Ells

Kappa Delta Pi Group Discussion Resource
Topic: Effective Practices for English Learners
What Does Research Say about Effective Practices for English Learners?
A four-part series of articles written for the Kappa Delta Pi Record
by Rhoda Coleman and Claude Goldenberg
Rhoda Coleman is research fellow at The Center for Language Minority Education and Research at
California State University, Long Beach, where she also teaches in the College of Education. She was a
California State Teacher of the Year and Milken recipient.
Claude Goldenberg is Professor of Education at Stanford University. His research focuses on academic
achievement among English Learners. He was on the Committee for the Prevention of Early Reading
Difficulties in Young Children and the National Literacy Panel.
Article Titles
Introduction and Part I: Oral Language Proficiency
Kappa Delta Pi Record 46(1): 1016
Part II: Academic Language Proficiency

Part III: Promoting Literacy Development

Part IV: Models for Schools and Districts

Resource Summary
English Learners (ELs)students whose second language is English and who are not fully proficient in
Englishconstitute the fastest growing portion of the K12 student population. By 2025, according to
U.S. government estimates, as many as one in four students in the United States will come from a home
where a language other than English is spoken. Because many of these students tend to do poorly in
school, teachers are encouraged to regularly use research-based practices to improve these students
academic achievement. Yet knowing which practices actually are research-basedthat is, they are
supported by research demonstrating impact on student outcomesis not clear to many educators.
This series of articles will help educators identify students levels of oral and academic language
proficiency, offer interactive and direct techniques to promote literacy development, and build and
maintain effective programs for ELLs.
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Suggestions for use (e.g., learning community, professional development time)
Carving out time to explore the topic of ELLs, using these articles as an aid to discussion, can be
beneficial for both administrators and teachersand, of course, for students. You might consider
discussing one article per week during after-school professional development time, or incorporating this
timely topic into the schedule for your schools learning community. Another option is to build a half- or
full-day workshop around this topic during professional development days.
Expectations (objectives)
To know the differences between oral language and academic language development.
To recognize and be able to implement effective, research-based strategies for ELLs.
To explore effective interactive and direct techniques to use with ELLs.
To become familiar with various models for ELL programs and to determine what might be most
effective for ELL students in your school or district.
Study Questions
Introduction and Part I: Oral Language Proficiency

Establishing oral communication and developing levels of oral language proficiency are critical to ELL
students learning and achievement.
1. What is the difference between oral language and academic language?
2. Describe the various levels of oral language development for an English Learner.
3. What are some strategies for promoting oral language development within a group of English
Learners?
4. What are some strategies for differentiating instruction and promoting oral language of English
Learners within a diverse classroom?
5. Think about an English Learner in your classroom and describe for the group that students level
of proficiency. What techniques might be effective for promoting that students oral language
proficiency?

Using strategies and techniques that make academic content more accessible, classroom teachers can
help ELL students keep pace academically.
1. Compare and contrast academic and conversational language.
2. What types of language prerequisites are necessary to enable an English Learner to access the
curriculum?
3. What is sheltered instruction and what might it look like in the classroom?
4. What roles do vocabulary and background knowledge play in studying a content area? How can
a teacher differentiate instruction for English Learners to gain proficiency and become better
prepared for content study?
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5. To better prepare English Learners for content study, what cues and other study aids might you
use in your classroom?

Using interactive and direct techniques, classroom teachers can help English Learners develop their
English reading and writing skills.
1. Describe how the same literacy development techniques can be effective with both English
Learners and English speakers.
2. What are two basic types of strategies for helping English Learners develop English reading and
writing skills?
3. Do students need to develop literacy skills in their first language before they can develop them
in English? Why or why not?
4. Describe how interactive techniques for English Learners might look in your classroom?
5. Think of an English Learner in your classroom and describe how using scaffolding strategies
might be effective for helping that student attain literacy.

With consistent and coherent policies in place, schools and districts can build and maintain effective
programs for English Learners.
1. What are some characteristics of a school that has an effective English Language Development
program?
2. What are some initial steps a school might take toward the goal of improving achievement in
the English Learner population?
3. How can the regular assessment of English Learners achieve results? What types of assessments
might be implemented?
4. Why might some teachers resist implementing specific strategies with English Learners in their
classrooms?
5. How might a school or district promote the implementation of effective strategies with English
Learners?
Next steps
1. Classroom teachers may identify 23 strategies suggested, as appropriate for their ELL students,
to implement during the coming weeks.
2. After several weeks, meet again in your learning community to discuss specific outcomes and
reflect on needed modifications of various approaches.
3. Administrators may meet with peers within the district to compare and evaluate ELL programs,
their effectiveness, and suggested modifications.
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What Does Research Say
about Effective Practices for
ENGLISH LEARNERS?
Introduction and Part I:

Oral Language Proficiency
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Establishing oral communication and developing
levels of oral language proficiency are critical to
ELL students learning and achievement.
English Language Learners (ELLs)students whose sec- discussed and a lot of expectations, and its been that
ond language is English and who are not fully proficient way for 20 years. We need a plan! They tell us to do it,
in Englishconstitute the fastest growing portion of the but they dont tell us how. They dont know how, and
K12 student population (Goldenberg 2008). By 2025, they have nothing to give us. We need to find out what
according to U.S. government estimates, as many as works and have some consistencya well-trained
one in four students in the United States will come from teacher, a good program, and consistency.
a home where a language other than English is spoken
(Spellings 2005). Because many of these students tend Some educators are not well-informed about the state
to do poorly in school, teachers are encouraged to of current knowledge about educating ELLs. They may
regularly use research-based practices to improve these assume that determining effective practices is a matter of
students academic achievement. Yet knowing which picking a philosophy, choosing among competing theo-
practices actually are research-basedthat is, they are ries, or perhaps simply guessing. Consider one teachers
supported by research demonstrating impact on student comments (Coleman 2006, 124):
outcomesis not clear to many educators. We believed in the philosophy of teaching English
In this series of four articles, the authors will demys- through content. Our schools program had a good
tify what is and is not research-based as determined reputation. I had heard a lot of schools were using it.
by two recent reportsDeveloping Literacy in Second- You hear about the program all the timenot about
Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel data or research, but about using it. Im sure the
on Language Minority Children and Youth (August and research was included. But its reputation, not outcome
Shanahan 2006); and Educating English Language Learn- data, influenced us. We agreed with the philosophy be-
ers (Genesee et al. 2006)and select publications that cause it fits in with the SDAIE strategies and BICS and
have appeared since. CALP. In my masters class, we thoroughly reviewed
ELD programs, and it came out on top. Everyone
Uncertainty about Best Practices agreed.
To gain a sense of how school districts make instructional
decisions for English Language Learners in an era of high- Overwhelmed with mandates, others interviewed are
stakes testing and district-wide reform, the first author doing the best they can with the information and time
collected observational and interview data (Coleman
2006). Three large urban districtseach of which had se- Rhoda Coleman is research fellow at The Center for Lan-
lected very different English Language Development (ELD) guage Minority Education and Research at California State
programs and approaches participated in her study. University, Long Beach, where she also teaches in the College
When interviewed about how they decided which ap- of Education. She was a California State Teacher of the Year
proach or materials to use when teaching ELLs, teachers and Milken recipient.
and administrators in the three districts expressed consis- Claude Goldenberg is Professor of Education at Stanford
tent frustrations. Although many were told they should University. His research focuses on academic achievement
use research-based practices, they often were not given among English learners. He was on the Committee for the
adequate guidance for how to do so. One administrator Prevention of Early Reading Difficulties in Young Children and
shared (Coleman 2006, 119): the National Literacy Panel.
There are only theories about what works. Until the
research gives us some definitive answers, were just Portions of this article are based on the authors forthcom-
guessing. I went to the accountability institute from ing book Promoting Academic Achievement among English
the Department of Education and they dont have the Learners, to be published by Corwin Press in 2010, and are
plan. Theres no plan, no prototype, a lot of problems used with permission.
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Part I:
they have. One ELD teacher shared (Coleman 2006, 127):
Theres so much to teach, so many student needs.
My colleague is here practically every day until its
Oral Language
dark, and I applaud her. She puts in long, long hours.
I have a family I have to go home and cook for. So I
have to choose whats the best, whats the quickest,
Proficiency
whats going to make the best impact, and I have tons
of things to choose from. Ive got GLAD and SDAIE.
Ive been through all the ELD workshops; and so I take
what I learned and I apply it. My plates pretty full
right now.
Undoubtedly this is a confusing, difficult, and ideo-

