Cafeine PDF

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
FOREWORD INTRODUCTION
CAFEINE
CAS : 58-08-2
UNEP PUBLICATIONS 1
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
SIDS Initial Assessment Report

for
SIAM 14
(Paris, France, March 2002)
1. Chemical Name: Caffeine

2. CAS No.: 58-08-2
3. Sponsor Country: Germany Contact Point:
BMU (Bundesministerium fr Umwelt, Naturschutz und
Reaktorsicherheit)
Contact person:
Prof. Dr. Ulrich Schlottmann
Postfach 12 06 29
D- 53048 Bonn-Bad Godesberg
4. Shared Partnership BASF AG, Germany;
With: Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc., United States
5. Roles/Responsibilities of
the Partners:
Name of industry sponsor/ BASF AG, Germany
consortium. Contact person:
Dr. Hubert Lendle
GUP/CL - Z570
D-67056 Ludwigshafen
Process used. see next page
6. Sponsorship History
How was the chemical or by ICCA-Initiative
category brought into the
SIDS Program?
7. Review Process Prior to last literature search (update):
the SIAM: 24. January 2001 (Human Health): databases medline, toxline; search
profile CAS-No. and special search terms 18.04.01 and 02.05.01
(Ecotoxicology): databases CA, biosis; search profile CAS-No. and
special search terms
8. Quality Check Process As basis for the SIDS-Dossier the IUCLID was used. All data have
been checked and validated by BUA.
9. Date of Submission: 01. February 2002
10. Comments: The peer review of BUA in the toxicology section was mainly based on
review articles, including those of the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC), and some others.
Regarding Experience with human exposure: this section of the SIDS
dossier is not adequately worked out according to the formal requests
of OECD manual for investigation of HPV chemicals. However, the
2 UNEP PUBLICATIONS
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
lead company BASF AG has assured us of its willingness to amend
those points as and if requested by the OECD members.
OEC
D/ICCA - The BUA* Peer Review Process
Qualified BUA personnel (toxicologists, ecotoxicologists) perform a quality control on the full SIDS
dossier submitted by industry. This quality control process follows internal BUA guidelines/instructions for
the OECD/ICCA peer review process and includes:
- a full (or update) literature search to verify completeness of data provided by industry in
the IUCLID/HEDSET
- Review of data and assessment of the quality of data
- Review of data evaluation
- Check of adequacy of selection process for key studies for OECD endpoints, and, where
relevant, for non-OECD endpoints by checking original reports/publications
- Review of key study description according robust summaries requirements; completeness

