International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

A review of spinning, shear forming and flow forming processes

C.C. Wong , T.A. Dean, J. Lin
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK

Received 13 June 2003; accepted 17 June 2003

Abstract

In the last two decades or so, spinning and flow forming have gradually matured as metal forming processes for the production
of engineering components in small to medium batch quantities. Combined spinning and flow forming techniques are being utilised
increasingly due to the great flexibility provided for producing complicated parts nearer to net shape, enabling customers to optimise
designs and reduce weight and cost, all of which are vital, especially in automotive industries.
In this paper, process details of spinning and flow forming are introduced. The state of the art is described and developments
in terms of research and industrial applications are reviewed. Also, the direction of research and development for future industrial
applications are indicated.
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Spinning; Shear forming; Flow forming; Incremental forming

1. Introduction change in its shape according to the profile of the man-

drel. As the tool is applied locally on the workpiece, the
Metal spinning is one of the oldest methods of chip- total forming forces are reduced significantly compared
less forming, but over the years, this process has lost to conventional press forming. This not only increases
ground to other forming process such as deep drawing the possibilities in terms of large reductions and change
and ironing. However, due to the inherent advantages in shape with less complex tooling, but also reduces the
and flexibility of the process such as simple tooling and required load capacity and cost of the forming machine.
low forming loads, plus the rapid emerging trend in In addition, spinning is also known to produce compo-
modern industries towards near net shape manufacturing nents with high mechanical properties and smooth sur-
of thin sectioned lightweight parts, spinning has under- face finish.
gone a renaissance in recent years and has developed It has been suggested that the process of metal spin-
into a versatile process for producing lightweight ning emerged from the art of potting clay using a man-
components. ual-powered potters wheel by the Pharaohs in ancient
Spinning is commonly known as a process for trans- Egypt. It then travelled to China in the 10th century,
forming flat sheet metal blanks, usually with axisym- then to England during the reign of Edward III and
metric profiles, into hollow shapes by a tool which forces eventually to the USA in the 19th century [1]. As the
a blank onto a mandrel, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The art of spinning grew significantly, spun metal parts like
blanks are clamped rigidly against the mandrel by means tea kettles and trophies were first produced in the Middle
of a tailstock and the shape of the mandrel bears the Ages [2]. At the beginning of the 20th century, spinning
final profile of the desired product. During the process, was considered an art rather than science, as it required
both the mandrel and blank are rotated while the spin- operators with considerable experience and skill.
ning tool contacts the blank and progressively induces a As a result, spinning was employed mainly to produce
domestic products such as saucepans and cooking pots
on a simple lathe-like machine where repeatability in

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-121-414-3542; fax: +44-121- dimensional tolerances is not very critical. Though labor
414-3958. cost is elevated due to the skilled operators required, this
E-mail address: ccw700@bham.ac.uk (C.C. Wong). is off-set considerably by the low tool cost.

0890-6955/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0890-6955(03)00172-X
1420 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

ming and flow forming and follows by outlining devel-

opments in machine tools. In addition, research carried
out in the area of these manufacturing processes is
reviewed. Finally, based on current trends, the future
directions of research in this area are discussed.

2. Classification, terms and features of the forming

techniques

Before the 1950s, spinning was carried out manually

on machines similar to a simple turning lathe. Due to a
lack of controllability and low tool load capability, the
amount of deformation achievable was, by todays stan-
dards, modest. However, with the advent of mechan-
ically powered spinning machines, shear forming and
flow forming techniques were made possible and
developed. Although all three techniques are in wide-
spread use, though they do not receive the public atten-
Fig. 1. Conventional manual spinning [15]. tion accorded to forging and metal cutting. This may be
due to the fact that to date, most knowledge is held by
Later in the mid 20th century, thicker sheets were the machine tool manufacturing companies and no uni-
required to be spun to components of higher dimensional versally recognised and accepted classification and asso-
accuracy. This led to the emergence of new designs and ciated definitions exist. Proper classification and defi-
variations in terms of higher power and automation of nitions in terms of the imposed loads and stress
spinning machines. One of the driving forces behind this generated during spinning are now necessary, if the pro-
development was from the aircraft and aerospace indus- cess is to be treated scientifically.
tries in countries like the UK, USA, Germany and According to [3], the traditional term spinning
Sweden [2]. Typical components produced by mechan- encompasses, as a general concept, a group of forming
ically powered spinning machines are components for processes for the production of rotationally symmetrical
gas turbine engine, rocket nose cones and dish aerials. hollow shapes. Essentially, all spinning techniques
It is also because of the incorporation of hydraulic power involve rotating a workpiece clamped onto a chuck while
and automation that the flow forming technique has the spinning tools approach the workpiece and deform
evolved, to meet further demands of originals equipment it to the required shape.
manufacturing (OEM) industries. The only standard classification for the general spin-
Flow forming is a process whereby a hollow metal ning processes known to the authors are the DIN
blank, a disc or a tube is mounted on a rotating mandrel (German Institute for Standardisation) Standard 8582,
and the material is made to flow axially along the rotat- which is based on the internal stresses generated in the
ing mandrel by one or more rollers. The essential differ- material during the forming operation. During a spinning
ence between flow forming and spinning is that in the process, blanks can be subjected to either a combination
former process, significant variations in the thickness of of tension and compression or solely to compression,
the blank are occasioned. The development of this tech- depending on the product shape and spinning technique.
nique has increased the flexibility of incremental for- Therefore, spinning (conventional) is sub-classified
ming technology and provides manufacturers with an under DIN standard 8584 as, when a material is plasti-
alternative to conventional forging and deep drawing, cised by a combination of compression and tension. On
where size or complexity of shape of a component is the other hand, flow forming, which involves only com-
beyond the capacity of conventional presses. pressive force, is classified under DIN Standard 8583.
Today, spinning and flow forming techniques are Moreover, under flow forming is also included shear for-
being applied for the production of many key compo- ming, which essentially involves the same type of defor-
nents, especially for the automotive industry. The ability mation, the only difference being that the starting blank
to enable metal to flow in complicated paths using sim- is a disc or perform as compared to tubes or cups in flow
ple tools not only eliminates multi-production stages on forming. Fig. 2 shows the classifications according to
presses, thus reducing costs, but also offers the potential their most important features [3].
for the production of lightweight, net shape parts. There are no universally accepted definitions of terms
This paper begins by classifying and describing pro- as different manufacturers of the equipment may use dif-
cess details of spinning and its allied process, shear for- ferent ones for the same technique. As a result, much
 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435 1421

