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Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524

7th HPC 2016 – CIRP Conference on High Performance Cutting

Success Story Cutting

K. Wegener a, F. Kuster a, S. Weikert b, L. Weiss b, J. Stirnimann b
a
Institute of Machine Tools and Manufacturing (IWF), ETH Zurich, Switzerland
b
inspire AG, Zurich, Switzerland

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 44 6322419; fax: +41 44 6321025. E-mail address: Wegener@iwf.mavt.ethz.ch

Abstract

Cutting technologies are the engines behind manufacturing. Without cutting, none of our modern products would ever been put into service.
Developing new materials directly needs research for process windows in cutting. Huge engineering efforts brought cutting in the position
where it is today and despite all rumors trying to declare, that cutting is outdated or cutting research is finished it is still a vital field of research
and prone to rapid innovations. Recent material developments challenge cutting technology. Recent material developments of cutting material
as well as understanding of the cutting process enable to cope with the challenges imposed from difficult to cut materials. Research results and
recent developments in machine tools show how to combine the multiple requirements from ecology, economy and quality. Machine tool, tool
and process are the ingredients of success in cutting.

© 2016 The Authors.

© 2016 Published
The Authors. by Elsevier
Published B.V This is
by Elsevier an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
B.V.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of 7th HPC 2016 in the person of the Conference Chair Prof.
Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of 7th HPC 2016 in the person of the Conference Chair
Matthias Putz.
Prof. Matthias Putz
Keywords: Difficult to cut materials; tool development; efficiency; machine tool

1. Introduction cycles, the world market for machine tools is important and
increasing, reaching 60 Billion EUR in the last few years as
The success story of cutting metals is endless. Despite of depicted in Fig. 1. Machine tools are predominantly metal
many attempts to avoid the painful path of cutting, it remains cutting, the share of metal forming machines is about 27% in
the dominant and in most cases irreplaceable process to create case of Germany [3].
added value for metal parts. There is a variety of reasons for
this finding. They can be roughly clustered into two
categories. The first one comprises the weaknesses of the
alternatives. Most of them do not replace cutting, they replace
only a part of the value chain of the cutting process. The
second one is more important: It is the strength of cutting, the
steady improvement, the ability to adapt to new
circumstances. Cutting can produce a high value part within
seconds out of a bulk material. It is versatile and can produce
a variety of parts with the same equipment in a flexible
production. It is adaptive, producing the same final result out
of bulk material, from a semi-finished good, or from the
outcome of a near net shape process. It is innovative,
producing more, and more precise, features. Although
fluctuating with economic and occasionally technological Fig. 1. World machine tool production, Source: [3]

2212-8271 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of 7th HPC 2016 in the person of the Conference Chair
Prof. Matthias Putz
doi:10.1016/j.procir.2016.04.110
 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524 513

developed as also Fig. 2 shows. Direct challenges for metal

cutting are caused by the miniaturization, requiring smaller
parts with increased functionality. Smaller parts require
higher absolute precision due to the downscaling, the
increased functionality causes higher complexity.
Miniaturization combined with the demand for higher
performance of products led to harder materials that are more
difficult to machine, e. g. composites. Short innovation cycles
with fast ramp-up periods ask for enhanced flexibility and
production in smaller lot sizes, for mass products too [4].
Miniaturization therefore comprises the whole cycle in Fig. 3,
but downscaled. Strongly questions of surface integrity,
energy efficiency and simulation of cutting processes have
been discussed and approached in the recent past. Finally, due
to the obvious necessity of economic sustainability
investments and running costs for production machines must
be reduced continuously.
Fig. 2. Increase of cutting speed in history
2. Challenge Workpiece Materials
It is difficult to quantify the improvement of cutting
processes, ever since Taylor’s masterly statement in the early Requirements from product development for materials with
20th century [1]. One indicator is the cutting speed. Within special properties to withstand the loads during their lifetimes
one century, it has been increased by means of four significant are the most important driver for further development of
technology steps by about factor 200 as shown in Fig. 2. This cutting technology. Those materials need to be machined
is an average increase of more than 5% per year, from less without damage and under the extreme cost pressure which
than 15m/min to more than 2000m/min. The difficulties of always accompanies machining. Cutting of steel up to Ck45,
cutting processes are partly caused by the complex interaction which is the benchmark of all cutting is today regarded as
of machine tool, material, tools and process parameters. But standard cutting process. But the great progress in cutting can
the same complexity explains the successful evolution. For be seen in the drastic increase of cutting speeds for all those
instance, the capabilities of a new tool can easily be verified materials beyond Ck45. Hard to cut or hard to machine
on an existing machine tool. The evolution of machine tools, materials are generally considered as materials, which cause
materials, tools and process parameters is within limits extreme loads, extremely high temperatures in the cutting
independent, enabling and encouraging simultaneous zone and problems in chip formation and thus create
developments by a multitude of factors. Process parameters excessive wear on the tool, while the class of difficult to cut
are modified daily, tools are innovated within weeks or materials or difficult to machine materials (DTMM) includes
months; machine tools and materials within years. These also materials, where cutting creates bad surfaces and
overlapping innovation cycles lead to a vivid and steady introduces deterioration of the subsurface area, which are
evolution. The fact that the number of patent applications difficult to avoid. Often both aspects come together and
published in the field of machine tools (2013: 61’249) sometimes the terms are also used synonymously. Prominent
exceeds the number of those in many other fields, such as representatives of DTMM are the frequently used Ti alloys
telecommunications (2013: 50’497), biotechnology (2013: and Ni based superalloys. Refractory metals which consisted
45’485) or Surface Technology/Coating (2013: 39’426) may of titanium, nickel, steel, molybdenum, rhenium, tungsten,
provide some evidence [2]. cobalt, tantalum, niobium, chromium, etc. are DTMM.