logically charged area. But current and ongoing research ELD instruction must be a priority from the moment
is suggesting some answers that go beyond philosophy, students walk into school. Whether students are in pri-
theory, and guessing. Educators must know about this mary language or English-only programs, ELD instruction
research and its implications for what they should do in needs to be emphasized. Establishing oral communica-
their classrooms. At the same time, they also must know tion and developing levels of oral language proficiency
about areas where research does not yet provide clear is critical to ELL students learning and achievement. So
answers and where educators must make informed best that focus is generally a starting place for working with
guesses until a firmer basis exists to guide practice and ELL students.
policy. What practices are most effective for establishing
and developing oral language proficiency? Though there
is a large reservoir of worldwide literature on second
About the ELL Series language instruction, the research base to guide teach-
This four-part series of articles written exclusively for ers of ELLs in U.S. schoolswhich represent a particular
the Kappa Delta Pi Record summarizes what research context for second language instructionis surprisingly
says about effective practices for ELLsand what it small. The authors summarize here key conclusions
does not say. The authors focus on several recent about ELLs oral language proficiency from research and
reviews of the research (August and Shanahan 2006; research reviews, and then provide a classroom scenario
Genesee et al. 2006; Goldenberg 2008; Saunders and that illustrates effective strategies in practice.
Goldenberg, in press), providing the key findings and
explaining how those conclusions might inform class- English oral language is best taught
room practice. Readers are encouraged to seek out through explicit, direct instruction
these references to deepen and broaden their under- and interactive approaches.
standing of this challenging, but increasingly important Genesee et al. (2006, 13940) reported, The best
area of research. recommendation to emerge from our review favors
This first article in the series covers some of the instruction that combines interactive and direct ap-
research on oral language proficiency, and the second proaches. . . . Presenting direct instruction in interactive
article (to appear in Record Winter 2010) addresses the learning environments ensures that it is meaningful, con-
differences and similarities of academic and conversa- textualized, and individualized. The choice of methods
tional language. The third article (Record Spring 2010) will depend in large part on the objectives of instruction
deals with literacy, both in English and in students first and learner characteristics.
language. Article four (Record Summer 2010) takes this Educators should explicitly teach ELLs the elements
research into practice by describing an observation tool of English (e.g., vocabulary, syntax, conventions) and
(CQell) that is useful for planning and coaching teach- social conventions (e.g., greetings, conversational con-
ers in preparation for implementing effective strategies ventions). To the extent that explicit teaching helps ELLs
in their classrooms. The final article also offers practical acquire English, effective teaching for these students
implementation recommendations for administrators is similar in many ways to effective teaching for most
and teacher leaders so that the research can more read- students. As do all learners, ELLs benefit from clear goals
ily translate into practice. and objectives, well-structured tasks, adequate practice,
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Part I: Oral Language Proficiency
opportunities to interact with others, frequent assess- of them speak fluently and with confidence. They are
ment, and reteaching when needed, as well as other no longer language learners, because they are no
elements of effective instruction identified in the profes- longer working out the details of English.
sional and research literature.
These students fossilize and arrest their develop-
Interactive approaches provide ment at an intermediate level of proficiency and be-
opportunities for authentic come fluent speakers of non-standard English. Scarcella
communication. (2003) also warned that imperfect practice doesnt
Despite issues and controversies in the field of lead to advanced proficiency unless supplemented with
second language acquisition, there is consensus that a intensive, specialized instructional intervention and
combination of explicit teaching and plentiful oppor- carefully delivered instruction.
tunities for meaningful and authentic communication
helps promote learning a second language (Ellis 2005; Daily oral English language
Spada and Lightbown 2008). Researchers can say with instruction that targets language
some assurance that both types of experiences are nec- acquisition is recommended, about 45
essary, and each can contribute to learning a second minutes per day.
language. However, research is lacking to make firm, data-
ELLs also must have ample opportunities for based guidelines on the number of minutes. In addi-
authentic and functional use of English. Learning the tion, a separate ELD block that targets language ac-
elements of a language is very useful; but without quisition appears to be somewhat more effective than
extensive use (comprehending and producing the relying exclusively on integrating ELD with other
language), it is very difficultperhaps impossibleto parts of the curriculum. Integrating ELD may be useful
acquire high levels of proficiency. Interactions with in preparing students for comprehension of the content
teachers and fellow students may be open-ended or of their core lessons and may be helpful for second
may encourage more complex linguistic attributes, language learning per se. Nonetheless, the evidence
preferably both. currently available suggests that a separate ELD period,
Structuring tasks and preparing students for inter- or block, makes a distinct contribution to English Lan-
actions with English speakers enables them to focus on guage Development.
productive verbal exchanges. It is helpful to teach and
model strategies for successful interactions between Students need to learn expressive as
ELLs and English speakers. Educators want to ensure well as receptive language.
that ELLs have the language skills to interact produc- Using sheltered strategies (see Echevarria, Vogt, and
tively with English speakers on academic tasks. This Short 2008) makes academic content comprehensible;
means that cooperative group work should provide op- that is, students develop receptive language in order to
portunities for structured practice, not just spontaneous comprehend or, at least, get the gist of a lesson. As a
conversation. result of such lessons, they do not necessarily develop ex-
Though authentic opportunities to use the lan- pressive language so that they can speak and write in the
guage are a valuable outcome of cooperative learning, language. Therefore, students need to be taught expres-
educators also must provide structured opportunities. sive language so that they can answer questions, partici-
Without structured opportunities to practice Standard pate in discussions, and be successful at showing what
English, students often develop what has been referred they know on assessments (Lightbown and Spada 2006).
to as Learnerese an interlanguage pidgin (Schmida
1996) that can deviate considerably from Standard Grouping by proficiency level for ELD
English. Fillmore and Snow (2000, 24) suggested, instruction may be helpful.
when there is no direct instruction in such situations, Second language learners are likely to go through
children either can make little progress learning Eng- successive levels of language proficiency as they progress
lish, or they can learn it from one another. The out- from being nonspeakers to acquiring native-like profi-
come is Learnerese, about which Fillmore and Snow ciency. Though no particular set of stages is universally
(2000, 24) cautioned: agreed upon, thinking of second language development
Students who speak this variety have settled into a as proceeding along a fairly predictable sequence of levels
variety of English that is fairly stable and that many may be helpful. Table 1 illustrates one such sequence.
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Table 1. Levels of Oral Language Proficiency There is no research that directly examines the
As a simplification of a complex phenomenon, proficiency effects of grouping by English proficiency level. Re-
levels can be briefly and generally described as follows (Krashen search in reading and math, however, has suggested
and Terrell 1983; California Department of Education 2008). that within-class instructional grouping by achievement
levels helps promote student achievement (Slavin,
Beginning (Level 1). At first there might be no verbal 1987; 1989). ELLs within general classrooms should be
response (sometimes referred to as preproduction or silent grouped carefully and not segregated by language pro-
period); but later, students respond in single-word and two- ficiency levels. However, during ELD instruction specifi-
word phrases. Students can repeat words and short phrases, and cally, grouping should be by language proficiency with
answer simple who, what, where, when, and yes/no ques- instruction carefully tailored to students language-
tions requiring one- or two-word responses. They can understand learning needs.
and follow a few simple commands and, after listening to a story Educators can differentiate instruction in several
prompt, participate in telling a story using isolated words. waysor even combinations of ways. Some examples
include:
Early Intermediate (Level 2). Students hear and repeat Many schools have teachers within each grade level
the beginning, middle, and end speech sounds. They use routine who exchange students during an ELD block. Stu-
expressions and common vocabulary, and can respond using dents are typically grouped so that levels 1 and 2
phrases and simple sentences. They can ask and answer simple go to one teacher, level 3 goes to another teacher,
questions, describe a picture prompt using common vocabulary, levels 4 and 5 to another, and English Only (EO) to
understand and follow simple commands, and tell a story using another.
incomplete sentences and fragments after listening to a prompt. Whether or not this occurs, teachers may do a
whole group lesson and then break into small
Intermediate (Level 3). Students respond in longer groups to reteach and address the needs of specific
sentences and with more detail. There is more experimentation proficiency levels.
with sentence patterns. They know a variety of verb forms and, Some teachers do small-group instruction based on
after listening to a story prompt, tell a story with some complete proficiency level firstto frontload the language
sentences. These students can follow simple instructions in an needed for the upcoming lessonand then teach
academic context and participate (although haltingly) in simple the whole group.
academic discussions when the vocabulary is controlled and
supports are provided (e.g., illustrations, demonstrations, ges- Other teachers differentiate within a heterogenous
tures, and other redundant information to aid comprehension). larger group by providing comprehensible input, us-
ing graphic organizers and sentence frames, as well as
Early Advanced (Level 4). Students respond with detail adjusting the phrasing of the questions to each indi-
and a more extensive vocabulary within more complex sen- vidual students proficiency level. This also may mean
tences. They can sustain a conversation. Early-advanced students phrasing a sentence so that the beginning proficiency
understand implied meaning and use standard grammar with student needs to respond with only one word while
fewer errors than before. After listening to a story prompt, they the advanced student is encouraged to respond with
can tell a story in a logical sequence using details and basic a complex sentence structure such as I predict that
sentence construction. These students can follow more difficult _____ because _____. Although educators presently
directions in an academic context and participate more fully in lack strong evidence that these sentence frames
academic discussions, even when provided with fewer supports. promote language learning, the strategies have po-
tential for helping ELLs develop facility with important
Advanced (Level 5). Students initiate and negotiate language structures.
appropriate discourse using varied grammatical structures A word of caution about grouping: Not all differen-
and vocabulary. They comprehend multiple meanings and tiation designed for native-speaking students is helpful
figurative and idiomatic language. Advanced students can for specific ELL needs. Some teachers group ELLs with
follow complex instructions in an academic context and native-speaking struggling readers because each group
tell a story using fluent sentences and details after listening may score within the same range on literacy assessments.
to a story prompt. Their proficiency is near native-like and However, their needs can be very different. The low scor-
they face few, if any, linguistic obstacles to full academic ing native speaker may have decoding and comprehen-
participation. sion processing issues, whereas the beginning ELL student
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may have been a fluent decoder who is able to compre- priority for teachers of English learners. This conclu-
hend in the primary language. The ELLs issue more likely sion is not to suggest that students primary language
is related to vocabulary knowledge, whereas the native (e.g., Spanish) should be ignored. On the contrary,
speaker may not have this underlying problem. educators know from research that primary language
instruction meaningfully contributes to ELLs achieve-
Academic languagenot just ment in English (Goldenberg 2008). Nonetheless, it is
conversational languageshould be imperative that teachers help these students acquire
emphasized. English language proficiency quickly and at a high
As will be discussed in the next article in this series, level to increase the chances of their academic success
academic language is critical for academic success (see, throughout school.
e.g., Scarcella 2003; Bailey 2007; Short and Fitzsim- There are still many unknowns and unresolved
mons 2007). ELD instruction should help provide the issues about how to accomplish this goal. But the out-
language needed for learning content in math, lan- line of a productive overall framework is beginning to
guage arts, social studies, science, and all other curricu- emerge. The authors close this article with an example
lar areas. Ideally, ELD and content area instruction are of how a lesson might look in classroom practice.
well articulated to let students apply the language they
learn to academic tasks.
Just what is academic language? Academic lan- Glossary of Terms
guage refers to the vocabulary, syntax, and other Academic Language: The language associated with
language forms necessary to participate in classroom schools; the language of texts and formal writing. It
lessons and various other types of academic interac- consists primarily of the language functions needed
tions. Compared to conversational language, academic for academic content and requires use of higher-order
language tends to be more abstract and cognitively thinking skills.
demanding, and makes more assumptions about what BICS: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills.
speakers and listeners already know. Instruction in aca- These are the communication skills used in everyday
demic English for ELLs must include language lessons social interactions (Cummins 1984).
designed to ensure that students will understand the CALP: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency.
content taught in English. This awareness and under- This is a proficiency of oral and written language re-
standing of the language used in learning a certain lated to literacy and academic achievement (Cummins
subject differs from everyday speech and conversa- 1984).
tion. Both academic and conversational English are ELD: English Language Development, sometimes re-
essential to language proficiency, which is the ability to ferred to as English as a Second Language (ESL). This is
use language for both basic communicative tasks and a specific curriculum that takes place within a dedicated
academic purposes. time block where ELD is the content area. The purpose
Language used for communication skills in every- of ELD is to establish a solid foundation in the English
day social interactions is known as Basic Interpersonal language. Students often are grouped by proficiency
Communication Skills (BICS). Cognitive Academic levels.
Language Proficiency (CALP) is the oral and written ELL: English Language Learner, often used inter-
language related to literacy and academic achievement changeably with EL. This term describes a student
(Cummins 1984). For academic achievement, students whose second language is English and who is not yet
need to be fluent in academic language, idioms as- fully proficient in English.
sociated with schools, and the vernacular of texts and GLAD: Guided Language Acquisition Design. This
formal writing (Fillmore and Snow 2000). In the next design has an integrated language arts approach using
article, the authors take a closer look at the similarities a variety of reading, writing, listening, and speaking
and differences between academic and conversational strategies that integrate well with content instruction.
English, and how students level in each shapes their Sheltered Instruction/SDAIE: Specially Designed
learning and social skills. Academic Instruction in English. The terms are often
used interchangeably. Strategies and techniques, such
Closing Thoughts as visuals, gestures, and graphic organizers are used to
There can be little doubt that developing high lev- make grade-level content comprehensible. Content is
els of English oral language proficiency should be a determined by grade-level content standards.
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Elementary ELD Instruction On the board, Ms. B creates a word web of differ-
Ms. B has all five levels of proficiency in her regular ent kinds of pets. Ms. B chooses two frequently men-
class. But every day at a set time, the 2nd-grade teach- tioned pets from the list and draws a Venn diagram
ers trade students so that the students are grouped by so that students can generate vocabulary describing
proficiency level for 45 minutes of ELD instruction. This the similarities and differences of the two pets. Ms. B
trade occurs schoolwide, with each grade level deter- records the students responses on the Venn diagram.
mining the allotted time for ELD groupings. There are Now Mrs. B wants them to start using these terms in
20 students in Ms. Bs ELD class, all early intermediate sentences so they can talk about the pets. To encour-
and intermediate levels. Sometimes she teaches a large age students to respond in complete sentences, she
group lesson; other times she teaches in small groups. writes on the board:
Today she is frontloading the vocabulary with the A ______has _______, but a ______has ________.
early intermediate students before beginning the whole Both ________and ______have ___________.
group lesson.
Ms. B tells her early-intermediate group of seven She models, A dog has fur, but a goldfish has
students that today they will talk about pets and how scales. Both a dog and a goldfish have tails. Ms. B
they are the same and different. Her lesson objective gives several examples. She then says, Turn to your
is that students will use compare/contrast words such partner, choose some other descriptive words from
as both and but to talk about various pets. These the chart, and tell your partner something else that is
same sentence structures will be applied later to their alike and something that is different about a dog and
discussion of the history social-science standard of a goldfish. They are encouraged to use versions of the
comparing and contrasting now and long ago. During patterns on the board, but may use other verbs such
the small group lesson, the intermediate-level students as is and are. Students do this several times and
work independently on a related assignmentwriting report out to the group. Using the frames, they prac-
a story and drawing a picture with labels about a pet tice writing the sentences on paper. This small group is
they have or would like to have. now ready to join the larger group for the whole group
She begins the small group lesson by showing vari- lesson on comparing and contrasting various kinds of
ous colorful pictures of different pets and asking the pets. They got a head start by having the language
students to find their shoulder partner and answer the frontloaded for them.
question, What pet would you like to have? Ms. B When all the 2nd-grade teachers get together to
lets them talk for a few minutes while she walks around plan for the social studies unit Now and Long Ago,
actively listening to what they are saying. Then she asks they all will incorporate into their content lesson the
them to report out, What are some pets you would Venn diagram and compare/contrast frames the students
like to have? learned during ELD.
References
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C. E. Snow, and D. Christian, 753. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Spellings, M. 2005. Prepared remarks for Secretary Spellings at the Fourth
Linguistics. Annual Celebrate Our Rising Stars Summit hosted by U.S. Department of
Genesee, F., K. Lindholm-Leary, W. M. Saunders, and D. Christian. 2006. Educations Office of English Language Acquisition, Dec. 1, Washington,
Educating English Language Learners. New York: Cambridge University Press. DC.
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Part II:
Academic Language Proficiency
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Using strategies and techniques that make academic
content more accessible, classroom teachers can
help ELL students keep pace academically.
This is the second in a four-part series written In contrast, Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
exclusively for the Kappa Delta Pi Record. Each article (CALP) is the oral and written language related to literacy
summarizes what research says about effective practices and academic achievement (Cummins 1984).
for ELLs. The authors draw on several recent reviews of The terms BICS and CALP have somewhat fallen out
the research (August and Shanahan 2006; Genesee et of favor, in part because they imply a hard dichotomy that
al. 2006; Goldenberg 2008; Saunders and Goldenberg, might be misleading. There is likely to be a great deal of
in press). The first article in the series (which appeared grey area, where language has both conversational and
in the Fall 2009 Record) covered research on English oral academic elements. Nonetheless, BICS and CALP identify
language instruction. This, the second article, deals with a useful distinction between (a) language that is relatively
academic language and literacy in English. Article three informal, contextualized, cognitively less demanding,
(Record Spring 2010) takes this research into practice used in most social interactions, and generally learned
by describing an observation tool (the CQell) that is more easily; and (b) language that is more formal, ab-
useful for planning and coaching teachers who want to stract, used in academic and explicit teaching/learning
implement effective strategies in their classrooms. The situations, more demanding cognitively, and more chal-
final article (Record Summer 2010) is about school and lenging to learn.
district reform and offers practical recommendations for Fluency in academic language is especially critical for
administrators and teacher leaders so that the research academic achievement. Knowledge of academic disci-
can more readily translate into practice. plinesscience, social studies, history, mathematicsis,
of course, the primary objective of content-area instruc-
tion. Just as important is the language needed to learn
Academic language is a vital part of content-area instruc- about and discuss academic content. Most ELLs eventually
tion and is one of the most pressing needs faced by Eng- acquire adequate conversational language skills, but they
lish Language Learners (ELLs). The fundamental challenge often lack the academic language skills that are essential
ELLs in all-English instruction face is learning academic for high levels of achievement in the content areas.
content while simultaneously becoming proficient in Educators must focus on the academic language
English. Because of this challenge, we, as educators, do needed for academic achievement. Yet, we are lacking a
not know to what extent ELLs can keep pace academically solid research base that identifies effective techniques and
with English speakers; nonetheless, our goal should be to approaches. There are, however, promising directions
make academic content as accessible as possible for these
students and promote English language development as Rhoda Coleman is Research Fellow at The Center for Lan-
students learn academic content. guage Minority Education and Research at California State
Academic language differs from everyday language University, Long Beach, where she also teaches in the College
and knowing the differences is important for effective of Education. She was a California State Teacher of the Year
academic instruction. Academic language refers to the sort and Milken recipient.
of language competence required for students to gain Claude Goldenberg is Professor of Education at Stanford
access to content taught in English and, more generally, University. His research focuses on academic achievement
for success in school and any career where mastering among English learners. He was on the Committee for the
large and complex bodies of information and concepts is Prevention of Early Reading Difficulties in Young Children and
needed (Fillmore and Snow 2000). Academic language, the National Literacy Panel.
the language of texts and formal writing, is different
from everyday speech and conversation, what Cummins Portions of this article are based on the authors forthcom-
(1984) has referred to as Basic Interpersonal Commu- ing book Promoting Academic Achievement among English
nication Skills (BICS). BICS, in general, is language used Learners, to be published by Corwin Press in 2010, and are
for communication skills in everyday social interactions. used with permission.
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e.g., Dutro and Moran (2003), Schleppegrell (2001); There is not a clear line separating conversational from
Lyster (2007), and Zwiers (2008). Educators are strongly academic language. Table 1 describes the differences
encouraged to learn about them, implement them in between conversational and academic language and also
their classrooms, and try to determine which best meet shows the grey area where the two overlap. Categories
the needs of English learners. used in the table are based on Goldenberg and Coleman
(in press).
For both oral and academic language, Academic language instruction should include not
students need to be taught expressive as well only the vocabulary of the content subjects, but also
as receptive language. the syntax and text structures. Schleppegrell (2001)
Using sheltered instruction strategies makes grade-level distinguished between academic language and everyday
academic content comprehensible; that is, students devel- speech and explained how academic language is about
op receptive language in order to comprehend or, at least, so much more than learning content-specific, or techni-
get the gist of a lesson. From this type of instruction, cal, vocabulary. Students may know the meanings of
students do not necessarily develop expressive language so individual content-specific words, yet still not be able to
that they can speak and write in the language. Students understand the larger meaning when reading them in a
need to be taught expressive languagecomprehensible sentence or be able to combine them to write a sentence.
output (Swain 1985)so that they can answer ques- Academic language and curriculum content are
tions, participate in discussions, and be successful at closely intertwined. It is not sufficient for a student to
showing what they know on assessments. comprehend only text and teacher-talk wellthat is, to
Because content instruction may be an excellent op- have receptive understanding. The student also must
portunity to teach language skills in a meaningful context, be able to express his or her complete thoughts orally
teachers may integrate both types of instruction through- and in writing using academic language. For example,
out the day. There is no reason to believe these types of students need to understand how to construct a sen-
instruction are mutually exclusive. This support for ELLs tence or paragraph (orally and in writing) that expresses
in the general classroom may be offered in addition to a compare/contrast or cause and effect (Dutro and Moran
separate English Language Development (ELD) block. 2003).
Academic and conversational English Language development and sheltering

