (assuming a zero initial
displacement).
v
v/m s–1

12

0 t/s
0.5 1 1.5 2
0 5 10 t/s
Figure 2.31 For question 24.
Figure 2.34 For question 27.

25 Figure 2.32 shows the variation of the velocity

of a moving object with time. Draw the graph 28 Figure 2.35 shows the variation of the velocity
showing the variation of the displacement of of a moving object with time. Draw the graph
the object with time. showing the variation of the acceleration of
the object with time.
v
v

0 t/s
0.5 1 1.5 2
0 t/s
1 2 3 4

Figure 2.32 For question 25.

Figure 2.35 For question 28.
26 Figure 2.33 shows the variation of the velocity
of a moving object with time. Draw the graph 29 Figure 2.36 shows the variation of the velocity
showing the variation of the displacement of of a moving object with time. Draw the graph
the object with time (assuming a zero initial showing the variation of the acceleration of
displacement). the object with time.

v v

t/s t/s
0 1 2 3 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Figure 2.33 For question 26. Figure 2.36 For question 29.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.2 Motion with constant acceleration 61

30 Your brand new convertible Ferrari is parked the same as the speed just after impact.
15 m from its garage when it begins to rain. Assume that the time of contact with the
You do not have time to get the keys so you floor is negligibly small.
begin to push the car towards the garage. If (b) A cart slides with negligible friction along
the maximum acceleration you can give the a horizontal air track. When the cart hits
car is 2.0 m s2 by pushing and 3.0 m s2 by the ends of the air track it reverses
pulling back on the car, find the least time it direction with the same speed it had right
takes to put the car in the garage. (Assume before impact. Assume the time of contact
that the car, as well as the garage, are point of the cart and the ends of the air track is
objects.) negligibly small.
31 Figure 2.37 shows the displacement versus (c) A person jumps from a hovering
time of an object moving in a straight line. helicopter. After a few seconds she opens
Four points on this graph have been selected. a parachute. Eventually she will reach a
(a) Is the velocity between A and B positive, terminal speed and will then land.
zero or negative? 34 A cart with a sail on it is given an initial velocity
(b) What can you say about the velocity and moves toward the right where, from some
between B and C? distance away, a fan blows air at the sail (see
(c) Is the acceleration between A and B Figure 2.38). The fan is powerful enough to stop
positive, zero or negative? the cart before the cart reaches the position of
(d) Is the acceleration between C and D the fan. Make a graph of the velocity of the cart
positive, zero or negative? as a function of time that best represents the
motion just described. List any assumptions you
x made in drawing your graph.
D
A

B C

t
Figure 2.37 For question 31.

32 A hiker starts climbing a mountain at 08:00 in

the morning and reaches the top at 12:00 Figure 2.38 For question 34.
(noon). He spends the night on the mountain
and the next day at 08:00 starts on the way 35 A stone is thrown vertically up from the edge
down following exactly the same path. He of a cliff 35.0 m from the ground. The initial
reaches the bottom of the mountain at 12:00. velocity of the stone is 8.00 m s1. (See
Prove that there must be a time between Figure 2.39.)
08:00 and 12:00 when the hiker was at the
same spot along the route on the way up and v = 8.00 m s–1
on the way down.
33 Make velocity–time sketches (no numbers are
necessary on the axes) for the following
motions. 35.0 m

(a) A ball is dropped from a certain height

and bounces off a hard floor. The speed
just before each impact with the floor is Figure 2.39 For question 35.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
62 Core – Mechanics

(a) How high will the stone get? (b) When does the rocket reach the ground
(b) When will it hit the ground? again?
(c) What velocity will it have just before (c) Sketch a graph to show the variation of the
hitting the ground? velocity of the rocket with time from the
(d) What distance will the stone have covered? time of launch to the time it falls to the
(e) What is the average speed and average ground.
velocity for this motion? (Take the acceleration due to gravity to be
(f) Make a graph to show the variation of 10.0 m s2.)
velocity with time.
38 A hot air balloon is rising vertically at constant
(g) Make a graph to show the variation of
speed 5.0 m s1. A sandbag is released and it
displacement with time.
hits the ground 12.0 s later.
(Take the acceleration due to gravity to be (a) With what speed does the sandbag hit the
10.0 m s2.) ground?
36 A ball is thrown upward from the edge of a (b) How high was the balloon when the
cliff with velocity 20.0 m s1. It reaches the sandbag was released?
bottom of the cliff 6.0 s later. (c) What is the relative velocity of the
(a) How high is the cliff? sandbag with respect to the balloon 6.0 s
(b) With what speed does the ball hit the after it was dropped?
ground? (Assume that the balloon's velocity increased
37 A rocket accelerates vertically upwards from to 5.5 m s1 after releasing the sandbag.
rest with a constant acceleration of Take the acceleration due to gravity to be
4.00 m s2. The fuel lasts for 5.00 s. 10.0 m s2.)
(a) What is the maximum height achieved by
this rocket?

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER 2.3 Core – Mechanics

The concept of force

Two basic ingredients of mechanics are the concepts of mass and force. A force can
deform, stretch, rotate or compress a body and is intimately connected to the
acceleration it can produce on a body (the relation between acceleration and force will
be the detailed subject of a later chapter). Mass is a measure of the amount of material
in a body, measured in kilograms; in classical mechanics the mass of an object is a
constant. There are different kinds of forces in nature; the most common force of
everyday life is the force of gravitation – the force with which the earth pulls us towards
the centre of the earth. We give this force a special name: the weight of a body. We don’t
fall to the centre of the earth because the ground on which we stand exerts another
force on us, upwards – a force due to the contact between ourselves and the ground. The
origin of this force is electromagnetic. This is also the force that keeps us alive (atoms
exist and bind into molecules because of this force), and prevents the chair on which you
are sitting from collapsing, and so on. These are the only forces that affect our daily lives.
It turns out that the electromagnetic force is just one very special aspect of a more
general force, called the electroweak force. The other aspect of this force (the weak
nuclear force) is responsible for decay processes inside atomic nuclei. Finally, the colour
force, or strong nuclear force, keeps the quarks bound inside protons and neutrons.
Physicists hope that the electroweak force and the nuclear force will one day be shown
to be different aspects of one more general force (the ‘unified force’) but this has not
yet been accomplished. An even more speculative expectation is that the gravitational
force, too, will be shown to be part of an even more unified force, whose different
aspects we see as the three different forces today. But none of these attempts for a
complete unification has been achieved yet. Apart from the gravitational, electroweak
and colour force, no other forces, or interactions, are known at the present time.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• state the difference between mass and weight;
• define gravitational field strength and give its units (N kg1 or m s2);
• draw vectors representing forces acting on a given body;
• identify situations in which frictional forces develop and draw those
frictional forces;
• use Hooke’s law correctly, T = kx .

© Cambridge University Press 2008

64 Core – Mechanics

Forces and their direction The mass of an object is the same everywhere
in the universe, but its weight depends on the
A force is a vector quantity. Its direction is very location of the body. For example, a mass of
important and it is crucial to be able to identify 70 kg has a weight of 687 N on the surface of
the direction of a given force. What follows is a the earth ( g = 9.81 N kg1) and a weight of
list of the forces we will be dealing with in this 635 N at a height of 250 km from the earth’s
and later chapters, as well as a discussion of surface (where g = 9.07 N kg1). However, on the
their properties and direction. The unit of force surface of Venus, where the gravitational field
is the newton; this will be properly defined strength is only 8.9 N kg1, the weight is 623 N.
when we discuss the second law of mechanics.
Tension
Weight A string that is taut is said to be under tension.
This force is the result of the gravitational The force that arises in any body when it is
attraction between the mass in question and stretched is called tension. This force is the
the mass of the earth. (If the body finds itself result of electromagnetic interactions between
on a different planet then its weight is defined the molecules of the material making up the
as the gravitational attraction between its mass string. A tension force in a string is created when
and that planet’s mass.) The weight of a body is two forces are applied in opposite directions at
the gravitational force experienced by that the ends of the string (see Figure 3.2).
body, which on earth is given by the formula T T
W = mg
Figure 3.2 A tension force in a string.
where
To say that there is tension in a string means
• m is the mass of the body measured in
that an arbitrary point on the string is acted
kilograms
upon by two forces (the tension T) as shown in
• g is the gravitational field strength of the Figure 3.3. If the string hangs from a ceiling
earth, which is a property of the gravitational and a mass m is tied at the other end, tension
field of the earth (see Chapter 2.10). Its units develops in the string. At the point of support
are newton per kilogram, N kg1. The at the ceiling, the tension force pulls down on
gravitational field strength is also known as the ceiling and at the point where the mass is
‘the acceleration due to gravity’. The units tied the tension acts upwards on the mass.
of g are thus also m s2.

If m is in kg and g in N kg1 or m s2 then W is T

in newtons, N. On the surface of the earth,
g = 9.81 N kg1 – a number that we will often
approximate by the more convenient 10 N kg1.
T
This force is always directed vertically
downward, as shown in Figure 3.1. P

W T

m
earth mg
Figure 3.1 The weight of an object is always
directed vertically downward. Figure 3.3 The tension is directed along the string.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.3 The concept of force 65

In most cases we will idealize the string by R

assuming it is massless. This does not mean R
that the string really is massless, but rather that
its mass is so small compared with any other
masses in the problem that we can neglect it. In W W
that case, the tension T is the same at all points
on the string. The direction of the tension force R
is along the string. Further examples of tension
forces in a string are given in Figure 3.4. A string R
or rope that is not taut has zero tension in it. W W

string over
pulley

contact contact
force forces

T T
T

W T Figure 3.5 Examples of reaction forces, R.

W2
W

are directed opposite to the velocity of the body

and in general depend on the speed of the body.
W1 The higher the speed, the higher the drag force.
string is slack. T = 0

drag

motion
W Figure 3.6 The drag force on a moving car.
Figure 3.4 More examples of tension forces.

Upthrust
Normal reaction (contact) forces
Any object placed in a fluid experiences an
If a body touches another body, there is a force of
upward force called upthrust (see Figure 3.7). If
reaction or contact force between the two bodies.
the upthrust force equals the weight of the
This force is perpendicular to the body exerting
body, the body will float in the fluid. If the
the force. Like tension, the origin of this force is
also electromagnetic. In Figure 3.5 we show the
reaction force on several bodies.
upthrust

Drag forces
Drag forces are forces that oppose the motion of upthrust
a body through a fluid (a gas or a liquid). weight

Typical examples are the air resistance force

experienced by a car (see Figure 3.6) or plane, or
the resistance force experienced by a steel weight

marble dropped into a jar of honey. Drag forces Figure 3.7 Upthrust.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
66 Core – Mechanics

upthrust is less than the weight, the body will to slide, the frictional force opposing the motion
sink. Upthrust is caused by the pressure that becomes the kinetic friction force. The kinetic
the fluid exerts on the body. friction force is always less than the maximum
value of the static friction force. This is a well-
Frictional forces known phenomenon of everyday life. It takes a
Frictional forces oppose the motion of a body. lot of force to get a heavy piece of furniture to
They are also electromagnetic in origin. (See start moving (you must exceed the maximum
Figure 3.8.) value of the static friction force), but once you
get it moving, pushing it along becomes easier
(you are now opposed by the smaller kinetic
R R
friction force).
f f F
motion
Example question
Q1
(a) W (b) W
A brick of weight 50 N rests on a horizontal
surface. The maximum frictional force that can
R f
tendency for develop between the brick and the surface is
motion down 30 N. When the brick slides on the surface, the
the plane frictional force is 10 N. A horizontal force F is
W applied to the brick, its magnitude increasing
(c) slowly from zero. Find the frictional force on the
Figure 3.8 Examples of frictional forces, f. In (a) brick for various values of F .
and (b) the motion to the right is opposed by a
frictional force to the left. In (c) the body does Answer
not move but has a tendency to move down the The maximum frictional force is 30 N. This means
plane. A frictional force directed up the plane
opposes this tendency. that as long as F is less than 30 N, the frictional
force equals F and the brick stays where it is. If F
becomes slightly more than 30 N, the frictional
force cannot match it and thus the brick will move.
Friction arises whenever one body slides over
But as soon as the brick moves, the frictional
another. In this case we speak of sliding or
force will drop to the kinetic value 10 N, for all
kinetic friction. Friction also arises whenever
values of F  30 N. We can summarize these
there is just a tendency for motion, not
results as shown in Table 3.1.
necessarily motion itself, such as when a block
rests on an inclined plane or if a block on a level
road is pulled by a small force that does not F 0N 12 N 28 N 29 N 30 N 30.01 N 40 N
result in motion. In this case, we speak of static f 0N 12 N 28 N 29 N 30 N 10 N 10 N
friction. Suppose that the plane on which the no no no no no
motion motion motion motion motion motion motion
block rests is slowly elevated (Figure 3.8c). The
block will tend to move to the left. This motion Table 3.1.
will be opposed by a frictional force. As the plane
is elevated even more, the frictional force needed
to keep the block at rest increases. However, the Frictional forces between the road and the tyres
static frictional force cannot exceed a certain are what allow a car to take a turn. Although,
maximum value. If the maximum value of the generally, frictional forces oppose the motion of
frictional force is reached and the plane is then a body, in some cases frictional forces are
elevated a bit more, the frictional force will not responsible for motion. A typical example is the
be able to keep the body in equilibrium and the wheels of a car. The engine forces the wheels to
block will slide down. As soon as the body begins turn. The wheels exert a force on the ground
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.3 The concept of force 67

and so the ground exerts an equal and opposite

force on the wheels, making them move natural length
forward. This will become clearer when we look
at Newton’s third law in a later chapter.
tension due to compression

Free-body diagrams tension due to

A free-body diagram is a diagram showing the extension
magnitude and direction of all the forces acting
on a chosen body. The body is shown on its
own, free of its surroundings and of any other Figure 3.10 The tension in a spring is proportional
bodies it may be in contact with. In Figure 3.9 and opposite to the extension.
we show three situations in which forces are
acting; below each is the corresponding free-
that the more we want to extend or compress
body diagram for the shaded bodies.
the spring, the bigger the force required to
pull or push it with. In equation form it says
that T = kx, where k is the constant of
proportionality known as the spring constant. It
varies from spring to spring. Its units are those
of force over extension: N m1.
T R
R

T
W W
W
Figure 3.9 Free-body diagrams for the bodies in
dark grey.

In any mechanics problem, it is important to be Figure 3.11 The tension in the spring is linearly
able to draw correctly the free-body diagrams proportional to the extension.
for all the bodies of interest. It is also important
that the length of the arrow representing a The extension or compression of the spring
given force is proportional to the magnitude of must not be too large, otherwise Hooke’s law
the force. isn’t applicable. The range of extensions (or
compressions) for which Hooke’s law is satisfied
is known as the elastic limit; beyond the elastic
Hooke’s law limit the relationship between tension and
If we try to extend a spring, a force pulls the extension is more complicated.
spring back to its original length; if we try to
compress a spring, again a force tries to pull the
spring back to its original length (see Figure 3.10). Questions
The force in the spring, the tension, has a simple
1 A mass swings at the end of a string like a
relationship to the amount by which the spring
pendulum. Draw the forces on the mass at:
is extended or compressed.
(a) its lowest position;
If this amount is x, then the tension T is (b) its highest position.
proportional to x (see Figure 3.11). This 2 A mass rests on a rough table and is
statement is known as Hooke’s law. This means connected by a string that goes over a pulley
© Cambridge University Press 2008
68 Core – Mechanics

7 A force of 125 N is required to extend a spring

by 2.8 cm. What force is required to stretch
the same spring by 3.2 cm?
8 A mass hangs attached to three strings, as
shown in Figure 3.16. Draw the forces on:
Figure 3.12 For question 2. (a) the hanging mass;
(b) the point where the strings join.
to a second hanging mass, as shown in
Figure 3.12. Draw the forces on each mass.
3 A mass is tied to a string and rotates in a
vertical circle, as shown in Figure 3.13. Draw
the forces on the mass when the string is
horizontal.

Figure 3.13 For question 3.

Figure 3.16 For question 8.
4 A bead rolls on the surface of a sphere, having
started from the top, as shown in Figure 3.14. 9 A spring is compressed by a certain distance
Draw the forces on the bead: and a mass is attached to its right end, as shown
(a) at the top; in Figure 3.17. The mass rests on a rough table.
(b) at the point where it is about to leave the What are the forces acting on the mass?
surface of the sphere.

Figure 3.17 For question 9.

10 A block rests on an elevator floor as shown, as

shown in Figure 3.18. The elevator is held in
Figure 3.14 For question 4.
place by a cable attached to the ceiling. Draw
5 A mass hangs at the end of a vertical spring the forces on:
which is attached to the ceiling. Draw the (a) the block;
forces on: (b) the elevator.
(a) the hanging mass;
(b) the ceiling.
6 Look at Figure 3.15. In which case is the
tension in the string largest?

50.0 N
wall

50.0 N 50.0 N

Figure 3.15 For question 6. Figure 3.18 For question 10.

© Cambridge University Press 2008
CHAPTER 2.4 Core – Mechanics

Newton’s first law

Mechanics rests on Newton’s three laws. The first law is discussed in this chapter. The
first law leads to a study of systems in equilibrium, which is a state in which the net force
on the system is zero.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• relate situations in which the acceleration is zero to equilibrium
situations in which the net force is zero;
• find the net force on a body using the methods of vector addition;
• solve problems of equilibrium.

Newton’s first law constant speed either. Force is related,

as you will see, to changes in velocity
In ancient times, Aristotle had maintained (i.e. accelerations).
that a force is what is required in order to
Newton’s first law (generalizing statements of
keep a body in motion. The higher the speed,
Galileo) states the following:
the larger the force needed. Aristotle’s idea of
force is not unreasonable and is in fact in
accordance with experience from everyday When no forces act on a body, that body will
life: it does require a force to push a piece of either remain at rest or continue to move
furniture from one corner of a room to along a straight line with constant speed.
another. What Aristotle failed to appreciate is
that everyday life is plagued by friction. An
object in motion comes to rest because of A body that moves with acceleration (i.e.
friction and thus a force is required if it is to changing speed or changing direction of
keep moving. This force is needed in order to motion) must have a force acting on it. An ice
cancel the force of friction that opposes the hockey puck slides on ice with practically no
motion. In an idealized world with no friction and will thus move with constant speed
friction, a body that is set into motion does in a straight line. A spacecraft leaving the solar
not require a force to keep it moving. Galileo, system with its engines off has no force acting
2000 years after Aristotle, was the first to on it and will continue to move in a straight
realize that the state of no motion and the line at constant speed (until it encounters
state of motion with constant speed in a another body that will attract or hit it). Using
straight line are indistinguishable from the first law, it is easy to see if a force is acting
each other. Since no force is present in the on a body. For example, the earth rotates
case of no motion, no forces are required in around the sun and thus we know at once that
the case of motion in a straight line with a force must be acting on the earth.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

70 Core – Mechanics

Newton’s first law is also called the law of physics that are different from the ones
inertia. Inertia is the reluctance of a body to discovered by the observer on the ground.
change its state of motion. Inertia keeps the
body in the same state of motion when no
forces act on the body. When a car accelerates
forward, the passengers are thrown back into
Equilibrium
their seats. If a car brakes abruptly, the When the net force on a body is zero, the body
passengers are thrown forward. This implies is said to be in equilibrium. If a body is
that a mass tends to stay in the state of motion displaced slightly from its equilibrium position,
it was in before the force acted on it. The the net force on the body may or may not be
reaction of a body to a change in its state of zero. If it is still zero, the position of
motion (acceleration) is inertia. equilibrium is called a neutral equilibrium
A well-known example of inertia is that of a position. An example is a mass resting on a
magician who very suddenly pulls the horizontal table, as in Figure 4.1.
tablecloth off a table leaving all the plates,
glasses, etc., behind on the table. The inertia
of these objects makes them ‘want’ to stay on
displaced
the table where they are. Similarly, if you pull
very suddenly on a roll of kitchen paper you
will tear off a sheet. But if you pull gently you position of neutral body still in
will only succeed in making the paper roll equilibrium equilibrium
rotate. Figure 4.1 In a position of neutral equilibrium the
net force on a body is zero. A displacement
results in another equilibrium position.
Inertial frames of reference
A system on which no forces act is called an
inertial frame of reference. Inertial reference
frames played a crucial role in the history of On the other hand, if after displacing the body
physics: observers belonging to different from its equilibrium position the net force is
inertial frames will come up with the same no longer zero, then we distinguish two kinds
laws of physics. For example, an observer at of equilibrium in the original position. If the
rest on the surface of the earth is an net force in the displaced position tends to
(approximate) inertial reference frame. (We move the body back towards the initial
say approximate, since the earth rotates equilibrium position, then we speak of stable
about its axis as well as around the sun – but equilibrium. If, on the other hand, the force on
these motions produce small accelerations the body tends to make it move even further
and over a short interval of time we can from the initial position, we speak of unstable
ignore them.) A passenger on a train that equilibrium (see Figure 4.2).
moves with constant velocity relative to an
observer on the earth is also an inertial
reference frame. The two observers will
stable
discover the same laws of physics by unstable
performing experiments in their respective
frames. There is no experiment that the Figure 4.2 In unstable equilibrium the net force
on the body is zero, but a small displacement
observer on the train can perform whose results in motion away from the equilibrium
result will be to determine that the train is position. In stable equilibrium, the motion is
moving. Nor will he ever discover laws of back towards the equilibrium position.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.4 Newton’s first law 71

Note that an equilibrium position can be Let us look at a slightly less trivial example. A
both stable and unstable at the same time. 20.0 N weight hangs from strings as shown in
For example, a mass on a surface that Figure 4.4. We want to find the tension in each
resembles a saddle is in equilibrium if placed string.
at the centre of the saddle. The equilibrium
is stable or unstable depending on the
direction in which the mass is then
S R S
displaced. R
30° 45°
Equilibrium of a point particle means that T T
the net force on the point is zero. To find the T T
net force we must use the methods of vector
addition, and here we will exclusively use 20.0 N
20.0 N
the component method. We choose a set of
Figure 4.4 Free-body diagrams for joining
axes whose origin is the point body in
point and hanging mass.
question and find the components of all the
forces on the body. As promised in Chapter 1.4,
we will use only positive components. Then
the sum of the x components to the ‘right’
We call the tensions in the three strings T, R
must equal the sum of the x components
and S. The point where the strings meet is in
to the ‘left’, and the sum of the y components
equilibrium and so the net force from these
‘up’ must equal the sum of the y components
three tensions is zero. Getting components
‘down’. Let us look at a simple example.
along the horizontal and vertical directions we
A block of weight 10.0 N rests on a horizontal
have:
table. What is the normal reaction on the
block from the table? Figure 4.3 shows the
forces on the block, which is assumed to be a Tx = 0
point object. The dotted lines represent the Ty = T ‘down’
axes along which we will take components. R x = R cos 30◦
There are no forces with horizontal
= 0.866R ‘left’
components. In the vertical direction the
R y = R sin 30◦
component of R is simply R in the ‘up’
= 0.500R ‘up’
direction. The 10.0 N force has a component
Sx = S cos 45◦
of 10.0 N in the ‘down’ direction. Equating
the up with the down components we find = 0.707S ‘right’
R = 10.0 N. Sy = S sin 45◦
= 0.707S ‘up’

We thus have
R free-body
R diagram

0.866R = 0.707S
0.707S + 0.500R = T
10.0 N
10.0 N
Equilibrium of the hanging mass demands,
Figure 4.3 The forces acting on a block resting on however, that T = 20.0 N. Thus we can find
a table. R = 14.6 N and S = 17.9 N.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

72 Core – Mechanics

Example questions
50.0 N
Q1 S
R R
A mass m  10.0 kg hangs from two strings f 30°
which are attached to the ceiling as shown in T
Figure 4.5. What is the tension in each string? 50.0 N T

y 12.0 N
T S

T 60° 40° S 50.0 N S

R
R
x
T
f
mg mg T
50.0 N

Figure 4.5.
12.0 N
Figure 4.6.
Answer
The three forces acting on m are as shown, with T
and S being the tensions in the two strings. Taking
components about horizontal and vertical axes Sx = S cos 30 ◦
through m we find (here we will make use of only = 0.866 S ‘right’
positive components) Tx  T cos 30°  0.87T to the
S y = S sin 30 ◦
left, Ty  T sin 30°  0.50T up, Sx  S cos 50° 
= 0.500 S ‘up’
0.64S to the right, Sy  S sin 50°  0.77S up. The
weight mg is already along one of the axes: it has a
Equilibrium then demands that
component mg  100 N down. Equilibrium thus
demands (net force has zero x and y components) R = 0.866 S
0.87T = 0.64 S 0.500 S = T
0.50T + 0.77 S = 100 = 12.0

from which we find T = 65.3 N and S = 87.9 N. since T  12.0 N by the equilibrium of the hanging
mass. We can thus find S  24.0 N and so R 
Q2
20.8 N. Demanding now equilibrium for the block
A block of weight 50.0 N rests on a rough
on the table, we see that the frictional force must
horizontal table and is attached by strings to a
equal R, i.e. 20.8 N.
hanging mass of weight 12.0 N, as shown in
Figure 4.6. Find the force of friction between the Q3
block and the table if the block on the table is in A mass of 125 g is attached to a spring of spring
equilibrium. constant k  58 N m1 that is hanging vertically.
(a) Find the extension of the spring.
Answer
(b) If the mass and the spring are placed on the
The diagram shows the forces acting on the block moon, will there be any change in the extension
and the mass as well as the tensions at the point of the spring?
where the three strings join. Since that point is in
equilibrium, the net force on it is zero. Taking Answer
components of the forces R, S and 12.0 N along (a) The forces on the hanging mass are its weight
horizontal and vertical axes we find: and the tension of the spring. Since we have
R x = R ‘left’ equilibrium, the two forces are equal in
Ry = 0 magnitude. Therefore
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.4 Newton’s first law 73

kx = mg 12 N
mg F
x=
k
0.125 × 10
= 40° θ
58
= 2.2 cm

(b) The extension will be less, since the

20°
acceleration of gravity is less.