Fig. 3. Achievements and challenges in high performance cutting

Fig. 4. Classification of difficult-to-machine materials [5].
Fig. 3 shows current challenges and achievements since
2002. Naturally higher material removal rate, cutting speed Materials which are prone to damage of the subsurface
and feed rate was always of interest and is thus excellently region are structural ceramics, composites, polymers and
514 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524

magnesium alloys. Fig. 4 shows a classification of difficult- x small tool–chip contact area resulting in high thermal and
to-machine materials according to [5]. All of them underwent mechanical stress close to the cutting edge,
a huge increase in material removal rate and also x production of long continuous chips which hinders the
enhancement of surface and subsurface properties due to machining in unmanned operations.
special tool development, coolants and suitable process
parameters. The adaptability of cutting is one of the secrets 2.3. Stainless steels
behind its success.
But for different materials the reasons for classifying them Stainless steels, which are widely used in chemical,
into DTMM is very different and is reviewed in the following. aerospace, automotive and food processing industries, have
high strength, high fracture toughness, high fatigue and
2.1. Titanium Alloys corrosion resistivity compared to plain carbon steels. Together
with low thermal conductivity and high heat capacity these
Due to their superior mechanical and physical properties makes stainless steel difficult-to-machine. High cutting energy
such as: high strength to weight ratio, high yield stress, very is required resulting in strong heat generation during
high creep and corrosion resistivity, high toughness, high machining. Similar to titanium and nickel alloys, in
wear resistance and good biocompatibility titanium and its machining stainless steels the generated heat cannot
alloys are attractive materials in many engineering fields such effectively be transferred into the workpiece and chips due to
as aerospace, vehicles, engines and gas turbines, nuclear, low thermal conductivity. It is concentrated at the cutting
biomedical, etc.. The reasons for making Ti-alloys difficult to zone and produce high cutting zone temperatures. High tool
machine are: wear such as diffusion and chemical reaction between tool
x Adiabatic shear banding coupled to fluctuation of cutting and workpiece materials, BUE, work hardening, poor surface
force, which causes vibrations quality, low productivity and high machining costs are the
x low elastic modulus compared to strength causing the consequences.
material to elastically deflect under the tool edge radius
and exert compressive forces from the flank face. 2.4. Cobalt–chromium alloys
x With low elastic modulus workpiece deflections occur due
to cutting forces causing chatter and vibrations Another type of alloy which is considered extremely
x small tool–chip contact area causing force concentration difficult to machine is cobalt–chromium alloys. The main
and superposition of crater wear and wear of cutting edge material properties of these alloys are high strength, high
x high chemical reactivity with all known tool materials, hardness, high biocompatibility, high creep resistance and
x low thermal conductivity concentrating energy on the high corrosion and wear resistance superior to that of titanium
cutting edge based alloys. This makes Co-Cr-alloys appropriate candidates
x high strain hardening due to their austenitic matrix, for medical implants, aero-engine, nuclear and gas turbine
x tendency to adhesion and forming BUE (build up edge), components. Similar to other refractory metal alloys,
x high dynamic shear strength machinability of cobalt–chromium alloys becomes difficult
due to work hardening and poor thermal conductivity of the
2.2. Nickel-based alloys material, resulting in low tool life and poor surface quality.

Very broad operational temperature makes nickel-based 2.5. Magnesium alloys

alloys very advantageous as construction material for
aerospace, gas turbine and nuclear industries, with superalloys Magnesium is the lightest structural metal, has high
especially in the hot area of thermic machines. It maintains its strength-to-weight ratio and good corrosion resistivity.
chemical and mechanical properties at elevated temperatures Magnesium is very attractive to aerospace and automobile
over long time and is highly resistant to creep and corrosion. industries. In addition magnesium alloys are used for bio-
The properties responsible for making nickel based alloys degradable temporary implants.
difficult to machine are: Magnesium actually is good to machine, resulting in low
x high shear strength, cutting forces, good surface finish and long tool life. Problem
x high hot strength and hardness, which is especially for is only its inflammability and the risk of ignition at
superalloys the properties for which the material is temperatures above 450 °C. As cutting fluids for temperature
designed control only neutral mineral oils can be used. Therefore,
x high strain hardening, machining magnesium alloys is usually conducted under dry
x low thermal conductivity resulting in high temperature at conditions resulting in low productivity.
cutting zone up to 1200°C,
x high chemical reactivity to most tool materials depending 2.6. Ceramics
on the constituent alloying elements
x adhesion and welding tendency to the cutting tool and Due to their high melting temperature, small thermal
formation of BUE, expansion coefficient, high hardness and wear resistivity,
x presence of hard carbide particles, for example TiC, in the good strengths at high temperature, good chemical stability,
microstructure which encourage abrasive wear, ceramics become more and more interesting as it is also
 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524 515