Fig. 3. Wooden spinning lathe with a manually operated flywheel to

spin the workpiece [2].
Fig. 2. Classification of spinning processes [3].

and angle to suit the spinner, machine height or size of

literature published in the past few decades had seen dif- the part. To prevent wrinkle occurring in workpieces of
ferent terminology being adopted, especially for spin- large diameter, a back stick is used so that the workpiece
ning involving thickness reduction. Terms used include is pulled between the forming tool and the stick.
shear spinning, power spinning, spin forging and tube The combination of roller-forming lever and com-
spinning. Wang and Lu [4] in reviewing the terms pound lever was later developed to spin larger and
adopted in rotary forming proposed the use of the term thicker workpieces manually [5]. The tool rest was still
thickness reduction spinning for all spinning processes used but instead of a forming bar, a long roller-type for-
that involves thickness reduction. However, in this ming lever is pivoted on to a compound lever, which
paper, the authors adopted the term given in Fig. 2 as pivots itself onto the rest (Fig. 5). Although larger
it is commonly used in the industry nowadays and is dimensions can be spun because of the mechanical
widely accepted. advantage, it did not become very popular due to the
advent of mechanical slides onto spinning lathes.
When the workpiece becomes too large or thick to be
3. The development of spinning machines manually spun, mechanical assistance is required. With
the introduction of a transverse slide support and cross-
In the Middle Ages, spinning of metal was carried out slide into which a roller-type forming lever can be fitted,
on a wooden spinning lathe using a stick-like tool, as the desired movements of the roller-forming lever can
shown in Fig. 3. The rotational drive necessary to form be obtained without too much effort by manually turning
the workpiece was provided by a relatively large fly- the hand wheels of the slides, as shown in Fig. 6. In this
wheel, manually powered by a second person [2]. way, it is possible to spin larger or thicker workpieces,
The first electrically driven spinning machine was such as boiler ends.
developed in the 1930s [1]. On this type of machine, the In 1945, the first hydraulic lathes were introduced to
rotating workpiece is formed with the aid of a forming form thicker and higher strength materials. With the aid
bar, usually made of steel. In order to fully utilise the of hydraulic power, the operator could operate the roller
maximum power available and to assist in the movement through the hand-operated valves, as shown in Fig. 7.
of the spinner, the forming bar essentially is pivoted Though forces that can be generated through hydraulic
around and slid along movable pegs set in a series of power are very much higher than human body power,
holes on a tool rest, T-rest, such as that shown in Fig. coordination of the hand valves sufficient to achieve the
4. The tool rest can be re-positioned, adjusted for height desired roller path proved difficult. Therefore, the risk
1422 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

Fig. 4. Traditional type spinning lathe with T-rest [5].

Fig. 5. Roller forming and compound lever [5].

Fig. 6. Spinning lathes with tool slides [5].

of tool crash became higher. As a result, it was not long

before the template copying control was introduced in
the late 1940s.
The template copying control was the first step from
manual spinning to automatic spinning. Automatic
spinning machines with template control have been
developed for mass production of high precision spun
products where further improvements in repeatability in
terms of the shape of spinning passes and workpiece
quality were based on the use of fixed and moving tem-
plates. By using a pack of templates and a copying
tracer, as shown in Fig. 8, each spinning process can be
individually controlled. However, adjustments and
reshaping of individual templates to correct for roller
Fig. 7. Hydraulic spinning lathe [5]. path was time consuming and led to the use of swivelling
templates, enabling fully automatic work cycles.
 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435 1423

Fig. 8. Copying control with swivelling template [2].

Fig. 9. Combined playback control and CNC [3].