are different . . . and similar! techniques should be incorporated into
It is important to note that there is a connection between content instruction.
conversational and academic language; they are not com- Sheltered instruction strategies, or SDAIE (Specially De-
pletely distinct from each other. Using students everyday signed Academic Instruction in English), provide com-
experiences can help students learn academic language. prehensible input for any content area. The term com-
That is, if students are familiar with a task in a social prehensible input refers to strategies that enable ELLs to
context, they may be able to adopt appropriate language understand the essence of a lesson by means of context
from that task and transfer it to school-based tasks. or visual cues, clarification, and building background
For example, a student might know how to retell knowledge that draws on students experiences (Krashen
what happened on a favorite television show or present and Terrell 1983).
an argument for why he should be able to go out and What is often overlooked is that sheltered instruction
play basketball at the park. Accordingly, that student may calls for all lessons to have clearly stated language objec-
be able to transfer the language he or she uses to express tives in addition to providing comprehensible input. Short
cause and effect regarding behavior and consequences to (1994) discussed the importance of explicit language
a science experiment, an if-then hypothesis structure, or instruction along with content-area instruction. She
a historical sequence of causally linked events. If a student advocated developing language objectives in addition to
can compare and contrast dogs and cats, this same struc- content-area objectives for ELLs to provide them access to
ture applies to comparing and contrasting two systems the core curriculum. The SIOP model for making content
of government. To help students make these language comprehensible to English Learners also emphasizes the
connections, teachers should bring this skill to a conscious need for a language objective along with a content objec-
level. Though students may be able to make comparisons tive (Echevarria, Vogt, and Short 2008) and suggests the
in their everyday life, they may need to learn how these language goals be adjusted for the students proficiency-
structures are transferable to school-based situations. levels (Genesee et al. 2006, 191).
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Table 1. The Continuum of Conversational to Academic Language
Conversational language tends to . . . Hybrid area Academic language tends to . . .
. . . be embedded in meaningful contexts, While discussing unfamiliar content, . . . be relatively decontextualized, relying
Shared background
drawing upon shared background knowledge, adequate background knowledge is largely on information contained in the lan-
knowledge
or existent in the moment of the conversation. purposefully provided by a speaker. Both guage of the oral or written text. The reader or
When people converse, they often talk about presentation and text may make ample listener has to provide his or her own relevant
a specific topic about which they both have at use of visuals, such as charts, posters, background knowledge or context necessary
least some direct knowledge, experience, and and photos, to make the academic content for understanding.
relevant information. more highly contextualized for the reader/
listener.
. . . be fundamentally interpersonal. Face- Speakers often use interpersonal cues . . . be fundamentally impersonal. Emphasis,
Paralinguistic
to-face exchanges allow for contextual and such as gestures, speaking rate, pauses, mood, and tone must be communicated pri-
interpersonal cues such as gestures, facial and intonation to make the message more marily through words and content. Face-to-face
cues
expressions, and intonation. comprehensible. exchange is very limited or nonexistent.
. . . use more familiar everyday words. Precise Speakers and texts use unfamiliar words . . . use specific and less familiar vocabulary
Vocabulary
meanings generally are not as important as and expressions that make relatively simple that can be technical, abstract, and carry pre-
maintaining conversational flow and adequate concepts more difficult to understand. cise meanings the listener/reader is expected
mutual understanding. to understand.
. . . frequently use grammatical shortcuts, such Speakers and writers can make their . . . frequently use specific grammatical,
Grammatical
as and or pronouns, whose meanings are content-rich message more accessible by organizational, and presentation elements.
shortcuts
apparent to the participants in the context of using a conversational tone, which can Writing and speech is more formalized and
the conversation. Talk can include nonstandard, include figures of speech, familiar expres- structured. To establish authority, tone is set by
colloquial speech. sions, and less density of ideas. an impersonal, declarative style. Language is
denser with more ideas presented.
. . . place fewer explicit cognitive demands Everyday conversational events can be . . . be used for more complex cognitive
cognitive functions
on the reader or listener. Events and persons cognitively complex and challenging, such functions, such as summarizing, analyzing,
Language to
are known, familiar, and concrete. Inferences, as a child logically retelling a television and explaining; relating what is read to other
express
analyses, and presenting reasoned arguments episode and showing a causal sequence, ideas; evaluating and critiquing arguments;
are typically less prominent. or presenting an argument for why he composing reasoned, well-developed texts; and
should be able to stay out late without interpreting and solving word problems.
parents direct supervision.
Husband and wife exchange information about An individual trying to follow a conversa- A student reads a book or listens to a lecture
what they did at work that day; each is gener- tion about unfamiliar persons and com- on recent advances in genetics.
ally familiar with what the other one does and plicated events is provided background
with his or her work colleagues. information or shown pictures. A teacher shares an encyclopedia article on the
Electoral College.
In an animated conversation, friends discuss a A student converses with someone who
date the night before. speaks with little expression, uses little A professor of contemporary literature presents
eye contact, and does not respond to oth- a postmodern, post-structuralist analysis of The
Two experienced divers, planning a scuba- ers behaviors or responses. Sound and the Fury.
diving trip, decide locations and gear they will
need. A speaker uses expressions such as if A sociologist is interviewed on a news
Examples
you juxtapose the two instead of if you program and asked to explain the impact of
Softball players argue over whether a player put them side by side, or asks, What are the economic downturn on community-based
was out when she ran to first base. the parameters here? instead of What do organizations.
we need to consider?
Family members order from a menu at a A student must explain his reasoning, in
restaurant. A person describes a television program writing, when solving a mathematical word
to her friend and explains why she found it problem.
Friends watch a movie and make occasional so moving and insightful.
comments, observations, and jokes to one Co-workers at a public relations firm must
another. present and argue for their proposed campaign
to rehabilitate the tarnished image of a client.
Children take turns during show and tell, shar-
ing with the class a favorite toy from home.
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For example, students studying how the saguaro
cactus survives in the desert in science (content objective)
have a language objective of writing cause-and-effect sen-
Elementary
tences using signal words because and as a result of. Academic Instruction
For example, Because its accordian skin holds water, the Mrs. C is teaching a 5th grade social studies
saguaro cactus can survive in the desert. and As a result lesson on immigration. ELD levels range from early
of its shallow roots, which capture surface water, the intermediate to fluent English. The language objec-
saguaro cactus can survive in the desert. A social stud- tive is for students to write cause-and-effect sentences
ies teacher having students interview a grandparent or about the immigrant experiencee.g., Because
other elder to learn about the past can instruct students we wanted a better life, my family immigrated to
on how to correctly phrase interview questions (language the United States or My family immigrated to the
objective). An English teacher having students write about United States because we wanted a better life. This
setting (content objective) can use this as an opportunity lesson is designed to motivate interest in and build
to teach a lesson on adjectives (language objective). How- background for a chapter on immigration in the his-
ever, the language objectives, like the content objectives, tory textbook that students will read later.
should not be chosen randomly. They should be selected Before students read the state-adopted history
based on the proficiency level and grade level standards textbook, Mrs. C looks for key passages. She analyzes
appropriate to the students. them for any words, phrases, or concepts that may
Educators must take care that ELD does not displace need clarification and any concepts for which she
instruction in academic content. Content-based ELD, may need to build background knowledge. She also
which is driven by the ELD standards, does not replace looks for supportive visuals in the textbook, such as
content instruction driven by the content standards. In charts, graphs, maps, and photos.
other words, just because an ELD lesson is about a sci- Mrs. C begins the lesson by sharing pictures of
ence topic does not mean it meets the requirements for her family members who were immigrants. Next
standards-based science instruction in that grade level. A she puts on a babushka (Russian for scarf) and a
sheltered lesson makes standards-based content instruc- long skirt and becomes her own immigrant grand-
tion accessible. A content-based ELD lesson has language mother. Speaking in the first person, she tells the
as a focus, but uses a content area as the medium. This story of when, how, and why she came to America.
type of lesson is not the same as standards-based content She points to Russia on a map. As she tells her story,
instruction. grandmother holds up vocabulary cards with the
words immigrant, motivation, perspective, ancestor,
Closing Thoughts and descendant, and she uses each word in context.
Most ELLs take years to develop the level of academic For example, I am an immigrant from Russia. I used
English proficiency required for full participation in all- to live in Russia, but I came to live in America. My
English classrooms (Genesee et al. 2006). It does not take motivation or reason for coming to America was . . . .
much imagination to conclude that if (a) students are Students are then invited to interview herthat
functioning at less than high levels of English proficiency; is, ask her questionsin preparation for their assign-
and (b) instruction is offered only in mainstream academic ment to interview an immigrant. The person can be a
English, these students will not have access to the core family member or, if that is not practical, a neighbor
academic curriculum. They will have virtually no chance or teacher. The students and Mrs. C. discuss pos-
of performing at a level similar to that of their English- sible interview questions, using the target vocabulary
speaking peers. Whether students are in primary language words, and decide: From what country did you
(that is, bilingual) or English-only programs, educators immigrate to the United States? When did you arrive?
must focus intensively on providing them with the aca- What are some things you remember about that
demic language skills in English they will need to succeed experience? What was your motivation for coming/
in school and beyond. leaving? What was your perspective, or how did you
To move this discussion from research to practice, feel about immigrating? When the students return
lets take a look at a scenario that incorporates some of with their interview responses, Mrs. C records them on a
these recommendations. This is an actual lesson taught by graphic organizer with these headings: Person, Country,
a 5th-grade teacher. Motivation for Immigrating, and Perspective.
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Mrs. C models how to turn the answers into cause- she can attend a synagogue.
and-effect statements, using sentence frames: Because of the potato famine, my ancestors immi-
__________because ___________. grated to the United States from Ireland. They were
Because__________, ___________. sad because they had to leave some family members
behind.
Students respond with sentences orally and in writing
such as, Following are examples of sentence frames associated
My great-grandmother immigrated to the United with higher-level thinking and text structures found in
States from Russia in 1903 because she wanted reli- textbooks. Refer to Dutro and Moran (2003) for modifica-
gious freedom. My grandmother likes it here because tions by proficiency level.
COMPARE Both_________and ______are/have ___________.