achieved to provide ceramic alloys with minimum ductility The main problems in machining difficult-to-cut materials
and thermal shock resistance as for instance for reaction are very high temperature at the cutting zone, presence of
bonded silicon nitride or yttrium stabilized zirconium oxides. abrasive carbide particles, chemical reactivity between tool
To machine these materials the cutting tools needs to be and workpiece materials and high hot strength and hardness of
extremely hard and wear resistant, tough and thermally stable. the workpiece materials. The success of cutting depends to a
The appropriate tool materials are diamond (PCD) or great extent on the choice and availability of suitable cutting
polycrystalline boron nitride (PCBN). However in case of material.
diamond the process temperature has to be considered Carbide tools belong to the most used tools in machining
carefully because of transformation to graphite at elevated difficult-to-cut materials due to their performance to price
temperatures. Ceramics are very sensitive to damage, so that ratio. 75%–85% of the carbide tools used in industry are
cutting parameters must be especially adapted to surface and coated.
subsurface integrity. Ceramic tools are considered as an attractive alternative to
carbide tools in machining ferrous alloys. However they are
2.7. Composites not recommended for machining titanium alloys due to the
chemical reactivity of Titanium, low toughness and poor
Machining composites is very different to homogeneous thermal conductivity of the ceramics which causes excessive
materials due to their inhomogeneous and anisotropic nature. tool wear at high cutting temperatures. Ceramic tools exhibit
The cutting behaviour and chip formation of the high hardness but are very sensitive to mechanical and
reinforcement fibres differ widely of the behaviour of the thermal shocks, what is also the reason that these tools are
matrix. This cutting condition can result in severe surface used at dry conditions.
quality issues such as delamination, burning, fibre pull-out, Cubic boron nitride (CBN) and diamond based tools
uncut fibres, high surface roughness and high dimensional demonstrate the highest wear resistance and hot hardness
deviation. Only tools with very sharp cutting edges with long among common tool materials. Unfortunately diamond tool
life time succeed in cutting without damage. materials are chemically reactive with titanium and steel.
Difficult-to-machine composites are not limited to fibre Conventional CBN tools are produced from CBN powder in
reinforced plastics and cover also metal matrix composites. conjunction with a metallic or ceramic binder material. Thus,
These new engineered materials usually have ceramic the mechanical and thermal properties of CBN tools are also
particulates such as SiC or Al2O3 embedded in a metal matrix highly dependent on the type and quality of the binder
of aluminium, titanium or magnesium. The presence of hard material.
abrasive particulates harder than WC tools can cause severe Binderless CBN tools (BCBN) are more robust because
tool wear, therefore adequate cutting tools with higher problems associated with binder materials are eliminated.
strength, higher abrasion resistance and higher toughness are BCBN tools perform much better than conventional CBN
required. tools in machining titanium alloys and the cutting speed can
be increased up to 220 m/min.
3. Cutting Tools While diamond tools have the highest wear resistance and
hot hardness, they are unstable at temperatures above 700 °C.
Development of new structural workpiece materials is Recently binderless nano-polycrystalline diamond material
directly related to the need of new materials for cutting tools, has been developed by Sumitomo Electric, which has the
which are able to shape the workpiece with high accuracy and extreme hardness of monocrystalline diamonds but is
surface quality without unacceptable tool wear. This can only isotropic in strength and wear resistivity [49].
be fulfilled with high hardness and toughness at cutting
temperatures. Fig. 5 shows how hardness and toughness are 3.1. Coatings
negatively correlated. Good thermal shock resistance is
another important characteristic of suitable cutting materials.

Fig. 6: Basic categories of cutting tools coatings and some examples of each
category.

Different coatings have been introduced in order to

improve the cutting tool performance and cope with the
different requirements against wear attack on the surface and
strength and toughness of the bulk material. Fig. 6 illustrates
the major types of coatings used in industry. While the effect
of coatings is still not fully understood in machining DTMM,
generally coated tool materials perform better than uncoated
Fig. 5. Toughness and hardness of cutting materials [2]. carbide tools. On the contrary, Hong et al. [7] complained the
effectiveness of coatings in machining titanium as Al2O3
516 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524