In the early 1970s, the increased demand for shorter

production times and improved quality led to the devel- without a change in the wall thickness. Conventional
opment of CNC spinning machines [3]. This system spinning is carried out with only one roller. However,
offers greater flexibility as tool paths can be programmed in cases where high gauge or high strength metal is spun,
and complicated parts can be formed in materials pre- a single side load is exerted which is undesirable. In such
viously considered difficult. Compared to the hydraulic cases, two rollers that are placed diametrically over each
template-spinning machine, CNC expanded the range of other need to be employed to balance the applied load-
component configurations that can be formed. However, ing.
the downsides of CNC systems are the high cost and
also the need for experienced spinning operators with 4.1. Process details
programming skills.
Under such circumstances, the 1980s saw the devel- 4.1.1. Stress generation
opment of a teaching/play-back system, known as PNC. During the spinning process, a local plastic defor-
With the aid of playback control, the spinner teaches the mation zone is created under the roller. The advantage
machine what it has to do in the subsequent spinning of local deformation is that the power required during
operations. Programming is not by means of numerical spinning is considerably lower as compared to conven-
data but by describing a path with the spinning roller tional press forming machines, thus enabling smaller
under manual control; thus the skilled spinner is in a equipment and tools to be used.
position to apply all his expertise to the respective for- Fig. 10a,b show stress patterns in the work zone for
ming process. Subsequently, the computer records all the different directions of roller feed. When the roller moves
processing commands and duplicates the operators pro- towards the edge of the blank, radial tensile as well as
cess course for further production in automatic mode. tangential compressive stresses are generated. The ten-
Fig. 9 shows an example of spinning a prototype with sile stress produces a flow in the direction along the
a playback control. mandrel and causes thinning, which is compensated for
Today, almost all spinning and flow forming machines by the thickening effect due to the compressive stress.
are either NC controlled or with playback system. Mod- When the roller traverses in the reverse direction,
ern machines also include tool changing as well as pro- towards the centre of rotation, build-up of metal occurs
cess parameter monitoring facilities to increase flexi- in front of the roller. This causes tangential and radial
bility as well as introducing adaptive control. In addition, compressive stress in the region between the roller and
specialised machines have been developed to form the mandrel. As a result of compressive stress, the
components with special features such as non-circular material can be displaced towards the mandrel.
shapes and necks on gas cylinders.
4.1.2. Spinning defects
Fig. 11 shows the common types of defects encoun-
4. Spinning tered in spinning. One of the most frequent defects is
buckling. In order to reduce the diameter to the size of
Spinning, in conventional terms, is defined as a pro- the chuck without buckling, a combination of radial ten-
cess whereby the diameter of the blank is deliberately sile and tangential compressive stresses needs to be
reduced either over the whole length or in defined areas induced progressively in the material. This is usually
1424 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

Fig. 10. Development of work zone and material stress during conventional spinning [3].

ning of cones by modifying the theory of instability in

deep drawing of cups using the cone angle and final
thickness as variables. He reported that for a fixed initial
blank radius, an increase in thickness of the blank must
be followed by a corresponding increase in initial man-
drel radius to prevent wrinkling.
Quigley and Monaghan [8], by comparing the results
of the calculated and experimental strain, presented an
analysis on spinning which showed how the resulting
strains in the finished part are quite different between
single and multi-pass spinning. The calculated strains
were considered in terms of conventional spinning
(thickness remains unchanged) and shear forming
(thickness varies). Experiments were conducted on a
manual lathe with tool rest adapted to provide support
for the spinning roller. Experimental strains were
obtained by measuring the geometry after spinning of
circles of known size, etched on to the blanks before
spinning.
The comparison of experimental strains resulting from
a multi-pass and the calculated strains is shown in Fig.
12a. They reported that the radial strain is close to the
theoretical values for shear forming around the centre of
Fig. 11. Typical failure modes in spin components [3]. the blank but decreases sharply towards the end of the
blank. In addition, the small difference between the mea-
achieved by using several passes. Researchers [3,68], sured hoop strain and the calculated hoop strain for con-
in conventional spinning generally agree that normally stant thickness implies that there is some thickness
multi-pass spinning is necessary to shape the blank to strain. For comparison of experimental strains resulting
the profile of the mandrel without defects. However, too from single-pass and the calculated strains shown in Fig.
much stress in either direction will be undesirable, 12b, they reported that the experimental radial strain is
resulting in the formation of wrinkles or circumferential significantly larger than the experimental hoop strain and
cracks. In some cases, continuous working on the exist- the experimental radial strain values are very close to
ing severe wrinkles may result in radial cracking. This the calculated shear forming radial strain along its
is usually caused when the upright edge of the blank is middle section.
repeatedly flattened or by overworking (deforming sev- Quigley et al. [10,11] also attempted to use finite
eral times) particularly severe wrinkles. element analysis to simulate the conventional spinning
process using multi domain models in order to reduce
4.1.3. Forming forces and deformation simulation times. With the multi domain technique, the
One piece of pioneering work in conventional spin- mesh can be partitioned into super elements and separate
ning was carried out by Kobayashi [9]. He established processors solve each partition independently. In their
the condition for flange wrinkling in conventional spin- FE model, the disc is only the deformable model and
 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435 1425

Kang et al. [7], in studying the deformation mode of

conventional spinning of plates with different roller
paths, namely linear, convex and concave relative to the
axis of the workpiece, reported that the deformation of
conventional spinning of plates in the first-pass plays a
decisive role in the wall thickness distribution of the
final workpiece.