15 N
Figure 4.9 For question 3.
Questions
1 What is the net force on each of the bodies
shown in the diagrams in Figure 4.7? The 4 Why is it impossible for a mass to hang
only forces acting are the ones shown. attached to two horizontal strings as shown
Indicate direction by ‘right’, ‘left’, ‘up’ and in Figure 4.10?
‘down’.

8N
(a) 12 N (b)

18 N 6N
8N

12 N 4N 10 N Figure 4.10 For question 4.

5N 10 N
(c) (d)
5 A mass is hanging from a string that is
attached to the ceiling. A second piece of
26 N string (identical to the first) hangs from the
(e)
lower end of the mass. (See Figure 4.11.)
(f )
4N
6N 6N
Figure 4.7 For question 1.

2 Find the magnitude and direction of the net

force in Figure 4.8.

20 N 20 N
Figure 4.11 For question 5.

45° 45°
Which string will break if:
Figure 4.8 For question 2. (a) the bottom string is slowly pulled with
ever increasing force;
3 In Figure 4.9, what must F and θ be such that (b) the bottom string is very abruptly pulled
the three forces give a net force of zero? down?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
74 Core – Mechanics

6 A force of 10.0 N is acting along the negative

x-axis and a force of 5.00 N at an angle of 20° T2
with the positive x-axis. Find the net force.
T1 45°
7 A force has components 2.45 N and 4.23 N
along two perpendicular axes. What is the
T3
magnitude of the force?
8 A weight of mass 12.5 kg hangs from very
light, smooth pulleys as shown in Figure 4.12.
What force must be applied to the rope so that Figure 4.14 For question 10.
the mass stays at rest?

11 A rod of mass 5.00 kg is first pulled and then

pushed at constant velocity by a force at 45°
to the horizontal as shown in Figure 4.15.
Assuming that in both cases the frictional
force is horizontal and equal to 0.4 times the
normal reaction force on the rod, find the
force F in each case. What does this imply?
F=?

F 45°
F
Figure 4.12 For question 8.
Mg
Mg
f 45°
f
9 A mass of 2.00 kg rests on a rough horizontal
Figure 4.15 For question 11.
table. The maximum frictional force between
the mass and the table is 12 N. The block is
attached to a hanging mass by a string that
goes over a smooth pulley. What is the largest 12 A 455 N crate is being pulled at constant
mass that can hang in this way without forcing velocity by a force directed at 30° to the
the block to slide? (See Figure 4.13.) horizontal as shown in Figure 4.16. The
frictional force on the crate is 1163 N. What is
the magnitude of the pulling force?

F
30°

Figure 4.13 For question 9.

Figure 4.16 For question 12.

10 A mass of 5.00 kg hangs attached to three

strings as shown in Figure 4.14. Find the 13 (a) A 2598 kg aeroplane is moving
tension in each string. (Hint: Consider the horizontally in a straight line at constant
equilibrium of the point where the strings velocity. What is the upward force on the
join.) aeroplane?

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.4 Newton’s first law 75

(b) The plane is now diving (again at constant 15 A mass m is attached to two identical springs
velocity) making an angle of 10° to the of spring constant k. The other end of each
horizontal. Find the lift force on the plane spring is attached to the ceiling so that each
assuming that it is normal to the velocity makes an angle θ with the vertical, as shown
of the plane. in Figure 4.18. If the mass is in equilibrium,
14 A mass M is connected with a string to a what is the extension of each spring?
smaller mass m. The mass M is resting on an
inclined plane and the string goes over a
pulley at the top of the plane so that the
mass m is hanging vertically, as shown in
Figure 4.17. What must the angle of the plane
be in order to have equilibrium? θ θ

m
M Figure 4.18 For question 15.

m
θ

Figure 4.17 For question 14.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER 2.5
0.0 Core – Mechanics
Part title

Newton’stitle
Chapter second and
third laws
These laws are the cornerstone of what is called classical physics. They imply that, once
the forces that act on a system are specified and the motion of the system is known at
some point in time, then the motion of the system can be predicted at all future times.
This predictability is characteristic of classical systems as opposed to quantum ones, where
the uncertainty principle introduces a probabilistic interpretation on the future evolution of
the system. Lately, this sharp definition of predictability has been eroded somewhat even
for classical systems: chaotic behaviour can imply a loss of predictability in some cases.

This is the front page from Newton’s book

called Principia (Principles) in which he outlined
his theories of the laws that governed the
motion of objects.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• recognize situations of equilibrium, i.e. situations where the net force and
hence the acceleration are zero;
• draw the forces on the body of interest and apply Newton’s second law
on that body, F = ma;
• recognize that the net force on a body is in the same direction as the
acceleration of that body;
• identify pairs of forces that come from Newton’s third law.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.5 Newton’s second and third laws 77

Newton’s second law It is important to realize that the second law

speaks of the net force on the body. Thus, if a
This fundamental law asserts that: number of individual forces act on a body, we
must first find the net force by vector addition.

The net force on a body is proportional to A simple everyday example of the second law is
that body’s acceleration and is in the that when you jump from some height you
same direction as the acceleration. bend your knees on landing. This is because by
Mathematically bending your knees you stretch out the time it
F = ma takes to reduce your speed to zero, and thus
your acceleration (deceleration) is least. This
where the constant of proportionality, m, is
means that the force from the ground on to you
the mass of the body.
is least.

Figure 5.1 shows the net force on a freely falling Example questions
body, which happens to be its weight, W = m g. Q1
By Newton’s second law, the net force equals A man of mass m = 70 kg stands on the floor of
the mass times the acceleration, and so an elevator. Find the force of reaction he
experiences from the elevator floor when:
m g = ma (a) the elevator is standing still;
⇒a=g (b) the elevator moves up at constant speed
3 m s1;
that is, the acceleration of the freely falling (c) the elevator moves up with acceleration
body is exactly g. Experiments going back to 4 m s2;
Galileo show us that indeed all bodies fall in a (d) the elevator moves down with acceleration
vacuum with the same acceleration (the 4 m s2.
acceleration due to gravity) irrespective of their
density, their mass, their shape and the material Answer
from which they are made. Two forces act on the man: his weight mg
vertically down and the reaction force R from the
floor vertically up.
(a) There is no acceleration and so by Newton’s
second law the net force on the man must be
zero. Hence
W
R = mg
= 700 N

Figure 5.1 A mass falling to the ground acted (b) There is no acceleration and so again
upon by gravity. R = mg
= 700 N
(c) There is acceleration upwards. Hence
The equation F = ma defines the unit of R − mg = ma
force, the newton (symbol N). One newton
so
is the force required to accelerate a mass of
R = mg + ma
1 kg by 1 m s2 in the direction of the
= 700 N + 280 N
force.
= 980 N
© Cambridge University Press 2008
78 Core – Mechanics

(d) We again have acceleration, but this time in Answer

the downward direction. Hence The forces on the balloon originally are its weight,
mg − R = ma the upthrust and the tension (see Figure 5.2).
so
R = mg − ma
= 700 N − 280 N
= 420 N U U

Note: In (c) the acceleration is up, so we find the W W

net force in the upward direction. In (d) the
T
acceleration is down, so we find the net force in
the downward direction. Newton’s law in all
Figure 5.2.
cases involves accelerations and forces in the
same direction.
Initially we have equilibrium and so U = W + T .
Q2
After the rope is cut the net force is U − W and so
A man of mass 70 kg is moving upward in an
U − W = ma
elevator at a constant speed of 3 m s1. The
elevator comes to rest in a time of 2 s. What is the = 150 × 2
reaction force on the man from the elevator floor = 300 N
during the period of deceleration? From the first equation
T = U − W = 300 N
Answer
The acceleration experienced by the man is The next examples show how Newton’s second
1.5 m s2. So law is applied when more than one mass is
R − mg = ma present.
⇒ R = mg + ma
= 700 + (−105) = 595 N Q4
Two blocks of mass 4.0 and 6.0 kg are joined by a
If, instead, the man was moving downward and
string and rest on a frictionless horizontal table
then decelerated to rest, we would have
(see Figure 5.3). If a force of 100 N is applied
mg − R = ma horizontally on one of the blocks, find the
⇒ R = mg − ma
acceleration of each block.
= 700 − (−105) = 805 N
Both cases are easily experienced in daily life.
When the elevator goes up and then stops we feel 4.0 kg 6.0 kg
T T 100 N
‘lighter’ during the deceleration period. When
going down and about to stop, we feel ‘heavier’
during the deceleration period. The feeling of R2
R1 free-body diagrams
‘lightness’ or ‘heaviness’ has to do with what 100 N
T
reaction force we feel from the floor. T
mg
Q3 Mg

A hot air balloon of mass 150 kg is tied to the Figure 5.3.

ground with a rope (of negligible mass). When
the rope is cut, the balloon rises with an Answer
acceleration of 2 m s2. What was the tension Method 1: The net force on the 6.0 kg mass is
in the rope? 100 − T and on the 4.0 kg mass just T . Thus,

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.5 Newton’s second and third laws 79

applying Newton’s second law separately on each Q5

mass (Atwood’s machine) Two masses of m = 4.0 kg
and M = 6.0 kg are joined together by a string
100 − T = 6a
that passes over a pulley. The masses are held
T = 4a stationary and suddenly released. What is the
Solving for a (by adding the two equations side by acceleration of each mass?
side) gives a = 10 m s2 and the tension is thus
Answer
T = 4.0 × 10
Intuition tells us that the larger mass will start
= 40 N
moving downward and the small mass will go up.
Note: The free-body diagram makes it clear that
So if we say that the larger mass’s acceleration is
the 100 N force acts only on the body to the right.
a , then the other mass’s acceleration will also be
It is a common mistake to say that the body to the
a in magnitude but, of course, in the opposite
left is also acted upon by the 100 N force.
direction. The two accelerations are the same
Method 2: We may consider the two bodies as because the string cannot be extended.
one of mass 10 kg. This is denoted by the dotted
Method 1: The forces on each mass are weight mg
line in Figure 5.4. The net force on the body is
and tension T on m and weight Mg and tension
100 N. Note that the tensions are irrelevant now
T on M (see Figure 5.5).
since they cancel out. (They did not in Method 1
as they acted on different bodies. Now they act
on the same body. They are now internal forces
and these are irrelevant.)

10.0 kg T

T T 100 N

mg
T
is the same as T
T
100 N
10.0 kg
mg
Figure 5.4.
Mg
Mg
Applying Newton’s second law on the single
body we have Figure 5.5.
100 = 10a
⇒ a = 10 m s−2 .
Newton’s second law applied to each mass states
But to find the tension we must break up the
combined body into the original two bodies. T − mg = ma (1)
Newton’s second law on the 4.0 kg body gives Mg − T = Ma (2)

T = 4a = 40 N Note these equations carefully. Each says that the

net force on the mass in question is equal to that
(the tension on this block is the net force on the
mass times that mass’s acceleration. In the first
block). If we used the other block, we would see
equation we find the net force in the upward
that the net force on it is 100  T and so
direction, because that is the direction of
100 − T = 6 × 10 acceleration. In the second we find the net force
= 60 downward, since that is the direction of
giving T = 40 N as before. acceleration in that case. We want to find the

© Cambridge University Press 2008

80 Core – Mechanics

acceleration, so we simply add up these two Q6

equations side by side to find In Figure 5.7, a block of mass M is connected to a
Mg − mg = (m + M)a smaller mass m through a string that goes over a
pulley. Ignoring friction, find the acceleration of
hence
each mass and the tension in the string.
M−m
a= g
M+m
R
R
(Note that if M  m, the acceleration tends to g M T T
(why?).) This shows clearly that if the two masses
T
are equal then there is no acceleration. This is a T Mg
Mg
convenient method for measuring g : Atwood’s m
machine effectively ‘slows down’ g so the falling mg mg
mass has a much smaller acceleration from which
Figure 5.7.
g can then be determined. Putting in the numbers
for our example we find a = 2.0 m s2. Having
Answer
found the acceleration we may, if we wish, also
find the tension in the string, T . Putting the value Method 1: The forces are shown in Figure 5.7. Thus
for a in formula (1) we find mg − T = ma
M−m T = Ma
T =m g + mg
M+m from which (adding the two equations side by side)
Mm
=2 g mg
M+m a=
m+ M
= 48 N
(If M  m the acceleration tends to zero (why?).)
(If M  m, the tension tends to 2mg (why?).)
If M = 8.0 kg and m = 2.0 kg, this gives
Method 2: We treat the two masses as one body a = 2.0 m s2. Hence
and apply Newton’s second law on this body (but
Mmg
this is trickier than in the previous example) – see T =
m+ M
Figure 5.6. = 16 N

mg Method 2: Treating the two bodies as one results

in the situation shown in Figure 5.8.

T R

m
T T T
mg
M

Mg Mg
Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.6.

In this case the net force is Mg − mg and, since The net force on the mass M + m is mg . Hence
this force acts on a body of mass M + m, the mg = (M + m)a
acceleration is found as before from F = mass× mg
⇒a=
acceleration. Note that the tension T does not m+ M
appear in this case, being now an internal force. The tension can then be found as before.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.5 Newton’s second and third laws 81

Q7 In that case the acceleration becomes zero and

Consider finally 100 blocks each of mass m = the body continues to fall with a constant velocity,
1.0 kg that are placed next to each other in a called terminal velocity. Figure 5.11 shows a
straight line, as shown in Figure 5.9. body falling from rest and acquiring a
terminal velocity of 50 m s1 after about 25 s. The
1 2 3 4 5 .... acceleration of the body is initially that due to
F gravity but becomes zero after about 25 s.
mg
Figure 5.9. mg = kv T ⇒ v T =
k

A force F = 100 N is applied to the block at the kv

left. What force does the 60th block exert on the
61st (see Figure 5.10)?

58 59 60 61

T ....

mass = 40 kg mg
free-body diagram T
for the last 40
blocks
Figure 5.10.

Answer
increasing velocity
To answer the question, we treat the 100 blocks as
one body, in which case the net force on the
system is 100 N. Since the mass is 100 kg, the v/m s −1
acceleration of each block is 1 m s2. 50

Let T be the required force. It is the net force on 40

the body inside the dotted line of mass 40 kg. 30
Since this force accelerates a mass of 40 kg by 20
1 m s2, T = ma = 40 N.
10
t/s
Terminal velocity 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
When a body moves through a fluid (a gas or
liquid), it experiences an opposing force that
a/m s −2
depends on the speed of the body. If the speed is
10
small, the opposing force is proportional to the
8
speed, whereas for larger speeds the force
becomes proportional to the square of the speed. 6

Consider, for example, a body falling through air. 4

The forces on the body are its weight, mg, and the 2
opposing force, which we assume is proportional t/s
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
to the speed, F = kv. Initially the speed is small,
so the body falls with an acceleration that is Figure 5.11 The opposing force grows as the speed
increases and eventually becomes equal to the
essentially that due to gravity. As the speed weight. From that point on, the acceleration is
increases, so does the opposing force and hence, zero and the body has achieved its terminal
after a while, it will become equal to the weight. velocity.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
82 Core – Mechanics

The inclined plane direction there is no acceleration, hence the net

force there is zero: that is, R − mg cos θ = 0.
The motion of a body along a straight line that This tells us that R = mg cos θ . In the direction
is kept at an angle to the horizontal (inclined along the plane, there is a single unbalanced
plane) is an important application of Newton’s force, namely mg sin θ , and therefore by Newton’s
laws. The following is an example. A mass of second law, this force will equal mass times
m = 2.0 kg is held on a frictionless inclined acceleration in that same direction: that is
plane of 30°. What is the acceleration of the mg sin θ = ma
mass if it is released?
where a is the unknown acceleration. Hence,
There are two forces acting on the mass (see we find
Figure 5.12).
a = g sin θ
This is an important result and we will make
R
use of it many times. Note that the acceleration
does not depend on the mass. For the numerical
mg values of this problem we find a = 5.0 m s2.
θ
You may wonder why we took as our axes the
Figure 5.12 A mass on an inclined plane. ones along and perpendicular to the inclined
plane. The answer is that we did not have to
The two forces are: its weight vertically down of choose these axes. Any other set would have
magnitude mg, and the reaction from the plane, done. This choice, however, is the most
which is perpendicular to the plane, of magnitude convenient, because it exploits the fact that the
R. We can find the components of these two forces acceleration will take place along the plane, so
along two mutually perpendicular axes, one being we choose that direction as one of our axes. If
along the plane (see Figure 5.13). The force R is we had chosen another set of axes, say a
already along one of the axes so we don’t bother horizontal and a vertical one, then we would
with that. But mg is not. find acceleration along both of these axes.
Acceleration, of course, is a vector and if we
combined these two accelerations, we would
find the same acceleration (in magnitude and
direction) as above. Try to work out the details.
R

mg sin θ An accelerometer
θ Consider a mass that is hanging from a string of
length L, which is attached to the ceiling of a
mg cos θ
θ
train. What will be the angle the string makes
with the vertical if (a) the train moves forward
mg with a constant speed of 3 m s1, or (b) moves
Figure 5.13 We take components along axes that forward with an acceleration of 4 m s2? If the
lie along the plane and normally to the plane. train moves with constant speed in the
horizontal direction, the acceleration in this
The magnitude of the component of mg along direction is zero. Hence the net force in the
the plane is mg sin θ , where θ = 30◦ is the angle horizontal direction must also be zero. The only
of the incline. This component lies down the forces on the mass are its weight vertically
plane. The other component is mg cos θ , in the down, and the tension T of the string along the
direction perpendicular to the plane. In that string. So, to produce zero force in the horizontal
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.5 Newton’s second and third laws 83

direction the string must be vertical. In case (b) Make sure you understand that these equal and
there is acceleration in the horizontal direction opposite forces act on different bodies. Thus, you
and hence there must also be a net force in this cannot use this law to claim that it is impossible
direction. The string will therefore make an to ever have a net force on a body because for
angle θ with the vertical (see Figure 5.14). every force on it there is also an equal and opposite
force. Here are a few examples of this law:
θ T y • You stand on roller-skates facing a wall. You push
acceleration on the wall and you move away from it. This is
T θ
x because you exerted a force on the wall and in
mg turn the wall exerted an equal and opposite
mg
force on you, making you accelerate away.
• You are about to step off a boat onto the dock.
Figure 5.14 When the forces are not in the Your foot exerts a force on the dock, and in
direction of acceleration, we must take turn the dock exerts a force on you (your foot)
components.
in the opposite direction making you (and the
In this case we take components of the forces boat) move away from the dock. (You probably
on the mass along the horizontal and vertical fall in the water!)
directions. In the horizontal direction we have • A helicopter hovers in air. Its rotors exert a
only the component of T , which is T sin θ , and force downward on the air. Thus, the air exerts
in the vertical direction we have T cos θ upward the upward force on the helicopter that keeps
and mg downward. Therefore it from falling.
• A book of mass 2 kg is allowed to fall feely. The
T sin θ = ma and T cos θ = mg
earth exerts a force on the book, namely the
Hence, a = g tan θ . Note that the mass does not weight of the book of about 20 N. Thus, the
enter into the expression for a. This is actually a book exerts an equal and opposite force on the
crude device that can be used to measure earth – a force upward equal to 20 N.
acceleration – an accelerometer. Be careful with situations where two forces are
equal and opposite but have nothing to do with
the third law. For example, a block of mass 3 kg
Newton’s third law resting on a horizontal table has two forces
acting on it. Its weight of 30 N and the reaction
Newton’s third law states that:
from the table that is also 30 N. These two forces
are equal and opposite, but they are acting on
If body A exerts a force F on body B, then
the same body and so have nothing to do with
body B exerts an equal but opposite force
Newton’s third law. (We have seen in the last
on body A. (See Figure 5.15.)
bullet point above the force that pairs with the
weight of the block. The one that pairs with the
A reaction force is a downward force on the table.)
B
Newton’s third law also applies to cases where
the force between two bodies acts at a distance:
that is, the two bodies are separated by a
certain distance. For example, two electric
charges will exert an electric force on each
other and any two masses will attract each
Figure 5.15 The two bodies exert equal and other with the gravitational force. These forces
opposite forces on each other. must be equal and opposite. (See Figure 5.16.)
© Cambridge University Press 2008
84 Core – Mechanics

(b) The bird is hovering in the cage.

+ F − (c) The bird is moving upward with
−F
acceleration.
(d) The bird is accelerating downward.
F −F (e) The bird is moving upward with constant
velocity.
7 Get in an elevator and stretch out your arm
holding your heavy physics book. Press the
Figure 5.16 The two charges and the two masses are button to go up. What do you observe
different but the forces are equal and opposite. happening to your stretched arm? What
happens as the elevator comes to a stop at the
top floor? What happens when you press the
Questions button to go down and what happens when the
elevator again stops? Explain your observations
1 (a) Under what circumstances would a carefully using the second law of mechanics.
constant force result in an increasing 8 A block of mass 2.0 kg rests on top of another
acceleration on a body? block of mass 10.0 kg that itself rests on a
(b) Under what circumstances would a constant frictionless table (see Figure 5.17). The largest
force result in zero acceleration on a body? frictional force that can develop between the
2 A car of mass 1354 kg finds itself on a muddy two blocks is 16 N. Calculate the largest force
road. If the force from the engine pushing the with which the bottom block can be pulled so
car forward exceeds 575 N, the wheels slip that both blocks move together without sliding
(i.e. they rotate without rolling). What is the on each other.
maximum acceleration that the car can move
with on this road? 2.0 kg

3 The net force on a mass of 1.00 kg initially at

rest is 1.00 N and acts for 1.00 s. What will
10.0 kg
the velocity of the mass be at the end of the F
1.00 s interval of time?
4 A mass of 2.00 kg is acted upon by two forces Figure 5.17 For question 8.
of 4.00 N and 10.0 N. What is the smallest
and largest acceleration these two forces can 9 Figure 5.18 shows a person in an elevator
produce on the mass? pulling on a rope that goes over a pulley and is
attached to the top of the elevator. Identify all
5 A man of mass m stands in an elevator. Find
the forces shown and for each find the reaction
the reaction force from the elevator floor on
force (according to Newton’s third law). On
the man when:
what body does each reaction force act?
(a) the elevator is standing still;
(b) the elevator moves up at constant speed v ;
(c) the elevator accelerates down with
acceleration a ;
(d) the elevator accelerates down with
acceleration a = g .
(e) What happens when a > g ?
6 A bird is in a glass cage that hangs from a
spring scale. Compare the readings of the
scale in the following cases.
(a) The bird is sitting in the cage. Figure 5.18 For questions 9 and 10.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.5 Newton’s second and third laws 85

10 Take the mass of the elevator shown in 17 If a vertical downward force of 50.0 N acts on
Figure 5.18 to be 30.0 kg and that of the the top block in Figure 5.20, what are the
person to be 70.0 kg. If the elevator accelerates forces on each block now.
upwards at 0.500 m s2, find the reaction force 18 A massless string has the same tension
on the person from the elevator floor. throughout its length. Can you explain why?
11 A small passenger car and a fully loaded truck 19 Look back at Figure 5.18. The person has a
collide head-on. Which vehicle experiences mass of 70.0 kg and the elevator a mass of
the greater force? 30.0 kg. If the force the person exerts on the
12 What force does a man of mass 80.0 kg exert elevator floor is 300.0 N, find the acceleration
on the earth as he falls freely after jumping of the elevator (g = 10 m s2).
from a table 1 m high from the surface of the 20 (a) Calculate the tension in the string joining
earth? the two masses in Figure 5.21.
13 Three blocks rest on a horizontal frictionless (b) If the position of the masses is
surface, as shown in Figure 5.19. A force of interchanged, will the tension change?
20.0 N is applied horizontally to the right on
the block of mass 2.0 kg. Find the individual
30.0 kg
forces acting on each mass. Identify
10.0 kg F = 60.0 N
action–reaction pairs.

3.0 kg Figure 5.21 For question 20.