reduces the heat conductivity of the cutting tool and TiC and of the cutting wedge. For drilling carbon fibre reinforced
TiN are reactive to the workpiece material. polymers (CFRP), Henerichs [10] showed that the cutting tool
Coatings form a barrier between the cutting tool and the should be as sharp as possible to reach acceptable machined
workpiece materials preventing the tool material from being workpiece quality with low forces. Due to the abrasiveness of
exposed. This reduces the diffusion rate and lowers the CFRP with high fibre content, diamond tools are increasingly
chemically and thermally induced tool wear such as adhesion used for high volume cutting operations. The hard and
and oxidation. Coatings can also enhance the cutting tools sliding-wear-resistant diamond coating protects the
performance by altering the friction coefficient, increasing hot comparatively soft cutting edge from rapidly getting worn and
hardness, resulting in lower abrasion rate. Coatings are rounded and directs the wear to the flank face. But the
commonly applied by PVD- or and CVD-technology and can diamond coating increases the cutting edge radius from
be mono- or multilayers. An overview of actual coatings and ideally 4µm after grinding up to 10 - 16µm after coating. In
its properties is given in Table 1. consequence Henerichs et al. [11] and Wang et al. [12] show
that diamond coated carbide tools exhibit poor bore exit
Table 1: List of actual typical coatings, thickness application related [8] quality until the coating smoothens within the first bores (run-
in period): The quantity of poor bores depends on tool
Coating Coating Residual Maximum Suitable Coating
material hardness Stresses application substrates colour
geometry, coating and CFRP material. Fig. 7 shows the run in
Coating HIT temp. (°C) of two different diamond coated tool geometries A and B,
structure (GPa) starting from fairly poor but still post processable and thus
TiN 30 +/-3 -2 +/-1 600 HSS, PM- golden acceptable appearance of the bore exits to excellent bores
Monolayer HSS, Carbide yellow after 150 and 250 bores respectively. Afterwards the bore
AlCrN- 36 +/-3 -3 +/-1 1,100 HSS, PM- light grey exits are free from uncut fibres or delamination at least until
based HSS, Carbide the 1000th bore, when the test was stopped. In the lower part
Monolayer of Fig. 7 the self-sharpening of two CFRP-drill geometries is
AlCrN- 34 +/-3 -3 +/-1 >1,100 Carbide blue grey shown. After 600 bores the cutting edge radius is reduced
based from initially 14µm down to 2.6µm for geometry A
Multilayer respectively from 17µm down to 3.4µm for geometry B. This
AlCrN- 38 +/-3 -3 +/-1 >1,100 HSS, PM- light grey cutting edge radius can be kept up again to end of test at bore
based HSS, 1000. Voss et al. [13] showed also a possibility to pre-sharpen
Multilayer Carbide
the cutting edges of drills by means of a 10 ps pulsed laser,
AlCrN- 40 +/-3 -4 +/-1 >1,100 HSS, PM- light grey thus generating cutting edges, which from the first bore
based HSS, Carbide
onwards yield excellent results. Thus the success of the
Multilayer
cutting tool can be shaped by taking into account the tool
TiCN 37 +/-3 -3 +/-1 400 HSS, PM- blue grey
geometry and not only the geometry in the as fabricated state
Multilayer HSS, Carbide
but in the worn state to extend the life time of the tool and the
Diamond 80-100 – 600 Carbide grey
economy of cutting this DTMM.
Monolayer
Carbon- 50 +/-5 -5 500 HSS, PM- black
based HSS,
Monolayer
Carbide
AlTiN- 35 +/-3 -3 +/-1 1000 HSS, PM- grey
based HSS,
Monolayer
Carbide
AlTiN- 35 +/-3 -4 +/-1 1000 Carbide aubergine
based grey
Nanolayer

3.2. Cutting edge radius

Besides conventional macroscopic cutting tool design

parameters as rake angle, clearance angle, chip breaker
geometry in the last years the cutting edge radius and the
Fig. 7. Initial bore exit quality of diamond coated tools and wear profiles [13].
surface conditioning of cutting tools is revealed by Denkena
et al. [38] to be important. A cutting edge radius adjusted to
the processing tasks and the workpiece material reduces tool 3.3. Drills and endmills for hard materials
wear and thus extends the tool life time considerably. Wyen
[9] proposed for the milling of titanium Ti6Al4V an optimal In the 1980s full carbide tools for milling and drilling just
cutting edge radius of 15µm. As the cutting edge radius appeared in the manufacturing industry, whereas before only
controls the direction of the ploughing force this optimum inserts of carbides were available, while drills were made of
radius is found to orient the ploughing force in the bisection high speed steels. Advances in sintering technology made this
step possible. Ceramics were at that times only used as
 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524 517

inserts. About 2010 first full ceramic milling tools appeared in tools demonstrates Fig. 9. The PCD tools produce needle-like
industry shifting the limits of current cutting technology chips up to 700 µm in length, which is in the length range of
towards DTMM, so far not economically machinable. the primary cutting edges. These chips indicate a material
Material development, ceramics with high fracture toughness, removal mainly in the ductile regime. This chipping mode
were the enabling technology for this step. Since 2015 now allows for high precision machining with superior surface
drills and end mills from PCD are available for use in quality and minimum damage caused by fractures during the
industry. Materials like ceramics, which formerly were only cutting process.
possible to machine by grinding, are now possible to machine
with geometrically defined cutting edges, i.e. milling and
drilling, and thus drastically change the landscape of cutting
technology. Recent developments of ultrashort-pulsed lasers
are here the enabling technology, which make it feasible to
shape cutting wedges with sufficient flexibility in geometry in
ultrahard materials like diamond and CBN. The shortness of
the laser pulses enables material removal without phase Fig. 10. Laser-manufacturing of the PCD drill (left), Laser-manufacturing of a
change for instance from diamond to graphite and achieves diamond dressing tool right.
good preciseness. Warhanek et al. [14] report on the
tangential laser machining and geometry optimization of The ultrashort pulsed laser processing, shown in Fig. 10 is
polycrystalline diamond tools for the end milling of sintered the enabling technology for cutting, making manufacturing
Zirconia (ZrO2, TZP-A). Three different tool geometries and a tools, which are impossible to manufacture otherwise. The
variation in rake and clearance angles are manufactured to concept of tangential processing of ultrahard materials can
investigate the effects on processing forces and tool lifetime also be adopted to prepare dressing tools by laser touch
in practical dry end milling application. The results are dressing, where the cutting edges of the grains are levelled to
applied to the design of an end mill shown in Fig. 8 achieving a smooth horizon. And also grinding wheels with remarkable
a specific material removal rate of 1.2mm³/(mms) and over a profile sharpness and good wearr resistivity are possible to
specific tool life a material removal of 8000 mm³/mm. generate, as the grains at edges are not removed by the
collision with a mechanical profiling tool, but shaped to the
desired geometry as it is shown in Fig. 11

Fig. 8. PCD torus milling tool (diameter 1.8mm) with optimized geometry:
Fig. 11. Grinding wheel profiled tangentially by pulsed laser beam, grain size
both rake and clearance angle = 5°, angle of twist =45°, torus radius =
46 µm.
0.1mm, with 13 helical cutting edges.