4.2. Process variables

Although conventional spinning is different from

shear and flow forming in terms of deformation charac-
teristics, the set of process variables governing conven-
tional spinning also determines the qualities of a shear
or flow formed product.
There are numerous process variables that contribute
to the successful production of a spun product. Some of
the more significant process variables and their effects
on conventional spinning, investigated by other
researchers, are discussed below.

4.2.1. Feed ratio

Feed ratio is defined as the ratio of the roller feed rate
to the spindle speed. As long as the feed ratio remains
constant, the roller feed and the spindle speed can be
changed without any significant effect on the quality of
the product. Maintaining an acceptable feed ratio is vital
as high feed ratios generate higher forces that may lead
to cracking. In contrast, too low a feed ratio will cause
excessive material flow in an outward direction, which
unnecessarily reduces work-ability and unduly thins the
wall [3].
Wang et al. [6] explained that an increase of spindle
speed would lead to two effects. One is an increased
magnitude of spinning force due to the high deformation
rate; the other is that the deformation energy required
per revolution is likely to decrease because the feed rate
is inversely proportional to the spindle speed (mm/rev).

Fig. 12. (a) Comparison of measured strains from multi-pass oper- 4.2.2. Roller path
ation and calculated strains [8]. (b) Comparison of measured strains The roller path is particularly important in affecting
from single-pass operation and calculated strains[8].
the quality of a spun part. Different roller paths such as
linear, concave, convex, involute and quadratic relative
the mandrel, roller and tailstock were modelled as rigid to the workpiece have an influence on the deformation
surfaces. In addition, the friction coefficient for the roller of the blank. The tendency to buckle and cause wrinkles
is assumed to be 0 to represent the very low friction as well as cracking can be avoided by introducing the
rolling contact with the disk. The roller forces obtained correct roller path.
from their FE model were compared to the experimental A concave roller path is the most widely used one in
forces obtained by Wang et al. [6]. The axial force conventional spinning. The thinning rate in designing a
obtained from FE analysis is about 200 N for a period roller path for the first-pass should be taken into account
of only 0.75 s and Wang et al. [6] obtained about 300 as it plays a decisive role in the final wall thickness [7].
N for a process with three roller pass lasting over 100 Liu et al. [12] established an elasto-plastic FEM
s. Although comparison showed reasonably close agree- model to analyse the stress and strain distribution of the
ments, the force output from the FE analysis is only for first-pass of conventional spinning with different roller
a short time, whereas the experimental forces are the paths, namely linear, involute and quadratic, to convert
results of a process with three spinning passes. the shape of the blank to that of the mandrel. They
1426 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

reported that both the radial and the tangential stress and
strain are the smallest for the involute curve. They con-
cluded that a comparison of the distribution of stresses
and strains under the three different paths could provide
a theoretical basis for selecting a suitable roller path in
conventional spinning.

4.2.3. Roller design

The design of the roller needs to be considered care-
fully as it can affect the component shape, wall thickness
and dimensional accuracy. Although roller diameter has
little effect on the final product quality, too small a roller
nose radius will lead to higher stress and ultimately lead
to poor thickness uniformity. Fig. 13 shows examples of
different shapes of roller [15].

4.2.4. Spinning ratio

Spinning ratio is defined as the ratio of blank diameter
to mandrel diameter. The higher the spinning ratio, the
more difficult is the spinning process. If the spinning
ratio is too large, the remaining material cross section is
no longer able to transmit the very high radial tensile
stresses generated in the wall. This will lead to circum-
ferential splitting along the transition from the flange to
the wall.
On the other hand, the spinning ratio is at its upper
limit when the wrinkling in the flange becomes so large
that subsequent passes of the tool cannot remove them.

Fig. 14. Examples of shear formed products [2].

5. Shear forming
The configuration of machine used in shear forming
Shear forming was first used in Sweden and grew out is very similar to the conventional spinning lathe, except
of spinning with the aid of power using hydraulic equip- that it is made more robust as higher forces are generated
ment [13]. With conventional spinning, the area of the during shear forming. Nowadays on modern machines,
final component is approximately equal to that of the it is common to use both shear forming and spinning
blank and little or no reduction in the wall thickness techniques on the same component.
occurs. Whereas with shear forming, a reduction in the In shear forming, the required wall thickness is achi-
wall thickness is deliberately induced. eved by controlling the gap between the roller and the
The starting workpiece can be thick walled circular or mandrel so that the material is displaced axially, parallel
square blanks or even performs. Shear forming of thick to the axis of rotation. Since the process involves only
walled sheet may require two diametrically opposite localised deformation, much greater deformation of the
roller instead of one needed for light gauge materials. material can be achieved with lower forming forces as
The profile shape of the final component can be concave, compared with other processes. In many cases, only a
convex or combination of these two geometries. Fig. 14 single-pass is required to produce the final component to
shows examples of products that have been shear for- net shape. Moreover due to work hardening, significant
med. improvement in mechanical properties can be achieved.