2.0 kg 5.0 kg

21 One hundred equal masses m = 1.0 kg are

joined by strings as shown in Figure 5.22. The
Figure 5.19 For question 13. first mass is acted upon by a force F = 100 N.
What is the tension in the string joining the
14 A (massless) string hangs vertically from a 60th mass to the 61st?
support in the ceiling. A mass of 10.0 kg is
attached to the other end of the string. What is
5 4 3 2 1
the force the string exerts on the support?
...... F
15 A block of mass 15.0 kg rests on a horizontal
table. A force of 50.0 N is applied vertically Figure 5.22 For question 21.
downward on the block. Calculate the force
that the block exerts on the table. 22 A mass of 3.0 kg is acted upon by three forces
16 A block of mass 10.0 kg rests on top of a of 4.0 N, 6.0 N and 9.0 N and is in
bigger block of mass 20.0 kg, which in turn equilibrium. Convince yourself that these
rests on a horizontal table (see Figure 5.20). forces can indeed be in equilibrium. If the
Find the individual forces acting on each 9.0 N force is suddenly removed, what will
block. Identify action–reaction pairs according the acceleration of the mass be?
to Newton’s third law. 23 What is the tension in the string joining the
two masses in Figure 5.23? What is the
acceleration of each mass?
10.0 kg

20.0 kg 10.0 kg 2.0 kg

F = 24 N

Figure 5.20 For question 16. Figure 5.23.

© Cambridge University Press 2008
86 Core – Mechanics

24 Two bodies are joined by a string and are pulled 25 The velocity–time graph in Figure 5.25 is a
up an inclined plane that makes an angle of student’s graph for the vertical motion of a
30 ◦ to the horizontal, as shown in Figure 5.24. person who jumps from a helicopter and a
Calculate the tension in the string when: few seconds later opens a parachute.
(a) the bodies move with constant speed; (a) Using the laws of mechanics carefully
(b) the bodies move up the plane with an explain the shape of the curve. (When
acceleration of 2.0 m s−2 . does the parachute open? When does the
(c) What is the value of F in each case? air resistance force reach its maximum
value? Is the air resistance force constant?)
(b) How would you improve on the student’s
graph?
F
4.0 kg
v

8.0 kg

30°
Figure 5.24 For question 24.

t
Figure 5.25 For question 25.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER 2.6 Core – Mechanics

Linear momentum
This chapter introduces the concept of momentum and, by using Newton’s second and
third laws, the law of momentum conservation is derived. This law is the basis for
analysing collisions.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• state the definition of momentum ( p = mv ) and appreciate that
momentum is a vector quantity;
• state the definition of average net force in terms of momentum, F̄ net = p
t
;
• state the definition of impulse as the change in momentum and
understand that the area under a force–time graph is the impulse of the
force;
• derive the law of conservation of momentum using Newton’s second and
third laws;
• identify situations in which momentum is conserved and solve related
problems.

The concept of momentum If the mass of the body is constant, this reduces
to the familiar Fnet = m
a . This is because in that
Momentum is a very important and useful case
concept in mechanics.
 p
The momentum of a body of mass m and Fnet =
t
velocity v is defined to be v f − m
m vi
p = m
v =
t
Momentum is a vector quantity whose vf − vi
=m
direction is the same as that of the velocity of t
the body. The unit of momentum is kg m s1  v
=m
or, equivalently, N s. t
= m
a
In terms of momentum, Newton’s second law of
mechanics can be stated as The advantage of the formulation of Newton’s
 p second law in terms of momentum is that it
Fnet =
t can be used also in cases where the mass of the
that is, the (average) net force on a body equals body is changing (such as, for example, in the
the rate of change of the body’s momentum. motion of a rocket).

© Cambridge University Press 2008

88 Core – Mechanics

Example questions Answer

Q1 The initial momentum is 0.50  4  2 N s. The
A 0.100 kg ball moving at 5 m s1 bounces off final is 0.50  (2)  1 N s. The magnitude of
a vertical wall without a change in its speed (see the change is therefore 3 N s. The forces on the
Figure 6.1). If the collision with the wall lasted for ball during contact are its weight and the reaction
0.1 s, what force was exerted on the wall? from the floor. Thus
| Fnet | = R − mg
 
  p 
=  
wall
ball coming in t 
3.0 N s
=
0.15 s
= 20 N
ball bounces back
so

R = 20 + 5
= 25 N
Figure 6.1. Q3
Bullets of mass 30 g are being fired from a gun
Answer with a speed of 300 m s1 at a rate of 20 per
The momentum of the ball changed from 0.5 N s second. What force is being exerted on the gun?
to 0.5 N s in 0.1 s (note the signs: momentum is a Answer
vector). The magnitude of the average force on
Using the definition of force involving rate of
the ball is thus
  change of momentum as above, we see that the
  p  momentum of one bullet changes from zero
| Fnet | =  
t  before it is fired to mv after it has been fired. If
0.5 − (−0.5) N s there are  N bullets being fired in time t , then
= = 10 N
0.1 s the magnitude of the momentum change per
This is also the force exerted by the ball on the second is
wall by Newton’s third law. p N
= mv
t t
Q2
= 20 s−1 × 0.030 kg × 300 m s−1
A 0.50 kg ball bounces vertically off a hard
= 180 N
surface. A graph of velocity versus time is shown
in Figure 6.2. Find the magnitude of the Q4
momentum change of the ball during the Mass falls at a rate of μ kg s1 onto a conveyor belt
bounce. The ball stayed in contact with floor for which moves at constant speed v (see Figure 6.3).
0.15 s. What average force did the ball exert on What force must be exerted on the belt to make it
the floor? turn at constant speed?

v/m s−1
4 reaction force

t
weight
−2

Figure 6.2. Figure 6.3.

© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.6 Linear momentum 89

Answer to the ball is p and equals the product of the

The horizontal momentum of the falling mass magnitude of the average force on the ball times
increases from zero when it first hits the belt to the interval of time for which the contact lasts.
mv. The rate of increase of momentum is thus μv
and this is the force on the belt, F = μv .

Q5
A helicopter rotor whose length is R = 5.0 m
pushes air downwards with a speed v. Assuming
that the density of air is constant at ρ = 1.20 kg m3
and the mass of the helicopter is 1200 kg, find v.
You may assume that the rotor forces the air in a
circle of radius R (spanned by the rotor) to move
with the downward speed v.

Answer
The momentum of the air under the rotor is mv, Figure 6.4 The momentum of the ball changes as a
where m is the mass of air in a circle of radius result of the collision with the tennis racket.
5.0 m. In time t the mass is enclosed in a This means there is a force on the ball while it
is in contact with the racket.
cylinder of radius R and height vt . Thus, the
momentum of this mass is ρπR 2 v 2 t and its rate
The quantity p = F̄t is called the impulse of
of change is ρπR 2 v 2 . This is the upward force on
the force and has the following interpretation
the helicopter, which must equal the helicopter’s
in terms of a graph that shows the variation of
weight of 12 000 N. So
the force with time (see Figure 6.5).
ρπR 2 v 2 = Mg

Mg Impulse is the area under the curve of a
⇒v=
ρπ R 2 force–time graph and equals the total
momentum change of the mass.
Thus, v = 11 m s1.

force/N

Impulse 1000

800
Newton’s second law, in terms of momentum
change, states that the average net force on a 600

body (here we use magnitudes of forces and 400

momenta) is given by
200
p
F̄ net = time/ms
t 0 2 4 6 8 10

If t is infinitesimally small, this gives the Figure 6.5 The area under the force–time graph
gives the total momentum change of the body
instantaneous force on the body. If not, it gives the force acts upon.
the average force on the body, F̄ . We may then
write
In the graph of Figure 6.5 the area is about
p = F̄t
2.5 N s (can you verify this?) and the force acts
Figure 6.4 shows a ball in contact with a tennis for about 6.0 ms. This means that during the
racket. The magnitude of the impulse delivered 6.0 ms the momentum of the body changed by
© Cambridge University Press 2008
90 Core – Mechanics

2.5 N s. The maximum force that acted on the windscreen and will experience a large force. A
body was 1000 N and the average force driver wearing a safety belt in a car with an air-
p bag, however, will come to rest over a longer
F̄ = period of time since the belt and the air-bag
t
2.5 start bringing him to rest earlier and allow him
= N to move forward a bit while coming to rest. The
6.0 × 10−3
force he experiences is thus correspondingly
≈ 470 N
smaller.
Consider, then, a body of mass m that moves
with velocity v and is brought to rest by a non- Example questions
constant force F . The change in the momentum Q6
of the body is p = 0 − mv = −mv . (We may A ball of mass 0.250 kg moves on a frictionless
ignore the sign if we are interested only in the horizontal floor and hits a vertical wall with
magnitude of the momentum change.) Let us speed 5.0 m s1. The ball rebounds with speed
examine two possibilities. In the first case, the 4.0 m s1. If the ball was in contact with the wall
force brings the body to rest over a longer for 0.150 s, find the average force that acted on
period of time compared with the second. The the ball.
graphs of force versus time might be as shown
Answer
in Figure 6.6. The thick curve represents the
force that brings the body to rest over a short The magnitude of the change in the ball’s
time. This force is larger, on average, than the momentum is (remember that momentum is a
force that brings the body to rest over a longer vector)
time interval. The areas under the curves are p = p f − p i
the same since they both represent the change = 0.250 × 4.0 − (−0.250 × 5.0)
in the momentum of the body, which is mv in = 1.0 − (−1.25)
both cases. = 2.25 N s

Hence
p
force
F¯ =
t
2.25 N s
=
0.150 s
= 15 N
Q7
The force in example question 6 is assumed to
vary with time as shown in Figure 6.7.
Deduce the maximum force that acted on the ball.
time
Figure 6.6 The areas under the two curves are the
same so the force acting for a shorter time must F
be larger on average.

These graphs can be thought of as idealizations

of the forces experienced by a driver of a car
that is brought suddenly to rest in a crash.
(What are more realistic graphs?) A driver not t

wearing a safety belt will quickly come to rest 0.150 s

after hitting the steering wheel or the Figure 6.7.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.6 Linear momentum 91

A second, harder, ball of identical mass to the first Answer

also bounces off the wall with the same initial and The block will leave the table when the normal
final speed, but since it is harder it stays in contact reaction force R becomes zero.
with the wall for only 0.125 s. What is the
maximum force exerted by the wall on this ball? R + F sin 30 ◦ = mg

Answer so

The area under the curve is the total change in F  40 N when R  0.

the ball’s momentum, which we found to be
p = 2.25 N s . The area is a triangle and so This happens when t  3.0 s. The horizontal
component of F is
1
2
× F max × 0.150 = 2.25
⇒ F max = 30 N (4 + 12t ) cos 30 ◦ = 3.64 + 10.39t

The area under the force–time graph in the case The change in the body’s momentum in the
of the harder ball will be the same. Thus horizontal direction is the area under the Fx versus
1
× F max × 0.125 = 2.25
t graph from t = 0 to t  3.0 s. This area is
2
57.7 N s. Thus, the horizontal component of
⇒ F max = 36 N
velocity is 28.8 m s1. The vertical component
is zero.
Q8
A force of 1000.0 N acts on a body of 40.0 kg
initially at rest for a time interval of 0.0500 s.
What is the velocity of the mass?
The law of conservation
Answer
The impulse is
of momentum
Ft = 1000 × 0.05 N s Given a system of two masses say m1 and m2
= 50.0 N s with velocities v1 and v2 , the total momentum
and this equals the amount by which the body’s of the system is defined as the vector sum of
momentum increases. The velocity is thus the individual momenta
50 Ptotal = m1 v1 + m2 v2
m s−1 = 1.25 m s−1
40

Example questions
Q9
A force F varies with time according to F  Q10
4  12t, where F is in newtons and t in seconds. Two masses of 2.0 kg and 3.0 kg move to the
The force acts on a block of mass m  2.00 kg, right with speeds of 4.0 m s1 and 5.0 m s1,
which is initially at rest on a frictionless respectively. What is the total momentum of
horizontal surface. F makes an angle of 30 with the system?
the horizontal (see Figure 6.8). When will the Answer
force lift the body from the table? What will the
velocity of the body be at that instant? P = (2 × 4 + 3 × 5) N s
= 23 N s

F
Q11
A mass of 2.0 kg moves to the right with a speed
30° of 10.0 m s1 and a mass of 4.0 kg moves to the
left with a speed of 8.0 m s1. What is the total
Figure 6.8. momentum of the system?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
92 Core – Mechanics

Answer A system in which no external forces act is

P = (2 × 10 − 4 × 8) N s called an isolated system. Isolated systems have
= −12 N s the property that the total momentum stays the
The minus sign means that the direction of this
same at all times. If the system consists of a
total momentum is to the left.
number of bodies (in our example, two) then
the total momentum is defined as the sum of
Consider now two bodies A and B of masses mA the individual momenta of the bodies in the
and mB on a horizontal frictionless table. The system. If, before the collision, the bodies A and
forces on each mass are the weight and the B had velocity vectors vA and vB , then the total
normal reaction force from the table, which momentum of the system is
equals the weight. Thus, the net force on each
Ptotal = mA vA + mB vB
mass is zero. If these masses have some initial
velocity, then by Newton’s first law they continue We should remind ourselves that momentum is
moving with that same velocity until a force acts a vector and thus when we say that the total
on them. If the bodies move in such a way that momentum is the sum of the individual
they will collide at some point in time, then at momenta we mean the vector sum.
the point of collision a force will be exerted on
each body. As a result of this force, each mass will If, as a result of the collision, the two bodies
change its velocity and thus its momentum. If we now have velocity vectors uA and uB , then the
consider the two bodies together as a system, total momentum is now
then the net force on the system is zero. As we
mentioned already, the weight of each mass is Ptotal = mA uA + mB uB
cancelled by the reaction force and the only force
that remains is the force during the collision. and equals the total momentum before the
However, from Newton’s third law, the force that collision. The individual momenta have
body A experiences must be equal and opposite to changed as a result of the collision but their
that which B experiences. Thus, even though vector sum is the same. This is the law of
there is a net force acting on each mass for the conservation of linear momentum.
duration of the collision, the net force on the
When no external forces act on a system,
system of the two masses is zero. We see that at all
the total momentum of the system stays
times the net external force on the system is zero.
the same).
(See Figure 6.9.)

Example questions
Q12
F Let a mass of 3.0 kg be standing still and a second
−F
mass of 5.0 kg come along and hit it with velocity
4.0 m s1. Suppose that the smaller mass moves
off with a speed of 3.0 m s1. What happens to
the larger mass? (See Figure 6.10.)
no forces act on the Answer
system from outside system
The system of the two masses is an isolated system
as we discussed above. Thus, momentum will be
conserved. Before the collision the total momentum
of the system was (3.0  0  5.0  4.0) N s 
Figure 6.9 The total momentum of an isolated 20 N s. This must also be the total momentum
system is conserved. after the collision. But after the collision the total
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.6 Linear momentum 93

before collision (2 × 6 − 4 × u) N s, where u is the unknown

4.0 m s−1 ν=0 speed of the heavy mass. Note the minus sign.
The masses are moving in opposite directions,
so one of the velocities (and also one of the
5.0 kg 3.0 kg momenta) is negative. Thus, 12  4u  0 and
so u  3.0 m s1.
after collision
u Q14
3.0 m s−1
A ball is released from some height above the
earth’s surface. Treat the ball as the entire system
Figure 6.10.
under consideration. As the ball falls, is the
momentum of the system conserved?

momentum is (3.0  3.0  5.0  u ) N s where Answer

u is the unknown speed of the larger mass. Thus No, because there is an external force acting on
20  9.0  5.0u and so u  2.2 m s1. the ball, namely its weight.

Q13 Q15
Two masses of 2.0 kg and 4.0 kg are held with a A ball is released from some height above the
compressed spring between them. If the masses earth’s surface. Treat the ball and the earth as
are released, the spring will push them away from the entire system under consideration. As the
each other. If the smaller mass moves off with a ball falls, is the momentum of the system
speed of 6.0 m s1, what is the speed of the other conserved?
mass? (See Figure 6.11.)
Answer
Yes, because there are no external forces on the
before system. The earth exerts a force on the ball but
the ball exerts an equal and opposite force on the
earth. Hence the net force on the earth–ball
4.0 kg after
system is zero.
2.0 kg
u 6.0 m s−1 (This means that as the ball falls, the earth moves
up a bit!)
Figure 6.11.

Answer Proof of momentum

Here our system consists of the two masses and conservation
the spring. There are no external forces here,
since gravity is cancelled by the upward We will now prove the law of momentum
reaction forces from the table where the masses conservation for an isolated system consisting
rest. The only force is the elastic force of the of two bodies A and B. It is easy to generalize to
spring with which it pushes the masses away. systems with more than two bodies. Let the two
But this is not an external force so total bodies have masses ma and mb with velocities
momentum will stay the same. The spring exerts before the collision va and vb . As a result of the
equal and opposite forces on each mass. Before collision the two bodies change their velocities
the masses start moving apart, the total to ua and ub . Let F stand for the force that A
momentum is zero, since nothing moves. After experiences during the collision, which lasted a
the masses move away, the total momentum is time t. (See Figure 6.12.)
© Cambridge University Press 2008
94 Core – Mechanics

before collision Answer

vb (a) Let us look at things from the point of view of
va
an observer at rest on the ground. The initial
momentum of the man–cart system is zero.
The cart will move to the left with speed u, so
the man will move with velocity v − u with
after collision
respect to the ground. Hence, by momentum
ub
ua conservation
0 = m (v − u) − Mu
mv
Figure 6.12 Diagram used for proof of the law of ⇒u =
M+m
conservation of momentum.
(b) When the man stops, the cart will stop as well,
so the total momentum of the man–cart system
Then, by Newton’s second law remains zero.
 pa
F = Q17
t A cart of mass M moves with constant velocity v
ma ua − ma va
= on a frictionless road (see Figure 6.14). Rain is
t falling vertically on to the road and begins to fill
The force experienced by B is − F (Newton’s
third law) and so the cart at a steady rate of μ kg per second. Find
the velocity of the cart t seconds later.
 pb
− F =
t
mb ub − mb vb
=
t
Thus
v
ma ua − ma va = −(mb ub − mb vb ) M
⇒ ma va + mb vb = ma ua + mb ub
which states precisely that the total momentum Figure 6.14.
before and after the collision is the same.

Example questions Answer

Q16 We look at things from the point of view of an

(a) A man of mass m stands on a cart of mass M observer on the ground. After a time of t s the
that rests on a horizontal frictionless surface. If mass of the cart is M + μt . Momentum is
the man begins to walk with velocity v with conserved as there are no external forces. So if u
respect to the cart, how will the cart move? is the velocity after time t , we must have
See Figure 6.13. Mv = (M + μt )u
(b) What happens when the man gets to the edge M
⇒u= v
of the cart and stops walking? M + μt

m HL only
v

u M
Q18
A cart of mass M is filled with water and moves
with velocity v on a frictionless road. Water
Figure 6.13.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.6 Linear momentum 95

v
begins to leak from a small hole in the base of
the cart and falls out at a rate of μ kg per
60°
second. (See Figure 6.15.) What happens to the
30°
velocity of the cart? u

v Figure 6.16.
M

Momentum is a vector and is conserved. This

Figure 6.15.
means that
x-component of total momentum before
Answer  x-component of total momentum after
We look at things from the point of view of an y-component of total momentum before
observer on the ground and take as our system  y-component of total momentum after
the cart plus all the water (including that which is
falling out). The falling water still moves with Thus
the same velocity to the right as far as the 4 × 12 = 4 × v cos 60◦ + 12 × u cos 30◦
ground observer is concerned, and since there are 0 = 4 × v sin 60◦ − 12 × u sin 30◦
no external forces, momentum is conserved and and so
there can be no change of velocity.
2 × v + 10.392 × u = 48
We can also get the same answer if we take as 3.464 × v − 6 × u = 0
our system the cart and the water inside the cart. Solving simultaneously gives
As far as the ground observer is concerned, the v = 6.0 m s−1
water leaves the cart with a horizontal velocity v
u = 3.5 m s−1 .
to the right. Thus, there is a force on the cart
directed to the left of magnitude μv . Hence, the
observer deduces that, since net force  rate of Questions
change of momentum,
1 The momentum of a ball increased by 12.0 N s
δM δv as a result of a force that acted on the ball for
−μv = v+M
δt δt 2.00 s. What was the average force on the ball?
δv
= −μv + M 2 A 0.150 kg ball moving horizontally at
δt
3.00 m s1 collides normally with a vertical
⇒ δv = 0
wall and bounces back with the same speed.
(a) What is the impulse delivered to the ball?
(b) If the ball was in contact with the wall for
0.125 s, find the average force exerted by
Two-dimensional collisions the ball on the wall.
Consider a stationary body of mass 12 kg 3 The bodies in Figure 6.17 suffer a head-on
that is hit by a 4.0 kg mass moving at collision and stick to each other afterwards.
12 m s1. The collision is not head-on, and Find their common velocity.
the bodies move at an angle to the original
direction of motion of the 4.0 kg body as m 2m
shown in Figure 6.16 (the view is from the v –v2
top). How can we find the speeds of the two
bodies after the collision? Figure 6.17 For question 3.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
96 Core – Mechanics

4 Two masses of 2.00 kg and 4.00 kg are kept on

a frictionless horizontal table with a
compressed spring between them. If the
masses are released, the larger mass moves
away with velocity 3.50 m s1. What is the
velocity of the other mass?
5 A 70.0 kg person stands at the back of a Figure 6.19 For question 9.
200.0 kg boat of length 4.00 m that floats on
(b) Explain why the two stars are always in
stationary water. She begins to walk toward the
diametrically opposite positions.
front of the boat. When she gets to the front,
how far back will the boat have moved? (c) Hence explain why the two stars have a
(Neglect the resistance of the water.) common period of rotation and why the
inner star is the more massive of the two.
6 A ball of mass 250 g rolling on a horizontal
floor with a speed 4.00 m s1 hits a wall and 10 (a) A fan on a floating barge blows air at high
bounces with the same speed, as shown in speed toward the right, as shown in Figure
Figure 6.18. 6.20a. Will the barge move? Explain your
(a) What is the magnitude and direction of the answer.
momentum change of the ball? (b) A sail is now put up on the barge so that
(b) Is momentum conserved here? Why or why the fan blows air toward the sail, as shown
not? in Figure 6.20b. Will the barge move?
Explain your answer.

45° 45°
sail

fan fan
Figure 6.18 For question 6.

7 A mass of 0.500 kg moving at 6.00 m s1

strikes a wall normally and bounces back with barge barge
a speed of 4.00 m s1. If the mass was in (a) (b)

contact with the wall for 0.200 s find: Figure 6.20 For question 10.
(a) the change of momentum of the mass; 11 If you jump from a height of 1.0 m from the
(b) the average force the wall exerted on the surface of the earth, the earth actually moves
mass. up a bit as you fall.
8 A person holds a book stationary in his hand (a) Explain why.
and then releases it. (b) Estimate the distance the earth moves,
(a) As the book falls, is its momentum listing any assumptions you make.
conserved? (c) Would the earth move more, less or the
(b) What does the law of conservation of same if a heavier person jumps?
momentum say for this example? 12 A time-varying force whose graph versus time
9 A binary star system consists of two stars that is shown in Figure 6.21 acts on a body of
are orbiting a common centre, as shown in mass 3.00 kg.
Figure 6.19. The only force acting on the stars (a) Find the impulse of the force.
is the gravitational force of attraction in a (b) Find the velocity of the mass at 17 s,
direction along the line joining the stars. assuming the initial velocity was zero.
(a) Explain carefully why the total momentum (c) What should the initial velocity be if the
of the binary star is constant. mass had to stop at 17 s?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.6 Linear momentum 97

F/N 17 Two cars A and B of mass 1200 kg and

1300 kg, respectively, collide at an
intersection and stick to each other as a result
of the collision as shown in Figure 6.24. Find
8 the speeds of A and B before the collision.

y 5.0 m s−1

5 12 17 t/s
Figure 6.21 For question 12.
A 45°
13 A rocket in space where gravity is negligible has x
a mass (including fuel) of 5000 kg. If it is desired
to give the rocket an average acceleration of
B
15.0 m s2 during the first second of firing the
engine and the gases leave the rocket at a speed Figure 6.24 For question 17.
of 1500 m s1 (relative to the rocket), how
much fuel must be burned in that second? 18 A boy rides on a scooter pushing on the road
14 Two masses moving in a straight line towards with one foot with a horizontal force that
each other collide as shown in Figure 6.22. depends on time, as shown in the graph in
Find the velocity (magnitude and direction) of Figure 6.25. While the scooter rolls, a constant
the larger mass after the collision. force of 25 N opposes the motion. The
combined mass of the boy and scooter is
before after
25 kg.
4.0 kg 12.0 kg
(a) Find the speed of the boy after 4.0 s,
assuming he started from rest.
24.0 m s−1 2.0 m s−1 3.0 m s−1 v=?
(b) Draw a graph to represent the variation of
Figure 6.22 For question 14. the boy’s speed with time.