and correctness is checked against original reports/publications
(if original reports are missing: reliability (4) not assignable)
- Review o f validity of structure -activity relationships
- Review of full SIDS dossier (including SIAR, SIAP and proposal for conclusion and
recommendation for further work)
In case of data gaps, review of testing plan or rationale for not testing.
*
BUA (GDCh-Beratergremium fr Altstoffe): Advisory Committee on Existing Chemicals of the Association of
German Chemists (GDCh)
UNEP PUBLICATIONS 3
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
SIDS INITIAL ASSESSMENT PROFILE
CAS No. 58-08-2
Chemical Name Caffeine
O N N
Structural Formula
N N
RECOMMENDATIONS
The chemical is currently of low priority for further work.
SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS OF THE SIAR
Human Health
Animal data
In animals studies caffeine showed acute toxicity LD50 rat oral 200-400 mg/kg bw, LD50 mouse oral 185 mg/kg bw, LC50 rat
inhalative ca. 4.94 mg/l/4h; LD50 rat dermal > 2000 mg/kg bw). The undiluted substance was not irritating to the eyes of
rabbits, the substance in a 50% aqueous dilution was not irritating to the skin of rabbits. In a 90-day-drinking water study in
rats and mice a slight decrease of body weight gain was observed. No clinical signs of toxicity and significant gross lesion or
microscopic findings were seen in either rats or mice. The NOAEL for rats was 1500 ppm (ca. 151-174 mg/kg bw/day) and for
mice 1500 ppm (ca. 167-179 mg/kg bw/day). In all dose groups effects on salivary glands were observed, which were regarded
as an adaptive and reversible response to the sympathomimetic effect of caffeine. There are numerous studies available
concerning genetic toxicity in vitro and in vivo. In the majority of the studies caffeine produced negative results. Several positive
responses were obtained only in studies which used extreme culture conditions, lethal doses or non-validated methods. There
was no statistically significant increase in the tumor incidence in treated animals as compared to controls even at doses exceeding
the maximum tolerated dose and given to rats over a major portion of their lifespan.
Caffeine resulted in reproductive effects occurring in the presence of general toxicity in parental rats and mice. A NOAEL in
rats was not established. NOAEL: mouse 22 mg/kg bw/d (F0 parental, F1 offspring), 88 mg/kg bw/d (F1 parental, F2
offspring).
Gross malformations were observed in rats and mice only after bolus administration (i.p. or gavage) of very high maternal toxic
doses. Fetotoxicity without maternal toxicity was observed in one drinking water study. NOAEL: 360 ppm (51 mg/kg bw/d)
(maternal), 70 ppm (10 mg/kg bw/d) (fetotoxicity), 2000 ppm (205 mg/kg bw/d) (teratogenicity). However, in two other
gavage studies with lower doses this finding was not confirmed. No NOAEL for maternal toxicity could be established; the
NOAEL for developmental toxicity was 40 mg/kg bw/d; no teratogenic effects were observed.
Experience with human exposure
Absorption from gastrointestinal tract is rapid. Peak plasma levels are reached after 15 to 120 minutes after ingestion. The
elimination half-life in adults is about 2.5 to 4.5 hours. A small percentage is excreted in bile, salvia, semen and breast milk. In
both humans and rats, excretion mainly occurs via urine (about 90 % dose in rats; > 95 % in humans).
4 UNEP PUBLICATIONS
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Caffeine metabolism is qualitatively similar in animals and humans. The main metabolic pathways are: demethylation and
hydroxylation of the 8-position leading to the formation of the respective uracil and uric acid derivatives. There are, however,
some quantitative differences in the metabolic profile.
Low doses (up to 2 g/ml in blood) stimulate the central nervous system, while high blood concentrations (10-30 g/ml)
produce restlessness, excitement, tremor, tinnitus, headache, and insomnia. Caffeine can induce alterations in mood and sleep
patterns, increase diuresis and gastric secretions. Acute toxicity is rare and is the result of an overdose. Lethal dose is estimated
to be 5 g.
Caffeine and coffee consumption are highly correlated in most populations studied; thus it is difficult to separate the two
exposures in epidemiologic investigations. No association between moderate consumption of coffee/caffeine and cardiovascular
diseases was demonstrated in more recent studies. In short-term clinical trials an increase in blood pressure was seen, whereas
in other surveys no relationship between caffeine consumption and elevation of blood pressure was observed. Caffeine
consumed in moderate amounts did not cause persistent increase in blood pressure in normotensive subjects. Effect on cardiac
rhythm is still in debate. Small increase in calcium excretion associated with coffee/caffeine intake was seen in subjects with
dietary calcium deficiency. Caffeine has weak reinforced properties, but with little or no evidence for upward dose adjustment,
possibly because of the adverse effects of higher doses. Withdrawal symptoms, although relatively limited with respect to
severity, do occur, and may contribute to maintenance of caffeine consumption. Caffeine use is not associated with
incapacitation. There is little evidence for an association of caffeine intake and benign breast disease. No association was found
in a study with biopsy -confirmed controls.
A cohort study with short follow-up period showed no association between caffeine consumption and mortality from cancers
at all sites. Case control studies of breast cancer showed no association with caffeine intake. Weak positive associations
between caffeine intake and lung, bladder or pancreas cancer as well as a weak inverse association between caffeine intake and
colon cancer may be due to bias or confounding. IARC evaluated that there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans.
There are conflicting reports on the effect of caffeine on human reproduction. A teratogenic effect has not been proven. While
caffeine intake up to 3-4 cups/day or 300 mg caffeine/day is unlikely to be causally related to spontaneous abortions or relevant
reduction of birth weight, an association between higher daily caffeine intake and these endpoints can not be excluded.
Conflicting results exist regarding a potential relationship between caffeine/coffee consumption and delayed conception or
infertility.
Environment
Caffeine has a water solubility of 20 g/l, a vapor pressure of 4.7 * e-6 Pa and a log Kow of 0.091.
Distribution modelling using Mackay, Level I, indicates that the main target compartment will be water with 99.99%.
Concerning biodegradation there is only a not valid study available for caffeine. However, from the structurally analogous
compound theophylline it can be concluded that caffeine is readily biodegradable. The calculated hydrolysis rate is extremely
slow. In the atmosphere caffeine will be indirectly photodegraded by reaction with hydroxyl radicals with a half-life of 19.8
hours (calculated).
Bio- and geoaccumulation are not expected according to the log Kow (-0.091).
The acute aquatic toxicity has been determined for fish (Leuciscus idus LC50(96h) 87 mg/l), for aquatic invertebrates (Daphnia
magna EC50(48h) 182 mg/l) and for algae (Scenedesmus subspicatus ErC50 (72h), ErC10 (72h) >100 mg/l). Results from
prolonged or chronic studies are not available. Following the EU risk assessment procedure the PNEC aqua can be calculated to
0.087 mg/l by applying an assessment factor of 1000 on the most sensitive species (Leuciscus idus LC50(96h) 87 mg/l).
Exposure
Caffeine is produced with a volume of 10,000 to 15,000 tons per year, world-wide, including 3,000 to 4,000 tons of natural
caffeine. It is mainly used in the food and pharma sectors.
UNEP PUBLICATIONS 5
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Furthermore caffeine is a naturally occurring substance in various plant species (e.g. 0.9 to 2.6% in green coffee beans). It is a
component in coffee, tea and cocoa. The use in food will be the predominant way of human exposure and of exposure of the
environment .
Production sites for the technical product: EU (Germany) 1, NAFTA 2, Japan 1, India 4 and China 10. Production sites for
natural caffeine are appr. 7 to 8 worldwide, thereof 4 in Europe.
Exposure to workers during production is adequately controlled by the use of engineering controlled methods in the industry of
the sponsored country.
Workplace measurements during filter changes (Germany) : 0.1- ca. 1.2 mg/m3 (8h).
At the German production site, process waters with relevant substance quantities are separated and combusted.
NATURE OF FURTHER WORK RECOMMENDED
Environment : No recommendation for further work, because the substance is readily biodegradable, has a low bioaccumulation
potential and is only moderately toxic to aquatic organisms.
Human Health: No recommendation for further work for the following reasons:
The pharmacological properties of caffeine are well known. There are many studies relevant to reproductive toxicity; some
suggest an adverse effect but the total data base is inconsistent. The case of caffeine is regulated by food and drug agencies of
national governments.
6 UNEP PUBLICATIONS
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
FULL SIDS SUMMARY
CAS NO: 58-08-2 SPECIES PROTOCOL RESULTS
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL
2.1 Melting Point 235 239 C