Both Mars and Venus are planets.
Both Saturn and Jupiter have rings.
CONTRAST __________are _________, but/ however _________ are_____________.
Eukaryotes are found in plants and one-celled organisms, however prokaryotes are found in animals.
While ______________,__________________.
While eukaryotes carry out all processes of life, prokaryotes rely on many cells working together to function.
CAUSE AND EFFECT _____________because ______________.
Many people came to California around 1849 because gold was discovered there.
Because of _____________,_______________.
Because of the potato famine around 1850, many Irish immigrated to America.
As a result of ___________,_______________.
As a result of drought, poor farming methods, the Great Depression, and dust storms, many people lost their farms in the 1930s.
SEQUENCING First, _______________. Next, _______________. Then, _______________. Finally, ______________.
How Some Volcanoes Are Formed
First, the earth plates move, creating friction and heat. Next, the plates melt and become molten magma. Then, the molten
magma rises into a gap in the earths crust. Finally, the volcano erupts and spews lava.
DESCRIPTION A ________________is/has __________________.
For example, ____________________.
In addition, _____________________.
A saugaro cactus has numerous ways to survive in the desert. For example, it has an accordion skin that expands to hold the
limited precipitation. In addition, it has many shallow roots to capture what little rain falls on the surface of the desert.
References
August, D., and T. Shanahan, eds. 2006. Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Cummins, J. 1984. Wanted: A theoretical framework for relating language proficiency to academic achievement among bilingual students. In Language proficiency and aca-
demic achievement, ed. C. Rivera, 219. Clevedon, Avon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Dutro, S. 2005. A focused approach to frontloading English language instruction for Houghton Mifflin reading, K6, 4th ed., California Reading & Literature Project. Santa Cruz, CA:
ToucanEd.
Dutro, S., and C. Moran. 2003. Rethinking English language instruction: An architectural approach. In English learners: Reaching the highest level of English literacy, ed. G. G.
Garcia, 22758. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Echevarria, J., M. Vogt, and D. Short. 2008. Making content comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP model, 3rd ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Fillmore, L. W., and C. E. Snow. 2000. What teachers need to know about language. In What teachers need to know about language, ed. C. T. Adger, C. E. Snow, and D. Chris-
tian, 753. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Genesee, F., K. Lindholm-Leary, W. M. Saunders, and D. Christian. 2006. Educating English Language Learners. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Goldenberg, C. 2008. Teaching English Language Learners: What the research doesand does notsay. American Educator 32(2): 823, 4244.
Goldenberg, C., and R. Coleman. In press. Promoting academic achievement among English learners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Krashen, S. D., and T. D. Terrell. 1983. The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press.
Lyster, R. 2007. Learning and teaching languages through content: A counterbalanced approach. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Pub.
Saunders, W. M., and C. Goldenberg, C. in press. Research to guide English Language Development instruction. In Improving education for English Learners: Research-based ap-
proaches, ed. D. Dolson and L. Burnham-Massey. Sacramento, CA: CDE Press.
Schleppegrell, M. J. 2001. Linguistic features of the language of schooling. Linguistics and Education 12(4): 43159.
Short, D. J. 1994. Expanding middle school horizons: Integrating language, culture, and social studies. TESOL Quarterly 28(3): 581608.
Swain, M. 1985. Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In Input in second language acquisition, ed.
S. M. Gass and C. G. Madden, 23556. Rowley, MA: Newberry House Publishers.
Zwiers, J. 2008. Building academic language: Essential practices for content classrooms, grades 512. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
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Part III:
Promoting Literacy Development
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Using interactive and direct techniques, classroom
teachers can help English Learners develop their
English reading and writing skills.
To promote higher levels of literacy attainment among
This is the third in a four-part series written exclusively ELs, educators and policy makers can use research conducted
for the Kappa Delta Pi Record. Each article summarizes what over the past 25 years as a guide. The research suggests a
research says about effective practices for English Learners. number of principles that may be put into practice in the
The authors draw on several recent reviews of the research classroom. In this article, these research-based principles
(August and Shanahan 2006; Genesee et al. 2006; Gold- are identified and presented along with specific techniques
enberg 2008; Saunders and Goldenberg, in press). The teachers may consider adopting.
first article in the series (which appeared in the Fall 2009
Record) covered research on English oral language instruc- The foundation of an effective English
tion. The second article (Winter 2010 Record), dealt with literacy program for English Learners is
academic language and literacy in English. This, the third similar to that of an effective literacy
article, addresses the topic of literacy. The authors discuss program for English speakers.
learning to read in English, a language English Learners are Many kinds of instruction can make a contribution to ELs
simultaneously learning to speak and understand. They literacy development: phonemic awareness, phonics, oral
also look at some of the ways learning to read in ones reading fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and
native language can support learning to read in a second writing (August and Shanahan 2006). In the earliest stages of
language and, when thats not possible, how primary learning to readwhen the focus is on sounds, letters, and
language supportthat is, strategic use of the students how they combine to form words that can be readprogress
home languagecan help literacy instruction in English. by ELs might be expected to be roughly comparable to that
The final article (Record Summer 2010) will address school of English speakers.
and district reform and offers practical recommendations If instruction is clear, focused, and systematic, it is plau-
for administrators and teacher leaders so that the research sible that when language requirements are relatively lowas
can more readily translate into practice. they are for learning phonological skills, letter-sound combi-
nations, and decodingELs can make progress that is close
to that of English speakers. ELs face more serious challenges
A fundamental challenge facing students who are English when reading requires increasingly higher levels of language
Learners is the interplay of oral language development skills, such as those needed to comprehend complex aca-
being able to speak and understand a languageand literacy demic texts. Here is where the gaps between English Learners
developmentlearning to read and write the language. and English speakers become increasingly large.
This interplay is especially challenging because each devel-
opmental processoral language development and literacy Rhoda Coleman is Research Fellow at The Center for Lan-
developmentis complex in and of itself, and each one guage Minority Education and Research at California State
influences the other. With English Learners, teachers have University, Long Beach, where she also teaches in the College
to deal with both developmental processes simultaneously, of Education. She was a California State Teacher of the Year
using techniques that are not generally needed with children and Milken recipient.
who already speak English. Claude Goldenberg is Professor of Education at Stanford
Of course, there is a huge range of oral language pro- University. His research focuses on academic achievement
ficiencies even among English speakers. However, children among English learners. He was on the Committee for the
who have grown up speaking English understand and speak Prevention of Early Reading Difficulties in Young Children and
it in a way that children who have not grown up speaking the National Literacy Panel.
English simply do not. Thus, for English Learners (ELs)also
referred to, interchangeably, as English Language Learners Portions of this article are based on the authors forthcoming
(ELLs)teachers must differentiate instruction to manage, book Promoting Academic Achievement among English Learn-
promote, encourage, and stimulate both oral and written ers, to be published by Corwin Press in 2010, and are used
language development concurrently. with permission.
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Adequate background is critical for passively, EL students get to practice and use language. As
English Learners literacy development. important as direct teaching is for ELs, these students also
Certainly, success as a reader is not determined solely by need opportunities for engaging in challenging interactions.
reading skills such as decoding, fluency, or use of read- Teachers must be careful to structure interactions
ing strategies. Readers need to know contentand the appropriately, depending on students language and skills
vocabulary that goes with itif they are to comprehend levels. These interactions may be between the teacher and
what they read. Background knowledge that readers the student or between student and student. They may
bring to the text is critical for reading comprehension. be open-ended, in which conversation and responses are
Students need ample opportunities to learn content elaborated upon in the students own words. For example,
that will provide the knowledge essential for successful in a small group, the teacher may ask students to express
reading. Content-area instruction is therefore critical for ideas on a topic, saying Tell your partner about . . . or
promoting students literacy growth. Just as comprehen- Share in your group about . . . . Interactions may occur
sion is difficult for students who cannot read words ac- in cooperative group work that either stimulates use of
curately and fluently or dont know the meanings of most language in an authentic way (open-ended) or encour-
of the words, comprehension is also arduous for students ages students to use specific linguistic structuressuch as
who lack the requisite background knowledge to make completing the phrase, I predict that . . . .
sense of what they are reading. Teacher-student interactions may be structured to
It is critical that teachers work to develop ELs content intentionally encourage specific, increasingly advanced
knowledge and their English oral language skillsparticularly linguistic responses. Applying the latter technique, the
vocabularyfrom the time they start school, even before teacher directs students to use a particular grammatical
they have learned reading basics. While English speak- feature or vocabulary words in their responses. A more
ers from about middle elementary grades and up can advanced linguistic response can be simple sentences.
be expected to learn by reading, English Learners must For instance, the teacher asks a beginning proficiency
be more familiar with the content they are reading if the level student, What kind of pet do you have? and the
material is to be comprehensible to them. Teachers always student replies, dog or a dog. The teacher prompts,
must keep in mind that the job of comprehension is made Can you say it in a complete sentence? The student
doubly challenging for English Learners because these replies, I have a dog. An example for an even more
students must comprehend content written in a language advanced student: The teacher asks, Why is communi-
that they are simultaneously learning. cation faster now? The student replies, We have cell
phones. The teacher prompts, Thats a good sentence,
English Learners need to be taught but see whether you can answer with a sentence that uses
literacy skills explicitly. the word because. The student answers, Communica-
Though most students benefit from explicit instruction, tion is faster now because we use cell phones.
ELs generally require it because they have the double The bulk of the research evidence has suggested that
challenge of learning literacy skills while learning to speak effective direct instruction and use of interactive ap-
and understand English. Particularly students who are the proaches that challenge ELs academically make a positive
most limited in their English proficiency will not fare well contribution to their literacy growth. Clearly, modifica-
if instructions are vague or open-ended, or if expectations tions are needed if educators are to make English literacy
are ambiguous. Explicit instruction means a clearly stated instruction as effective for ELs as it is for English speakers.
objective, clear input, modeling, repeated practice before
students work independently, and consolidation of learn- Teachers should use instructional
ing at the end of the lesson. modifications to help English Learners
acquire literacy skills.
In addition to using explicit skills Instruction in the components of literacy and instruction
instruction, teachers should using more multifaceted approaches tends to get positive
incorporate interactive teaching to results, but the results are generally more modest than
challenge English Learners cognitively they are for English speakers. The most likely explanation
and linguistically. for this is that English Learners do not benefit from in-
Interactive teaching refers to the kind of verbal interac- struction in English to the same extent that English speak-
tion that creates opportunities for student talk, particularly ers do for the simple reason that ELs are limited in their
increasingly elaborated student talk. Instead of listening English proficiency. Language and literacy are inextricably
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woven together. Reading comprehension requires not only example, teachers can teach a unit in which students
the skills of readingaccurate and fluent word recognition, learn about a topic for several days before being expected
understanding how words form texts that carry meaning, to read and comprehend.
and how to derive meanings from these textsbut it also For teachers accustomed to teaching English Learn-
requires fundamental language proficiencyknowledge ers, some of these suggestions already may be part of
of vocabulary, syntax, and conventions of use that are their daily practice. For teachers new to teaching English
the essence of knowing a language. Learners who know Learners, following are some excerpts of explicit, interac-
the language can concentrate on the academic content. tive literacy lessons incorporating some of the modifica-
But learners who do not know the language, or do not tions described earlier.
know it well enough, must devote part of their attention
to learning and understanding the very language in which
that content is taught. Elementary Phonics Lesson Scenario
As a result, ELs generally require certain instructional Mr. G is teaching his 20 first grade students a phonics
modifications or adaptations for the instruction to be fully lesson on the ea sound prior to reading an anthology
meaningful. Though research on these modifications and story about going to the beach. Most are English Learn-
adaptations is sparse, the following are likely to be effec- ers whose primary language is Spanish; a few students
tive approaches: are Vietnamese. Based on the state English Language
Make instruction and expectations extremely clear, Development assessment, most of these English Learners
focused, and systematic. are at early intermediate English proficiency levels. Mr.
Display visuals to illustrate concepts. G speaks some Spanish, but does not know Vietnamese
Incorporate additional practice and repetition. and therefore cannot provide beginning level support in
Offer reading matter with familiar content. Vietnamese.
Mr. G shows a picture of children playing in the sand
When possible (see scenarios later in this article), at the beach and asks students to identify the beach and
use the primary language for support. This means the sea in the picture. He tells his students they are going
the lesson is predominantly in English, but the teacher to be learning to read words that have the long e sound
uses students home language briefly and strategically that they hear in the words beach and sea, and then they
to make the content more accessible. For example, are going to listen to a story about going to the beach.
prior to a lesson all in English, teachers might preview But first he says, Lets review the way we learned to make
the content for the students in their primary language. the long e sound yesterday. Tell your partner the way we
Using cognates (e.g., democracy and democracia) for learned to spell long e. Mr. G gives the class a minute to
vocabulary instruction is another type of primary lan- do this task while he walks around to gauge what stu-
guage support. dents remember from the day before.
If the teacher is not familiar with the students pri- After partners share, Mr. G draws a web with ee in
mary language, scaffolding strategies, such as visuals and the center and lines going outward, like wheel spokes. He
role play, provide support. While scaffolding strategies asks students to think of words with ee. After giving them
are critical for the English learners, all studentsincluding 1520 seconds to think, he calls for volunteers. Students
native English speakerswill benefit from these effective then offer sleep, bee, keep, etc. Mr. G goes on: Okay, a
practices. Teachers also may find it helpful to do some new way to write the long e sound is ea. Mr. G points
research and discuss with parents basic principles of their out that in Spanish this is the same sound that is made by
primary language. the letter i or the word y (and).
Regarding the use of familiar content, one possibility Mr. G has the students practice saying single syl-
is to provide reading materials that resonate with stu- lable, medial long e words. He shows students the long
dents experiences. For instance, Carlo et al. (2004) incor- e (eagle) card from the reading program the school uses
porated texts and topics on immigration for the Mexican and explains that they are learning words where the ea
and Dominican immigrant students who participated in says long e. As he writes each ea word on the board, the
their study of enhanced vocabulary instruction for ELs. students use a blending routine. S-ea . . . sea, b-ea-ch .
However, using culturally familiar material is not the only . . beach, b-ea-d . . . bead. Mr. G shows a picture of the
way to make content familiar. Another approach is mak- sea, the beach, and a necklace bead. He models blending
ing sure students have sufficient exposure to the content several words and then students repeat after him.
in texts they will read prior to reading the material. For
KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SPRING 2010 109