15 Two cars of masses 1200 kg and 1400 kg collide

F/N
head-on and stick to each other. The cars are
coming at each other from opposite directions 100
with speeds of 8.0 m s1 and 6 m s1,
50
respectively. With what velocity does the wreck
move away from the scene of the accident?
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
16 A 0.350 kg mass is approaching a moving rod t/s
with speed 8.00 m s1. The ball leaves the rod Figure 6.25 For question 18.
at right angles with a speed of 12.0 m s1 as
shown in Figure 6.23. What impulse has been
imparted to the ball? HL only

19 A student stands on a plate that is connected

12.0 m s−1 to a force sensor that measures the force
exerted by the student on the plate. The
student then jumps straight up. Figure 6.26
is an idealized version of the reading of the
8.00 m s−1 sensor as a function of time. Using this graph
find the following:
Figure 6.23 For question 16.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
98 Core – Mechanics

force/N
(a) the mass of the student; 10
(b) the acceleration of the student at 0.6 s;
(c) the time the student leaves the plate; 8
(d) the maximum height the student jumps to.
6
(e) What would be a more realistic graph of
force versus time? 4

F/kN 2

time/s
2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 6.27 For question 22.
1.5

1.0 HL only

0.5 23 You have a mass of 60.0 kg and are floating

weightless in space. You are carrying 100 coins
t/s each of mass 0.10 kg.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
(a) If you throw all the coins at once with a
Figure 6.26 For question 19.
speed of 5.0 m s1 in the same direction,
with what velocity will you recoil?
(b) If instead you throw the coins one at a
20 A ball of mass m is dropped from a height of
time with a speed of 5.0 m s1 with
h1 and rebounds to a height of h2 . The ball is
respect to you, discuss whether your final
in contact with the floor for a time interval
speed will be different from before. (Use
of τ .
your graphics display calculator to
(a) Show that the average net force on the
calculate the speed in this case.)
ball is given by

√ √ 24 Figure 6.28 shows the variation with time of the

2gh1 + 2gh2 force exerted on a ball as the ball came into
F =m
τ contact with a spring.
(a) For how long was the spring in contact with
(b) If h1 = 8.0 m, h2 = 6.0 m, τ = 0.125 s,
the ball?
m = 0.250 kg, calculate the average force
(b) Estimate the magnitude of the change in
exerted by the ball on the floor.
momentum of the ball.
21 A ball of mass m hits a horizontal floor
(c) What was the average force that was exerted
normally with speed v1 and rebounds with
on the ball?
speed v2 . The ball stayed in contact with the
F/N
floor for a time of τ s. Show that the average 120
force on the ball from the floor during the
collision is given by m(v1τ+v2 ) + mg . Find an 100

expression for the average net force on the ball. 80

22 Figure 6.27 shows the variation with time of 60
the force exerted on a body of mass 4.0 kg
40
that is initially at rest. Find:
(a) the acceleration of the mass at 4 s; 20
(b) the velocity of the mass at 5 s; t/s
(c) the acceleration of the mass at 8 s; 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
(d) the velocity of the mass at 10 s. Figure 6.28 For question 24.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
CHAPTER 2.7 Core – Mechanics

Work, energy and power

The topic of mechanics continues in this chapter with the fundamental concept of work
done by a force, as well as the concepts of energy and power. Applications of the law of
conservation of energy are discussed.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• state the definition of work done by a force, W = F s cos θ , appreciate the
significance of the angle appearing in the formula and understand that
this formula can only be used when the force is constant;
• understand that the work done by a varying force is given by the area under
the graph of force versus displacement;
p2
• state the definitions of kinetic energy, E k = 12 mv 2 (also E k = 2m ),
gravitational potential energy, E p = mgh , and elastic potential energy,
E e = 12 kx 2 .
• appreciate that gravitational potential energy can be calculated by
measuring heights from an arbitrary level;
• understand that, when frictional forces are absent, the total energy
E = E k + E p + E e = 12 mv 2 + mgh + 12 kx 2 is conserved;
• use the work–kinetic energy relation that states that the work done by
the net force is the change in kinetic energy;
• understand that, in the presence of external forces, the work done is the
change in the mechanical energy, W =  E ;
• state the definition of power, P = Wt
, and its very useful form in
mechanics, P = F v ;
• calculate the efficiency of simple machines;
• understand that in all collisions momentum is always conserved, but that
kinetic energy is only conserved in elastic collisions.

Work done by a force called the work done by the force F by

Consider a constant force F acting on a body of W = Fs cos θ

mass m as shown in Figure 7.1. The body moves
where θ is the angle between the force and the
a distance s along a straight line.
direction along which the mass moves. (The
The force is always acting upon the body as it cosine here can be positive, negative or zero;
moves. Note that the force moves its point of thus work can be positive, negative or zero. We
application by a distance s. We define a quantity will see what that means shortly.)

© Cambridge University Press 2008

100 Core – Mechanics

F F F F 90°
θ s
T
Figure 7.1 A force moving its point of application
performs work. Figure 7.2.

angle between the force and any small

The work done by a force is the product of displacement of the mass as it revolves around the
the force times the distance moved by the circle is 90 ◦ and since cos 90 ◦ = 0 , the work
object in the direction of the force. done is zero.
The unit of work is the joule. One joule is Q3
the work done by a force of 1 N when it A force of constant magnitude 25 N acts on a
moves a body a distance of 1 m in the body that moves along a curved path. The
direction of the force. 1 J = 1 N m. direction of the force is along the velocity vector
of the body, i.e. it is tangential to the path. Find
the work after the mass moves a distance of 50 m
Example question along the curved path.
Q1
A mass is being pulled along a level road by a Answer
rope attached to it in such a way that the rope The diagram on the left of Figure 7.3 shows the
makes an angle of 40.0° with the horizontal. The path of the body. The diagram on the right is an
force in the rope is 20.0 N. What is the work enlargement of part of the path. We see that the
done by this force in moving the mass a distance work done when the body travels a small distance
of 8.00 m along the level road? s is

Answer Fs cos 0◦ = Fs

Applying the definition of work done, we have Breaking up the entire path into small bits in this
way, and adding the work done along each bit,
W = Fs cos θ
we find that the total work done is W = Fs ,
where F = 20.0 N, s = 8.00 m and θ = 40 ◦ . Thus where s is the distance travelled along the
W = 20 × 8 × cos 40 ◦ curved path.
= 123 J

If the force is not constant or the motion does F

not take place in a straight line, or both, we Δs

must be careful. First consider the case of a
force of constant magnitude when the motion Figure 7.3.
is not along a straight line.
If the force is not constant in magnitude, we
Example questions
must be supplied with the graph that shows the
Q2 variation of the magnitude of the force with
Find the work done by the tension in a string, as a distance travelled. Then we have the following
mass attached to the end of the string performs important result:
circular motion (see Figure 7.2).
The area under the graph that shows the
Answer
variation of the magnitude of the force
This is a case where the force, although constant with distance travelled is the work done.
in magnitude, changes in direction. However, the
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 101

We can apply this result to the case of the horizontally, the work done by mg is zero,
tension in the spring. Since T = kx, where k is since in this case the angle is 90◦ :
the spring constant and x the extension (or W = mgd cos 90◦ = 0. (See Figure 7.5.)
compression) of the string, the graph of force
versus position is as shown in Figure 7.4.
displacement

T
mg mg mg mg
Figure 7.5 The force of gravity is normal to this
horizontal displacement so no work is being
done.

Note that we are not implying that it is the

weight that is forcing the mass to move along
x the table. We are calculating the work done by
extension
Figure 7.4 The area under a force–distance graph a particular force (the weight) if the mass
gives the total work performed by the non- (somehow) moves in a particular way.
constant force.
If the body falls a vertical distance h, then
the work done by W is +mgh. The force of
To find the work done in extending the gravity is parallel to the displacement, as in
spring from its natural length (x = 0) to Figure 7.6a.
extension x, we need to calculate the area of
If the mass is thrown vertically upwards to a
the triangle whose base is x and height is
height h from the launch point, then the
T = kx . Thus
work done by W is –mgh since now the
area = 12 kx × x angle between direction of force (vertically
down) and displacement (vertically up) is
= 12 kx 2
180◦ . The force of gravity is parallel to the
The work to extend a spring from its natural displacement but opposite in direction, as in
length by an amount x is thus Figure 7.6b.

W = 12 kx 2

It follows that the work done when extending

a spring from an extension x1 to an extension displacement
x2 (so x2 > x1 ) is
 
W = 12 k x22 − x12

Work done by gravity

We will now concentrate on the work done by
a very special force, namely the weight of a (a) (b)
mass. Remember that weight is mass times Figure 7.6 The force of gravity is parallel to the
acceleration due to gravity and is directed displacement in (a) and anti-parallel (i.e. parallel
vertically down. Thus, if a mass is displaced but opposite in direction) in (b).
© Cambridge University Press 2008
102 Core – Mechanics

Consider now the case where a mass moves along Work done in holding something still
some arbitrary path, as shown in Figure 7.7. If you try to hold up a heavy object, such as a
chair, you will soon get tired. However, the force
start with which you are holding the chair does zero
work since there is no displacement. This is
h somewhat unexpected. We normally associate
finish getting tired with doing work. Indeed, the forces
inside the muscles of the arm and hand holding
Figure 7.7 The work done by gravity is the chair do work. This is because the muscles
independent of the path followed. stretch and compress and that requires work,
just as stretching and compressing a spring does.
The path consists of horizontal and vertical
segments. We now ask about the work done by
the weight of the mass. The work done by mg Gravitational potential energy
will be equal to the sum of the work done along
As we just saw, the weight mg of a mass m a
each horizontal and vertical step. But mg does
height h from the ground will perform work
no work along the horizontal steps since the
mgh if this mass moves from its position down to
angle between the force and the displacement
the ground. The ability to do this work is there
in that case will be 90◦ and cos 90° = 0. We are
because the mass just happens to be at a height
thus left with the vertical steps only. The work
h from the ground. The ability to do work is
done along each step will be ±mgh, where h
called energy. When the force in question is the
is the step height. The plus sign is used when
weight (which depends on gravity), we call this
we go down a step and the minus sign when we
energy gravitational potential energy:
go up a step. (In Figure 7.7 the mass will be
forced to go up twice and down eight times.) Ep = mgh
Thus, what counts is the net number of steps
going down (six in our figure). But, this adds up Any mass has gravitational potential energy by
to the vertical distance separating the initial virtue of its position. But what determines h?
and final position. Hence, the work done by mg Obviously, we have to choose a reference level
is mgh. from which we will measure heights. But we
can choose any level we like. A mass m = 2 kg
If the start and finish positions are joined by an sitting on a table 1 m from the floor will have
arbitrary smooth curve rather than a ‘staircase’, Ep = 2 × 10 × 1 = 20 J if the reference level is
the result is still the same. This is because we the floor, but will have Ep = 0 if the reference
can always approximate a smooth curve by a level is the table. If the reference level is chosen
series of horizontal and vertical steps; the to be the ceiling, 2 m above the table, then
quality of the approximation depends on how Ep = −2 × 10 × 2 = −40 J. (See Figure 7.8.)
small we take the steps to be. This means that:

The work done by gravity is independent

2m
of the path followed and depends only on
the vertical distance separating the initial
mass
and final positions. The independence of
the work done on the path followed is a
1m
property of a class of forces (of which
weight is a prominent member) called
conservative forces. Figure 7.8 The mass has different potential energies
depending on the reference level chosen.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 103

So, the same mass will have different The stored energy is
gravitational potential energy depending on
1 2
what reference level we choose. This might seem Ee = kx
2
to make Ep a useless quantity. But if you are 1
patient, you will see that this is not the case. = × 2000 (0.05)2
2
Potential energy can be understood in the = 2.5 J
following way. Consider a mass resting on a
horizontal floor. If an external force equal to
mg is applied to the mass vertically up and the
mass moves without acceleration to a position h The work–kinetic energy relation
metres higher than the floor, the work done by
the external force is mgh. What has become of this What effect does the work done have on a body?
work? This work has gone into gravitational When a body of mass m is acted upon by a net
potential energy of the mass. This energy is force F , then this body experiences an
F
stored as potential energy in the new position acceleration a = m in the direction of F .
of the mass. Similarly, if a spring is initially Suppose that this body had speed v 0 when the
unstretched and an external force stretches it force was first applied to it and that the speed
by an amount x, then the work done by this after moving a distance x (in the direction of the
external force is 12 kx 2 . This work is stored as net force) becomes v f , as shown in Figure 7.9.
elastic potential energy in the (now stretched)
spring. v0 vf
F
F
This is a general result for all kinds of Figure 7.9 A force accelerates a mass, increasing its
potential energies: when an external force kinetic energy.
changes the state of a system without
acceleration and does work W in the We know from kinematics that
process, the work so performed is stored as
potential energy in the new state of the v f2 = v 02 + 2ax
system.
so replacing the acceleration by F/m we find
F
Example question v f2 = v 02 + 2 x
m
Q4 1 2 1 2
⇒ Fx = mv − mv 0
A mass of 10 kg rests on top of a vertical spring 2 f 2
whose base is attached to the floor. The spring But F x is the work done on the mass. This work
compresses by 5 cm. What is the spring constant equals the change in the quantity Ek = 12 mv 2 , a
of the spring? How much energy is stored in the quantity called the kinetic energy of the mass.
spring? We thus see that the net work done on a mass
results in a change of the kinetic energy of the
Answer
object. This is a very useful result with
The mass is at equilibrium so applications in many areas of physics.
mg = kx
mg The work done by the net force on a body is
⇒k=
x equal to the change in the kinetic energy of
100 the body
=
0.05
work done by net force = E k
= 2000 N m−1
© Cambridge University Press 2008
104 Core – Mechanics

Example questions
Q5 vertical
A mass of 5.00 kg moving with an initial velocity
of 12.0 m s–1 is brought to rest by a horizontal m
h
force over a distance of 12.0 m. What is the
force? Figure 7.10.

Answer Answer
The change in the kinetic energy of the mass is The net work done is zero since the net force on
(final minus initial) the mass is zero. The work done by gravity is
–mgh and thus the work done by the two equal
1 1
0− mv 2 = − × 5.00 × 144 tension forces is +mgh . The work done by each is
2 2
thus mgh/2 .
= −360 J
Q8
The work done by the force f is A mass m hangs vertically at the end of a string of
– f s = –12 f length L . A force F is applied to the mass
horizontally so that it slowly moves to a position a
Hence distance h higher, as shown in Figure 7.11. What
is the work done by the force F ? (Note: F is not
−12 f = −360 constant.)
⇒ f = 30.0 N

(There is a minus sign in the work done by f

because the force is acting in a direction opposite θ
to the motion and cos 180 ◦ = –1.)
Q6 T
An electron is acted upon by an electric force that F
accelerates it from rest to a kinetic energy of
5.0 × 10 –19 J. If this is done over a distance of h
mg
3.0 cm, find the electric force.
Figure 7.11.
Answer
The work done by the electric force is the change Answer
in kinetic energy (the electric force is the only The answer is obtained at once by noting that since
force acting and so it is the net force) and equals the mass is in equilibrium at all times the net force is
the product of force times distance. Hence zero and hence the work done by the net force is
zero. But T does zero work since it is always
F × 0.03 = 5.0 × 10 −19 normal to the direction in which the mass moves
⇒ F = 1.7 × 10 −17 N (along the arc of a circle). The weight does work
−mgh and thus the work done by F must be +mgh.
Q7
A mass m hangs from two strings attached to the
ceiling such that they make the same angle with
the vertical (as shown in Figure 7.10). The strings Conservation of energy
are shortened very slowly so that the mass is
raised a distance h above its original position. We have already seen that, when a net force F
What is the work done by the tension in each performs work W on a body, then the kinetic
string as the mass is so raised? energy of the body changes by W (here the
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 105

subscripts ‘i’ and ‘f’ stand for ‘initial’ and This can be rearranged as
‘final’)
mgh + 12 mv f2 = mgH + 12 mv i2
W = Ek
= 12 mv f2 − 12 mv i2 which shows that in the motion of this body
the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of
Consider now the case where the only force the mass stays the same. Calling the quantity
that does work on a body is gravity. This mgh + 12 mv 2 the total energy of the mass, then
corresponds to motions in which the body is the result we derived states that the total
either in free fall (gravity is the only force energy E of the mass stays the same at all
acting) or the body is sliding on a frictionless times, i.e. the total energy is conserved,
surface (we now have the normal reaction force
acting here as well as gravity but this force does Ei = Ef
zero work since it is normal to the direction of
motion). Suppose that the vertical height of the As the mass comes down the plane, its potential
body when the velocity is v i is H, and the energy decreases but its kinetic energy
velocity becomes vf at a height of h from the increases in such a way that the sum stays the
reference level (see Figure 7.12). same. We have proven this result in the case in
which gravity is the only force doing work in
vi our problem. Consider now the following
start
example questions.
finish Example questions
H Q9
vf Find the speed of the mass at the end of a
h
pendulum of length 1.00 m that starts from rest at
an angle of 10 ◦ with the vertical.
Figure 7.12 The total energy at the top and bottom
(and at any point in between) of the incline is Answer
the same.
Let us take as the reference level the lowest point
of the pendulum (Figure 7.13). Then the total
The work done by gravity is simply mg(H – h)
energy at that point is just kinetic, E k = 12 mv 2 ,
and so
where v is the unknown speed. At the initial point
mg(H − h) = 12 mv f2 − 12 mv i2 the total energy is just potential, E p = mgh , where

L
L
L L cos θ

potential only

kinetic only
Figure 7.13.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
106 Core – Mechanics

h is the vertical difference in height between the Q11

two positions, that is What must the minimum speed of the mass in
Figure 7.15 be at the initial point such that the
h = 1.00 − 1.00 cos 10 ◦
mass makes it over the barrier of height h ?
= 0.015 m
(see Figure 7.13)
Thus
v=? h
1
2
mv 2 = mgh
 Figure 7.15.
v = 2gh
= 0.55 m s−1
Answer
Note how the mass has dropped out of the
To make it over the barrier the mass must be able
problem. (At positions other than the two shown,
to reach the highest point. Any speed it has there
the mass has both kinetic and potential energy.)
will then make it roll over. Thus, at the very least,
Q10 we must be able to get the ball to the highest point
A mass rolls up an incline of angle 28 ◦ with an with zero speed. Then the total energy would be
initial speed of 3.0 m s1. How far up the incline just E = mgh and the total energy at the starting
will the mass get? position is E = 12 mv 2 . Thus, the speed must be
√
bigger than v = 2gh . Note that if the initial speed
Answer √
u of the mass is larger than v = 2gh , then when
Let the furthest the mass will get be a height h the mass makes it to the other side of the barrier its
from the floor, as shown in Figure 7.14. At this speed will be the same as the starting speed u.
point the kinetic energy must be zero since
otherwise the mass would have climbed higher. Q12
Then the total energy at this point is just A mass rolls off a 1.0 m high table with a speed of
E = mgh . The total energy at the initial 4.0 m s1, as shown in Figure 7.16. With what
position is speed does it strike the floor?

E = 12 mv 2
4.0 m s−1

and so
1.0 m
v2
h=
2g

giving h = 0.45 m. The distance moved along the Figure 7.16.

plane is thus
Answer
0.45
= 0.96 m . The total energy of the mass is conserved. As it
sin 28 ◦
leaves the table it has total energy given by
E = 12 mv 2 + mgh and as it lands the total energy
v=0
is E = 12 mu 2 (u is the speed we are looking for).
potential Equating the two energies gives
only
kinetic only 1
2
mu2 = 12 mv 2 + mgh
v h ⇒ u = v 2 + 2gh
2

= 16 + 20 = 36
Figure 7.14. ⇒u = 6.0 m s−1
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 107

Q13
A ball is thrown vertically upward with a speed of
4.0 m s1 from a height of 1.0 m from the floor, as
shown in Figure 7.17. With what speed does the 20 cm
ball strike the floor?
spring

Figure 7.18.
4.0 m s−1

Answer
1.0 m
Initially the total mechanical energy of the system
is only the elastic potential energy of the spring

Figure 7.17.
E = 12 kx 2
Answer = 1
2
× 250 × 0.12 2

Working in precisely the same way as in the = 1.8 J

previous example we find At a height of 20 cm from the floor, the total
mechanical energy consists of kinetic and
1
2
mu2 = 12 mv 2 + mgh
gravitational energies only. The spring has
⇒ u = v 2 + 2gh
2
decompressed and so has no elastic potential
= 16 + 20 energy. Then
= 36
⇒u = 6.0 m s−1 E = 12 mv 2 + mgh
= 12 (0.4)v 2 + (0.4)(10)(0.20)
(The answer is the same as that for example
= 0.2v 2 + 0.8
question 12 – why?)
Thus

If, in addition to the weight, there are spring 0.2v 2 + 0.8 = 1.8
tension forces acting in our system, then the ⇒0.2v 2 = 1.0
previous discussion generalizes to again
⇒v 2 = 5
lead to
⇒v = 2.2 m s−1
Ei = Ef

where now the total mechanical energy

includes elastic potential energy as well, that is Frictional forces
E = 12 mv 2 + mgh + 12 kx 2 In the presence of friction and other resistance
forces, the mechanical energy of a system (i.e. the
Example question sum of kinetic, gravitational potential and
elastic potential energies) will not be conserved.
Q14
These forces will, in general, decrease the total
A body of mass 0.40 kg is held next to a
mechanical energy of the system. Similarly,
compressed spring as shown in Figure 7.18. The
external forces, such as forces due to engines,
spring constant is k = 250 N m −1 and the
may increase the mechanical energy of a
compression of the spring is 12 cm. The mass is
system. In these cases we may write
then released. Find the speed of the body when it
is at a height of 20 cm from the horizontal. W = E
© Cambridge University Press 2008
108 Core – Mechanics

where W stands for the total work done by the at the top is
external forces and E is the change in the
E top = mgh
mechanical energy of the system. By external
= 2.0 × 10 × 5.0
forces we mean forces other than weight and
= 100 J
spring tension forces.

This equation is easily understood in the At the bottom it is

following way. If there are no external forces, E bottom = 12 mv 2
then W = 0, E = 0 and the total mechanical
= 1
2
× 2.0 × (6.0)2
energy stays the same: it is conserved.
= 36 J
If, on the other hand, external forces do act on
The total energy decreased by 64 J – this must be
the system, then the work they do goes into
the work done by the resistance force. Thus
changing the mechanical energy. If the work
done is negative (resistance forces), the f s = 64 J
mechanical energy decreases. If the work done 64
⇒f =
is positive (pulling forces), the mechanical 16
energy increases. = 4.0 N

Example question
We have seen that in the presence of external
Q15
forces the total mechanical energy of a system
A body of mass 2.0 kg (initially at rest) slides
is not conserved. The change in the total energy
down a curved path of total length 16 m as
is the work done by the external forces. Another
shown in Figure 7.19. When it reaches the
way of looking at this is to say the change in
bottom, its speed is measured and found to equal
the mechanical energy has gone into other
6.0 m s−1 . Show that there is a force resisting the
forms of energy not included in the mechanical
motion. Assuming the force to have constant
energy, such as thermal energy (‘heat’) and
magnitude, determine what that magnitude is.
sound. In this way total energy (which now
includes the other forms as well as the
mechanical energy) is conserved. This is the
general form of the law of conservation of
energy, one of the most important principles of
5.0 m physics.

The total energy cannot be created or

destroyed but can only be transformed from
one form into another.
Figure 7.19.

Answer Power
Without any resistance forces, the speed at the
bottom is expected to be When a machine performs work, it is important
to know not only how much work is being done

v= 2gh but also how much work is performed within a
√ given time interval. A cyclist performs a lot of
= 2 × 10 × 5.0
work in a lifetime of cycling, but the same work
= 10 m s−1
is performed by a powerful car engine in a
The measured speed is less than this and so there much shorter time. Power is the rate at which
is a resistance force. The total mechanical energy work is being performed.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 109

When a quantity of work W is performed The power is thus

within a time interval t the ratio
6.0 × 10 3
W = 1200 W
P = 5.0
t
This is only the minimum power required. In
is called the power developed. Its unit is practice, the mass has to be accelerated from rest,
joule per second and this is given the name which will require additional work and hence
watt (W): 1 W  1 J s1. more power.
Q17
A helicopter rotor whose length is R pushes air
Another common unit for power when it comes downwards with a speed v. Assuming that the
to machines and car engines is the horsepower, density of air is constant and equals ρ and the
hp, a non-SI unit that equals 746 W. mass of the helicopter is M , find v . You may
Consider a constant force F , which acts on a assume that the rotor forces the air in a circle of
body of mass m. The force does an amount of radius R (spanned by the rotor) to move with the
work F x in moving the body a small distance downward speed v . Hence find the power
x along its direction. If this work is performed developed by the engine. How does this power
in time t, then depend on the linear size of the helicopter?