5.1. Material flow and the sine law

A schematic of the shear forming process is shown in

Fig. 15. A blank is reduced from the initial thickness S0
to a thickness S1 by a roller moving along a cone-shaped
mandrel of half angle, a. During shear forming, the
material is displaced along an axis parallel to the man-
Fig. 13. Different shapes of roller for spinning [15]. drels rotational axis, as shown in Fig. 16. The principal
 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435 1427

in Fig. 16. By conducting the grid line technique, the

experimental results showed that the axial grid lines
remain axial and confirmed that the concentric cylindri-
cal surfaces in the original blank remain cylindrical in
the deformed cone and their radial distance from the axis
of symmetry remains unchanged.
When the sine law is followed closely, any dimension
of the blank can be spun without failure or defects. On
the other hand, if the sine law is not closely followed, the
stresses involved in the process are not confined solely to
the localised area being worked. The remainder of the
workpiece does not remain stress-free.
When a thicker starting material is spun or the gap
between the mandrel and the roller is set too small (over-
Fig. 15. Principles of shear forming [2]. reduction), the material will build up gradually in front
of the roller causing the vertical unspun flange to lean
forward towards the headstock. This excessive build-up
of material will result in the thickness at the roller con-
tact to deviate from the sine law thickness, i.e. S1
S0sina. On the other hand, with a thinner starting
material or if a large gap is programmed (under-
reduced), the flange is pulled inwards and is likely to
wrinkle, again causing the final thickness to deviate, i.e.
S1 S0sina [1,14]. Fig. 17 illustrates the effects of devi-
ation from the sine law.

5.2. Forces, surface finish and process variables

During the period of introduction of shear forming,

most of the process developments were conducted by
trial and error with little scientific background. Some of
the significant pioneering work in theoretical analysis of
shear forming forces has been carried out by Kalpakci-
oglu [14], Avitzur et al. [15,16] and Kobayashi [17].
Forces between the workpiece and roller generated
during shear forming can be resolved into three mutually
Fig. 16. Idealised shear forming process [2].
perpendicular component, namely, the axial (Fz), radial
(Fr) and tangential (Ft) force component as shown in
deformation process is assumed to be one of the simple Fig. 15. It has been experimentally observed by several
shears in plane strain and hence the name, shear forming. researchers [3,6,15,16,19] that the tangential force is
In the axial direction, the unformed section of the blank smaller than axial and radial forces although most of the
retains its original thickness. power supplied by the motor driving the chuck is trans-
The inclined angle of the mandrel (sometimes referred lated through the tangential component.
to as half-cone angle) determines the degree of reduction Kalpakcioglu [14] used an idealised model (plane
normal to the surface. The greater the angle, the lesser
will be the reduction of wall thickness.
The final wall thickness S1 is calculated from the start-
ing wall thickness S0 and the inclined angle of the man-
drel a (sine law):
S1 S0sina
Kalpakcioglu [14] proposed an idealised model to
analyse the shear forming process whereby the disc
blank is visualised as consisting of concentric thin cylin-
der sliding over each other axially and forming a cone
while at the same time fulfilling the sine law, as shown Fig. 17. Effects on the flange of deviation from Sine Law [15].
1428 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

strain) which assumed simple shear deformation under cess variables on shear forming forces and surface finish
the roller, to derive the tangential force. He commented using regression analysis. In their study, experimental
that the tangential force formulated cannot be considered results of axial, radial and tangential forces obtained for
conclusive because flow stress of the material used to different values of feed rate, roller nose radius, mandrel
calculate the tangential force was obtained by conven- rotational speed and the initial thickness of workpiece
tional tensile test data, where the high strain rate in spin- were fed into the Statistics Analysis System
ning was not considered. Avitzur and Yang [16] also (SAS/STAT) software to determine a set of regression
attempted to calculate the tangential force by assuming equations. The results of this analysis are shown in
shear deformation. However, their formulations are quite Fig. 19.
complex and the aid of a computer is necessary to deter- In terms of experimental results, both Slater and Chen
mine the solution. Kobayashi et al. [17] re-evaluated the et al. reported a decrease in tangential force as mandrel
work done by Kalpakcioglu [14] and Avitzur and Yang rotational speed increase. For both axial and radial force,
[16] by formulating a theoretical expression for the tan- Slater observed a decrease in values as mandrel speed
gential force, including the strain due to bending in increased but Chen et al. reported a gradual increase.
addition to the shear strain. From Figs. 19 and 20, a very important point to note is
Slater [20] attempted to give an approximate upper- that experimental results, in terms of feed rate, mandrel
bound estimate for the dimensionless tangential compo- speed and tangential force results obtained by both the
nent force assuming a plane strain and axisymmetric researchers indicate that an optimum mandrel rotational
deformation and compared the theoretical predictions speed exists for a given cone angle (inclined angle of
with experimental results, as shown in Fig. 18. He the mandrel) and feed rate.
reported that the upper bound estimates and the experi- For surface finish, Slater concluded that the surface
mental results have a similar characteristic shape which roughness attained a minimum at a particular mandrel
are concave upwards. rotational speed for a given cone angle and constant
Recently, Chen [19] investigated the influence of pro- feed rate.
From the regression analysis, Chen et al. confirmed
that slower feeds, when combined with a larger roller
nose, result in reduced outer surface roughness of the
spun cone.