Elementary Vocabulary Lesson Scenario guage and it is possible to provide some primary
Mr. G has the class gather and sit on the rug to begin language support to one group of students, is making
the vocabulary portion of the lesson before reading aloud sure that all students time is spent productively. The
a story about the beach. Mr. G already has decided on Vietnamese students probably will not benefit from
seven vocabulary words he wants the students to know: the cognate references aimed at the Spanish-speakers.
beach, castle, tunnel, sea, dig, build, and sand. To tap prior The teacher must, therefore, either provide the cog-
knowledge and generate vocabulary, he asks students nate instruction to Spanish speakers before or after the
whether they have ever been to the beach and what lesson while the Vietnamese students are productively
things they might see there. If they havent been to the engaged in other tasks, make the references during the
beach, he asks them whether they ever have seen a movie lesson very brief, or both.
about the beach or the sea (such as Finding Nemo or Little
Mermaid). To build background knowledge, he also shows If possible, students should be taught
several pictures of the beach and the sea, and he has literacy skills in their primary language.
students pass around and touch the sand in a small jar he A number of studies have suggested that teaching ELs
brought to class. to read and develop literary skills in their primary lan-
Using the pictures and their prior knowledge as guage will boost their reading achievement in English
support, he writes on a chart, Things I can see at the (Willig 1985; Greene 1997; Rolstad, Mahoney, and
beach! Students name things they might see at the Glass 2005; Slavin and Cheung 2005; Francis, Lesaux,
beach as he records the words under the heading. Next, and August 2006). Additionally, teaching ELs subject
Mr. G does a picture walk with the book, asking stu- matter content in their primary language might be
dents what they see in the pictures; students offer new beneficial because doing so is probably a more efficient
additions to the word chart. If students have not offered way to promote content knowledge than teaching con-
the identified target words, Mr. G points to where they tent in a language students do not understand well.
are illustrated in the pictures. Teaching literacy skills in students own language,
Mr. G has sentence strips on the board that say, unfortunately, may not be possible. Schools may not
What is this? and This is (a/an) _____________. He provide primary language instruction. That may be
instructs students to listen while he asks, What is this? a policy decision, or there may not be enough quali-
and answers his own question, This is sand. He then fied bilingual teachers at a school. Also, there may
asks students, What is this? He holds up his hand as be multiple languages in one class, and it is generally
a wait signal, pauses two or three seconds, and then impossible to provide primary language instruction for
signals students to answer in unison, This is sand. For multiple languages. However, many schools do provide
the verbs, he asks, What is he is doing? and models the primary language instruction, especially when one or
response, He is digging. He proceeds this way with the two languages (in addition to English) predominate.
other target vocabulary words. For example, a school might have bilingual classes for
He uses cognates (along with pointing) to clarify and Chinese students or for Spanish-speaking students.
help the Spanish-speaking students connect concepts Students still can be taught literacy skills in English
they already know in Spanish to the words in English. For while they are learning literacy skills in their primary
example, The children are building a castle, un castillo, language. Children are able to learn to read in both
and digging a tunnel, un tunel, in the sand. He has stu- languages simultaneously. In situations where children
dents role play that they are building a castle and digging are learning to read in both languages, generally read-
a tunnel. ing in each language is taught separately. This practice
He asks students, based on the pictures and the vo- probably helps avoid confusion, but studies that ad-
cabulary words, to tell their partners what they think will dress this question directly are lacking.
happen in the story. Then Mr. G gives some examples of Even if students are not taught literacy skills such as
using the target vocabulary in sentences. He says, I think reading in their primary language, bilingual teachers in
they will swim in the sea. I think they will build a castle in all-English classes can incorporate instructional support
the sand. in the primary language to preview, clarify, and explain.
For example, new content and skills can be introduced
and reviewed in the primary language before and after
One obvious challenge in a situation such as Mr. lessons are taught in English. However, too much direct
Gs, where there is more than one non-English lan- translation is probably not helpful because students can
110 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SPRING 2010