2.2 Boiling Point Sublimation at 178 C
2.3 Density 1.23 g/cm3 at 18 C
2.4 Vapour Pressure calculated 0.0000047 Pa at 25 C
2.5 Partition Coefficient measured -0.091 at 23 C
(Log Pow)
2.6 Water Solubility 20.000 mg/l at 20 C
pH 5.5 6.5 at 10 g/l and 20 C
ENVIRO NMENTAL FATE AND

PATHWAY
3.1.1 Photodegradation calculated Indirect photolysis: air

Reaction with OH-radicals: t 1/2 = 19.8 hours
3.1.2 Stability in Water calculated t >1 year
3.2 Monitoring Data
Mackay level I calculation In Water 99.99 %
3.3 Transport and Distribution
In sediment, soil and biota <<0.1%
3.5 Biodegradation readily biodegradable, estimated from ready

biodegradability of structurally analogous
compound theophylline
ECOTOXICOLOGY
4.1 Acute/Prolonged Toxicity to Leuciscus idus DIN 38 412 part 15 LC50 (96 hours) = 87 mg/l
Fish
4.2 Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Daphnia EG 79/831, Annex V, part EC50 (48 hours) = 182 mg/l
Invertebrates magna C
4.3 Toxicity to Aquatic Plants e.g. Scenedesmus OECD 201 EC50 (72 hours) >100 mg/l
Algae subspicatus
4.4 Toxicity to bacteria Pseudomonas DIN 38412 part 8, draft EC50 (17 hours) = 3,490 mg/l
putida
4.6.2 Toxicity to terrestrial plants Oryza sativa Growth inhibition at 0.5 10 mM

4.6.3 Toxicity to Other Non- Red-winged LD50 = 316 mg/kg
Mammalian Terrestrial blackbird
Species (Including Birds)
Starling LD50 >500 mg/kg
Tribolium LD50 adults (20 days) = 288 mg/kg

castaneum LD50 larvae (20 days) = 251 mg/kg
UNEP PUBLICATIONS 7
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
CAS NO: 58-08-2 SPECIES PROTOCOL RESULTS
TOXICOLOGY
5.1.1 Acute Oral Toxicity Rat Comparable to OECD

guideline 401 LD50 261-383 mg/kg bw
Rat NTP program LD50 200-400 mg/kg bw
mice NTP programm mice 185 mg/kg bw
5.1.2 Acute Inhalation Toxicity Rat OECD 403 Ca. 4.94 mg/l/4h, aerosol
5.1.3 Acute Dermal Toxicity Rat Comparable to OECD > 2000 mg/kg bw
guideline 402
5.4 Repeated Dose Toxicity Rat 90 days, drinking water, NOAEL 1500 ppm (174 mg/kg bw/d females,
NTP program, 151 mg/kg bw/d males)
Mouse 90 days, drinking water, NOAEL 1500 ppm (179 mg/kg bw/d females,
NTP program 167 mg/kg bw/d males)
5.5 Genetic Toxicity In Vitro