5.3. Spinnability

Spinnability, sometimes referred as shear spinnability,

is defined as the ability of metal to undergo shear for-
ming deformation without fracture. Over the past few
decades, the published work on spinnability on shear for-
ming available with the authors, is only that of Kegg
[21], Cui [22] and Kalpakcioglu [23].
Kegg [21] proposed a method for predicting spinn-
ability from the tensile test reduction as shown in Fig.

Fig. 18. Comparison of the approximate upper bound estimates with Fig. 19. Effects of mandrel speed on the tangential force at various
experimental values of dimensionless tangential component force [20]. roller feed by Chen [19].
 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435 1429

Fig. 21. Spinnability versus tensile reduction [21].

5.4. Die-less shear forming

In die-less shear forming, as suggested by the name,

the blank formed is supported on the end of a cylindrical
mandrel or chuck that rotates on a main spindle, as illus-
trated in Fig. 22. In this process, a mandrel that has
Fig. 20. Relation between tangential force, and mandrel speed vary-
identical shape with that of the inner product is not
ing feed rate [20].
required. However, high stiffness in the workpiece is
required to maintain the shape to be formed during the
21, using a half-ellipsoidal spinning mandrel which var- process. Springback is relatively larger in die-less spin-
ies in included angle between 180 and 0. For materials ning causing the final shape to be different to that
having a tensile reduction of 80% or less, the limiting described by the roller path; as a result, spinning accu-
spinning reduction is equal to or greater than the limiting racy is relatively low [7,18].
tensile reduction.
Cui [22], in discussing the causes of cracks, reported
that it could be prevented by reducing the tensile stress
outside the cone by reducing the gap between the blank
and the roller.
Kalpakcioglu [23] extended the work of Kegg [21]
by providing an analytical and experimental study on
spinnability. He reported that the roller corner radius,
roller velocity and mandrel speed do not affect the spinn-
ability of metals. On the other hand, the mandrel angle
has a great effect on the state of stress in the work
material and thus spinnability. In addition, he concluded
that for metals with a true fracture strain of 0.5 or greater
in a tension test, there is a maximum limit for the shear
forming reduction and that further increase in the duc-
tility of the original material does not affect or increase
the maximum limit. For metals having a true fracture
strain below 0.5, spinnability depends on ductility of the
original material. Fig. 22. Die-less shear forming [24].
1430 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

Kawai et al. [24] reported that an optimum combi- process, as shown in Fig. 24, the metal is displaced axi-
nation of the semi-cone angle of the product and feed ally along a mandrel, while the internal diameter remains
rate would prevent the occurrence of wall fracture and constant. It is usually employed to produce cylindrical
flange wrinkles. Moreover, both Kawai et al. [24] and components [26]. Most modern flow forming machines
Kang et al. [7] concluded that a minimum flange width, employ two or three rollers and their design is more
w, as shown in Fig. 22, is required to prevent the diame- complex compared to that of spinning and shear for-
tral shrinkage of the product and to realise the sine law ming machines.
in die-less shear forming. The starting blank can be in the form of a sleeve or
cup. Blanks can be produced by spinning, deep drawing
5.5. Reducing/closing thick-wall tubes or forging plus machining to improve the dimensional
accuracy. Advantages such as an increase in hardness
Thick-wall cylinders, e.g. gas cylinders, at one time
were produced from seamless tubes where the closed-
end was hot forged welded on a press. In this process,
pieces of extruded closed-end tube are fed individually
from a magazine and into a mandrel where open tube-
end to be formed is heated to a temperature of 9001000
C. by an induction coil [5,25], as shown in Fig. 23. The
spinning roller moves in a combination of axial and rad-
ial direction (controlled by CNC) to obtain the desired
reduction.

6. Flow forming

Flow forming, also known as tube spinning, is one of

the techniques closely allied to shear forming. In this Fig. 24. Forward and Backward flow forming [27].

Fig. 23. Process of automatic closing thick wall tubes [5].

 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435 1431

due to an ability to cold work and better surface finish

couples with simple tool design and tooling cost make
flow forming a particularly attractive technique for the
production of hydraulic cylinders, and cylindrical hollow
parts with different stepped sections (Fig. 25).