The progress of tool manufacturing with ultrashort pulsed

lasers is possible due to the following advantages:
x • The hardness of the tool material has no influence on the
shaping process
x • Slender and tiny tools become possible and reach high
accuracy, because the laser does not exert forces
x • As the tool “laser“ is not subject to wear, the machining
result is more robust and precise.
x • The small focus radius and minimum-inertial effects of
the beam delivery is the basis for the unique flexibility.
x The laser is capable to shape abrasive grains in grinding
wheels without breaking out or grain damage.
Fig. 12 shows the structuring of grinding wheels to enhance
Fig. 9. ZrO2 drilling tests with a laser-processed 1.8 mm PCD tool.
cooling, reduce friction and thus grinding burn. Even flank
faces with positive clearance angles and more positive rake
A similar study is done by Warhanek et al. [15] for PCD angles can be made with laser treatment, which enlarges the
drilling tools. The generated chips of dry drilling test in range of applicability of cutting with geometrically non
Zirconium dioxide (TZP-A) with these laser processed PCD defined cutting edges [39].
518 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524

lead to a massive reduction in cutting fluid flow rate over

conventional setups with segmented hoses [16].

4.4. Minimum Quantity Lubrication

Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) is used when

purchasing and disposal of the cutting fluid are not
economically or ecologically feasible. A small amount of
cutting fluid is mixed with a stream of gas and supplied to the
cutting zone. MQL leads to a significant reduction of the
cutting temperatures over dry machining [17]. Disposal of the
Fig. 12. Microstructures on surfaces of CBN grinding wheels. cutting fluid is not necessary, because it sticks to the
workpiece and chips or evaporates.
4. Coolant, Lubrication
4.5. Cryogenic Cooling
From standpoint of ecologic footprint coolants are
regarded as harmful. Nevertheless as pointed out by Cryogenic cooling usually involves the usage of liquid
Brinksmeier et al. [48] the suitable application of suitable carbon dioxide or nitrogen. One example of its application are
coolants can improve cutting, cutting results and reduce tool nickel-based superalloys. They tend to have higher strengths
wear drastically and is part of the success story of cutting. than the tool material at high temperatures and are very tough.
With conventional cooling, they lead to long chips and high
4.1. Flood Cooling wear [18]. When cryogenically cooled, these materials get
brittle and chip breaking is facilitated. Wear is reduced by
In most conventional cutting processes, flood cooling is slowing down diffusion processes. Cryogenic cooling units
applied with either oil-in-water emulsions or neat oils [16]. with carbon dioxide, often combined with MQL, are available
Whereas in the early days of cutting fluids, one product has on the market. Units with liquid nitrogen are still at an
been used for the whole range of cutting processes, today experimental stage.
there are many specialized products available. The main
functions of a cutting fluid are to lubricate and cool the 5. Machine Tools and Accuracy
process. Additional functions are to prevent the machine tool
and the workpiece from corrosion, flush the chips and cool the The machine tool is the enabler for all cutting processes.
machine tool and the workpiece to reduce distortions. In order The development up to today’s modern machine tools has a
to comply with all the requirements, modern cutting fluids decisive influence on the success of cutting. As stated above,
contain many different additives. strongpoints of cutting are the superior surface quality and the
superior accuracy. Enhanced cutting tools and cutting tool
4.2. Supply Units materials lead to drastically increased cutting speeds, feed
rates and material removal rates. Increased power of the
Cutting fluids are supplied at an ever increasing pressure. spindle as well as the drives are the consequences and need to
Supply units with a pressure of 300 bar and more are be born by the machine structure. For the cutting process as
commercially available. The corresponding tools were for all machining processes the relative motion between tool
developed as well. Higher pressures lead to a better cooling of and workpiece defines the resulting geometry of the machined
the chip in statu nascendi, which leads in turn to a more brittle surface. In the case of cutting, which is a position controlled
behavior and ultimately shorter chips due to the higher process, the structure of the machine provides the dynamic
bending stress. However the shorter contact length with the and static constraints on the displacements between workpiece
tool can lead to increased wear [17]. Modern supply units and the tool.
feature frequency controlled pump drives which allow for an While offering positioning uncertainties in the range of
optimal operating point at different pressures and flow rates. dedicated coordinate measuring machines working under well
controlled environments solely under probing forces and static
4.3. Nozzle Design loads due to workpiece weight, for cutting machines process
forces and significant thermal loads given by the main spindle
A proper nozzle design and adjustment has proven critical are to be coped with. All components in the kinematic /
in reducing the needed cutting fluid flow rate, improving the metrological / mechatronic chain between tool and workpiece
surface quality or reducing the cycle time. In turning, state of can be seen as contributors to machining uncertainty and
the art tool holders feature small nozzles near the cutting edge therefore have to be regarded. The axis measuring systems
to limit wasted cutting fluid. In milling, the contact conditions providing accuracy, resolution and repeatability are the link
are in general varying over a large range and an optimized between the NC control and the mechanics of the machine,
external nozzle is hard to design. Whenever possible, cutting strongly influenced by their mounting location. Based on the
fluid is therefore brought through the spindle to the cutting set-point value generation the drives apply the commanded
edge of the milling tool. In cylindrical grinding it is possible forces on the mechanical structure. The properties of the
to design highly optimized nozzle systems which can often
 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524 519