Negative (with and without metabolic
A. Bacterial Test Salmonella Comparable to OECD
activation)
(Gene mutation) typhimurium guideline 471
Positive (only without metabolic activation
B. Non-Bacterial In Vitro Test CHL cells Comparable to OECD
tested)
(Chromosomal aberrations) guideline 473
Human Comparable to OECD Negative (with and without metabolic

lymphocytes guideline 473 activation)
5.6 Genetic Toxicity In Vivo Rat Cytogenetic, feed, 117 Negative

weeks
Mouse Cytogenetic, oocytes, i.p. Negative
Mouse Cytogenetic, Negative

spermatogonia, i.p.
Comparable to OECD
guideline 483
Mouse Micronucleus, i.p. Negative

Comparable to OECD
guideline 474
Mouse Micronucleus, gavage Weak positive in the highest dose

Comparable to OECD
guideline 474
Mouse Dominant lethal test, Negative

drinking water or gavage
Mouse Host-mediated assay with Negative

E. coli
5.8 Toxicity to Reproduction Rat Continuous breeding, task NOAEL parental/F1 not established (reduced
1-4 body weight gain in all treated groups)
Mouse Continuous breeding , task

NOAEL Parental/ F1 offspring =
1, 2, 3
22 mg/kg bw/d
Mouse Continuous breeding, task NOAEL Parental/ F1 offspring =
1, 2, 4 22 mg/kg bw/d
NOAEL F2 offspring = 88 mg/kg bw/d
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5.9 Developmental Toxicity/ Rat Drinking water day 0-20 NOAEL maternal = 51 mg/kg bw/d
Teratogenicity NOAEL fetotoxicity = 10mg/kg bw/d
NOAEL teratogen > 205 mg/kg bw/d
Rat Gavage, day 1-20, NTP LOAEL maternal 40 mg/kg bw/d
program NOAEL fetotoxicity = 40 mg/kg bw/d
NOAEL teratogen = 80 mg/kg bw/d
Gavage, day 1-20,allowed

Rat to deliver, NTP LOAEL maternal: 10 mg/kg bw/d
programm NOAEL fetotoxicty: 40 mg/kg bw/d
NOAEL teratogen: 40 mg/kg bw/d
Further Corrosiveness/Irritation Skin Rabbit OECD 404 Not irritating

Data
Corrosiveness/Irritation Eye Rabbit OECD 405 Not irritating
Sensitisation Guinea Pig No data
Carcinogenicity Rat Drinking water up to Negative

2000 ppm, 104 weeks
Rapid absorption from gastrointestinal tract;

5.11 Experience with Human Kinetic, Metabolism
peak plasma levels reached after 15 to 120
Exposure
minutes. Elimination half-life 2.5 to 4.5 h.
Metabolized by hepatic microsomal enzymes
(demethylation, 95 %). In both humans and
rats, excretion mainly occurs via urine (about
90 % dose in rats; > 95 % in humans).
Caffeine metabolism is qualitatively similar in
animals and humans. The main metabolic
pathways are: demethylation and
hydroxylation of the 8-position leading to the
formation of the respective uracil and uric acid
derivatives. There are, however, some
quantitative differences in the metabolic
profile.
Toxicity Low doses (up to 2 g/ml in blood): stimu-

lation of the central nervous system; high
blood concentrations (10-30 g/ml): rest-
lessness, excitement, tremor, tinnitus, head-
ache, and insomnia. Alterations in mood and
sleep patterns, increase diuresis and gastric
secretions. Lethal dose: 5 g (overdosing).
Epidemiology Caffeine and coffee consumption are highly

correlated in most populations studied; thus it
is difficult to separate the two exposures in
epidemiologic investigations.
Bias or confounding has to be taken into
account in many of the studies.
Cardiovascular No association between moderate consumption

of coffee/caffeine and cardiovascular diseases.
Caffeine consumed in moderate amounts did
not cause persistent increase in blood pressure
in normotensive subjects. Short-term clinical
studies have shown that in caffeine-naive
subjects, 250 mg of caffeine increased systolic
UNEP PUBLICATIONS 9
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
blood pressure. Effect on cardiac rhythm in
debate.
Other effects Small increase in calcium excretion in subjects

with dietary calcium deficiency. Weak
reinforced properties, limited withdrawal
symptoms, not associated with incapacitation.
Little evidence for an association with benign
breast (no evidence in biopsy-confirmed
studies).
No association with mortality from cancers at