W Answer
P =
t
The momentum of the air under the rotor is mv ,
x
=F where m is the mass of air in a circle of radius R .
t
In time t the mass is enclosed in a cylinder of
= Fv
radius R and height vt. Thus, the momentum of
where v is the instantaneous speed of the mass. this mass is ρπR 2 v 2 t and its rate of change is
This is the power produced in making the body ρπR 2 v 2 . This is the force on the helicopter
move at speed v. As the speed increases, the upwards, which must equal the helicopter’s
power necessary increases as well. Consider an weight of Mg. Thus
aeroplane moving at constant speed on a straight-
line path. If the power produced by its engines is Mg = ρπR 2 v 2

P, and the force pushing it forward is F , then P, Mg
⇒v =
F and v are related by the equation above. But ρπR 2
since the plane moves with no acceleration, the
The power required from the helicopter engine is
total force of air resistance must equal F . Hence
thus
the force of air resistance can be found simply
from the power of the plane’s engines and the P = Fv
constant speed with which it coasts. 
Mg
= Mg
Example questions ρπ R 2
Q16 To find the dependence on a typical linear size L
What is the minimum power required to lift a mass of the helicopter, note that the weight depends on
of 50.0 kg up a vertical distance of 12 m in 5.0 s? L as L3 and so
Answer 
3 L3
The work performed to lift the mass is P ∝L ∝ L 7/2
L2
mgh = 50.0 × 10 × 12 This implies that if the length of a helicopter is 16
3
= 6.0 × 10 J times that of a model helicopter, its required
© Cambridge University Press 2008
110 Core – Mechanics

power will be 167/2 ≈ 16 000 times larger than Example question

that for the model. Q18
A 0.50 kg battery-operated toy train moves with
constant velocity 0.30 m s1 along a level track.
Efficiency The power of the motor in the train is 2.0 W and
Suppose that a mass is being pulled up along a the total force opposing the motion of the train is
rough inclined plane with constant speed. Let 5.0 N.
the mass be 15 kg and the angle of the incline (a) What is the efficiency of the train’s motor?
45 ◦ . The constant frictional force opposing the (b) Assuming the efficiency and the opposing
motion is 42 N. force stay the same, calculate the speed of the
train as it climbs an incline of 10.0◦ to the
horizontal.
R F
Answer
(a) The power delivered by the motor is 2.0 W.
Since the speed is constant, the force
f
developed by the motor is also 5.0 N. The
mg
power used in moving the train is
Fv = 5.0 × 0.30 = 1.5 W . Hence the
θ efficiency is
Figure 7.20. 1.5 W
η=
2.0 W
= 0.75
The forces on the mass are shown in Figure 7.20
and we know that (b) The net force pushing the train up the incline is

R = mg cos θ F = mg sin θ + 5.0

= 106.1 N = 0.50 × 10 × sin 10◦ + 5.0
= 5.89 N ≈ 5.9 N
F = mg sin θ + f
Thus
= 106.1 + 42
= 148.1 N ≈ 150 N 5.89 × v
η=
2.0 W
since the mass has no acceleration. Let the force
= 0.75
raise the mass a distance of 20 m along the
plane. The work done by the force F is 2.0 × 0.75
⇒v=
5.89
W = 148.1 × 20 = 0.26 m s−1
= 2960 J ≈ 3.0 × 103 J

The force effectively raised the 15 kg a vertical

height of 14.1 m and so increased the potential Kinetic energy and momentum
energy of the mass by mgh = 2121 J. The
We have seen in Chapter 2.6 on momentum
efficiency with which the force raised the mass
that, in a collision or explosion where no
is thus
external forces are present, the total
useful work momentum of the system is conserved. You can
η=
actual work easily convince yourself that in the three
2121 collisions illustrated in Figure 7.21 momentum
=
2960 is conserved. The incoming body has mass
= 0.72 8.0 kg and the other a mass of 12 kg.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 111

10 m s−1 10 m s−1 10 m s−1

before
8 kg 12 kg

after

4 m s−1 1 m s−1 6 m s−1 −2 m s−1 8 m s−1

1 2 3

Figure 7.21 Momentum is conserved in these three collisions.

In the first collision the bodies have stuck Example questions

together and move as one. In the second the Q19
incoming body has slowed down as a result of A moving body of mass m collides with a
the collision and the heavy body moves faster. stationary body of double the mass and sticks to
In the third the incoming body has bounced it. What fraction of the original kinetic energy is
back. lost?
Let us examine these collisions from the point Answer
of view of energy. The original kinetic energy is 12 mv 2 , where v is the
In all cases the total kinetic energy before the speed of the incoming mass. After the collision
collision is the two bodies move as one with speed u that can
be found from momentum conservation:
Ek = 1
2 × 8 × 102 = 400 J
mv = (m + 2m)u
The total kinetic energy after the collision in v
⇒u =
each case is: 3

case 1 Ek = 1
× 20 × 42 = 160 J The total kinetic energy after the collision is
2
therefore
case 2 Ek = 1
2 × 8 × 12 + 1
2 × 12 × 62 = 220 J
1  v 2 mv 2
case 3 Ek = 1
×8×2 + 2 1 2
× 12 × 8 = 400 J (3m) =
2 2 2 3 6
We thus observe that whereas momentum is and so the lost kinetic energy is
conserved in all cases, kinetic energy is not. When
kinetic energy is conserved (case 3), the mv 2 mv 2 mv 2
− =
collision is said to be elastic. When it is not 2 6 3
(cases 1 and 2), the collision is inelastic. In an
inelastic collision, kinetic energy is lost. When The fraction of the original energy that is lost is
the bodies stick together after a collision thus
(case 1), the collision is said to be totally inelastic
mv 2 /3 2
and in this case the maximum possible kinetic =
mv /2
2 3
energy is lost.

The lost kinetic energy gets transformed into Q20

other forms of energy, such as thermal energy, A body at rest of mass M explodes into two
deformation energy (if the bodies are pieces of masses M/4 and 3M/4 . Calculate
permanently deformed as a result of the the ratio of the kinetic energies of the two
collision) and sound energy. fragments.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
112 Core – Mechanics

Answer time is a famous problem in physics and

Here it pays to derive a very useful expression for requires the development of a branch of
kinetic energy in terms of momentum. Since calculus called the calculus of variations. It is
called the brachistochrone (least time) problem.
mv 2
Ek = The answer is that the curve joining A to B
2
must be a cycloid. This is the curve traced out
it follows that by a point on the rim of a wheel as the wheel
mv 2 m rolls. In Figure 7.22, curve IV resembles a cycloid
Ek = ×
2 m most. This problem was posed to both Newton
m2 v 2 and Leibniz (the inventors of calculus) by the
=
2m Swiss mathematician Bernoulli. When Bernoulli
p2 saw the solutions given by the two men, he is
=
2m supposed to have said of Newton ‘one can
The total momentum before the explosion is zero, always tell a lion by its claws’.
so it is zero after as well. Thus, the two fragments
must have equal and opposite momenta. Hence
Questions
E light p2 /(2Mlight )
= 1 A horizontal force of 24 N pulls a body a
E heavy p2 /(2Mheavy )
distance of 5.0 m along its direction.
Mheavy
= Calculate the work done by the force.
Mlight
2 A block slides along a rough table and is
3M/4
= brought to rest after travelling a distance of
M/4
2.4 m. The frictional force is assumed constant
=3
at 3.2 N. Calculate the work done by the
frictional force.
3 A block is pulled as shown in Figure 7.23 by a
The problem of least time force making an angle of 20 ◦ to the horizontal.
Find the work done by the pulling force when
In Figure 7.22 a number of paths join the its point of application has moved 15 m.
starting position A to the final position B.
F = 25 N

I 15 m
II III
h Figure 7.23 For question 3.

IV
4 A block of mass 4.0 kg is pushed to the right
by a force F = 20.0 N. A frictional force of
B
14.0 N is acting on the block while it is
Figure 7.22.
moved a distance of 12.0 m along a
A mass m at A will start with a tiny speed and horizontal floor. The forces acting on the mass
move down to B. As we saw, the speed at B will are shown in Figure 7.24.
be the same no matter what path
 the mass (a) Calculate the work done by each of the
follows. The speed will equal 2gh in all cases. four forces acting on the mass.
This does not mean, however, that the time (b) Hence find the net work done.
taken is the same for all paths. Finding the path (c) By how much does the kinetic energy of
joining A to B such that a mass takes the least the mass change?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 113

R
f F 3.00 m
A
mg
Figure 7.24 For question 4. 4.00 m
B

Figure 7.26 For question 10.

5 A weight lifter slowly lifts a 100 kg mass from
the floor up a vertical distance of 1.90 m and
then slowly lets it down to the floor again. 11 The speed of the 8.0 kg mass in position A in
(a) Find the work done by the weight of the Figure 7.27 is 6.0 m s1. By the time it gets to
mass on the way up. B the speed is measured to be 12.0 m s1.
(b) Find the work done by the force exerted by
the weight lifter when lifting the weight up.
A
(c) What is the total work done by the weight
on the way up and the way down?
h = 12.0 m
6 A block of mass 2.0 kg and an initial speed of
5.4 m s1 slides on a rough horizontal surface B
30°
and is eventually brought to rest after travelling Figure 7.27 For question 11.
a distance of 4.0 m. Calculate the frictional
force between the block and the surface.
What is the frictional force opposing the
7 A spring of spring constant k = 200 N m1 is
motion? (The frictional force is acting along
slowly extended from an extension of 3.0 cm
the plane.)
to an extension of 5.0 cm. How much work is
done by the extending force? 12 A toy gun shoots a 20.0 g ball when a spring
1 of spring constant 12.0 N m1 decompresses.
8 A spring of spring constant k = 150 N m is
The amount of compression is 10.0 cm (see
compressed by 4.0 cm. The spring is
Figure 7.28). With what speed does the ball
horizontal and a mass of 1.0 kg is held to the
exit the gun, assuming that there is no friction
right end of the spring. If the mass is released,
between the ball and the gun? If, instead,
with what speed will it move away?
there is a frictional force of 0.05 N opposing
9 Look at Figure 7.25.
the motion of the ball, what will the exit
(a) What is the minimum speed v the mass
speed be in this case?
must have in order to make it to position
B? What speed will the mass have at B?
(b) If v = 12.0 m s1, what will the speed be
at A and B?

10 cm
A
Figure 7.28 For question 12.
B
v
4.0 m 2.0 m 13 A variable force F acts on a body of mass
m = 2.0 kg initially at rest, moving it along a
Figure 7.25 For question 9.
straight horizontal surface. For the first 2.0 m
the force is constant at 4.0 N. In the next
10 A mass is released from rest from the position 2.0 m it is constant at 8.0 N. In the next 2.0 m
shown in Figure 7.26. What will its speed be it drops from 8.0 N to 2.0 N uniformly. It then
as it goes past positions A and B? increases uniformly from 2.0 N to 6.0 N in the
© Cambridge University Press 2008
114 Core – Mechanics

next 2.0 m. It then remains constant at 6.0 N proportional to the third power of the car’s
for the next 4.0 m. maximum speed. What does this imply
(a) Draw a graph of the force versus distance. about the speed dependence of the wind
(b) Find the work done by this force. resistance force?
(c) What is the final speed of the mass? 20 The top speed of a car whose engine is
14 A body of mass 12.0 kg is dropped vertically delivering 250 kW of power is 240 km h1.
from rest from a height of 80.0 m. Ignoring Calculate the value of the resistance force on
any resistance forces during the motion of this the car when it is travelling at its top speed on
body, draw graphs to represent the variation a level road.
with distance fallen of
21 Describe the energy transformations taking
(a) the potential energy;
place when a body of mass 5.0 kg:
(b) the kinetic energy.
(a) falls from a height of 50 m without air
For the same motion draw graphs to represent
resistance;
the variation with time of
(b) falls from a height of 50 m with constant
(c) the potential energy;
speed;
(d) the kinetic energy.
(c) is being pushed up an incline of 30 ◦ to the
(e) Describe qualitatively the effect of a
horizontal with constant speed.
constant resistance force on each of the
four graphs you drew. 22 An elevator starts on the ground floor and
stops on the 10th floor of a high-rise
15 A 25.0 kg block is very slowly raised up a
building. The elevator picks up a constant
vertical distance of 10.0 m by a rope attached
speed by the time it reaches the 1st floor
to an electric motor in a time of 8.2 s. What is
and decelerates to rest between the 9th and
the power developed in the motor?
10th floors. Describe the energy
16 The engine of a car is developing a power of transformations taking place between the
90.0 kW when it is moving on a horizontal 1st and 9th floors.
road at a constant speed of 100.0 km h1.
23 A car of mass 1200 kg starts from rest,
What is the total horizontal force opposing the
accelerates uniformly to a speed of 4.0 m s−1
motion of the car?
in 2.0 s and continues moving at this constant
17 The motor of an elevator develops power at a
speed in a horizontal straight line for an
rate of 2500 W.
additional 10 s. The brakes are then applied
(a) At what speed can a 1200 kg load be
and the car is brought to rest in 4.0 s. A
raised?
constant resistance force of 500 N is acting on
(b) In practice it is found that the load is lifted
the car during its entire motion.
more slowly than indicated by your answer
(a) Calculate the force accelerating the car in
to (a). Suggest reasons why this is so.
the first 2.0 s of the motion.
18 A load of 50.0 kg is raised a vertical distance (b) Calculate the average power developed
of 15 m in 125 s by a motor. by the engine in the first 2.0 s of the
(a) What is the power necessary for this? motion.
(b) The power supplied by the motor is in fact (c) Calculate the force pushing the car
80 W. Calculate the efficiency of the forward in the next 10 s.
motor. (d) Calculate the power developed by the
(c) If the same motor is now used to raise a engine in those 10 s.
load of 100.0 kg and the efficiency remains (e) Calculate the braking force in the last 4.0 s
the same, how long would that take? of the motion.
19 For cars having the same shape but different (f) Describe the energy transformations that
size engines it is true that the power have taken place in the 16 s of the motion
developed by the car’s engine is of this car.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 115

24 A mass of 6.0 kg moving at 4.0 m s1 collides 28 A mass m of 4.0 kg slides down a frictionless
with a mass of 8.0 kg at rest on a frictionless incline of θ = 30 ◦ to the horizontal.
surface and sticks to it. How much kinetic (a) Plot a graph of the kinetic and potential
energy was lost in the collision? energies of the mass as a function of
25 Two masses of 2.0 kg and 4.0 kg are held in time.
place, compressing a spring between them. (b) Plot a graph of the kinetic and potential
When they are released, the 2.0 kg moves energies of the mass as a function of
away with a speed of 3.0 m s1. What was the distance travelled along the incline.
energy stored in the spring? (c) On each graph, plot the sum of the
potential and kinetic energies. The mass
26 A block of mass 0.400 kg is kept in place so
starts from rest from a height of 20 m.
it compresses a spring of spring constant
120 N m1 by 15 cm (see Figure 7.29). The 29 Show that an alternative formula for kinetic
p2
block rests on a rough surface and the frictional energy is E k = 2m , where p is the momentum
force between the block and the surface when of the mass m. This is very useful when
the block begins to slide is 1.2 N. dealing with collisions.
30 A body of mass M , initially at rest, explodes
and splits into two pieces of mass M/3 and
2M/3 , respectively. Find the ratio of the
kinetic energies of the two pieces. (Use the
formula from the previous problem.)
Figure 7.29 For question 26. 31 A mass m is being pulled up an inclined plane
of angle θ by a rope along the plane.
(a) What is the tension in the rope if the mass
(a) What speed will the block have when the
moves up at constant speed v ?
spring returns to its natural length?
(b) What is the work done by the tension
(b) What percentage is this of the speed the
when the mass moves up a distance of
mass would have had in the absence of
d m along the plane?
friction?
(c) What is the work done by the weight of
27 Two bodies are connected by a string that the mass?
goes over a pulley, as shown in Figure 7.30. (d) What is the work done by the normal
The lighter body is resting on the floor and the reaction force on the mass?
other is being held in place a distance of (e) What is the net work done on the mass?
5.0 m from the floor. The heavier body is then
released. Calculate the speeds of the two
bodies as the heavy mass is about to hit the HL only
floor. 32 A mass m = 2.0 kg is attached to the end of a
string of length L = 4.5 m. The other end of
the string is attached to the ceiling. The string
is displaced from the vertical by an angle
θ0 = 50 ◦ and then released. What is the
tension in the string when the string makes an
4.0 kg angle θ = 20 ◦ with the vertical?

5.0 m 33 A car of mass 1200 kg is moving on a

horizontal road with constant speed 30 m s1.
2.0 kg
The engine is then turned off and the car will
Figure 7.30 For question 27. eventually stop under the action of an air
© Cambridge University Press 2008
116 Core – Mechanics

resistance force. Figure 7.31 shows the (a) the speed of the jumper when she has
variation of the car’s speed with time after the fallen by 12 m;
engine has been turned off. (b) the maximum speed attained by the
jumper during her fall.
v/m s –1 (c) Explain why the maximum speed is reached
30 after falling more than a distance of 12 m
(the unstretched length of the rope).
25
HL only
20
(d) Sketch a graph to show the variation of the
15 speed of the jumper with distance fallen.

10
36 A carriage of mass 800 kg moving at 5.0 m s−1
t/s collides with another carriage of mass 1200 kg
0 10 20 30 40 50
that is initially at rest. Both carriages are
Figure 7.31 For question 33. equipped with buffers. The graph in
Figure 7.32 shows the velocities of the two
(a) Calculate the average acceleration of the carriages before, during and after the collision.
car in the first and second 10 s intervals.
(b) Explain why it takes longer to reduce the
speed from 20.0 m s−1 to 10.0 m s−1
compared with from 30.0 m s−1 to
20.0 m s−1. v/m s −1
5
(c) The average speed in the first 10 s interval 4
3
is 21.8 m s−1 and in the second it is 2
13.5 m s−1. Use this information and your 1
0
answer in (a) to deduce that the air −1 t/s
−2
resistance force is proportional to the −3 0.150 s
square of the speed. −4
(d) Calculate the distance travelled by the car Figure 7.32 For question 36.
in the first and second 10 s intervals.
Use the graph to:
(e) Calculate the work done by the resistance
force in the first and second 10 s intervals. (a) show that the collision has been elastic;
(b) calculate the average force on each
34 A bungee jumper of mass 60 kg jumps from a
carriage during the collision;
bridge 24 m above the surface of the water.
(c) calculate the impulse given to the heavy
The rope is 12 m long and is assumed to obey
carriage.
Hooke’s law.
(d) If the buffers on the two carriages had
(a) What should the spring constant of the
been stiffer, the time of contact would
rope be if the woman is to just reach the
have been less but the final velocities
water?
would be unchanged. How would your
(b) The same rope is used by a man whose
answers to (b) and (c) change?
mass is more than 60 kg. Explain why the
(e) Calculate the kinetic energy of the two
man will not stop before reaching the
carriages at the time during the collision
water. (Treat the jumper as a point and
when both have the same velocity and
ignore any resistance to motion.)
compare your answer with the final kinetic
35 For the bungee jumper of mass 60 kg in energy of the carriages. How do you
question 34, calculate: account for the difference?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.7 Work, energy and power 117

HL only
37 Show that in an elastic, head-on collision of a
particle of mass m with a stationary particle m
v M
of mass M the fraction of the original kinetic
energy transferred to M is Figure 7.34 For question 40.

4Mm
(m + M)2 41 A battery toy car of mass 0.250 kg is made to
move up an inclined plane which makes an
38 Two masses of 3.0 kg and 8.0 kg collide
angle of 30 ◦ with the horizontal. The car
head-on elastically. Before the collision the
starts from rest and its motor provides a
8.0 kg mass is at rest and the 3.0 kg moves
constant acceleration of 4.0 m s2 for 5.0 s.
at speed 10.0 m s1. Find the velocities after
The motor is then turned off.
the collision.
(a) Find the distance travelled in the first 5 s.
39 Two masses of 6.0 kg and 4.0 kg are (b) Find the furthest the car gets on the
constrained to move on a frictionless inclined plane.
horizontal ring as shown in (c) When does the car return to its starting
Figure 7.33. place?
(d) Make a graph of the velocity as a
function of time.
6.0 kg (e) On the same axes, make a graph of the
kinetic energy and potential energy of the
5 m s −1 car as a function of the distance travelled.
(f) In which periods in the car’s motion is its
4.0 kg
mechanical energy conserved?
(g) What is the average power developed by
the car’s motor?
(h) What is the maximum power developed
by the motor?
Figure 7.33 For question 39. 42 A white billiard ball collides with a black
billiard ball that is initially at rest. After the
collision, the balls move off with an angle θ
Initially the heavy mass is at rest and between them, as shown in Figure 7.35.
the other moves in a counter-clockwise
direction with speed 5.0 m s1. At t = 0 s
the two masses collide elastically. With before collision
what velocities do the masses move white ball black ball
after the collision? At what points on the
circle do subsequent collisions take
place?
after collision
40 A mass m moves with a speed v on a
horizontal table towards a wedge of mass M ,
as shown in Figure 7.34. How high on the θ
wedge will m get if:
(a) the wedge is firmly fixed on the table;
(b) the wedge is free to move on the table
without friction? Figure 7.35 For question 42.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

118 Core – Mechanics

The initial momentum of the white ball is p. 43 A spring of natural length 0.150 m and spring
After the collision the momentum of the constant 4.00 N m–1 is attached at point P, as
white ball is pw and the momentum of the shown in Figure 5.26. The other end of the
black ball is pb . Arrows representing the spring is attached to a ring that goes over a
momentum of the white ball before and after frictionless vertical pole. The mass of the ring
the collision are shown in Figure 7.36. is 0.100 kg. The spring may be assumed to be
massless. Initially the ring is held horizontal so
that the length PA is 0.300 m. The ring is then
allowed to drop.

pw

P A

p
Figure 7.36 For question 42(a).

(a) Copy the diagram. On it, draw an arrow

to represent the momentum of the black B
ball after the collision.
(b) Explain the arrow you have drawn in (a). Figure 5.26 For question 26.
(c) On your copy of the diagram, label the
angle θ. (a) Calculate (using g  10.0 m s2):
(d) The collision is an elastic collision, and (i) the speed of the ring when it reaches
the two balls have identical masses. point B, a vertical distance of 0.400m
Deduce that the angle θ between the from point A;
balls after the collision is 90°. (ii) the magnitude of the force exerted on
(e) In the case of an inelastic collision the ring by the pole at point B;
between the two balls, Figure 7.36 is (iii) the acceleration (magnitude and
replaced by Figure 7.37. Copy this direction) of the ring at B;
diagram. On it, draw an arrow to (iv) the largest distance below A to which
represent the momentum of the black the ring falls (use your graphical
ball after the collision in this case. calculator);
(v) the maximum speed of the ring during
its fall and the distance fallen when
pw
this happens (use your graphical
calculator).
(b) Using your graphical calculator, plot the
speed of the ring as a function of distance
p
fallen from A.
Figure 7.37 For question 42(e). (c) The ring will start moving upwards after
reaching its lowest point. Discuss whether
the ring will move higher than point A or
whether it will stop at A.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER
CHAPTER 2.8
0.0 Core – Mechanics
Part title

Circular
Chaptermotion
title
Our discussion of motion so far has been restricted to motion in a straight line. In this
chapter, we examine the more complicated motion of an object along a circular path.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• understand that acceleration is present when the magnitude of the velocity,
or its direction, or both change;
• understand that in motion on a circle with constant speed there is
2
centripetal acceleration of constant magnitude, ac = vr , directed at the
centre of the circle;
• recognize situations in which a force is acting in a direction toward the
centre of a circle;
• solve problems involving applications of Newton’s second law to motion
2
on a circle, F net = mac = mvr .

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to: follows that
Circular motion and centripetal
2π R
acceleration v=
T
We now examine the case of motion on a circle. We may also note that the object sweeps out an
Consider the object in Figure 8.1, which rotates angle of 2π radians in a time equal to the
on a circle of radius R in the counter-clockwise period, so we define the angular speed of the
direction, with constant speed v. object by

Let T be the time taken to complete one full angle swept

angular speed =
revolution. We call T the period of the motion. time taken
Since the speed is constant and the object that is
covers a distance of 2π R in a time of T s, it
2π
ω=
T
The units of angular speed are radians per
v
second or just s1.

It is important to note right away that the

speed may be constant but the velocity is not.
R
It keeps changing direction. (The velocity
vector is at a tangent to the circle – see
Figure 8.1 An object moving on a circle of Figure 8.2.) Since the velocity changes, we
radius R . have acceleration.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
120 Core – Mechanics

y y
velocity Q
vector at P r2
velocity vectors for motion
r1 along an arbitrary curve
P P
θ

O x O x
Figure 8.3 The velocity vector is tangential to the
path.