tune out and wait for the translation (Legarreta 1979; informal English instruction to attain higher levels of
Legarreta-Marcaida 1981). proficiency.
Focusing on the similarities and differences be-
tween English and the primary language is probably Closing Thoughts
helpful for ELs. For example, pointing out cognates and EL students learning to become literate in English and
other similarities and differences between the lan- English speakers learning to become literate (in English)
guages might help ELs learn more vocabulary and other need to learn the same skills and concepts. Both groups
features of English. However, the research on this topic benefit from explicit help and instruction in the com-
is not very conclusive. ponents of literacy and from instruction that provides
Even in an all-English instructional environment, if more enriched, complex literacy learning opportunities.
at all possible, teachers should assess language, literacy, ELs clearly benefit from good instruction in some of the
and academic skills in students primary language. components of literacy (phonological and phonics skills,
While state assessments provide yearly information, vocabulary, writing), while the evidence for the benefits
ongoing assessment can be provided by a bilingual of instruction in other components (oral reading flu-
resource specialist or by the teacher if the teacher is ency and reading comprehension) is more tenuous. This
bilingual. Before being able to effectively help students does not mean that promoting fluency and providing
consciously transfer the skills and knowledge from their comprehension instruction do not matter for ELs. The
primary language to English, teachers need to find authors strongly suspect they do. But research has not
out what students know and can do in their primary been done to confirm this.
language. Table 1 identifies some ways that students Good evidence does exist, however, to argue that mul-
primary language can be used to support their learning tifaceted approaches to promoting literacy development
in English. among ELsthat is, instruction not focused on any one
literacy component, such as decoding or vocabularyalso
can be effective. Additionally, the bulk of the research evi-
Table 1. Possible Primary Language dence suggests that effective direct teaching and teaching
Supports for English Instruction using interactive approaches that challenge ELs academi-
Clarify and explain in the primary language. cally make a positive contribution to their literacy growth.
Preview-review. Introduce, or preview, new con- It is almost certain, though, that modifications are needed
cepts in the primary language, and then review if educators are to make English literacy instruction as effec-
the new content again in the primary language. tive for ELs as it is for English speakers.
Teach the lesson itself in all English.
Focus on similarities and differences between the References
primary language and English (e.g., cognates, August, D., and T. Shanahan. 2006. Developing literacy in second-language learners,
Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth.
orthographic features). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Carlo, M. S., D. August, B. McLaughlin, C. E. Snow, C. Dressler, D. N. Lippman, T. J.
Teach a strategy in the primary language followed Lively, and C. E. White. 2004. Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs
of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading
by the student applying it in English. Research Quarterly 39(2):188215.
Francis, D. J., N. K. Lesaux, and D. August. 2006. Language of instruction. In Devel-
Assess students literacy skills in their primary oping literacy in second-language learners, Report of the National Literacy Panel
on Language-Minority Children and Youth, ed. D. August and T. Shanahan,
language. 365414. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Genesee, F., K. Lindholm-Leary, W. M. Saunders, and D. Christian, eds. 2006.
Educating English Language Learners: A synthesis of research evidence. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Goldenberg, C. 2008. Teaching English Language Learners: What the research
English Language Development doesand does notsay. American Educator 32(2): 823, 4244.
Goldenberg, C., and R. Coleman. In press. Promoting academic achievement among
instruction must be emphasized English Learners: A guide for teachers, administrators, and policy. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Corwin.
regardless of whether the literacy Greene, J. P. 1997. A meta-analysis of the Rossell and Baker review of bilingual educa-
tion research. Bilingual Research Journal 21(23): 10322.
program is in the primary language or Legarreta, D. 1979. The effects of program models on language acquisition by
Spanish-speaking children. TESOL Quarterly 13(4): 52134.
in all English. Legarreta-Marcaida, D. 1981. Effective use of the primary language in the classroom.
In Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework, ed. D.
Educators and parents alike have expressed concern P. Dolson and G. Lopez, 83116. Sacramento, CA: California Department of
Education.
when a child, attending a school since kindergarten, is Rolstad, K., K. Mahoney, and G. V. Glass. 2005. The big picture: A meta-analysis of
still at an intermediate proficiency level in fifth grade. program effectiveness research on English Language Learners. Educational Policy
19(4): 57294.
The issue here is not with bilingual education itself, Slavin, R. E., and A. Cheung. 2005. A synthesis of research on language of reading
instruction for English Language Learners. Review of Educational Research 75(2):
but with the way some programs are implemented. 24784.
Willig, A. C. 1985. A meta-analysis of selected studies on the effectiveness of bilingual
Sometimes students do not receive enough formal or education. Review of Educational Research 55(3): 269318.
KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SPRING 2010 111

ENGLISH LEARNERS?
Part IV:
Models for Schools and Districts
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With consistent and coherent policies in place,
schools and districts can build and maintain
effective programs for English Learners.
General consensus in the research and professional
This is the fourth article in a four-part series written literature holds that a sustained and coherent focus in
exclusively for the Kappa Delta Pi Record. Each article schools and districts leads to higher student achievement.
summarizes what research says about effective practices Various aspects of school and district functioning, such
for English Learners. The first article in the series (which as leadership, goals, consistent curricula, professional
appeared in the Fall 2009 Record) covered research on development, ongoing support and supervision, and
English oral language instruction. The second article regular assessments that inform instruction help shape the
(Winter 2010 Record) dealt with academic language and academic experiences of students (e.g., Edmonds 1979;
literacy in English. The third article (Spring 2010 Record) Good and Brophy 1986; Joyce, Showers, and Rolheiser-
addressed the topic of literacy. Bennett 1987; Bliss, Firestone, and Richards 1991; Black
In this final article, the authors look at how research and Wiliam 1998; Fullan 2007).
on effective instruction for English Learners translates Anderson (2003, 9) found the following in a review of
into schools and districtsin other words, where the the literature on district factors:
research meets the classroom. The authors begin by Current characterizations of effective districts
discussing some models for school and district support normally highlight district efforts to establish greater
for English Learner programs. Then, drawing examples coherence in curriculum content, materials, and to a
from actual schools and districts, they suggest some certain extent delivery across the system. The emphasis
possible scenarios of how these programs might look. on curriculum coherence often extends to advocacy
In the last part of the article, the authors discuss profes- and support for the use of specific instructional ap-
sional development and suggest some specific practices proaches and strategies said to work well with the
for classroom teachers. content, learning outcomes, and learners in play.
All four articles are available from Kappa Delta Pi
electronically at https://webportal.kdp.org/Purchase/ Though there is less research conducted with English
SearchCatalog.aspx. Learners that links school and district factors to measures
of student achievement, recent studies point in the same
Genesee et al. (2006) argued that classroom practices direction: What gets emphasized in schools and districts
must be linked to a larger school or district-wide vision will influencethough in no way guaranteewhat teach-
of effective practices for English Learners (ELs). In other ers do and English Learners learn (Goldenberg 2004;
words, educators must build coherence across schools
and districts rather use a grab-bag of strategies and tech- Rhoda Coleman is Research Fellow at The Center for Lan-
niques (Genesee et al. 2006, 231): guage Minority Education and Research at California State
Educators need more than an array of specific meth- University, Long Beach, where she also teaches in the College
ods or activities that they can draw on when planning of Education. She was a California State Teacher of the Year
literacy or academic subjects. They need comprehensive and Milken recipient.
frameworks for selecting, sequencing, and delivering Claude Goldenberg is Professor of Education at Stanford
instruction over the course of an entire year and from University. His research focuses on academic achievement
grade to grade. among English learners. He was on the Committee for the
Prevention of Early Reading Difficulties in Young Children and
Over the past 10 years, educators have witnessed an in- the National Literacy Panel.
creasing number of attempts at school and district school lev-
els to try and provide coherent instruction for English Learners Portions of this article are based on the authors just-realeased
through the adoption of consistent programs and approaches book Promoting Academic Achievement among English Learn-
(Coleman 2006). What do we know about the impact of ers, published by Corwin Press in April 2010, and are used
these efforts on the achievement of English Learners? with permission.
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Parrish et al. 2006; Saunders, Goldenberg, and Gallimore There are probably numerous ways of accomplishing
2009). this sort of coherence, and the research provides useful
As Genesee et al. (2006, 186) concluded: clues. Some studies have examined the effects, over a year
Schools with high quality programs have a cohesive or more, of explicit efforts to improve the achievement
school-site vision, shared goals that define their expec- of ELs (e.g., Livingston and Flaherty 1997; Slavin and
tations for achievement, a clear instructional focus on Madden 2001; Goldenberg 2004; McDougall, Saunders,
and commitment to achievement, and high expecta- and Goldenberg 2007). Others begin by identifying
tions. The importance of these characteristics has been schools and districts that are relatively successful, accord-
found in mainstream schools, low-performing schools, ing to some criteria, and then trying to figure out what
and bilingual programs serving English Language distinguishes them from schools and districts that are less
Learners. successful (e.g., Weaver and Sawyer 1984; Lucas, Henze,
and Donato 1990; McLeod 1996; Parrish et al. 2006; and
Getting from Here to There Williams, Hakuta, Haertel, et al. 2007). Taken as a whole,
With a few exceptions, most of the studies that identify the studies provide some reasonable insights for educators
school or district factors tell educators very little about interested in improving EL students achievement in their
how to make a school go from less to more effective schools and districts.
with its EL population. The studies describe the char-
acteristics of schools considered to be effective with Explicit Academic Goals
ELs, but do not reveal how they got to be that way. In One way to develop consistency and coherence in
addition, several of the studies report on exemplary or schools and districts is to begin with setting explicit
high-quality programs, but what criteria are used to academic goals that are understood and shared by the
make that determination is unclear. Often these schools school communityprincipally teachers and administra-
are nominated by educators who feel the school has a tors, but also students and families. This was a finding of
strong or exemplary EL program, but no comparison several studies. Parrish et al. (2006), for example, found
exists to determine whether the achievement of students that schools with higher EL achievement set academic
in the school is any better than the achievement of stu- goals by maintaining:
dents in other schools. school-wide focus on English Language Development
Nonetheless, the one thing that seems to surface (ELD) and standards-based instruction;
when looking at the studies as a whole is the impor- shared priorities and expectations with regard to
tance of a coherent academic program where teachers educating English Learners; and
and administrators focus on doing whatever is neces- curriculum and instruction targeted to English Learner
sary to ensure the academic achievement of ELs. In progress.
other words, higher achievement levels for ELs appear
to be the result of focused, sustained, and coordinated Similarly, Williams et al. (2007, 16) found that schools
work among educators committed to the educational with higher EL achievement levels had a coherent,
success of these students. In her study of eight exem- standards-based curriculum. Teachers at these schools re-
plary elementary and middle schools for English Learn- ported that their schools had identified essential standards
ers, McLeod (1996, Conclusion section, para. 2) made that guided classroom instruction. Their schools also used
the following observation: pacing guides that specified what teachers should be
In each case the elements fit together like puzzle teaching at a particular point in time. Principals at schools
pieces to form a coherent overall program. Each piece where ELs had the highest achievement reported the
of the puzzle relies on the others for its success. For district had a coherent grade-by-grade curriculum [and]
example, a smooth transition for LEP [Limited English expected its principals to ensure that curriculum was
Proficient] students from native language or shel- implemented (Parrish et al. 2006, 9).
tered instruction to all-English instruction depends Studies reported by Goldenberg (2004), McDougall
on collaboration between teachers of LEP students et al. (2007), and Saunders et al. (2009) are informa-
and teachers of English proficient students, which in tive on this point because they are the only ones where
turn is greatly facilitated by setting aside common faculties and administrators worked to set explicit school-
planning time during which these teachers regularly wide academic goals for students. For example, faculties
confer, which itself relies on a reorganized daily class focused on various aspects of reading (e.g., word rec-
schedule. ognition, reading fluency, reading comprehension) and
158 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SUMMER 2010