Carcinogenicity all sites. No association with breast cancer.
Weak association with bladder cancer. Effect
on colon and pancreas in debate. IARC
evaluated that there is inadequate evidence of
carcinogenicity in humans.
Conflicting reports on the effect of caffeine on

Reproductive toxicity human reproduction.
Teratogenic effect has not been proven.
High exposure (consumption of >3 -4 cups of

coffee/day or 300 mg caffeine/day) may result
in birth weight reduction. No final conclusion
for an association between prematurity or
spontaneous abortion. Conflicting results exist
regarding a potential relationship between
caffeine/coffee consumption and delayed
conception or infertility.
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OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
SIDS Initial Assessment Report (SIAR)

1 IDENTITY
Chemical Name: Caffeine

Synonyms: 1,3,7-trimethyl-2,6-dioxopurine
1,3,7-trimethylxanthine
3,7-Dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-dione
7-Methyltheophylline
CAS Number: 58-08-2

Empirical Formula: C8 H10 N4 O2
Structure:
O N N
N N
General Substance Information
Substance type: organic, natural substance

Physical status: solid
Purity: 98.5 - 100 % w/w
Physical and chemical properties
Caffeine is soluble in water with 20 g/l at 20C (BASF AG, 2001a) and has a calculated vapour pressure
of 0.0000047 Pa at 25C (BASF AG, 2000a). The Henrys law constant has been estimated to 1.9*10-19
atm*m3/mole (Swann et al., 1983). The partition coefficient log Pow is measured to 0.091 at 23C (BASF
AG, 1988a). The density of caffeine is higher than that of water (1.23 g/cm3 at 18C) (The Merck Index,
1989, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics; 1991-1992). The melting point is 235 239 C (BASF
AG, 2001a), Caffeine sublimes at 178C (The Merck Index, 1989).
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2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON EXPOSURE
1999 the estimated world production amounts to 10,000 15,000 tons including 3,000 to 4,000 tons of
natural caffeine (Europe 5,000 10,000 t/a, Germany 1,000 5,000 t/a).
Production sites for the technical product:
EU (Germany) 1, NAFTA (USA, Canada, Mexico) 2, Japan 1, India 4 and China 10.
Production sites for natural caffeine are appr. 7 to 8 worldwide, thereof 4 in Europe.
Caffeine is a substance with wide disperse use. It is predominantly used in the food sector and pharma
sector (80% and 16% rsp.). A smaller part is used in cosmetics (3%) or in technical applications (1%).
Furthermore caffeine is a naturally occurring substance in various plant species (e.g. 0.9 to 2.6% in green
coffee beans). It is a component in coffee, tea and cocoa. The use in food will be the predominant way of
human exposure and of exposure of the environment.
In the Danish Product register (Aug. 2001) there are 6 products containing caffeine. Product types are
food/feedstuff flavourings and nutrients and laboratory chemicals.
2.1 Environmental exposure and fate
Measured data on emission into the atmosphere or into surface water via waste water treatment plants are
not available. At the German production site, process waters with relevant substance quantities are
separated and incinerated (BASF AG, 2001c).
Distribution modelling using Mackay, Level I (V 2.1), indicates that the main target compartment will be
water with 99.99% (BASF AG, 2000a).
Caffeine is indirectly photodegraded by reaction with hydroxyl radicals in the atmosphere with a half-life of
19.8 hours (calculated) (BASF AG, 2000a). Concerning biodegradation there is only one test report
available (Henkel KgaA, 2000). In this test that was performed according to OECD 301 F two parallel
vessels were used. In one vessel a biodegradation of 58 % and in the other of 84 % was found. As the two
parallel vessels differ by more than 20 %, the validity criteria for the test are not fulfilled and the test has to
be regarded as not valid. However, for the structurally analogous substance theophylline (CAS No: 58-55-
9) there is a test on ready biodegradability available from whic h it can clearly be concluded that this
substance is readily biodegradable (OECD 301 A, 90 - 100 % after 22 days, >90% at the end of the 10-
days-window) (BASF AG, 2000b). As the two substances differ only by one methyl group it can be
concluded with high probability that also the substance caffeine is readily biodegradable. This is confirmed
by Richardson and Bowron (1985). They gave in a review report the information that caffeine is readily
biodegradable. However, as no further information is given on the test that was performed and the exact
results, this information cannot be validated. The calculated hydrolysis rate is extremely slow (T 1/2 >1 year)
(BASF AG, 2000a).
The estimated soil adsorption coefficient (log K oc 0,0135) suggests that caffeine would not absorb to soil
particles (BASF AG, 2000a). No experimental data on bioaccumulation are available. The log Kow of -
0.091 indicates no potential for bioaccumulation (BASF AG, 1988a).
2.2 Human Exposure
Exposure of workers to caffeine during production is adequately controlled in the industry of the sponsor
country (Germany).
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Caffeine is produced under controlled conditions in closed systems. Exposure may only occur during
occasional filter changes. In the bottling plant local exhaused systems are used. During filter changes, dust
masks, throw away protective suits, and gloves are worn. Hence, there is practically no exposure under
normal workplace conditions.
Workplace measurements (during filter changes), Germany: 0.1- ca. 1.2 mg/m3 (8h)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
3 HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS
3.1 Effects on human health
In the human health section many review articles have been used, to which a Klimisch Code 4 (secondary
literature) was assigned, but which was felt adequate for the assessment of a substance with a huge amount
of data.
Remark: The scientific literature of caffeine comprises a lot of published studies and reviews due to its
containment in beverages (coffee, tea, cocoa, cola drinks, etc.) and its use as pharmaceutical. With a focus
on health and safety issues comprehensive reviews including those of the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC), 1991 and Nehlig and Debry, 1996 and Christian and Brent, 2001 studies cited in
these reviews were choosen for the robust summary of caffeine. For selected endpoints (e.g. chronic,
carcinogenic, reproductive toxicity) additional up-date retrieval was done.
Caffeine and coffee consumption are highly correlated in most of the populations studies; thus, it is very
difficult to separate the two exposures in epidemiological studies. It was therefore not possible to evaluate
adequately the effect of caffeine per se. Most of the studies examined the relationship between drinking
cups of coffee per day and reproductive effects. The caffeine consumption by other sour ces as tea and
cola as well as quantitative differences between various types of coffee often have not been considered
appropriately.
Thus, the impact of potentially both differential and non-differential misclassification cannot be addressed
adequately. It is often not even clear whether the true effect has been over- or underestimated.
In several studies potentially confounding factors such as alcohol, smoking, socioeconomic status, working
conditions have not been taken into account. Under these circumstances weak to moderate associations
might be pretended.
3.1.1 Experience with human exposure
3.1.1.1 Toxicokinetics and metabolism
Kinetics
In humans caffeine is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract (Chvasta and Cooke, 1971,
Marks and Kelly, 1973, Bonati et al., 1982, Blanchard and Sawers, 1983) . Caffeine is bound to
plasma proteins at levels of 10-30 % at a wide range of concentrations (Bonati and Garattini, 1984).
After oral doses of 5-8 mg/kg bw, peak plasma concentrations of 8-10 g/ml were reached (Bonati et
al., 1982, Blanchard and Sawers, 1983, Arnaud, 1987).
Peak plasma concentrations are reached in 15-120 minutes in humans and animals (Bonati et al., 1982,
Arnaud and Welsch, 1982), and half-lives of 2.5-4.5 hours were observed in humans and 2.5 h in rats
receiving a 4.0 mg/kg dose of caffeine.
Caffeine is eliminated by first order kinetics from humans (Bonati et al., 1982). Caffeine half-life is
increased in the neonatal period due to the immaturity of hepatic enzyme systems (Aranda et al., 1979,
Parsons and Neims, 1981). It is also prolonged during the last trimester in pregnant women (Brazier et
al., 1983), and in women taking oral contraceptives (Patwardhan et al., 1980, Abernethy and Todd,
1985). The clearance of caffeine is stimula ted by smoking (Parsons and Neims, 1978, Jores et al.,
1988).
Caffeine is distributed relatively uniformly throughout all body tissues, including cerebrospinal fluid, breast
milk, salvia, and semen (Goldstein and Warren, 1962, Somani et al., 1980, Beach et al., 1982,
Rodopoules and Norman, 1996). The volume of distribution is about 0.7 l/kg bw (Arnaud, 1987).
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
The elimination of caffeine occurs through metabolism by hepatic microsomal enzyme systems (Grant et
al., 1987), and elimination is impaired in the presence of liver disease (Statland et al., 1976). Only a
small percentage is excreted unchanged in the urine (van der Merwe et al., 1988). Caffeine crosses
easily the placental barrier (Somani et al., 1980).
In both humans and rats, excretion mainly occurs via urine (about 90 % of the dose in rats; > 95 % in
humans) (Arnaud, 1993).
Metabolism
Caffeine metabolism is qualitatively relatively similar in animals and humans (Arnaud, 1993) . The main
metabolic pathways are: demethylation and hydroxylation of the 8-position leading to the formation of the
respective uracil and uric acid derivatives. There are, however, some quantitative differences in the
metabolic profile. Humans are characterized by the importance of 3methyl demethylation leading to the
formation of paraxanthine and especially metabolites thereof through subsequent metabolic steps. The main
urinary metabolites in humans are 1-methyluric acid, 1-methylxanthine, 5-acetylamino-6-formylamino-3-
methyluracil (not found in rats and mice), 1,7-dimethyluric acid and paraxanthin. In rats and mice, the
metabolism of caffeine is predominantly via theobromine and theophylline. The main urinary metabolites are
1,3-dimethyluracil, paraxanthine, trimethyluric acid, theophylline, and theobromine. Caffeine metabolism
decreases during pregnancy, resulting in higher serum concentrations.
3.1.1.2 Toxic effects (poisoning, overdosing)
Only rare deaths from overdosage of caffeine have been reported (Gilbert, 1976). It has been estimated
that 5 g to 10 g may be fatal in man (total dose, appr. 65 cups of coffee taken at one time) (Krantz and
Carr, 1951, Rivenes, 1997). Blood concentrations of 10-30 g/ml may produce restlessness,
excitement, tremor, tinnitus, headache and insomnia, low doses (up to 2 g/ml in blood) stimulate the
central nervous system (Ashton, 1987, Stavric, 1988). Some adverse effects like gastric symptoms,
insomnia, seizure, and fever were reported after overdosing (appr. 750 mg in an adult) (Lachance, 1982,
Stavric, 1988, FitzSimmons and Kidner, 1997, Daroca et al., 1996).
3.1.1.3 Chronic effects
3.1.1.3.1 Cardiovascular disease