Figure 8.2 The velocity vector is tangent to the

circular path. The magnitude of the velocity is the magnitude
of r divided by t. The speed, on the other
What follows is a derivation of the expression for hand, is the ratio of s, the distance travelled,
acceleration in circular motion. You may want to t. Thus, the magnitudes of velocity and
to skip it and go directly to the result just speed appear to be different. But recall again
before the end of this section (p. 120). that t must be infinitesimal, which implies
that the difference in the length of s and that
The position vector at time t1 is given by r1 and of r becomes negligible. Thus, the magnitude
at a later time t2 by the vector r2 . Note that of velocity is the speed.
since we chose the origin of our coordinate
axes to be at the centre of the circle, the
displacement vector of the moving object Similarly, for acceleration
always has the same magnitude, equal to the  v
a =
radius of the circle. Thus, what changes as the t
object moves is the direction of the where  v is a vector. Thus, we have
displacement vector, not its magnitude. The acceleration every time the velocity vector
velocity of the object is defined as changes. This vector will change if:

r • its magnitude changes;
v = • the direction changes;
t
• both magnitude and direction change.
where  r is a vector representing the
difference r2 − r1 , and the time difference
t = t2 − t1 is assumed to be as small as For motion in a circle with constant speed, it is
possible. It is clear that the vector  r is the the direction of the velocity vector that
vector from P to Q. Similarly, the speed of the changes. We must thus find the difference
object is the distance travelled, which is the vQ − vP . (Note that the magnitude of the
length of the arc s divided by t. But velocity vectors at P and Q are the same – they
remember that the time interval t = t2 − t1 equal the constant speed v of the moving
must be taken to be as small as possible. object.)
As this time difference becomes infinitesimal,
r becomes tangential to the circle at point P. In Figure 8.4 the velocity vector at Q has been
moved parallel to itself so that it starts at the
same point as the velocity vector at P. The
This means that the direction of the
difference is thus as shown. The magnitude of
velocity for motion on a circle has a
this vector can be found from simple
direction that is at a tangent to the circle.
trigonometry. From the sine rule
This is a general result. The direction of
velocity is always at a tangent to the path v v
(see Figure 8.3). = π 
sin θ sin 2 − 2θ
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.8 Circular motion 121

velocity at Q
y v v
Q
velocity at P Δv
vP a a

vQ
θ v
P
θ a
x
O

Figure 8.5 The centripetal acceleration vector is

normal to the velocity vector.
Figure 8.4 The velocity vector changes direction in
circular motion, hence we have acceleration.
If the magnitude of the velocity changes, we
have tangential acceleration. This is a vector
directed along the velocity vector if the speed is
Recall now that the points P and Q are increasing and opposite to the velocity vector if
separated only infinitesimally from each other the speed is decreasing. The magnitude of the
and so the angle θ is very small. Thus, sin θ ≈ θ tangential acceleration is given by
and sin( π2 − 2θ ) ≈ 1 (the angle must be expressed
in radians). Further, θ = s v
R and s = vt. at =
Substituting, we find t

vvt where v is the speed and t is infinitesimally

v = small.
R
v2 When the velocity direction and magnitude are
⇒ ac =
R changing, we have both centripetal acceleration
and tangential acceleration. The total
This gives us the magnitude of the acceleration is then the vector sum of the
acceleration vector for motion around a circle vectors representing these accelerations.
of radius R with constant speed v . As we see,
the magnitude of the acceleration vector is
Example questions
constant, if v is constant. But what about its
direction? As t gets smaller and smaller, the Q1
angle θ gets smaller and smaller, which means A mass moves along a circle of radius 2.0 m with
that the vector  v , which is in the direction constant speed. It makes one full revolution in
of acceleration, becomes perpendicular to v . 3.0 s. What is the acceleration of the mass?
This means that the acceleration vector is Answer
normal to the circle and directed towards the
The acceleration is v 2 / R so we need to know v .
centre of the circle. It is a centripetal
But since the mass covers a distance of 2πR in a
acceleration.
time T = 3.0 s, we must have

2πR
A body moving along a circle of radius R v=
T
with speed v experiences centripetal 2 × 3.14 × 2.0
=
acceleration that has magnitude given by 3.0 m s−1
= 4.2 m s−1
2
ac = vR and is directed toward the centre
of the circle. (See Figure 8.5.)
Hence a = 8.8 m s2.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
122 Core – Mechanics

Q2 wheels and the road provides the necessary

The radius of the earth is R = 6.4 × 10 6 m. What force directed towards the centre of the circle
is the centripetal acceleration experienced by that enables the car to take the turn. (See
someone on the equator? Figure 8.7.)

Answer
path followed if
top view
A mass on the equator covers a distance of 2πR in velocity vector
speed is too high
a time T = 1 day. Thus

v = 4.6 × 10 2 m s–1 R
f
and so
acceleration
mg
a = 3.4 × 10 –2 m s–2
side view
This is quite small compared with the acceleration
Figure 8.7 A car will skid outwards (i.e. will cover
due to gravity.
a circle of larger radius) if the friction force is
Q3 not large enough.
A mass moves in a circle with constant speed in a
counter-clockwise direction, as in Figure 8.6a.
What is the direction of the velocity change when Example questions
the mass moves from A to B? Q4
A mass is tied to a string and moves with constant
vB speed in a horizontal circle. The string is tied to
B
the ceiling, at a point higher than the mass. Draw
A the forces on the mass.

–vA Answer
The common mistake here is to put a horizontal
force pointing toward the centre and call it the
(a) (b) centripetal force. When you are asked to find
Figure 8.6. forces on a body, the list of forces that are
available include the weight, reaction forces (if the
Answer body touches another body), friction (if there is
The velocity at A is vertical and at B it points to friction), tension (if there are strings or springs),
the left. The change in the velocity vector is resistance forces (if the body moves in air or a
vB − vA and this difference of vectors is directed fluid), electric forces (if electric charges are
as shown in Figure 8.6b. involved), etc. Nowhere in this list is there an
entry for a centripetal force.

Centripetal forces Think of the word centripetal as simply an

adjective that describes forces already acting on
If we know that a body moves in a circle, then the body, not as a new force. In this example, the
we know at once that a net force must be acting only forces on the mass are the weight and the
on the body, since it moves with acceleration. If tension. If we decompose the tension into
the speed is constant, the direction of the horizontal and vertical components, we see that
acceleration is towards the centre of the circle the weight is equal and opposite to the vertical
and therefore that is also the direction of the component of the tension. This means that the
net force. It is a centripetal force. Consider a only force left on the body is the horizontal
car that moves on a circular level road of radius component of the tension. We may now call this
r with constant speed v. Friction between the force the centripetal force. But this is not a new
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.8 Circular motion 123

force. It is simply the component of a force that is It is important to note that, since a centripetal
already acting on the body. (See Figure 8.8.) force is at right angles to the direction of
motion, the work done by the force is zero.
(Recall that W = F s cos θ , and here the angle is
a right angle.)
T
T It is a common mistake in circular motion
problems to include a force pushing the body
The horizontal component of away from the centre of the circle: a centrifugal
the tension is the net force on force. It is important to stress that no such
W the body. It points toward the
W centre so we may call it a force exists. A body in circular motion cannot
centripetal force. But it is
nothing more than a component be in equilibrium and so no force pushing away
of the tension force.
from the centre is required.
Figure 8.8.

Supplementary material
Q5
A mass m is tied to a string and made to move in
a vertical circle of radius R with constant speed v .
Angular momentum
Find the tension in the string at the lowest and Consider a point mass m which rotates about
highest points. some axis with speed v as shown in Figure 8.10.

Answer
v
The forces are as shown in Figure 8.9. At the
lowest point, the net force is T1 − mg and so
m
2
v
T1 − mg = m r
r

giving

v2
T1 = mg + m Figure 8.10 A mass rotating counter-clockwise
r in a circle has an angular momentum
pointing out of the page.
At the highest point, the net force is mg + T2 and so

v2
We define the magnitude of the angular
T2 = m − mg momentum of the mass m by
r
L = mvr
This shows that the string goes slack unless v 2 > gr .
(Angular momentum is a vector but we will not
make use of its vector nature here.) If the mass
T2 moves along a path other than a circle, then the
mg
angular momentum is given by
L = mvb
where b is the perpendicular distance of the axis
T1 from the direction of velocity. In Figure 8.11
the axis goes into the page through P. Since
b = r sin θ it follows that L = mvr sin θ , where
mg θ is the angle between the velocity vector and
Figure 8.9 The tension in the string is different the vector from the axis to the position of the
at different positions of the mass. mass. The units of angular momentum are J s.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

124 Core – Mechanics

2 A body of mass 1.00 kg is tied to a string and

v
rotates on a horizontal, frictionless table.
m θ direction of velocity
(a) If the length of the string is 40.0 cm and
b the speed of revolution is 2.0 m s1, find
r
the tension in the string.
P (b) If the string breaks when the tension
exceeds 20.0 N, what is the largest speed
Figure 8.11 A mass has angular momentum
about an axis through P. the mass can rotate at?
(c) If the breaking tension of the string is
Example question 20.0 N but you want the mass to rotate at
4.00 m s1, what is the shortest length
Q6
string that can be used?
Find the angular momentum of two masses,
each of 2.0 kg, that are separated by 5.0 m 3 An astronaut rotates at the end of a test
and rotate about an axis along the machine whose arm has a length of 10.0 m,
perpendicular bisector of the line joining them as shown in Figure 8.14. If the acceleration
with speed v = 7.5 m s1 (see Figure 8.12). she experiences must not exceed
5g (g = 10 m s–2 ) , what is the maximum
number of revolutions per minute of the arm?

5.0 m 10 m

Figure 8.12.

Answer Figure 8.14 For question 3.

L = 2mvr = 75 J s.
4 A wheel of radius R rotates making f
revolutions per second. The quantity f is
Questions known as the frequency of the motion. Show
that 1/ f is the time to complete one
1 A mass moves on a circular path of radius revolution, called the period T of the motion.
2.0 m at constant speed 4.0 m s1 (see Show that the centripetal acceleration of a
Figure 8.13). point at the rim of the wheel is
(a) What is the magnitude and direction of
a = 4π 2 R f 2
the average acceleration during a quarter
of a revolution (from A to B)? 5 The earth (mass = 5.98 × 10 24 kg) rotates
(b) What is the centripetal acceleration of the around the sun in an orbit that is
mass? approximately circular, with a radius of
1.5 × 10 11 m.
(a) Find the orbital speed of the earth around
the sun.
(b) Find the centripetal acceleration
B experienced by the earth.
(c) Find the magnitude of the gravitational
force exerted on the earth by the sun.
6 (a) What is the angular speed of a mass that
A completes a 3.5 m radius circle in 1.24 s?
Figure 8.13 For question 1. (b) What is the frequency of the motion?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.8 Circular motion 125

7 What is the centripetal acceleration of a mass

that moves in a circle of radius 2.45 m making
3.5 revolutions per second? m
8 What would be the length of the day if the
centripetal acceleration at the equator were
equal to the acceleration due to gravity?
(g = 9.8 m s–2 .)
9 A loop-the-loop machine has radius R of M
18 m (see Figure 8.15). Figure 8.16 For question 12.
(a) What is the minimum speed at which a
cart must travel so that it will safely loop
the loop? 13 A mass of 5.00 kg is tied to two strings of
(b) What will the speed at the top be in this equal length, which are attached to a vertical
case? pole at points 2.0 m apart. As the pole rotates
about its axis, the strings make a right angle
with each other, as shown in Figure 8.17.

2.0 m

R
v=?

Figure 8.15 For question 9.

Figure 8.17 For question 13.

10 Calculate the centripetal force on the earth as If the mass makes 2 revolutions per second, find:
it rotates around the sun. The mass of the (a) the tension in each string;
earth is about 6.0 × 10 24 kg . The earth orbits (b) the speed of revolution that makes the
the sun in a circular orbit of radius lower string go slack.
1.5 × 10 11 m in one year. (c) If the mass now rotates at half the speed
11 What is the centripetal acceleration of a you found in part (b), find the angle the
point on the earth at 50 ◦ latitude as a result top string makes with the vertical.
of the earth’s rotation about its axis? 14 A mass moves counter-clockwise along a
Express the answer as a fraction of g , the vertical circle of radius 4.00 m. At positions A
acceleration due to gravity. What angle to and B, where the radii make an angle of 45 ◦
the true vertical would a mass hanging at the with the horizontal (see Figure 8.18), the mass
end of a string make? Take g to be exactly has speed 4.0 m s1. At A the speed of the
9.8 m s2. mass is increasing at a rate of 3.0 m s2
12 A horizontal disc has a hole through its whereas at B the speed is decreasing at a rate
centre. A string passes through the hole and of 3.0 m s2. Thus, the acceleration of the mass
connects a mass m on top of the disc to a in each position consists of the centripetal
bigger mass M that hangs below the disc. acceleration (which is directed toward the
Initially the smaller mass is rotating on the centre) and a tangential acceleration whose
disc in a circle of radius r . What must the magnitude is the rate of change of speed. Find
speed of m be such that the big mass stands the magnitude and direction of the acceleration
still? (See Figure 8.16.) vector of the mass at positions A and B.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
126 Core – Mechanics

A B

initial position of mass

Figure 8.18 For question 14.

15 In an amusement park ride a cart of mass

300 kg and carrying four passengers each of
mass 60 kg is dropped from a vertical height
of 120 m along a frictionless path that leads Figure 8.20 For question 16.
into a loop-the-loop machine of radius 30 m.
The cart then enters a straight stretch from A
to C where friction brings it to rest after a 17 A neutron star has a radius of 50.0 km and
distance of 40 m. (See Figure 8.19.) completes one revolution every 25 ms.
Calculate the centripetal acceleration
experienced at the equator of the star.
18 In an amusement park a box is attached to a
rod of length 25 m and rotates in a vertical
circle. The park claims that the centripetal
B
acceleration felt by the occupants sitting
firmly in the box is 4g . How many revolutions
per minute does the machine make?
120 m
19 A marble rolls from the top of a big sphere as
A C shown in Figure 8.21. What is the angle θ
Figure 8.19 For question 15. when the marble is about to leave the sphere?
Assume a zero speed at the top.
(a) Find the velocity of the cart at A.
(b) Find the reaction force from the seat of the
cart onto a passenger at B.
(c) What is the acceleration experienced by
the cart from A to C (assumed constant)?
16 A mass of 5.0 kg is attached to a string of
length 2.0 m which is initially horizontal. The θ

mass is then released. Figure 8.20 shows the

mass when the string is in a vertical position.
(a) Find the speed of the mass when the string
is in the vertical position.
(b) Find the acceleration of the mass.
(c) Draw the forces on the mass.
(d) Find the tension in the string. Figure 8.21 For question 19.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER
CHAPTER 2.9
0.0 Core – Mechanics
Part title

The
Chapter
law of
title
gravitation
This chapter will introduce you to one of the fundamental laws of physics: Newton’s law
of gravitation. The law of gravitation makes it possible to calculate the orbits of the planets
around the sun, and predicts the motion of comets, satellites and entire galaxies. Newton’s
law of gravitation was published in his monumental Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, on 5 July 1686. Newton’s law of gravitation has had great success in dealing
with planetary motion.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• appreciate that there is an attractive force between any two point masses
that is directed along the line joining the two masses, F = G Mr1 2M2 ;
• state the definition of gravitational field strength, g = G rM2 .

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Newton’s law of gravitation where M1 and M2 are the masses of the
attracting bodies, r the separation between
We have seen that Newton’s second law implies them and G a new constant of physics
that, whenever a mass moves with acceleration, called Newton’s constant of universal
a force must be acting on it. An object falling gravitation. It has the value G = 6.667×
freely under gravity is accelerating at 9.8 m s2 2 −2
10−11 N m kg . The direction of the force
and thus experiences a net force in the is along the line joining the two masses.
direction of the acceleration. This force is, as we
know, the weight of the mass. Similarly, a
planet that revolves around the sun also This formula applies to point masses, that is to
experiences acceleration and thus a force is say masses which are very small (in comparison
acting on it. Newton hypothesized that the with their separation). In the case of objects
force responsible for the falling apple is the such as the sun, the earth, and so on, the
same as the force acting on a planet as it formula still applies since the separation of, say,
revolves around the sun. The conventional the sun and a planet is enormous compared
weight of a body is nothing more than the with the radii of the sun and the planet. In
gravitational force of attraction between that addition, Newton proved that for bodies which
body and the earth. are spherical and of uniform density one can
assume that the entire mass of the body is
Newton proposed that the attractive force concentrated at the centre – as if the body is a
of gravitation between two point masses is point mass.
given by the formula
M1 M2 Figure 9.1 shows the gravitational force between
F =G two masses. The gravitational force is always
r2
attractive.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
128 Core – Mechanics

F F

r
Re
Re
M
Me m

m
r
Figure 9.2 The gravitational force due to a
r spherical uniform mass is the same as that due
M m
to an equal point mass concentrated at the
Figure 9.1 The mass of the spherical body to the centre.
left can be thought to be concentrated at the
centre. Therefore, we must have that
Me m
The force on each mass is the same. This follows G = mg
R e2
both from the formula as well as from Newton’s
G Me
third law. ⇒ g=
R e2
Example questions
This is an extraordinary result. It relates the
Q1 acceleration of gravity to the mass and radius of
Find the force between the sun and the earth. the earth. Thus, the acceleration due to gravity
Answer
on the surface of Jupiter is

The average distance between the earth and the G MJ

g=
sun is R  1.5  1011 m. The mass of the earth is R J2
5.98  1024 kg and that of the sun 1.99  1030 kg.
Thus Example questions

F = 3.5 × 10 22 N
Q3
Find the acceleration due to gravity (the
Q2 gravitational field strength) on a planet 10 times
If the distance between two bodies is doubled, as massive as the earth and with radius 20 times
what happens to the gravitational force between as large.
them?
Answer
Answer
From
Since the force is inversely proportional to the GM
square of the separation, doubling the separation g=
R2
reduces the force by a factor of 4.
we find

We said that the force we ordinarily call G(10 Me )

g=
the weight of a mass (i.e. mg ) is actually the (20 R e )2
force of gravitational attraction between 10G Me
=
the earth of mass Me and the mass of the 400 R e2
1 G Me
body in question. The mass of the earth is =
assumed to be concentrated at its centre and 40 R e2
1
thus the distance that goes in Newton’s = ge
40
formula is the radius of the earth, R e (see
Figure 9.2). Thus g  0.25 m s2.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.9 The law of gravitation 129

Q4 The gravitational field strength at a certain

Find the acceleration due to gravity at a height of point is the force per unit mass experienced
300 km from the surface of the earth. by a small point mass m at that point. The
force experienced by a small point mass m
Answer placed at distance r from a mass M is
Mm
G Me F =G
g= r2
( R e + h)2
So the gravitational field strength (F/m) of
where Re  6.38  106 m is the radius of the the mass M is
earth and h the height from the surface. We can M
g=G
now put the numbers in our calculator to r2
find g = 8.94 m s−2 . The units of gravitational field strength are
The order-of-magnitude arithmetic without a N kg1.
calculator is as follows:

G Me
g= If M stands for the mass of the earth, then the
( R e + h)2
gravitational field strength is nothing more
6.67 × 10 −11 × 5.98 × 10 24
= than the acceleration due to gravity at distance
(6.68 × 10 6 )2
7×6
r from the centre of the earth.
≈ × 10
50 The usefulness of the definition of the
42
≈ gravitational field strength is that it tells us
5
something about the gravitational effects of a
≈ 8 m s−2
given mass without actually having to put a
second mass somewhere and find the force
on it.

Gravitational field strength The gravitational field strength is a vector

quantity whose direction is given by the
Physicists (and philosophers) since the time of direction of the force a point mass would
Newton, including Newton himself, wondered experience if placed at the point of interest.
how a mass ‘knows’ about the presence of The gravitational field strength around a
another mass nearby that will attract it. By the single point mass M is radial, which means
nineteenth century, physicists had developed that it is the same for all points equidistant
the idea of a ‘field’, which was to provide the from the mass and is directed towards the
answer to the question. A mass M is said to mass. The same is true outside a uniform
create a gravitational field in the space around spherical mass. This is illustrated in
it. This means that when another mass is Figure 9.3.
placed at some point near M, it ‘feels’ the
This is to be contrasted to the assumption of a
gravitational field in the form of a
constant gravitational field strength, which
gravitational force. (Similarly, an electric
would result in the situation illustrated in
charge will create around it an electric field
Figure 9.4. The assumption of constant
and another charge will react to this field by
acceleration of gravity (as, for example, when
having an electric force on it.)
we treated projectile motion) corresponds to
We define gravitational field strength as follows. this case.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

130 Core – Mechanics

gA G MA / R A2
=
gB G MB / R B2
MA R B2
=
MB R A2
1
=8×
4
=2
Q6
Show that the gravitational field strength at the
surface of a planet of density ρ has a magnitude
given by g = 4Gπρ
3
R
.

Answer
We have
GM
g=
R2

Figure 9.3 The gravitational field around a point Since

(or spherical) mass is radial. 4π R 3
M=ρ
3
it follows that
G4πρ R 3
g=
3 R2
4Gπρ R
=
3

Questions

1 What is the gravitational force between:

(a) the earth and the moon;
(b) the sun and Jupiter;
Figure 9.4 The gravitational field above a flat mass
is uniform. (c) a proton and an electron separated by
1010 m?
(Use the data in Appendices 1 and 3.)
2 A mass m is placed at the centre of a thin,
Example questions hollow, spherical shell of mass M and radius R
(see Figure 9.5a).
Q5
(a) What gravitational force does the mass m
Two stars have the same density but star A has
experience?
double the radius of star B. Determine the ratio of
(b) What gravitational force does m exert on M?
the gravitational field strength at the surface of
(c) A second mass m is now placed a distance
each star.
of 2R from the centre of the shell (see
Answer Figure 9.5b). What gravitational force does
The volume of star A is 8 times that of star B since the mass inside the shell experience?
the radius of A is double. Hence the mass of A is (d) What is the gravitational force experienced
8 times that of B. Thus by the mass outside the shell?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.9 The law of gravitation 131

8 Point P is halfway between the centres of two

M M
equal spherical masses that are separated by a
R R m
distance of 2  109 m (see Figure 9.6). What
m m 2R is the gravitational field strength at:
(a) point P;
(a) (b)
(b) point Q?
Figure 9.5 For question 2.
P

3 Stars A and B have the same mass and the

radius of star A is 9 times larger than the
3 × 1022 kg
radius of star B. Calculate the ratio of the 3 × 1022 kg
109 m
gravitational field strength on star A to that
on star B.
Q
4 Planet A has a mass that is twice as large as
the mass of planet B and a radius that is twice Figure 9.6 For question 8.
as large as the radius of planet B. Calculate
the ratio of the gravitational field strength on HL only
planet A to that on planet B.
9 Consider two masses. There is a point
5 Stars A and B have the same density and star
somewhere on the line joining the masses
A is 27 times more massive than star B.
where the gravitational field strength is zero,
Calculate the ratio of the gravitational field
as shown in Figure 9.7. Therefore, if a third
strength on star A to that on star B.
mass is placed at that point, the net force on
6 A star explodes and loses half its mass. Its the mass will be zero. If the mass is slightly
radius becomes half as large. Find the new displaced away from the equilibrium position
gravitational field strength on the surface of to the left, will the net force on the mass be
the star in terms of the original one. directed to the left or the right?
7 The mass of the moon is about 81 times less
displacement
than that of the earth. At what fraction of the
distance from the earth to the moon is the
gravitational field strength zero? (Take into
account the earth and the moon only.) equilibrium position
Figure 9.7 For question 9.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER 2.10
0.0 AHL – Mechanics
Part title

Chapter title
Projectile motion
Galileo is credited with the discovery of the secrets of parabolic motion. He did
experiments with falling bodies, from which he deduced the acceleration due to gravity
and its independence of the body’s mass, and discovered that projectiles follow
parabolic paths. Examples of parabolic motion include the paths of a stone thrown into
the air at an angle, a bullet shot from a gun and water sprayed from a hose. The basic
fact here is that every object that falls freely under the action of the earth’s gravity
experiences an acceleration g directed vertically down. In what follows, it is assumed
that the earth is flat. This means that we only consider a small part of the earth’s surface
so that it is approximately flat, in which case the acceleration due to gravity is pointing
normally to the horizontal ground.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• understand parabolic motion as a combination of two simultaneous straight-
line motions, one horizontal and one vertical;
• understand that in parabolic motion there is an acceleration in the vertical
direction (due to gravity) but none in the horizontal direction;
• derive expressions for maximum height (by setting v y = 0) and maximum
range ( y = 0) reached by imposing appropriate conditions on the equations;
• solve problems of parabolic motion;
• draw the velocity and acceleration vectors of the projectile at various points
on its path;
• appreciate the convenience afforded by the law of conservation of energy in
some parabolic motion problems.