writing development (e.g., writing summaries, expository regular basis. Monitoring does not refer to standardized
writing) to begin to develop a coherent school-wide and high-stakes assessments exclusively, but also includes
focus on specific curricular needs. Examples of student instructionally illuminating assessments that provide
learning goals are readily available. A project described teachers with timely feedback about the effects of instruc-
by McDougall et al. (2007) and Saunders et al. (2009) tion on student growth and learning. Information from
used published state standards as the starting point for these assessments then informs instructional decisions
the explicit student learning goals around which faculties made for students.
and administrators focused their efforts. Over a period of
several years, school achievement improved in absolute Leadership
terms and in comparison to the rest of the district. Leadership is another school attributeand, to a lesser
degree, a district attributethat has been associated with
Ongoing Student Assessment higher student achievement. A school or a district can
Explicit goals, agreed upon by administrators and teach- increase the probability of program success if it puts the
ers, are important for achieving substantive improvements full force of its resources behind that program. When a
because they are vital for maintaining a coherent and district pays attention to a particular program, provides it
stable student-centered vision. Assessments that then with needed resources, and holds schools accountable for
measure ongoing progress toward agreed upon goals it, that district is communicating how much that pro-
often referred to as formative assessmentsreinforce gram is valued. Assembling and deploying resources and
the importance of the goals and help teachers and admin- effectively communicating values and priorities require
istrators gauge their goal-directed efforts. This finding has effective leadership.
been one of the most common in the literature on school When leadership is effective, the likelihood increases
effectiveness, and it has been reported in the research re- that what is valued will be reflected in what is taught
viewed here on ELs: Consistent use of achievement indica- in the classroom, as Coleman (2006) reported from her
tors to track student progress is related to improvements study of how schools choose which EL programs to adopt.
in student outcomes (Black and Wiliam 1998). However, leadership is not solely the domain of adminis-
For example, the Success for All model (Dianda and trators; leadership from teachersincluding instructional
Flaherty 1995; Livingston and Flaherty 1997; Slavin and specialists whose focus is on ELs (August and Shanahan
Madden 2001) gauges student progress every six weeks 2006)is also essential. A culture of high expectations
or so by administering reading and writing development and accountability, encouraged by leaders at all levels and
tests. Regular and systematic student assessmentexplic- supported by tangible steps, helps everyone accomplish
itly linked to school-wide goalsis also a key aspect of instructional goals for students.
Getting Results, the school change approach reported McDougall et al. (2007) found that implementa-
in Goldenberg (2004), McDougall et al. (2007), and tion of the Getting Results (GR) school change model
Saunders et al. (2009). In these studies, student assess- in schools with large EL populations was dependent on
ments (usually in the form of student writing to measure the organizational and educational leadership provided
both writing development and comprehension of texts by the school principal. Active principal engagement
students read) were carried out school-wide three times and clear indication that change efforts were a priority
during the year. They were implemented much more were essential to success. McDougall et al. (2007, 70)
frequently as teachers met in their grade-level teams found:
and collected student work to evaluate progress toward Principals at most GR schools demonstrated greater
learning goals. The assessments could comprise writing awareness, focus, and participation in the day-to-day
samples, oral reading episodes, summaries of texts to academic plans and actions of teachers at each grade
demonstrate comprehensionin short, anything that level. The tighter academic linkages between teach-
would provide teachers with useful insights regarding ers and administrators at GR schools facilitated more
student progress on learning goals. effective execution of goal-directed plans than at com-
Educators need comprehensive frameworks to pro- parison schools, where the evaluator observed more
vide continuous, coherent, and developmentally appropri- frequent slippage between intended actions and
ate educational interventions. This structure is absolutely actual implementation of academic initiatives.
critical if ELs are to be successful. One of the ways to
ensure that students receive such a programand, most The importance of leadership became clear in Gold-
importantly, benefit from itis to monitor progress on a enbergs (2004) case study of successful change at one
KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SUMMER 2010 159

school. When leadership support for the school improve- However, a solid research base on the knowledge
ment efforts disappeared, student achievement fell below and skills teachers must have to be effective with English
levels of the year in which reform was initiated. As fund- Learners is lacking. It is likely that teachers of ELs should
ing ended and key participants left, new district priorities have the knowledge and expertise, for example, to com-
took over, and school staff went on to other projects. bine content and language instruction, to make academic
content accessible to students with limited English pro-
Professional Development ficiency, to understand second language acquisition and
Professional development is usually identified as an- incorporate techniques that promote second language
other key factor in promoting higher achievement for development, and to work effectively with diverse families
ELs. Both the Report of the National Literacy Panel on and communities. What exactly each of these means is
Language-Minority Children and Youth (August and Sha- difficult to pinpoint, because there are many unknowns
nahan 2006) and the Center for Research on Education, about what constitutes effective practice with ELs. More-
Diversity and Excellence (CREDE) report (Genesee et over, it is likely that to be effective with ELs, teachers also
al. 2006) have taken strong positions on this point. For must possess instructional skills that are important for
schools to be effective with ELs, there must be sustained effective teaching in general, not just for ELs. This issue is
and focused professional development (Genesee et al. discussed further later in this article.
2006, 232): The professional development used in the study
Attention needs to be paid to teachers, including reported by Saunders et al. (2009) was highly contex-
their levels and kinds of professional development, their tualized and consisted largely of assistance provided by
understanding of different instructional and assess- colleagues, administrators, and instructional specialists
ment approaches, their knowledge and application of on an ongoing basis rather than as one or more events,
second language acquisition theory, and the processes workshops, or presentations. Assistance was primar-
that are required to ensure that new teachers acquire ily offered during grade-level or other meetings where
competence in using new approaches. teachers, either among themselves or with administrators,
discussed how efforts to accomplish agreed-upon learning
In their studies of schools with large EL populations goals were faring. This type of professional development,
whose achievement improved over time, Goldenberg rarely seen in schools, was designed to help teachers
and Gallimore (1991), Goldenberg (2004), McDougall address the concrete issues and challenges they faced as
et al. (2007), and Saunders et al. (2009) observed a shift they sought to accomplish specific and ambitious learning
in teachers beliefs following implementation of practices goals with students.
that led to improved achievement. Both beliefs and ex- Particularly because a robust research base is lacking,
pectations about student learning changed when teach- schools and districts should consider such a conception of
ers changed their practices and began observing results professional development for teachers of English Learners:
previously not seen with students. This then had the effect situated assistance, provided by colleagues and others,
of raising their expectations for what students could actu- which specifically addresses the instructional challenges
ally accomplish. teachers face on a day-to-day basis. This is what Gallimore
Many teachers initially were skeptical of curricular and et al. (2009, 2) called moving the learning of teaching
instructional changes intended to present students with closer to practice. Readers can see videos of teacher
more challenging material that would bring them up to meetings, classroom instruction, and teacher reflections
grade level. They changed their expectations, however, on the process as it took place at one school with a large
as practices and achievement changed. McDougall et EL population at www.stanford.edu/~claudeg/CD1/video_
al. (2007, 7477) reported that school-wide efforts to menu.html.
improve teaching and learning
fostered a group ethos among [teachers]a collec- Other School and District Factors
tive willingness and commitment to formulate, adapt, Numerous other school and district factors have been
implement, and evaluate instructional processes that cited by various studies as important for promoting the
targeted student achievement. . . . Through collabora- achievement of English Learners. Following are brief de-
tive goal setting, analysis of indicators, and reflection scriptions of that research.
on teacher-controlled instructional variables, [the Parrish et al. (2006) and Williams et al. (2007) found
changes] impacted teachers expectations for student that adequate resources to support the academic
achievement. program distinguished more and less effective schools