No association between increased caffeine consumption and increased mortality due to cardiovascular
disease was found (Martin et al., 1988).
Earlier studies suggested an association of caffeine consumption of more than 6 cups of coffee with
coronary heart disease (CHD) (Paul et al., 1963, Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance
Program, 1972, Jick et al., 1973) . In more recent years, retrospective (Hennekens et al., 1976,
Rosenberg et al., 1980, Willett et al., 1996) and prospective studies have consistently failed to
demonstrate an association between caffeine and CHD (Yano et al., 1977, Heyden et al., 1978,
Murray et al., 1981, Welin et al., 1984, Grobbee et al., 1990, Rosengren and Wilhelmsen, 1991,
Hart et al., 1997). In a case-control study neither caffeinated nor decaffeinated coffee (drinking 4
cups/day of caffeinated coffee compared to drinking 1 cup/week, resp. 1 cup/day of decaffeinated
coffee compared to nondrinkers) was associated with the risk of myocardial infarction (Sesso et al.,
1999).
3.1.1.3.2 Hypertension
Short-term clinical studies have shown that in caffeine-naive subjects, 250 mg of caffeine increased systolic
blood pressure (Robertson et al., 1978, Ammon et al., 1983). In a cross-sectional study of 30,000
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middle aged men consuming caffeine showed an inverse association with systolic and diastolic blood
pressure (Stensvold et al., 1989). Similar findings were reported in a multiple risk factor intervention trial
(Stamler et al., 1997) and in a cross-sectional study (Periti et al., 1987). Surveys of the general
population demonstrated a positive correlation between caffeine consumption and systolic but not diastolic
blood pressure (Lang, et al. 1983a, Lang et al., 1983b). No relationship between increasing caffeine
consumption and elevations of blood pressure was seen in large cross-sectional study in employees
(Bertrand et al., 1978). An immediate dose-related difference in systolic and diastolic blood pressure
were seen in healthy nonsmokers (Lane et al., 1998) and in hypertensive patients (Rachima-Maoz et
al., 1998).
Though consumption of caffeine (eight cups of regular coffee corresponding to 500 mg caffeine per day)
may exhibit acute increases in blood pressure, the long-term effects appear to be minimal. After one to four
days of regular consumption a tolerance develops, with blood pressure returning to previous levels.
3.1.1.3.3 Arrhythmias
Heavy coffee consumption ( 9 cups/day) was associated wit h more than twice the likelihood of
ventricular premature beats in a population survey (Prineas et al., 1980). However, Sutherland et al.,
1985, Roberston et al., 1981, Myers et al., 1987, Newsby, 1996 reported that caffeine doses up to
500 mg/day do not affect cardiac rhythm in normal subjects and patients.
3.1.1.3.4 Lipids, glucose