6.1. Process details

In flow forming, as shown schematically in Fig. 26,

the blank is fitted into the rotating mandrel and the rol-
lers approach the blank in the axial direction and plasti-
cise the metal under the contact point. In this way, the
wall thickness is reduced as material is encouraged to
flow mainly in the axial direction, increasing the length
of the workpiece.
The flow of metal directly beneath the roller consists Fig. 26. Principle of flow forming (deformation zone and forces) [3].
of two components, axial and circumferential. If the
length of circumferential contact is much longer than the
axial contact length, then the axial plastic flow will in thickness will resemble that of plane strain extrusion
dominate the circumferential one. In this case, reduction and a sound product will be produced [27]. On the other
hand, if the opposite is true, then circumferential flow
will dominate leading to high constraint of flow in the
axial direction. This situation will normally give rise to
bulges in front of the rollers causing defects.
As the workpiece volume is constant, with negligible
tangential flow, the final component length can be calcu-
lated as [3]:
S0(di S0)
L1 L0
S1(di S1)
where L1 is the workpiece length, L0 is the blank length,
S0 is the starting wall thickness, S1 is the final wall thick-
ness and di is the internal diameter.

6.1.1. Forward and backward flow forming

In flow forming, especially in flow forming of tubes,
there are two methods that can be employed, namely
forward and backward. These two methods are classified
in accordance to their direction of axial flow during the
process (Fig. 24).
For forward flow forming, the material flows in the
same direction as that of the traversing rollers. The blank
is held between the mandrel and the tailstock, which
requires the blank with a base or internal flange to allow
the tailstock to clamp against it. During this process, the
part that has not been worked is driven ahead of the
rollers. This method is typically suitable for making high
precision thin walled cylinders, such as rocket motor
cases, hydraulic cylinders, high-pressure vessels and
launcher tubes.
For blanks without a base or internal flange, backward
flow forming can be employed. In this case, the blank
is pushed onto the mandrel and is held against the head-
stock and the axial thrust of the rollers pressed the blank
against the mandrel. During the course of flow forming,
Fig. 25. Parts produced by flow forming [3]. spun material flows under the roller in the opposite
1432 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

direction of the roller towards the unsupported end of Xu et al. analysed the deformation mechanism and
the mandrel. Backward flow forming is especially suit- concluded that for the same process conditions, there is
able when the original ductility of the blank is too low no obvious difference in stress and strain rate on the
to accommodate tensile stresses, such as cast and surface between forward and backward tube spinning.
welded parts. In most cases, flow forming is carried out by
The forward method is normally preferred because in employing more than one roller. Most modern machines
the backward method, worked material is required to employ the three-roller configuration mainly to achieve a
flow over the length of the mandrel, making the material better balance of loads for flow forming precision parts.
more susceptible to distortion like bell-mouthing at the Normally, the three rollers are spaced circumferentially
free end of the blank and loss of straightness [28]. More- at 120 apart, providing a uniform load distribution to
over, backward flow forming is normally prone to non- prevent the mandrel from being deflected from the centre
uniform dimension across the length of the product [29]. line. Furthermore, the rollers can be offset or staggered
Forward flow forming is usually less productive as [32,33] at a particular distance in the axial and radial
compared to the backward method as the roller must tra- direction to improve dimensional accuracy and surface
vel over the entire elongated length of the blank. In finish.
addition, workpiece length with forward method is
restricted by slide stroke and mandrel length. 6.2. Power, forces and process variables
Both Xu et al. [30] and Li et al. [31] adopted finite
element simulation to study the deformation character- There are several scientific papers and articles on flow
istics and the axial displacement distribution, respect- forming/flow forming of tubes with regard to the devel-
ively, in flow forming of tubes. For the backward opment of the theoretical methods for forces and power
method, Li et al. observed that material was displaced [28,3438]. In addition, many researchers have investi-
in the same direction (negative) as the axial feed (Fig. gated the effects of process variables on different
27a) around the undeformed tube while it flows in the components of force, power, surface finish and mechan-
opposite direction to the feed of the roller (positive) ical properties. These aspects of the investigations are
primarily in the deformation zone, thus elongating the described below.
spun parts, as shown in Fig. 27b,c. In the spun section,
metal flow is mainly in the negative direction due to the 6.2.1. Power and forces
push of local plastic deformation (Fig. 27d,e). Over the For the past few decades, several researchers have
thickness, the tangential displacement is larger in the undertaken theoretical analyses of power and force in
external layers than it is in the internal layers. tube spinning.

Fig. 27. Displacement distribution in the axial direction: (a) 1-1, (b) 2-2, (c) 3-3, (d) 4-4, (e) 5-5 [31].
 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435 1433