structural components responsible for the force transmission mechanical base for an XY-movement of the workpiece table.
in single direction of the prescribed motion but also for By doing so, there is only one mechanical interface in the
controlling the five other degrees of freedom reduce the final vertical direction which leads to increased stiffness and
accuracy. Apart from this component level approach being accuracy. Additionally, the position feed-back in X-Y-
mirrored by the investigation of component errors, the direction is realised by using a cross-grid being located on the
deviations such as structural deflections are strongly underside of the workpiece table. The reader head in the
influenced by design specifications, choice of axis granite ground plate which is aligned with the spindle axis
configuration or machine topology on concept level. offers measurement of the actual X- and Y-positions with
A subset of influences, responsible for up to 75% of the minimised Abbe error.
geometric deviations at the workpiece is given by thermal
influences illustrated in Fig. 13 from [20]. All internal but
also external heat sources may contribute to the resulting
errors at the tool centre point (TCP).

Fig. 14. Präzoplan, planar guided milling machine left: design principle, right:
machine prototype built at IWF [25].

For the vertical planar bearing a large number of aerostatic

guideway nozzle modules (Fig. 15) are used incorporating six
triangular channels. For rigidity, these nozzles [26] are
directly integrated in to the workpiece table.

Fig. 13. Chain of causes for thermal TCP-errors [20].

Following a CIRP keynote [22] given by Schwenke, the

measurement and compensation of geometric errors of
machine tools can be summarised no better than stated there Fig. 15. Triangular Cross section of a single channel [26].
in the following way: “To perform compensation of geometric
errors requires an understanding of the sources and the effects A significant aspect is given by the availability of
of geometry errors in machines and calibration procedures”. metrological devices which can cope with the ever increasing
For the compensation of thermal effects the time dependent requirements and varieties of aspects to be assessed. While, in
variation of the deviations depending on the actual thermal the past, the static, geometric behaviour of mainly linear axis
state of the machine requires appropriate models to represent was in the focus, more and more the dynamic deviations of
the displacements at the TCP which cannot be governed based the axes in general, also the deviations of rotary axes gain
on the measurement system values. importance. This is due to increased productivity asking for
The underlying principle of determinism can also be found higher accelerations and increased appearance and use of five
by Bringmann [23] and [24], concluding, that a main factor on axis manufacturing.
the achievable calibration quality is determined by the The R-Test (Fig. 16) [27] is such a measurement system
machine performance itself. Errors that are difficult to be which can be applied for the variety of recent metrological
compensated, such as cyclic deviations with relatively short tasks such as determination of location errors of rotary axes or
wavelength are deteriorating the quality of calibrations. evaluation of systematic cross-talk parameters which can then
Besides these effects such errors have also of course a direct be used for either adjustment of kinematic parameters or
influence on machined parts (“You have to pay for bad axes application of cross-talk compensation in the NC.
twice!”[24])
On component level it can be concluded to estimate
repeatability as limit for any compensation of machine errors,
which marks the main paradigm shift in design for
compensation
Taking into account the variety of influences arising on
component and concept level, alternative solutions seem to
offer significant improvements. As example for an alternative
concept is the planar guided Präzoplan milling machine (Fig.
14) [25]. On concept level, a granite guiding surface is used as
Fig. 16. R-Test measurement setup [27].
520 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524

Compensation of errors needs models that can be fast systems but nevertheless cannot be counteracted due to the
evaluated. For thermal compensation different types of dynamic property. All three can be compensated by model
models are given in [20]. Recently, the use of grey-box based controls, which are capable to predict already from the
models shows an efficient way to represent the thermal NC-program the deviations on TCP due to accelerations and
deviations on machine tools. In contrast to large models based drive forces. Fig. 18 shows as example a control scheme for
on FE-representation of the structure, the PT1-based the coupling force compensation according to Wegener et al.
representation of the deviations using grey-box models offers [21].
the base for implementation in actual NC-implementation
with still has limited numerical power [28]. Fig. 17 shows as
example the accordance of location error values X0C for a C-
axis load cycle for a 5-axis milling machines. The thermal 6. Resource Efficiency
displacements rom an arbitrarily generated test cycle is
compared with simulated values, based on parameters, Today one of the most important requirements and thus
identified in a different test cycle. Since the stability of the drivers for manufacturing process development are costs.
simulation procedure is thus proven, this simplified model can Especially the choice of cutting for part manufacturing is
be utilized for compensation of thermal errors. made because of costs, which shows, that cutting in infinite
cases has proven its cost worthiness, which is part of the
success story. In future Energy and material efficiency of
manufacturing but also of the manufactured parts gain
importance and for the continuation of the success of cutting
need to be taken into account. In many cases they are already
promising fields to reduce the costs both of product
manufacturing and use as well as the environmental burden of
products. ISO 50001 [29] defines energy efficiency as “ratio
of other quantitative relationship between an output or
performance, service, good or energy, and an input of energy”
[30]. Improving energy efficiency means simply stated to
achieve more output with less energy input. Earlier studies on
the topic [31] revealed that the actual cutting energy, i. e. the
energy supplied to spindle and drives in case of a milling
Fig. 17. Application of a grey-box-model: comparison of measured and
machine, represents less than 50% of the energy supplied to a
calculated X0C-values [28]. machine tool. An important share of energy is supplied to
pumps for cooling and lubrication, which is necessary for
Thermal compensation and compensation of kinematic process stability and therefore in the first place a conditio sine
errors are stationary tools to enhance the quality of a machine qua non.
tool. In cutting quality of parts and productivity are negatively
correlated to each other, which is mainly due to limited
dynamic stiffness of the structural parts of the machine tool.
Thus only dynamic compensation seems to be the solution to
overcome this situation. Control systems today decouple the
axes artificially. Taking into account the machine tool
topology the interference between different axes are revealed
and can be classified in cross- and intalk and coupling force
effects.