Parabolic motion from rest, the other was launched horizontally

with no vertical component of velocity. We see
Let us begin by looking at what happens when an that the displacements in the y (i.e. vertical)
object is thrown horizontally from some height h direction are covered in the same time.
above the ground with some initial velocity.
How do we understand this fact? A simple way is
Experience tells us that the object will follow a
to make use of the concept of relative velocity.
curved path and will eventually fall to the
Consider two bodies, one dropped from rest and
ground. What we want to know is how far the
the other launched horizontally with velocity v.
object travels, how long it takes to fall to the
From the point of view of a stationary observer
ground, the precise shape of the curved path, etc.
on the ground, body B falls vertically whereas
Figure 10.1 shows the positions of two objects body A follows a parabolic path. Consider now
every 0.2 s: the first was simply allowed to drop the description of the same situation from the

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.10 Projectile motion 133

y/m must reach the ground at the same time as far

20 40 60 80 100
0• x/m as any other observer is concerned as well. (See
• •
Figure 10.2.)
−1 •
•
This means that the motion of the body
−2
• •
launched horizontally can be analysed quite
simply because we can separate the vertical
−3
• • motion from the horizontal motion. Let v 0 be
−4 the initial velocity of the object in the horizontal
direction. Since there is no acceleration in this
−5 • • direction, the horizontal velocity component at
Figure 10.1 A body dropped from rest and one all times will be equal to v 0
launched horizontally cover the same vertical
displacement in the same time. v x = v0
and the displacement in the horizontal
point of view of another observer on the ground
direction will be given by
who moves with velocity v/2 with respect to the
ground. From the point of view of this observer, x = v0t
body A has velocity v/2 and body B has velocity
In the vertical direction, the object experiences
–v/2. The motions of the two bodies are
an acceleration g in the vertically down
therefore identical (except for direction). So this
direction. Thus, the velocity in the vertical
observer will determine that the two bodies
direction will be given by
reach the ground at the same time. Since time is
absolute in Newtonian physics, the two bodies v y = −gt

A v B

A v/2 −v/2 B

v/2

Figure 10.2 The motions of the ball projected horizontally and the ball
dropped vertically from rest are identical from the point of view of the
moving observer. The two balls will thus reach the ground at the same time.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
134 AHL – Mechanics

(we are assuming that positive velocity means after time t are
the body moves upward; the acceleration due x = v0 t
to gravity is then negative, or –g) and the = 12.0 × 4.0
displacement is given by = 48 m
y = − 12 gt 2 and
The point of launch is assumed to be the origin, y = − 12 gt 2
as in Figure 10.3, so that the initial displacement = −5 × 16
is zero, x = 0, y = 0. = −80 m

y Knowing the x and y coordinates as a function

of time allows us to find the shape of the
initial horizontal velocity curved path followed by an object launched
x horizontally: from x = v 0 t we solve for time
t = vx0 and substituting in y = − 12 gt 2 we find
 2
1 x
y=− g
2 v0
Figure 10.3.
which is the equation of a parabola.
Example questions
Q1
An object is launched horizontally from a height of Launch at an arbitrary angle
20.0 m above the ground, as shown in Figure 10.4.
When will it hit the ground? In the previous section we studied the horizontal
launch of a projectile. In this section we will
y study the more general case of launch at an
arbitrary angle. Figure 10.5 shows an object
x
thrown at an angle of θ = 30◦ to the horizontal
with initial velocity vector v0 , whose magnitude
............................................................. is 20 m s1, and the path it follows through
−20.0 m
the air.
Figure 10.4.
The position of the object is shown every 0.2 s.
Answer Note how the dots get closer together as the
The object will hit the ground when y = –20.0 m, object rises (the speed is decreasing) and how
and thus from y = − 12 gt 2 we find −20 = −5t 2 , they move apart on the way down (the speed is
giving t = 2.0 s. Note that we do not need to increasing). It reaches a maximum height of
know the actual velocity of launch. 5.1 m and travels a horizontal distance of 35 m.

Q2 As before, the easiest way to analyse what is

An object is launched horizontally with a velocity going on is to realize that the object is actually
of 12 m s−1 . What is the vertical component of undergoing two motions simultaneously – one
velocity after 2.0 s? What are the coordinates of in the vertical direction and another in the
the object after 4.0 s? horizontal. Thus, if the object begins at point O
(see Figure 10.6) at t = 0 and subsequently finds
Answer itself at point P, then we can say that during
The horizontal component of velocity is 12 m s−1 this time the object actually moved a horizontal
at all times. From v y = −gt , the vertical displacement OX and a vertical displacement
component is v y = −20 m s−1 . The coordinates OY. Note that the time taken to cover the
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.10 Projectile motion 135

y/m

5 •
• •
• •
4

• •
3
y
v0
2
• •

1
θ

x • • x/m
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Figure 10.5 An object is launched at an arbitrary angle to the horizontal. The path
followed is parabolic.

displacement OX is the same as the time taken At any future time, the horizontal velocity
to cover OY. OX and OY are just the components component will be the same, that is
of the displacement vector of the mass at P. v x = v 0 cos θ
since there is no acceleration horizontally.
5 • If we call the displacement in the
• •
horizontal direction x , then after a time of
• •
4 t s goes by
P
Y • • x = v 0 t cos θ
3

2 On the other hand, in the vertical direction

• •
there is acceleration, namely the acceleration
1
due to gravity, g. (In our formulae, the
acceleration will be taken to be negative. A
• •
0 5 10 15 20 25 X 30 35 positive velocity means that the mass is moving
Figure 10.6 The position vector of a point P as an up. On the way up, the velocity decreases and so
object executes parabolic motion. the acceleration is negative. On the way down,
the velocity is getting more and more negative
The point of doing things this way is that we and so the acceleration must again be taken to
have succeeded in reducing the motion in the be negative.)
plane into two motions taking place at the
same time on straight lines. Since we know all The initial velocity in the vertical direction
about straight-line motion, it means we also is v 0 sin θ , so the vertical velocity
know all about motion in a plane. component at any time t after launch is
given by
Let us then throw an object into the air with
v y = v 0 sin θ − gt
velocity vector v0 (of magnitude v 0 ) at an angle
θ to the horizontal. The suffix zero in v0 is to The displacement in the vertical direction,
remind us that this is the initial velocity of the y , after time t seconds is given by
object. The component of initial velocity in the y = v 0 t sin θ − 1
2
gt 2
horizontal direction is simply v 0 cos θ .
© Cambridge University Press 2008
136 AHL – Mechanics

Note that we are dealing with displacements and so t = 0 and

here and not distances. The distance travelled is
2v 0 sin θ
the length of the arc of the parabola from O to t=
g
wherever the mass finds itself after time t.
Setting θ = 0 in these formulae gives the The first time t = 0 is, of course, when the mass
formulae for a horizontal launch, as in the first starts out. The second time is what we
previous section. want – the time in which the range is covered.
Therefore the range is
Unlike the velocity in the horizontal direction,
which stays the same, the vertical velocity is 2v 02 sin θ cos θ
x=
changing. It begins with the value v 0 sin θ at g
time zero, starts decreasing, becomes zero, and v 02 sin 2θ
then keeps decreasing, becoming more and =
g
more negative. At what point in time does the
Note, incidentally, that the time it takes to cover
vertical velocity component become zero?
the range is twice the time needed to reach the
Setting v y = 0 we find
maximum height. This suggests that the motion
0 = v 0 sin θ − gt is symmetric about the highest point.
v 0 sin θ
⇒ t= The maximum value of sin 2θ is 1 and this
g
happens when 2θ = 90◦ (i.e. θ = 45◦ ); in other
The time when the vertical velocity becomes words, we obtain the maximum range with a
zero is, of course, the time when the mass launch angle of 45◦ . This equation also says that
attains its maximum height. What is this there are two different angles of launch that
height? Going back to the equation for the give the same range for the same initial speed.
vertical component of displacement we find These two angles add up to a right angle (can
that when you see why?).

v 0 sin θ Example questions

t=
g Q3
A mass is launched with a speed of 10 m s1 at
y is given by
(a) 30° to the horizontal;
 
v 0 sin θ 1 v 0 sin θ 2 (b) 0° to the horizontal;
ymax = v0 sin θ − g
g 2 g (c) 90° to the horizontal.
v 02 sin2 θ Find the x - and y-components of the initial velocity
= in each case.
2g

This is the formula for the maximum height Answer

attained by the mass. You should not remember (a) vx = v0 cos θ
it by heart but rather you should be able to = 10 × cos 30 ◦
derive it. = 8.66 m s−1
v y = v0 sin θ
What about the maximum displacement in the
= 10 × sin 30 ◦
horizontal direction (sometimes called the
range)? At this point the vertical component of = 5 m s−1
displacement is zero. Setting y = 0 in the (b) vx = 10 m s–1
formula for y gives v y = 0 m s–1
0 = v 0 t sin θ − 1
2 gt 2 (c) vx = 0
1
= t (v 0 sin θ − 2 gt) v y = 10 m s–1
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.10 Projectile motion 137

Q4 Answer
Sketch graphs to show the variation with time of x = v0 t cos θ
the horizontal and vertical components of velocity
of the projectile of example question 3(a). and so

3.0
Answer t=
25.0 × cos 30 ◦
See Figure 10.7. = 0.14 s

Q7
vx /m s−1 For the same mass as in example questions 5 and
6, when is the height of the mass 4.0 m?
8.66
Answer
From
(0,0) t/s
y = v0 t sin θ − 12 gt 2

vy /m s−1 we find
5.0 4.0 = 25t × 0.5 − 5t 2

and so y = 4.00 m when t = 0.38 s and t = 2.1 s.

There are two solutions here since the mass
attains the height of 4 m twice: on its way up and
(0,0) 0.5 t/s
on its way down.

Q8
Figure 10.7. A projectile is launched horizontally from a height
of 45 m above the ground. As it hits the ground,
the velocity makes an angle of 60° to the
horizontal. Find the initial velocity of launch.
Q5
A mass is launched at 30° to the horizontal with Answer
initial speed 25.0 m s1. What is the maximum The time it takes to hit the ground is found from
height obtained? y = − 12 gt 2 (here θ = 0 since the launch is
horizontal) and so
Answer
The vertical velocity is given by −45 = −5t 2
v y = v0 sin θ − gt ⇒ t = 3s

and becomes zero at the highest point. Thus Thus, when the projectile hits the ground
v0 sin θ
t= v y = 0 − 10 × 3
g
= −30 m s−1
= 1.25 s
and so maximum height  7.82 m by substituting Hence
in the formula for y.  
 vy 
tan 60 =  
◦
vx
Q6
30
After what time does the mass in the previous ⇒ vx =
tan 60 ◦
example question move a horizontal distance of
= 17 m s−1
3.0 m?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
138 AHL – Mechanics

The shape of the path Equating the two results in

2
(The proof is not required for examination 1
2 mu + mgh = 12 mv 2
purposes.) The last thing that remains to be ⇒ u = v 2 − 2gh
2
done here is to figure out the shape of the path
This gives
the object follows in the air. We can do this very
easily by concentrating on the formulae for u2 = 144 − 2 × 10 × 5
displacement in the x and y directions: = 44
⇒ u = 6.63 m s−1
x = v 0 t cos θ
Another method of solution uses the equations of
y = v 0 t sin θ − 1
2 gt 2 projectile motion and is much more complicated.
We must find the vertical component of velocity
Using the first equation we solve for time to
x when the vertical displacement of the ball is 5 m:
find t = v 0 cos θ and substituting in the we use y = v 0 t sin θ − 12 gt 2 to find the time
expression for y we find
when the vertical displacement becomes 5 m.
   2 The result is found from:
x 1 x
y = v 0 sin θ − g
v 0 cos θ 2 v 0 cos θ 5 = 12t sin 60◦ − 5t 2
g 2 ⇒ 5t 2 − 10.392t + 5 = 0
y = x tan θ − 2 x
2v 0 cos2 θ
The roots are 0.756 s and 1.322 s. At these times,
which is the equation of a parabola. the vertical velocity component is
v y = v 0 sin θ − gt
Use of energy conservation = 12 sin 60◦ − 10t
In some problems we are asked to find the speed = ±2.83 m s−1
of a projectile at some point along its path. If The speed on landing is thus given by
speed is all that is being asked for, a very simple 
method using the law of conservation of energy u = v 2y + v x2

can be used. Consider the following example. A = 2.832 + 62
ball is launched at 12 m s1 at an angle of 60° to
= 6.63 m s−1
the horizontal. It lands on the roof of a building
5 m high (see Figure 10.8). What is the speed of The advantage of the energy conservation
the ball on landing? method is clear.

Effect of air resistance forces

Figure 10.9 shows the effect of air resistance
on the path of a projectile launched with
speed 200 m s1 at 60 to the horizontal. The
5m
path in black dots corresponds to the case of
zero air resistance. (The position is shown
every 0.8 s.) A similar projectile launched with
Figure 10.8 A ball is launched at ground level and the same velocity but with an air resistance
lands on the roof of a building. force follows the path in open circles. Shown
here is the case of a resistance force of
Let us use conservation of energy first. At magnitude proportional to the speed and
launch, the total energy of the mass is directed opposite to the velocity. We see that
E = 12 mv 2 and on landing it is E = 12 mu2 + mgh. with air resistance:
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.10 Projectile motion 139

• the path is no longer parabolic; 3 A ball is kicked horizontally with a speed of

• the maximum height and range are less 5.0 m s–1 from the roof of a house 3 m high.
than without air resistance; (a) When will the ball hit the ground?
(b) What will the speed of the ball be just
• the angle at which the projectile impacts before hitting the ground?
the ground is steeper.
4 An object is launched horizontally with a
speed of 8.0 m s1 from a point 20 m from the
ground.
y/m
(a) How long will it take the object to land on
1400 the ground?
1200 (b) What is the speed of the object 1 s after
1000 launch?
800
(c) What angle does the velocity make with
the horizontal 1 s after launch?
600
(d) With what velocity does the object hit the
400
ground?
200
5 Two objects are thrown horizontally with the
x/m
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 same speed (4.0 m s1) from heights of 4.0 m
Figure 10.9 The motion of a projectile without air and 8.0 m, as shown in Figure 10.11. What
resistance (black dots), and with a resistance distance will separate the two objects when
force directed opposite to the velocity and of
both land on the ground?
magnitude proportional to the speed (open
circles).

8.0 m

Questions

1 An arrow is shot horizontally towards point O, 4.0 m

which is at a distance of 20.0 m. It hits point
P 0.10 s later. (See Figure 10.10.)
(a) What is the distance OP? Figure 10.11 For question 5.
(b) What was the arrow’s initial velocity?
6 With what speed should the object at 4.0 m
height in Figure 10.11 be launched if it is to
land at the same point as the object launched
from 8.0 m at 4.0 m s1?

O 7 A plane flying at a constant speed of 50.0 m s1

and a constant height of 200 m drops a package
P
of emergency supplies to a group of hikers. If
the package is released just as the plane flies
Figure 10.10 For question 1. over a huge fir tree, find at what distance from
the tree the package will land.
8 The longest distance an athlete can throw the
2 A ball rolls off a table with a horizontal speed discus is L. How high would the same athlete
2.0 m s–1 . If the table is 1.3 m high, how far be able to throw the discus vertically?
from the table will the ball land? (Assume, unrealistically, that the speed of
© Cambridge University Press 2008
140 AHL – Mechanics

throwing is the same in both cases and ignore

air resistance.)

9 In a loop-the-loop cart, as shown in Figure

10.12, a passenger drops their keys when
at the highest point. The cart is moving at
6 m s1 and is 8 m from the ground. Where
will the keys land?

Figure 10.13 For question 15.

Figure 10.12 For question 9. bullet as point particles, determine if the

bullet will hit the monkey.
10 For an object thrown at an angle of 40 to
16 A ball is launched horizontally from a height
the horizontal at a speed of 20 m s1, draw
of 20 m above ground on earth and follows
graphs of:
the path shown in Figure 10.14. Air resistance
(a) horizontal velocity against time;
and other frictional forces are neglected.
(b) vertical velocity against time;
The position of the ball is shown every 0.20 s.
(c) acceleration against time.
(a) Determine the horizontal component of
11 What is the highest point reached by an velocity of the ball.
object thrown with speed 4.0 m s1 at 40 to (b) Draw the net force on the ball at t = 1 s.
the horizontal? (c) The ball is now launched under identical
conditions on the surface of a planet
12 A stone is thrown with initial speed 6.0 m s1
where the acceleration due to gravity is
at 35 to the horizontal. What is the direction
20 m s−2 . Draw the position of the ball on
of the velocity vector 1 s later?
Figure 10.14 at time intervals of 0.20 s.
13 An object is thrown with speed 20.0 m s1 at
an angle of 50 to the horizontal. Draw graphs y /m
to show the variation with time of: 20 • • •
(a) the horizontal displacement; •
•
(b) the vertical displacement. 15 •
•
14 An object of mass 4.0 kg is thrown with speed •
10
20.0 m s1 at an angle of 30 to the
horizontal. Draw graphs to show the variation •
5
with time of: •
(a) the gravitational potential energy of the
body; • x /m
0 5 10 15 20
(b) the kinetic energy of the body.
Figure 10.14 For question 16.
15 A cruel hunter takes aim horizontally at a
monkey that is hanging from the branch of a
tree, as shown in Figure 10.13. The monkey 17 A ball is launched from the surface of a
lets go of the branch as soon as the hunter planet. Air resistance and other frictional
pulls the trigger. Treating the monkey and the forces are neglected. The position of the ball
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.10 Projectile motion 141

is shown every 0.20 s in Figure 10.15. Use (a) Calculate the velocity with which the
this diagram to determine: stone hits the sea.
(a) the components of the initial velocity of (b) Discuss qualitatively the effect of air
the ball; resistance on your answers to (a).
(b) the angle to the horizontal the ball was
launched at;
(c) the acceleration due to gravity on this HL only
planet. 20 A projectile is launched with speed v0 at the
(d) Draw two arrows on Figure 10.15 to foot of an inclined plane at an angle of θ to
represent the velocity and acceleration the horizontal, as shown in Figure 10.16.
vectors of the ball at t = 1 s. The inclined plane makes a smaller angle φ
(e) The ball is now launched under identical with the horizontal. Show that the projectile
conditions from the surface of a different will land a distance d up the plane given by
planet where the acceleration due to
2v02 cos θ sin(θ − φ)
gravity is twice as large. Draw the path of d=
g cos 2 φ
the ball on Figure 10.15.

y /m v0
10
• • • d
θ φ
• •
8

• • Figure 10.16 For question 20.

6

21 A ball is kicked with a velocity of 5.0 m s1

4
• • up an inclined plane that makes an angle of
2 30 to the horizontal. The ball’s velocity
makes an angle of 25 to the base of the
• • x /m incline. (See Figure 10.17.) What is the
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
shape of its path? Explain. Find how high on
Figure 10.15 For question 16.
the incline the ball will get.

HL only

18 A soccer ball is kicked so that it has a range

of 30 m and reaches a maximum height of
25°
12 m. What velocity (magnitude and
direction) did the ball have as it left the
footballer’s foot? 30°

Figure 10.17 For question 21.

19 A stone is thrown with a speed of 20.0 m s−1 22 The maximum height reached by a projectile
at an angle of 48 ◦ to the horizontal from the is 20 m. The direction of the velocity 1.0 s
edge of a cliff 60.0 m above the surface of the after launch is 20; find the speed of launch.
sea.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

CHAPTER 2.11
0.0 AHL – Mechanics
Part title

Motion intitle
Chapter a
gravitational field
Newton’s law of gravitation makes it possible to calculate the orbits of planets, comets,
satellites and entire galaxies. The details of the motion of the planets were discovered by
observation by Kepler, whose three laws can be seen to be a direct consequence of the
gravitational law of attraction and Newton’s laws of mechanics. Kepler’s laws were
published in 1619 in a book called the Harmony of the World, nearly 70 years before
Newton published his work. In ancient times, Ptolemy constructed an involved system in
which the sun and the planets orbited the earth in perfectly circular paths. When
observations did not agree with the assumed circular paths, Ptolemy and his successors
asserted that planets move along additional smaller circular paths at the same time that
they complete the orbit. This elaborate theory of epicycles has no foundation in physical
principles and is a good example of attempts to explain physical phenomena without an
understanding of the underlying principles. The Ptolemaic world view prevailed for
centuries until Copernicus, early in the sixteenth century, asserted that the sun was at the
centre of the motion of the planets in the solar system. Newton’s law of gravitation has
had great success in dealing with planetary motion but cannot account for some small
irregularities, such as the precession of the orbit of Mercury and the bending of light near
very massive bodies. In 1915, Einstein introduced the general theory of relativity, which
replaced Newton’s theory of gravity and resolved the difficulties of the Newtonian theory.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• state the definitions of gravitational potential energy, E p = −G M1rM2 , and
gravitational potential, V = −G Mr ;
• understand that the work done as a mass m is moved across two points
with gravitational potential difference V is W = mV ;
• understand the meaning of escape velocity, and solve related problems
using the
 equation for escape speed from a body of mass M and radius R :
v esc = 2GRM ;
• solve problems of orbital motion usingthe equation for orbital speed at a
distance r from a body of mass M: v = GrM ;
• understand the term weightlessness.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.11 Motion in a gravitational field 143

Gravitational potential energy A satellite’s total energy as it orbits the earth is

the sum of its kinetic and gravitational
Consider a mass M placed somewhere in space, potential energies:
and a second mass m that is a distance R from G Mm
M. The two masses have gravitational potential E = 12 mv 2 −
r
energy, which is stored in their gravitational
field. This energy is there because work had to This expression simplifies if we use Newton’s
be done in order to move one of the masses, say law of gravitation and the second law of
m, from a position very far away (infinity) to the mechanics
position near the other mass. (See Figure 11.1.) Mm v2
The work that was done by the agent moving G = m
r2 r
the mass went into potential energy. G M
⇒ v2 =
r
G Mm
⇒ Ek =
2r
infinitely far
so that
R
m G Mm
M E =−
F 2r
Figure 11.1 Work is being done in bringing the or
small mass from infinity to a given position
E = − 12 mv 2
away from the big mass. This work is stored as
potential energy. Figure 11.2 shows the kinetic energy E k = G 2r
Mm
,
G Mm
potential energy Ep = − r and total energy
Supplementary material E = − G 2r
Mm
of a mass of 1 kg in orbit around
the earth, as a function of distance from the
The gravitational force is not constant but
earth’s centre. This distance is measured in
decreases as the separation of the masses
terms of the earth’s radius R.
increases, so we cannot straightforwardly
compute the work done. Using calculus, the
total work done in moving the mass from infinity energy/MJ
to R is Ek
R 20
G Mm
W= dr
r2
∞ 0 r/R
R 2 4 6 8
G Mm 
W=−
r ∞ −20
E
G Mm
W=− −40
R

−60 Ep

Figure 11.2 Graphs of the kinetic, potential and

This work is energy that is stored in the
total energy of a mass of 1 kg in circular orbit
gravitational field of the two masses and is around the earth.
called the gravitational potential energy of
the two masses when they are separated by Related to the concept of gravitational potential
a distance R : energy is that of gravitational potential, V . The
G Mm gravitational potential is a field, because it is
Ep = − defined at every point in space, but unlike the
R
gravitational field strength, it is a scalar quantity.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
144 AHL – Mechanics

The gravitational potential at a point P in V/106 J kg−1 2 4 6 8

0 r/R
the gravitational field is the work done per
unit mass in bringing a small point mass m −1
from infinity to point P. If the work done
is W , then the gravitational potential is −2
the ratio of the work done to the mass m ,
−3
that is
W −4
V =
m
−5
The gravitational potential due to a single Figure 11.3.
mass M a distance r from the centre of
M is
Answer
GM
V =− (a) On the surface of the planet r = R , or
r
r / R = 1 , and from the graph V =
The units of gravitational potential are −1
−5 × 10 6 J kg . Hence
J kg1.
E p = mV
= 800 × (−5 × 10 6 )
= −4 × 10 9 J
If we know that a mass, or an arrangement of
masses, produces a gravitational potential V at (b) When the distance from the surface is four
some point in space, then putting a mass m at planet radii, r / R = 5 and the potential there is
−1
that point means that the gravitational V = −1 × 106 J kg . Hence
potential energy of the mass will be E p = mV . W = mV
= 800 × (−1 × 10 6 + 5 × 10 6 )
If a mass m is positioned at a point in a = 3.2 × 10 9 J
gravitational field where the gravitational
Q2
potential is V1 and is then moved to another
Figure 11.4 shows the variation of the
point where the gravitational potential is V2 ,
gravitational potential due to a planet and its
then the work that is done on the mass is
moon with distance r from the centre of the
W = m(V2 − V1 ) planet. The centre-to-centre distance between the
= mV planet and the moon is d. The planet’s centre is at
r  0 and the centre of the moon is at r  d.

V/106 J kg−1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Example questions 0 r/d
Q1 −50
The graph in Figure 11.3 shows the variation of −100
the gravitational potential due to a planet with −150
distance r . Using the graph, estimate:
−200
(a) the gravitational potential energy of an 800 kg
−250
spacecraft that is at rest on the surface of the
planet; −300

(b) the work done to move this spacecraft from −350

the surface of the planet to a distance of four −400
planet radii from the surface of the planet. Figure 11.4.