In 1972, Mohan and Misra [34] developed a theoreti- fish skins) on the outer surface of the formed blank
cal analysis of the plastic flow mechanism of tubes, [27]. From Fig. 28, it can be seen that by increasing the
involving the use of grid-line analysis for each individual attack angle, shown in Fig. 26, the ratio will increase
working condition and constant. The effective strains and because of interfacial friction, the higher the ratio,
and roller forces were then calculated using the plastic the higher is the tendency for the material to flow in the
work deformation by assuming that the strain path dur- axial direction. Under this condition, the circularity of
ing deformation is linear and the strain components in the tube is well kept, whereas a small ratio leads to geo-
three principal directions can be evaluated from the total metrical inaccuracies [27,39].
displacement after deformation. They reported that the On the other hand, very large circumferential to axial
values of axial, radial and tangential force show good contact ratio will cause the metal to flow at an angle
agreement with the experimental results for commer- smaller than the attack angle, leading to wave like sur-
cially pure copper. face and differences in thickness. Similarly, too large an
Later, Hayama and Kudo [35] attempted an analysis attack angle will increase the required power and
to estimate the working forces and the diameter accuracy decrease the efficiency of the forming process. There-
by using the energy method. They reported that the fore, an optimum balance between the percentage
agreement between the calculated and the experimental reduction and attack angle is necessary [27].
values is good over a wide range of conditions such as Using the basis of minimising the resultant spinning
angle of the roller, feed rate and the reduction in thick- force, Ma [40] concluded that the optimal angle of attack
ness. decreases with increasing roller diameter and friction
Wang et al. [36] adopted a plain strain model and slip- factor, but increases with larger feed rate, reduction and
line field method to solve for the forces involved in three initial thickness of the tube wall.
dimensional flow forming. They reported that the results Generally, in order to achieve suitable flow in flow
correlate well with those of Hayama and Kudo [35]. forming and achieve the desired surface finish, a
In 1990, Singhal et al. [28] proposed a generalised compromise has to be established between the feed rate,
expression for the power required in tube spinning, by thickness of blank and roller profile [39]. If too low a
assuming no build up of material, so that it is applicable feed rate is used for a particular blank thickness, the
to both forward and backward tube spinning. In addition, material will tend to flow in the radial direction, increas-
they assumed a constant friction factor between the roller ing the internal diameter of the blank. On the other hand,
and material and also no diametral growth, as hard when high feed rates are employed, defects such as non-
materials were used. uniform thickness, reduction in diameter as well as a
Park et al. [37] adopted the upper bound stream func-
tion method to calculate the total power consumption
required in deformation and the related tangential force.
Trapezoidal and spherical velocity fields using the
stream function are suggested and their results suggested
that the trapezoidal velocity field has a better correlation
to the experimental results.
Recently, Paunoiu et al. [38] developed a generalised
theoretical model using the upper bound method for
force calculation. In their method, the characteristic con-
tact zone, considering the deformation with flat roller
nose and, respectively, with roller nose radius, is divided
using different triangular velocity fields. In this way, the
number of velocity fields could be chosen in such a way
that the more accurate values of forces could be attained.
They proposed that the method could be extended by
considering more than one-stream line of velocity and
could be applied for analysing other manufacturing pro-
cesses. Based on their theoretical results, they concluded
that flat roller nose will produce higher force as com-
pared to roller with nose radius.

6.2.2. Effects of process variables

As discussed in section 6.1, the ratio of circumfer-
ential to axial contact under the roller will influence the
plastic flow instability such as waviness or bulges (called Fig. 28. Effect of the attack angle on the length of contact area [39].
1434 C.C. Wong et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 14191435

Fig. 29. Production of one-piece alloy wheel, starting from rolled plate. [47].

rough surface will result [41]. If the feed rate exceeds a predominantly dominated by welded steel structures and
certain limit, it can spoil the surface finish and produce the search of a light-weight alloy to substitute for steel
thread-like serrations on the tube [26,41]. This is because wheels has led to a number of designs from North Amer-
with very large feed rates, the material tends to flow ica and Japan. The interest in Europe on a one-piece
underneath the roller in the opposite direction to the wheel saw the development of a combination of splitting
roller axial movement. [47,48], spinning and flow forming to produce the
Recently, Yao and Murata [42] investigated exper- internal nave and rim of an alloy wheel from rolled plate
imentally the effects of feed rate on thickness strain, rad- as shown in Fig. 29. Typically, the material is an alu-
ial force, diameter accuracy and surface roughness for minium alloy, AIMg2Mn0.8 (A5351).
the flow forming of aluminium tube. They concluded
that the increase in feed rate will increase spinning force,
thickness strain and surface roughness. In addition, 8. Conclusions
diametral accuracy will decrease with the increment of
feed rate. In this paper, the principles and developments of spin-
Over the years, tube spinnability (maximum ning and flow forming have been reviewed. It can be
reduction) has also been an area of investigation seen that although spinning and flow forming can be a
[26,43,44] in flow forming. The earliest investigation very complicated process in terms of deformation
was carried out by Kalpakcioglu [43]. He reported that characteristics, they have a great potential in the devel-
complete similarity was observed for cone [21,23] and opment, for the manufacture of complex shapes which
tube spinnability for the maximum reduction with tensile are being required in increasing numbers by global
reduction of area. He concluded that among the process manufacturing industries.
variables considered, nose radius, roller angle and feed, Future prospects for these techniques should see
only feed rate had a significant influence on spinnability. research directed to the manufacturing of parts with even
Xu and Feng [45] studied the spinnability of steel cast- greater complex geometries with higher accuracy and
ings and concluded that the main factor in affecting the improved performance. Of particular interest are single
spinnability is the tangential tensile strain that causes components consisting of different cross sections with
diametral growth during the forming process. flanges, sidewalls and undercuts.

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