for ELs. In the Williams et al. study, teachers and prin- scores. In addition to gauging student achievement, as-
cipals reported that availability of resources was the sessments help them to identify professional development
second most important factor (after use of assessment needs. The fall formative assessments revealed that early
data) distinguishing more and less effective schools. advanced and even advanced ELs in the upper grades
Parrish et al. (2006) and Williams et al. (2007) also were weak in general academic vocabulary (e.g., analyze,
found that parent and community outreach and in- abandon, suspicious) and content-specific vocabulary
volvement significantly differentiated between more (e.g., society, climate, evolution). Among beginning and
and less effective schools. In the Williams et al. study, early intermediate EL students in the lower grades, verb
however, this factor was the least important of seven tenses needed work.
factors that distinguished more and less effective All teachers in this school have weekly one-hour
schools for ELs. grade-level meetings focused on a single topic. An ex-
Genesee et al. (2006) reported a diverse group of ample topic, based on the formative assessments, might
studies whose conclusions have supported the impor- be strategies to teach students to speak in the future
tance of a culture of high expectations. This culture tense. Or the topic might be how to create lessons that
includes a belief by staff that all children can learn; develop vocabularyspecifically, to teach important aca-
a positive, orderly, safe, caring school environment demic words that will come up in the next social studies
that facilitates learning; a meaningful, challenging, unit. Teachers do some of their planning together and
and enriched (not remedial) curriculum; a curricu- arrange for small-group instruction based on students
lum grounded in sound theory and best practices; proficiency levels as determined by the formative assess-
consistent and sustained programs; and programs ment results.
where ELs are integrated into the general population. The teachers will then present the lessons and bring
As suggested earlier, high expectations are probably, back student work to discuss and analyze their results with
at least in part, a result of what effective schools and colleagues at the next meeting. They do this routinely,
classrooms do to promote achievement among ELs. working systematically over time to improve student
Educators should not assume that a culture of high learning in identified areas. The formative assessments
expectations is a prerequisite for, and therefore must help them track their progress.
precede, the development and evolution of effective
programs. Scenario 2: Ongoing Professional
Development
Components of Professional Development Mr. G teaches first grade at Buena Vista Elemen-
Effecting change in classroom practice is a time-consuming tary School, which is collaborating with two faculty
process that requires considerable investment and energy. members at a state university to promote early literacy
Efforts can take one to three years and involve trainings development among English Learners. The purpose of
and workshops, meetings, intensive summer programs, the universitys grant project is to develop a coaching
follow-up in classrooms, and ongoing, continuous ef- model that will help consultants and teachers work
forts to improve practice and student outcomes. Stud- together to improve early literacy attainment for ELs.
ies reviewed in this article suggested that professional At the start of the project, the K2 teachers attend
development cannot be of the one-shot workshop variety. a half-day session where the university faculty members
Instead, it must be embedded in the work lives of teach- explain the goals and solicit their involvement. Follow-
ers and the routines of teaching. Specifically, it must ing this kickoff, participating teachers attend monthly
provide direct and concrete assistance in addressing the training sessions conducted by the university faculty
challenges of practice teachers face daily. members. In addition, teachers are observed once a
Two scenarios provide illustrations of effective profes- month by researchers. Each observation period includes
sional development. pre- and post-coaching conferences. In between train-
ings, teachers meet in grade level teams to work on
Scenario 1: Using Assessment agreed-upon goals for student learning. To make sure
to Inform Instruction these meetings are regular weekly events, the principal
The principal, EL coach, and teachers at Riverside Elemen- hires two experienced aides to provide each grade level
tary School identify student learning needs by looking with a physical education program. Thus, teachers are
at formative assessments (which all teachers conduct free to meet during this time and students have at least
four times a year) and, to some extent, state assessment one weekly physical activity where they are learning

games and skills they otherwise would not have an op- have varying degrees of empirical evidence and include
portunity to learn. elements such as:
The principal makes clear his expectation that Lesson objectives target both content and language.
teachers are to focus on specific instructional issues This is one of the hallmarks of the Sheltered In-
at these meetings. Together, teachers and researchers struction Observation Protocol (Echevarra, Vogt,
identify specific learning goals for students. They track and Short 2008), probably the most popular
student progress using formative assessments, sys- instructional model currently available for English
tematic teacher observation, and collection of student Learners.
work. The teacher organizes instruction to accommodate all
levels of students English proficiency. In a heterogen-
Instructional Practices eous classroom, the teacher might use small group
What instructional practices should professional de- instruction differentiated by proficiency levels to
velopment target? What constitutes effective instruc- frontload information or review prior learning. The
tional practices in English for ELsand, therefore, what teacher might differentiate assignments and assess-
should constitute professional development for teachers ment expectations according to English proficiency
of ELs being instructed in Englishare major unre- levels.
solved questions. As indicated elsewhere in this series The teacher provides primary language support dur-
of articles, though many important findings are emerg- ing lessons in English. This is distinct from primary
ing from research, there is still much educators do not language instruction, which is where students are
know. It seems very probable, however, that effective taught academic content; for example, reading in
practices for ELs consist of instructional elements that their primary language. Primary language support
have been shown to be effective for learners in gen- means limited and strategic use of students pri-
eral (generic effective instruction) and instructional mary languagee.g., brief explanations, pointing
elements that are necessary because ELs are learning out cognates, or previewing a lesson in the primary
academic content in a language they are simultaneous- language.
ly learning to speak and understand. At the moment, The teacher uses strategies to adapt content and
educators do not know how much of effective instruc- language instruction for students with limited English
tion for ELs is simply good generic instruction and how proficiency. For example, the teacher uses sentence
much is instruction specifically tailored to the language frames and familiar words, adjusts the rate of
needs of English Learners. Most likely, there are aspects speech, adds gestures, and incorporates role play,
of both. demonstrations, and picture walks.
What might these instructional practices comprise? The teacher uses materials and redundant cues to
A substantial educational research base suggests that clarify and illustrate concepts. These might include
the following are examples of generally effective instruc- textual and non-textual visuals, realia, technology,
tional practices: graphic organizers, or songs.
The lesson addresses one or more learning objectives. Students have opportunities for interactions that en-
The teacher explicitly links new concepts to stu- courage student language production. These include
dents background experiences and past learning. both open-ended language production (discus-
The teacher provides clear inputs and models skills, sions and explanations) and structured language
strategies, and concepts. production based on language forms students are
The teacher provides structured opportunities for learning (e.g., subject-verb agreement, stating and
students to practice and consolidate skills, strate- defending an inference).
gies, and concepts. The teacher uses predictable and consistent classroom
The teacher uses techniques designed to engage all management and routines. Though all students
students. may benefit from clear and consistent classroom
The teacher uses formative assessment during in- routines, these might be particularly important for
struction to monitor student learning. ELs who can become overloaded with the many
demands of the classroom. One way to dimin-
English Learners almost certainly require additional ish the load and keep it more manageable is by
support, however. Many supports have been suggested establishing and following predictable routines and
and can be found in the professional literature. They management systems.

The authors are currently developing an trainers, focused on helping teachers achieve the
observational instrumentClassroom Quality for learning goals for students.
English Language Learners, or CQELLthat will Support professional development with routine and
permit educators to look into classrooms and reli- systematic collaboration among teachers focused on
ably determine the extent to which these elements achieving specific academic goals with students.
are present and, if they are, the extent to which Supply adequate resources to support the academic
they predict student achievement. The authors program.
are hopeful that this instrument will help advance Involve parents and reach out to the community for
educators understanding of what, in fact, con- support of the academic program.
stitutes a high-quality classroom environment for Maintain a culture of high expectations and account-
English Learners. For more information on the ability at all levels that is supported by tangible steps
CQELL instrument, please contact Rhoda Coleman to help teachers accomplish instructional goals for
at rcoleman@csulb.edu. students.
Final Thoughts References

Consistent and coherent school- and district-wide Anderson, S. E. 2003. The school district role in educational change: A review of the
literature, ICEC Working Paper No. 2. Ontario, Canada: International Centre for
policies can help build an effective program for Educational Change, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
August, D., and T. Shanahan, eds. 2006. Developing literacy in second-language learn-
English Learners. In closing, here are some recom- ers: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and
Youth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
mendations for these sorts of policies. Black, P., and D. Wiliam. 1998. Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in
Ensure that administrators are sufficiently Education 5(1): 774.
Bliss, J. R., W. A. Firestone, and C. E. Richards, eds. 1991. Rethinking effective schools:
knowledgeable in research on improving ELs Research and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Coleman, R. 2006. The role of school districts in the selection and support of English
achievement. These administrators are best able language development programs and approaches. Unpublished doctoral diss.,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
to make informed choices about programs, poli- Dianda, M. R., and J. Flaherty. 1995. Promising practices, and program adaptations &
successes, Annual Report. Los Alamitos, CA: Southwest Regional Laboratory.
cies, and practices likely to influence students Echevarra, J., M. Vogt, and D. Short. 2008. Making content comprehensible for English
Learners: The SIOP model, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
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Set clear and challenging academic goals for Fullan, M. 2007. The new meaning of educational change, 4th ed. New York: Teachers
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lated and understood by all school and district learning of teaching closer to practice: Teacher education implications of school-
based inquiry teams. Elementary School Journal 109(5): 53753.
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Educating English Language Learners: A synthesis of research evidence. New York:
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Goldenberg, C. 2004. Successful school change: Creating settings to improve teaching
Provide support for coherence from school to and learning. New York: Teachers College Press.
Goldenberg, C., and R. Gallimore. 1991. Local knowledge, research knowledge, and
school, grade to grade, and class to class re- educational change: A case study of early Spanish reading improvement. Educa-
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Joyce, B., B. Showers, and C. Rolheiser-Bennett. 1987. Staff development and student
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McDougall, D., W. M. Saunders, and C. Goldenberg. 2007. Inside the black box
that provides teachers with timely informa- of school reform: Explaining the how and why of change at Getting Results
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minority students. NCBE Resource Collection Series No. 4. Washington, DC: Na-
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Be sure that leadership is effective, visible, and Saunders, W., C. Goldenberg, and R. Gallimore. 2009. Increasing achievement by
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Kappa Delta Pi Group Discussion Resource

Topic: Effective Practices for English Learners

Part II: Academic Language Proficiency

Part III: Promoting Literacy Development

Part IV: Models for Schools and Districts

To recognize and be able to implement effective, research-based strategies for ELLs.

To explore effective interactive and direct techniques to use with ELLs.

Introduction and Part I: Oral Language Proficiency

1. What is the difference between oral language and academic language?

Part II: Academic Language Proficiency

1. Compare and contrast academic and conversational language.

Part III: Promoting Literacy Development

Part IV: Models for Schools and Districts

Introduction and Part I:

10 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u FALL 2009

Undoubtedly this is a confusing, difficult, and ideo-

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u FALL 2009 13

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16 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u FALL 2009

Academic and conversational English Language development and sheltering

expressions, and intonation. comprehensible. exchange is very limited or nonexistent.

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u WINTER 2010 63

COMPARE Both_________and ______are/have ___________.

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u WINTER 2010 65

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SPRING 2010 109

110 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SPRING 2010

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SPRING 2010 111

158 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SUMMER 2010

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SUMMER 2010 159

160 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SUMMER 2010

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162 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SUMMER 2010

Final Thoughts References

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u SUMMER 2010 163

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COMPARE Both_and are/have _____.