© Cambridge University Press 2008

 2.11 Motion in a gravitational field 145

What is the minimum energy required so that a is to escape from the pull of M, it must have a
500 kg probe at rest on the planet’s surface will total energy that is either zero or positive. If
arrive on the moon? E = 0, then the mass m makes it to infinity and
just about stops there, v ∞ = 0. If E > 0, then m
Answer not only gets to infinity but is also moving
The probe will arrive at the moon provided it has there with speed v ∞ , given by the expression
enough energy to get to the peak of the curve. above. If, on the other hand, E < 0, then the
Once there, the moon will pull it in. On the mass cannot make it to infinity; it is forever
surface of the planet V = −390 × 10 6 J kg −1 . At trapped by the pull of M. So
the peak the potential is V = −40 × 10 6 J kg −1 .
• E > 0: mass escapes and never returns;
Hence
• E < 0: mass moves out a certain distance but
W = mV returns – mass is trapped;
= 500 × (−40 × 106 + 390 × 106 ).
• E = 0: the critical case separating the other
= 1.75 × 1011 J two – mass just barely escapes.
This is a general result: whenever the total
energy of a mass is negative, that mass is
Escape velocity trapped by the attraction of whatever is
The total energy of a mass m moving near a causing the total energy to be negative. Here it
large, stationary mass M is is gravity that is responsible. Later on we will
see that the total energy of the electron in its
G Mm
E = 12 mv 2 − orbit around the atomic nucleus is also
r negative. There it is the electrical force that is
where v is the speed of the mass when at a responsible for E < 0. The quarks inside
distance r from M. (If M is also free to move, protons also have E < 0. The strong nuclear
then the total energy would have to include a force is the reason for that.
term 12 Mu2 , where u is be the speed of M. This
Back to gravitation again. What must the
complicates things so we assume that M is held
smallest launch velocity be for a mass to escape
fixed.) The only force acting on m is the
the pull of the earth?
gravitational force of attraction between M and
m. Suppose that the mass m is launched with a
speed v 0 away from M. Will m escape from the
From the expression above we find that
pull of M and move very far away from it? To
the smallest v is that for which v ∞  0
move very far away means that the distance
(i.e. E  0). In this case
between M and m is so large that it is
G Mm
practically infinite. Then the law of energy 1
2
mv 2 − =0
R
conservation states that 
2G M
⇒v =
G Mm 1 2 R
1
2
mv 02 − = 2 mv ∞
R This is the minimum velocity that a mass
launched from the surface of the earth
The left-hand side of this equation represents must have in order to reach infinity and
the total energy E (kinetic plus potential) of the stop there. This is called the escape
mass m at the point of launch, a distance R velocity, v esc , from the earth. Note that
from the centre of M, and the right-hand side is the escape velocity is independent of the
the total energy of the mass at infinity, where mass of the body escaping.
the potential energy is zero. Thus, if the mass m

© Cambridge University Press 2008

146 AHL – Mechanics

Using the fact that g = GRM2 e we see that the equal to or less than the value above, nothing
e
escape velocity can be rewritten as can escape from the star. It is a black hole. The
 interesting thing about this formula is that it
v esc = 2gR e correctly gives the radius of the black hole even
where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the though Newton’s law of gravitation, which we
surface of the earth. The numerical value of used, does not apply! When dealing with very
this escape velocity is about 11.2 km s1. massive objects, Newton’s law has to be replaced
by Einstein’s law of gravitation. Surprisingly,
The order-of-magnitude arithmetic without a though, the answer is the same. This radius is
calculator is as follows: called the Schwarzschild radius of the star.
 Q4
2G M
v= Compute the Schwarzschild radius of the earth
R
 and the sun.
2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024
=
6.38 × 106 Answer

For the sun
2 × 7 × 6 × 107
≈
6
 2G M
R=
= 2 × 7 × 107 c2

2 × 6.67 × 10 −11 × 2 × 10 30
= 140 × 106 =  2 m
3 × 10 8
≈ 12 × 103 m s−1
≈ 3 × 10 3 m
In practice, in order to escape, a mass must
overcome not only the pull of the earth but also Similarly, for the earth Re  8.86 mm. This shows
the pull of the sun and the big planets. This that both the earth and the sun are far from being
means that the escape velocity from the earth is black holes!
somewhat larger than 11.2 km s1. This
discussion does not apply to powered objects
such as rockets; it applies only to objects
launched from the earth like cannon balls. In
Orbital motion
other words, it applies to ballistic motion. The law of gravitation combined with
Newton’s second law of mechanics allows an
Example questions understanding of the motion of planets
Q3 around the sun as well as the motion of
The inevitable example! What must the radius of satellites around the earth. The motion of an
a star of mass M be such that the escape velocity object that is attracted and bound to a much
from the star is equal to the speed of light, c? heavier mass is, according to the law of
gravitation, necessarily an ellipse or a circle.
Answer
This follows because the law of gravitation is
Using an inverse square law: F = G rMm
2 . No other

2G M form of the law of gravitation (except for a
v= Hooke’s law type force, F = kr) would lead to
R
with v  c, we find closed orbits as observed for the planets.
Elliptical orbits with the sun at the focus of
2G M the ellipse is what Kepler deduced (Kepler’s
R=
c2 first law) by analysing the observations made
Since nothing can exceed the speed of light, the by Tycho Brahe. Newton’s law of gravitation
result above states that if the radius of the star is and his second law of mechanics provide a
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.11 Motion in a gravitational field 147

theoretical understanding of Kepler’s Note that the speed does not depend on the
conclusions. satellite’s mass.

Orbital speed Example questions

Consider a planet of mass m in a circular orbit of Q5
radius r around the sun, as shown in Figure 11.5. Evaluate the speed of a satellite in orbit at a
The force on the planet is the gravitational force height of 500 km from the earth’s surface and a
between the mass of the sun and the mass of the satellite that just grazes the surface of the earth.
planet, that is (Take the radius of the earth to be 6.38  106 m.)
G Mm Answer
F=
r2 The speed is given by

GM
sun v2 =
r
m
6.67 × 10 −11 × 5.98 × 10 24
=
6.88 × 10 6
⇒ v = 7.6 × 10 3 m s−1

Figure 11.5. For a grazing orbit, using the same method

Equating the force with the product of mass v = 7.9 × 10 3 m s−1
times acceleration (the acceleration here is
Q6
centripetal) we get
This problem is known as the ‘satellite paradox’.
G Mm v2 A satellite in a low orbit will experience a small
= m
r2 r frictional force (due to the atmosphere) in a
GM direction opposite to the satellite’s velocity.
⇒ v2 =
r (a) Explain why the satellite will move into a
lower orbit closer to the earth’s surface.
This formula gives the velocity of the planet
(b) Deduce that the speed of the satellite will
when it is in an orbit of radius r . For satellites,
increase.
M stands for the mass of the earth, and this
(c) Explain how a resistance force actually
formula shows that the closer the satellite is to
increases the speed of the satellite (this is the
the earth, the larger its speed has to be
origin of the ‘paradox’).
(Figure 11.6 shows this relationship as a graph).
Answer
v/km s−1 (a) Since there is a frictional force acting, the
8 satellite’s total energy will be reduced. The total
energy of a satellite of mass m in a circular
6 orbit of radius r around the earth of mass M is
GMm
E =−
4 2r
A reduced total energy thus means a smaller
2 radius, i.e. the satellite comes closer to the
earth by spiralling inwards.
r/R (b) The speed of the satellite in a circular orbit is
0 2 4 6 8 10 given by
Figure 11.6 The speed of a satellite in circular 
orbit around the earth. The distances are from GM
v=
the earth’s centre in terms of the earth’s radius. r
© Cambridge University Press 2008
148 AHL – Mechanics

So we see that, as the satellite comes closer to Applied to planets (now M stands for the
earth, its speed increases. mass of the sun), this law states that the
(c) The resolution of the ‘paradox’ rests on the period of a planet around the sun is
fact that, as the satellite begins to spiral proportional to the 3/2 power of the orbit
towards the earth, its velocity is no longer at radius: this is simply Kepler’s third law of
right angles to the force of gravity (which is planetary motion.
directed towards the centre of the earth).
Therefore the forces on the satellite in the
direction of the velocity are not just the
For elliptical orbits, R should be replaced by the
frictional force (opposite to the velocity) but
semi-major axis of the ellipse or (approximately)
also the component of the gravitational force
by the average distance of the planet from the
(see Figure 11.7). Thus,
sun.
GMm
F sin θ = sin θ
r2
Supplementary material
A detailed analysis shows that the magnitude
Kepler’s second law states that planets sweep
of this component is approximately double
out equal areas in equal times. This law also
that of the frictional force. Hence, the satellite
follows from Newton’s law of gravitation and
increases its speed even though a frictional
Newton’s laws of mechanics.
force opposes the motion because the
tangential net force on the satellite is, in fact,
in the direction of the velocity.
Weightlessness
Consider an astronaut of mass
friction
m in a spacecraft in orbit
f around the earth a distance r
θ
from the earth’s centre (see
direction θ
of motion gravitational Figure 11.8).
Fg sin θ Fg cos θ
force
The forces on the astronaut are
the reaction force N from the
floor and his weight W (i.e. the
Fg
gravitational force from the
earth). The net force on the
astronaut is
Figure 11.7. Mm
G 2 −N
r

Period of motion
N
If the time taken for one revolution of the
satellite or planet is T , then we must have
v = 2πr
T . So, substituting in the formula for
speed we find m

2
2πr GM
=
T r
2 W
4π 3
⇒ T2 = r
GM Figure 11.8.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.11 Motion in a gravitational field 149

and so
1.0
Mm v2
G 2 −N=m
r r
Mm v2
⇒ N = G 2 −m 0.5

r  r
m M 2
= G −v
r r
0
But the speed of the astronaut is given by
v 2 = GrM , which implies that N = 0. Thus, the
astronaut experiences no reaction forces from −0.5
the floor and so ‘feels’ weightless.

Looked at in a simpler way, the astronaut is

falling freely but so is the spacecraft, hence there −1.0

are no reaction forces. At a distance of 300 km

−1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1.0
from the earth’s surface, gravity is not
Figure 11.9 Equipotential surfaces due to one
negligible. There is a force of gravity on the spherical mass at the origin of the axes. The
astronaut but no reaction force from the difference in potential between any two
spacecraft floor. adjacent surfaces is the same.

Equipotential surfaces coordinates (0.5, 0) and (0.5, 0). The shape of

the surfaces is no longer spherical. (Very far
As we have seen, the gravitational potential at a from both masses, the equipotential surfaces
distance r from the centre of a spherical tend to become spherical because, from far
uniform mass M is given by away, it looks as if we have one body of mass
GM equal to twice the individual masses.)
V =−
r
We may therefore consider all the points in
space that have the same potential.
1.0
From the formula above, it follows that those
points are all at the same distance from the
centre of the mass, and so lie on a sphere 0.5
whose centre is the same as that of the
spherical mass. A two-dimensional
representation of these surfaces of constant
0
potential is given in Figure 11.9. They are
called equipotential surfaces.

−0.5
An equipotential surface consists of those
points that have the same potential.

−1.0
Similarly, we may construct the equipotential
surfaces due to more than one mass. Figure −1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1.0
11.10 shows the equipotential surfaces due to Figure 11.10 The equipotential surfaces due to two
two equal masses centred at the points with equal masses.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
150 AHL – Mechanics

Figure 11.11 shows the equipotential surfaces point mass m from one equipotential surface to
for two unequal masses (the mass on the right the other.
is double the other).
We know that this requires an amount of work
W given by

W = mV
1.0
But we may also calculate the work from W 
force  distance. The force on the point mass is
0.5 the gravitational force F = mg, where g is the
magnitude of the gravitational field strength at
the position of the mass m. Assuming that the
two surfaces are very close to each other means
0
that g will not change by much as we move
from one surface to the other, and so we may
take g to be constant. Then the work done is
−0.5
also given by

W = (mg)r
−1.0
Equating the two expressions for work done
−1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1.0 gives
Figure 11.11 The equipotential surfaces due to two V
unequal masses. g=
r

This gives the magnitude of the gravitational

There is a connection between the
field as the rate of change with distance of the
gravitational potential and the gravitational
gravitational potential.
field, which is explained in the following
paragraphs. This mathematical connection A more careful treatment, based on calculus,
also translates to a relation between gives the more precise result:
equipotential surfaces and gravitational field
lines as we will soon see. dV
g=−
dr
Consider two equipotential surfaces a distance
r apart. Let V be the potential difference This means that the gravitational field is the
between the two surfaces. The situation is negative derivative of the gravitational
shown in Figure 11.12. We want to move the potential with respect to distance. The minus
sign is not important for our purposes here.

Consider again Figure 11.9. Recall that adjacent

ΔV
equipotential surfaces have the same potential
difference, and notice that as we move away
m from the mass the surfaces are further apart.
Using

V
g=
Δr r
Figure 11.12 A point mass m is to be moved from implies that the magnitude of the gravitational
one equipotential surface to the other. field strength is decreasing (since V is the
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.11 Motion in a gravitational field 151

same and r is getting larger). The following is Supplementary material

also true.
The binary star system
If we have a graph showing the variation (This section is not required for examination
with distance of the gravitational purposes but will be useful to those who study
potential, the slope (gradient) of the graph the astrophysics option.)
is the magnitude of the gravitational field Two stars can orbit around each other in what
strength. is called a binary star system. The orbit of
each star can be an ellipse but we will
consider here the much simpler case of
Another implication of this relation is that circular orbits. Consider two stars of mass
equipotential surfaces and gravitational field M1 and M2. They attract each other with the
lines are normal (perpendicular) to each other. gravitational force
We already know this for the case of a single M1M2
mass: the field lines are radial lines and the F =G
d2
equipotential surfaces are spheres centred at
the mass. The two are normal to each other, as where d is the separation of their centres of
shown in Figure 11.13. mass (see Figure 11.14).

field line
equipotential
Figure 11.14 The two stars in the binary star
system attract each other.

The centre of mass of the two stars is not acted

upon by any external forces and is thus moving
in a straight line with constant speed. Without
loss of generality, we may consider the speed to
be zero, in which case it follows that the two
masses orbit the common centre of mass. Taking
the orbits to be circular, the orbit radii (i.e. the
distances of each mass from the centre of mass)
are given by
M 2d
R1 =
M1 + M2
M 1d
R2 =
M1 + M2
Figure 11.13 Equipotential surfaces and field lines See Figures 11.15 and 11.16.
are at right angles to each other.
d
CM M2
M1
The point, though, is that this is generally
R1 R2
true for all shapes of field lines and
equipotential surfaces. This means that Figure 11.15 The two stars orbit their centre of
knowing one set of lines or surfaces, we can mass.
find the other.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
152 AHL – Mechanics

The total energy of the binary star system is

given by
1 1 M1M2
d E = M 1 v 12 + M 2 v 22 − G
2 2 d
2
CM 1 GM2
CM = M1
2 d (M 1 + M 2 )
1 G M 12 M1M2
+ M2 −G
2 d (M 1 + M 2 ) d


Figure 11.16 The orbits of the two stars. 1 GM1M2 M2 M1
= + −2
2 d (M 1 + M 2 ) (M 1 + M 2 )
The speeds of rotation can be found from
that is
1 GM1M2
M1M2 v 12 E =−
G = M 1 2 d
d2 R1
If the binary star system loses energy, for
M R
2 1
⇒ v 12 = G example because of gravitational radiation, then
d2
M1M2 v 22 the energy decreases and thus the separation of
G = M 2 the two stars, d , decreases as well. This means
d2 R2
M1R 2 that each star now moves faster and the
⇒ v 22 = G rotational period decreases. This decrease in
d2
the rotational period of a binary star system has
been observed and is indirect evidence for the
and thus existence of gravity waves.
M 2 M 2d
v 12 = G
d 2 M1 + M2
G M 22 Questions
=
d(M 1 + M 2 )
1 Show by applying Newton’s law of gravitation
M 1 M 1d
v 22 = G 2 and the second law of mechanics that a
d M1 + M2
satellite (or planet) in a circular orbit of radius
G M 12
= R around the earth (or the sun) has a period
d(M 1 + M 2 )
(i.e. time to complete one revolution) given by

The common period of rotation is therefore 4π 2 R 3

T2 =
found from GM

2 where M is the mass of the attracting body
2 2πR 1
T = (earth or sun). This is Kepler’s third law.
v1
M 2d 2 2 Show that a satellite orbiting the earth (mass
4π 2 (M 1 +M
2
2)
2
= M) in a circular orbit of radius r and angular
GM 22
d(M 1 +M 2 ) velocity ω satisfies
4π 2 d 3
= GM
G(M1 + M 2 ) r3 =
ω2
This shows that if one mass is much larger than
the other, then the formula for T reduces to the 3 What is the speed of a satellite that orbits the
familiar one from Kepler’s third law. earth at a height of 500 km? How long does it
take to go around the earth once?
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.11 Motion in a gravitational field 153

4 A satellite that always looks down at the same HL only

spot on the earth’s surface is called a
geosynchronous satellite. Find the distance of 10 Earlier in the topic of mechanics we used the
this satellite from the surface of the earth. expression mgh for the gravitational potential
Could the satellite be looking down at any energy of a mass m. This expression is only
point on the surface of the earth? approximate. Show, by using U = − GMm r
,
which is the correct expression, that the
5 (a) What is the gravitational potential energy
difference in gravitational potential energy of
stored in the gravitational field between the
a mass on the surface of the earth and at a
earth and the moon?
height h from the earth’s surface is indeed mgh
(b) What is the earth’s gravitational potential
provided h is small compared with the radius
at the position of the moon?
of the earth. (Use the binomial expansion.)
(c) Find the speed with which the moon orbits
the earth. (Use the data in Appendix 3.)
11 Figure 11.18 shows the variation of the
HL only gravitational force with distance. What does
6 A spacecraft of mass 30 000 kg leaves the the shaded area represent?
earth on its way to the moon. Plot the
spacecraft’s potential energy as a function of F
its distance from the earth’s centre. r
a b

7 (a) What is the gravitational potential at a

distance from the earth’s centre equal to
5 earth radii?
(b) What is the gravitational potential energy
of a 500 kg satellite placed at a distance
from the earth’s centre equal to 5 earth
radii?
8 Figure 11.17 shows cross-sections of two satellite Figure 11.18 For question 11.
orbits around the earth. (To be in orbit means
that only gravity is acting on the satellite.)
12 Figure 11.19 shows the variation with distance
Discuss whether either of these orbits is possible.
of the gravitational potential (in terajoules per
kilogram) due to a planet whose radius is
2.0 × 10 5 m .
orbit 1 (a) Calculate the mass of the planet.
(b) Show that the escape speed from the surface
equator √
of the planet is vesc = −2V , where V is the
gravitational potential on the planet’s
surface.
orbit 2 (c) Use the graph to determine the escape
Figure 11.17 For question 8. speed from this planet.
(d) How much energy is required to move a
9 In the text it was calculated that the acceleration rocket of mass 1500 kg from the surface of
due to gravity at a height of 300 km above the the planet to a distance of 1.0 × 10 6 m
earth’s surface is far from negligible, yet from the centre?
astronauts orbiting in the space shuttle at such (e) A probe is released from rest at a distance
a height feel weightless. Explain why. from the planet’s centre of 0.50 × 10 6 m
© Cambridge University Press 2008
154 AHL – Mechanics

and allowed to crash onto the planet’s 15 Figure 11.21 shows two identical satellites in
surface. With what speed will the probe hit circular orbits. Which satellite has the larger:
the surface? (a) kinetic energy;
(b) potential energy;
(c) total energy?
V/ TJ kg−1 1 2 3 4 5
0 r/106 m

−1 A

−2 B

−3

−4

−5
Figure 11.19 For question 12.
Figure 11.21 For question 15.
13 Figure 11.20 shows the variation with distance
16 Show that the total energy of a satellite of
from the centre of the planet of the
mass m in orbit around the earth (mass M) at a
gravitational potential due to the planet and
distance from the Earth’s centre of 5 earth
its moon. The planet’s centre is at r  0 and
radii is given by E = − GMm .
the centre of the moon is at r  1. The units 10R

of separation are arbitrary. At the point where 17 The total energy of a satellite during launch
r  0.75 the gravitational field is zero. from the earth’s surface is E = − GMm5R
, where
(a) Determine the ratio of the mass of the R is the radius of the earth. It eventually settles
planet to that of the moon. into a circular orbit; calculate the radius of
(b) With what speed must a probe be launched that orbit.
from the surface of the planet in order to
arrive on the surface of the moon? HL only
18 What is the escape velocity from the earth if
V/ TJ kg−1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r the launch takes place not on the surface of
the earth but from a space station orbiting
−1
the earth at a height equal to Re? You must
−2 find the velocity of launch as measured by
an observer on the space station. The
−3
launch takes place in the direction of
−4 motion of the space station.
−5

−6 19 A satellite is in a circular orbit around the

−7 earth. The satellite turns on its engines so that
Figure 11.20 For question 13. a small force is exerted on the satellite in the
direction of the velocity. The engines are on
14 Prove that the total energy of the earth (mass for a very short time and the satellite now
m) as it orbits the sun (mass M) is E = − 12 mv 2 finds itself in a new circular orbit.
or E = − GMm2r
, where r is the radius of the (a) State and explain whether the new orbit is
earth’s circular orbit. Calculate this energy closer to or further away from the earth.
numerically.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.11 Motion in a gravitational field 155

(b) Hence explain why the speed of the 22 The diagrams in Figure 11.24 are not drawn to
satellite will decrease. scale and show, separately, the earth and the
(c) It appears that a force, acting in the moon, and the earth and the sun. A point
direction of the velocity, has actually mass m is placed at point A and then at point
reduced the speed. How do you explain B. The force experienced by the mass at A
A B
this observation? due to the moon is F moon and at B it is F moon .
20 Figure 11.22 shows a planet orbiting the sun Similarly the forces at A and B due to the sun
A B
counter-clockwise, at two positions – A and B. are F sun and F sun .
Also shown is the gravitational force acting on
the planet at each position. By decomposing
the force into components normal and moon
A B
tangential to the path (dotted lines), explain
why it is only the tangential component that
does work. Hence explain why the planet will earth
accelerate from A to P but will slow down
from P to B.
sun
A B
A

earth

Figure 11.24 For question 22.

P
(a) Using data from Appendix 3, calculate the
F B −F moon
A
ratio moon B −F A
F sun
.
sun
(b) The tides on the earth have to do with the
B difference between the forces on opposite
Figure 11.22 For question 20. sides of the earth. Using your answer in
(a), suggest whether the sun or the moon
has the dominant role for tides on earth.
21 Figure 11.23 shows a planet orbiting the sun.
23 Show that the escape speed from the surface
Explain why at points A and P of the orbit the
of a planet of radius R can be written as
potential energy of the planet assumes its √
vesc = 2g R, where g is the gravitational field
minimum and maximum values, and
strength on the planet’s surface.
determine which is which. Hence determine
at what point in the orbit the planet has the 24 Consider two particles of mass m and 16 m
highest speed. separated by a distance d.
(a) Deduce that at point P, a distance d5 from
the particle with mass m, the gravitational
field strength is zero.
(b) Determine the value of the gravitational
potential at P.
P A 25 (a) Deduce that a satellite orbiting a planet of
mass M in a circular orbit of radiusr has a
2 3
period of revolution given by T  4πGMr .
(b) A grazing orbit is one in which the orbit
radius is approximately equal to the radius
Figure 11.23 For question 21. R of the planet. Deduce that the period of
© Cambridge University Press 2008
156 AHL – Mechanics

revolution
 in a grazing orbit is given by (e) The two-star system loses energy as a result
T  Gρ , where  is the density of the
3π
of emitting gravitational radiation. Deduce
planet. that the stars will move closer to each
(c) The period of a grazing orbit around the other.
earth is 85 minutes and around the planet (f) (i) Explain why the fractional loss of
Jupiter it is 169 minutes. Deduce the energy per unit time may be calculated
ratio ρρJupiter
Earth
. from the expression
26 (a) The acceleration of free fall at the surface E /E 3 T /T
of a planet is g and the radius of the planet 
t 2 t
is R. Deduce that the period of a satellite
 in
where Tt/T is the fractional decrease in
a very low orbit is given by T  2 Rg .
period per unit time.
(b) Given that g  4.5ms–2 and R 
(ii) The orbital period decreases at a rate of
3.4106 m, deduce that the orbital period
T  72 s yr–1. Estimate the fractional
of the low orbit is about 91 minutes.
energy loss per year.
(c) A spacecraft in orbit around this planet has a
(g) The two stars will collapse into each
period of 140 minutes. Deduce the height of
other when E  E. Estimate the
the spacecraft from the surface of the planet.
lifetime, in years, of this binary star
27 Two stars of equal mass M orbit a common system.
centre as shown in Figure 11.25. The radius
28 Figure 11.26 shows equipotential surfaces due
of the orbit of each star is R. Assume that
to two spherical masses.
each of the stars has a mass equal to 1.5
solar masses (solar mass  2  1030 kg) and
that the initial separation of the stars is 1.0
2.0  109 m.

0.5

2R 0

−0.5

Figure 11.25 For question 27.

−1.0
(a) State the magnitude of the force on each
−1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1.0
star in terms of M, R and G.
Figure 11.26 For question 28.
(b) Deduce that the period of revolution of
each star is given by the expression
(a) Using the diagram, explain how it can be
16π 2 R 3 deduced that the masses are unequal.
T 2 .
GM (b) Copy the diagram and draw in the
(c) Evaluate the period numerically. gravitational field lines due to the two
(d) Calculate that the total energy of the two masses.
stars is given by (c) Explain why the equipotential surfaces
GM 2 are spherical very far from the two
E .
4R masses.
© Cambridge University Press 2008
 2.11 Motion in a gravitational field 157

29 Figure 11.27 shows the variation with distance mass M) and its moon (of mass m) along the
r from the centre of a planet of the combined line joining the planet and the moon. The
gravitational potential due to the planet (of horizontal axis is labelled dr , where d is the
centre-to-centre separation of the planet and
the moon.
V ⁄ 10 8 J kg −1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 (a) The distance d is equal to 4.8108 m. Use
0 r/d the graph to calculate the magnitude of the
−2 gravitational field strength at the point
where dr  0.20.
−4
(b) Explain the physical significance of the
−6 point where dr  0.75.
(c) Using the graph, calculate the ratio M .
−8 m

−10

−12

Figure 11.27 For question 29.

© Cambridge University Press 2008