Fig. 19: Three types of benefit of ecodesign in production, according to [32].

Fig. 18. A control scheme for compensation of axes coupling effects [21]
Another aspect is the consideration of resource efficiency
in a broader sense. This live cycle oriented view also takes
While cross- and intalk have no effect on the control
into account the energy and emissions embodied in the used
system and thus can only be overcome by a model based
material. A model for the intersecting life cycles of machine
approach, coupling force effects can be detected by measuring
tools and products has been developed by [32]. The model
 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524 521

distinguishes between three types of benefits regarding The high embodied energy of materials and the systematic
resource efficiency of machine tools and their products: material loss due to the cutting process oblige to focus on
x 1st type benefit: Efficiency during machine tool production. material efficiency. Raw material is extracted and
x 2nd type benefit: Efficiency during machine tool use. manufactured to blanks. The energy used for this procedure is
x 3rd type benefit: Efficiency during use of products, which referred to as embodied energy. Ashby [40] quantifies the
have been produced on the machine tool. approximate embodied energies of virgin aluminum and steel
Especially the 2nd and 3rd type benefits have proven to have blanks by 210 MJ/kg and 27 MJ/kg. Cutting subtracts material
a high leverage on resource efficiency, as underpinned by the from the blanks in order to produce a desired shape. The
European Commission by issuing the energy-related product difference between product weight and blank weight is the
directive (ErP) [33]. produced amount of waste.
The machine tools are complex mechatronic system, which According to a literature study [39], buy-to-fly ratios
are assembled of a number of components, such as electric between 12:1 to 25:1 can be obtained for aircraft parts.
drives, pumps and fans. The ISO 14955 series (under Assuming a more optimistic buy-to-fly ratio of 10:1 means for
development) deals with the environmental evaluation of a 10 kg piece and the above stated embodied energy values a
machine tools. Two open fields of research emerge from the waste energy of 1890 MJ and 243 MJ for aluminum and steel,
existing part of ISO 14955: respectively.
1. How to quantify the energy efficiency of machine This exemplary calculation shifts the focus towards near
tools taking into account the complexity and net shape and additive instead of subtractive manufacturing
variability in design. processes, providing significantly higher material efficiency.
2. How to take into account the factory environment However, cutting processes cannot be abandoned when
into the energy balance. discussing surface finishing, which is often responsible for the
Schudeleit et al. [34] assessed different methods for 3rd type benefit and which is also in general the time and
evaluation of energy efficiency of machine tools using a energy consuming part of manufacturing. This requires
multi-criteria decision making technique and concluding that consideration of the whole process chain and a comparison of
components benchmarks are the most feasible approach for processes not only with the energy used for change of shape
assessing the energy efficiency of a machine tool. A metric but also energy, which is required per area of surface finish as
referred to as total energy efficiency index (TEEI) has been stated in [42].
developed by [35] satisfying both, the study results and the Weber & Züst [31] show how hard fine milling and
sustainability strategies popularized by [36]. The metric takes subsequent hard fine grinding can lead to a high surface
into account the component conversion efficiency as well as finishing quality in selected cases. For the case of camshafts
its need-based utilization and referring it to the best available this reduces friction and leads to significant energy savings
technology. A case study on a turning machine led to a TEEI during the use phase of the product class of 3rd type benefits.
of about 45%. Due to the high 3rd type benefits, the focus in metal cutting
The machine tool consumes electricity as well as will shift from high removal rates to high finishing quality.
compressed air in order to perform a manufacturing task. This trend is supported by the evolution in cast technology,
Electricity is converted into heat, which needs to be removed metal forming and additive manufacturing processes, reducing
from the machine tool as well as from the factory. The heat the added value of cutting processes to geometrical precision
removal is task of the air conditioning system as well as the and surface quality.
water cooling system, which are both part of the technical
building service (TBS). The associated energy consumption 7. UP- und Micromachining
of the TBS for heat removal is not quantified by current
studies, e.g. [37], [38], [39]. A case study on a grinding Ultra precision machining has a long tradition and started
machine [40] revealed an up to 84% increase in energy before 1920. No other manufacturing process besides cutting
consumption due to taking into account the TBS. is able to span the large range from material removal of litres
per minute down to accuracies in the range of 10 nm. The
maximum possible precision went always along with the state
of the art of machine tool components as bearings, guidings,
spindles, measuring systems and controls. The achievable
machining accuracy from the early 20th century until today is
described by Zhang [43] and summarized in Fig. 21.
According to Brinksmeier [44], Evans [45] and Marsilius [46]
milestones in the evolution of diamond machining which to an
extend laid the basis for ultraprecision manufacturing were
driven by applications as optics and optical surfaces, copying
devices, computer technology and electronics, laser
technology, defence and aerospace. Main steps in the
development were spindles with runout of less than 50 nm,
Fig. 20: Increase of energy consumption taking into account of TBS (CA which were already available in the late sixties, high
compressed air, AC/EA air conditioning/exhaust air, WC water cooling, MT
machine tool) according to [39].
522 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524

resolution measuring scales and feedback loops as well as and the achievements in more than 2 axes, revealing the loss
ultrasharp cutting edges in monocrystalline diamonds. of positioning accuracy with increasing number of axes.
Equally important is the loss of productivity connected
with increasing accuracy. The today possible feed velocities
in UP machining for the fly cutting and planing is given as
follows:
- Fly cutting process: vf = 5 … 500 mm/min
- Planing process: vf = 900 … 25’000 mm/min
The feed velocity is certainly a very important key factor for
productivity. High quality with high productivity can as stated
above achieved with extremely stiff machines and elaborated
compensation processes. But in addition economy of UP
machining can be enhanced only by strongly reproducible
processes and further by the automation of the todays mainly
manually machine operation.
Some important features regarding machine design can be
summarized based on the list provided by Riemer [47]. The
developments make today’s ultra-precision machining
systems more productive, more precise, and lower in price:
x Thermal and mechanical stability as well as good damping
properties through machine bases made from polymer
concrete or natural granite.
x Precise positioning measuring and calibration techniques
x Exploitation of compensation strategies against thermal
and dynamic errors
x Linear axes equipped with hydrostatic oil bearings with oil
gaps of less than 5 µm for improved damping and wear
free smooth motions at highest geometrical accuracy
x Ultra precise roller guidings with large number of
individual rollers.
Fig. 21. Achievable machining accuracy [43] x High-resolution linear scales with resolution of 1 nm and
below replacing laser interferometers for nanometric axis
position and improved geometrical accuracy.
x High feed rates direct contact to the process and excellent
dynamic stiffness obtained by linear motors.
x Environmental control by air-conditioning of machine
housings and customized systems for enhanced vibration
isolation.
x High load capacity and stiff aerostatic spindles
guaranteeing high-speed applications.
x Grinding and polishing of diamond tools with well-defined
geometry and sub-micron cutting edge waviness.
x Advanced drive and feedback devices to improve work
piece accuracy.
x On machine work piece measurement and error
compensation systems to access residual work piece errors.
x Multi-axis machines, fast tool servo and slow slide servo
turning for freeform machining.
x Dedicated software for free form machining and in situ
metrology.
Fig. 22. Development of ultraprecision machines, enabler for ultraprecision x Computer aided clamping of parts
manufacturing [47]. x In situ tool generation of micro tools to reduce runout

For the machining of more complex workpieces multi-axis Success factor and enabler for the UP- as well as micro
machine tools are needed. Riemer [47] describes the advances machining has always been the development of suitable
of UP-machining systems towards higher accuracy and machines and components. But the development of micro
complexity in Fig. 22, which shows the development of tools, especially the possibility to produce micro tools as
positioning accuracy according to Taniguchi in 2 dimensions discussed above has had a strong impact on the progress in
micro machining.
 K. Wegener et al. / Procedia CIRP 46 (2016) 512 – 524 523

8. Conclusion building and is capable to further push the limits of cutting

processes.
Continuous success of cutting is due to its uniqueness in Not only the quality of cutting plays a role, but the
capability to create high accuracy and good surface quality requirements management of cutting processes and thus
and its flexibility. Only additive methods are superior to machine tools contains total cost of ownership and resource
cutting in terms of flexibility, but are incapable to generate efficiency. Energy efficiency and quality of products meet to
good surfaces and as accurate parts as cutting. Drawback of reduce thermal errors. Saving energy requirement mainly
cutting is its slowness in comparison to forming processes. leads to media supply especially coolant supply. Today
This is the backside of the medal of high flexibility. As clear coolant is after an era of disregard again seen as a liquid tool
difference to forming the description of cutting processes is and its value is clearly esteemed. As stated by Brinksmeier et
local, which means that only the vicinity of the cutting edge al. [48] coolants have a huge cantilever in reducing friction
needs to be discussed for enhancing the process, while in and cutting forces already by their chemistry but also by their
forming the description always needs to be global, the whole physical properties. It is today not only grinding, which resists
part needs to be simulated for enhancing the process. For to dry machining, but a trend change towards suitable process
cutting, however, the whole geometry is defined by the path cooling instead of avoidance of cooling also in other cutting
specified by the machine tool control. Cutting succeeds in processes can be observed.
large material removal as for aerospace industry as well as for As cutting technology is developed to a good state of
ultraprecision parts, finishing, specular surface milling and maturity and thus the evolution goes in the direction of
turning. Cutting spans from all manufacturing processes the saturation, progress often requires exploiting small and tricky
largest range of shape change rates, the largest range of advantages. Besides enduring experiments, simulation
accuracy and also the largest range of surface qualities. The technology develops fast, because it promises the only
competition as well as the complementarity between cutting possibility to systematically explore the parameter field of
with geometrical defined cutting edges and non-defined edges cutting and optimize the processes. Today still somehow
keeps cutting an ever vital research field. While cutting awkward in describing the observed phenomena, but the
typically is associated with geometric control of the tool learning curve is tremendous, which nourishes the expectation
movement, also force controlled processes as polishing fine of becoming the optimization tool of the future as it has taken
finishing, honing etc. are cutting processes and capable to place in forming.
limit the surface roughness to Nanometer level. While
grinding has its strengths in the manufacturing of extreme fine
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