Experimental studies do not reflect a caffeine effect on blood cholesterol. Changes in blood cholesterol are
similar in individuals consuming decaffeinated coffee or regular coffee (van Dusseldrop et al., 1990,
Superko et al., 1991). Blood cholesterol levels were also comparable in subjects given placebo or 600
mg caffeine (Herbert et al., 1987). A meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials showed
increased serum lipids in studies of patients with hyperlipidemia and in trials of caffeinated or boiled coffee.
Trials using filtered coffee demonstrated very little increase in serum cholesterol. Consumption of unfiltered,
but not filtered, coffee increases serum levels of total and LDL cholesterol (Jee et al., 2001). An insulin
independent rise in blood glucose was seen in subjects receiving 200 mg caffeine (Pizziol et al., 1998).
3.1.1.3.5 Calcium metabolism

Increased urinary and fecal excretion of calcium and other minerals associated with dietary caffeine have
been reported (Massey and Wise, 1984, Massey and Opryszek, 1990, Whiting, 1990). Although
caffeine caused a small positive increase in urinary calcium excretion, it did not affect overall bone density
(Lloyd et al., 1991). Negative findings with respect to caffeine intake, bone mineral content, and risk of
fractures were reported (Johansson et al., 1992, Harris and Dawson-Hughes, 1994, Kreiger et
al., 1992, Lloyd, 1997) . Other reports suggested that consumptio n of more than 2 cups of coffee a day
may be associated with an increased risk of hip fracture (Kiel et al., 1990, Hernandez-Avila et al.,
1991) . However moderate caffeine intake (100 mg/day) appears not be associated with significant
reduction in bone gain (Packard and Recker, 1996, Lloyd et al., 1998).
3.1.1.3.6 Fibrocystic breast disease

There is little evidence to support an association between caffeine intake (up to 6 cups of coffee and more
per day) and an increase in the incidence of benign breast disease or an affection of its course when this
condition is present (Levinson and Dunn, 1986, Lawson et al., 1981, Marshall et al., Heyden and
Fodor, 1986, Lubin et al., 1985, Rohan et al., 1989).
3.1.1.3.7 Tolerance and withdrawal
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Case reports and clinical studies of caffeine withdrawal most frequently reported symptoms of abrupt
withdrawal as mild to moderate headache beginning 12-24 hours after terminating intake (300 mg/day) and
lasting up to a week (Griffiths and Mumford, 1995, Griffiths and Woodson, 1988, Evans and
Griffiths, 1992). Decreased responsiveness to daily caffeine (500 mg/day) administration with respect to
blood pressure (Ammon et al., 1983, Roberston et al., 1981), diuresis (minimal effectiv diuretic dose
70 mg/day) (Eddy and Downs, 1928), and plasma epinephrine, norepinephrine, and plasma renin
activity (250 mg/day) (Robertson et al., 1978), but not to the effect of caffeine on urinary calcium
excretion (300 mg/day) was reported (Massey and Opryszek, 1990). No effect on mood and alertness
was seen after single caffeine dose (600 mg/day) (Sicard et al., 1996) or withdrawal (300 mg/day)
(Comer et al., 1997). Other studies on caffeine deprivation found an association with decreased vigor
and performance on reaction and increased fatigue (250 mg/day) (Phillips-Bute and Lane, 1998,
Bernstein et al., 1998).
3.1.1.4 Carcinogenicity
Heavy coffee consumption tends to be associated with other risk factors for various types of cancer, e.g.
smoking, alcohol, physical inactivity (Giovannucci, 1998 ). Residual confounding might explain weak
positive associations between caffeine consumption and lung, bladder, or pancreas cancer.
Based on the currently available literature Nehlig and Debrys (1996) conclusion that in the doses
usually consumed by man, coffee does not have any potential carcinogenic effect can still be supported.
Whether the consumption of doses higher than 4 mg/kg/day slightly enhances or lowers the risk for some
cancer types is currently not clear.
The IARC evaluates the carcinogenicity in humans of caffeine as inadequate evidence (IARC 1991).
3.1.1.4.1 Different sites

The effect of caffeine consumption (av. 317 mg/day) on mortality was evaluated in a historical cohort study
of 10,064 diagnosed hypertensive individuals participating in the Hypertension Detection and Follow-up
Program from 1973 to 1979. No evidence was found for an association between increased level of
caffeine consumption (up to > 428 mg/day) and increased cancer mortality during the following four years
(Martin et al., 1988).
3.1.1.4.2 Breast
Several case-control studies provided no association between coffee intake (up to 7 cups/day) and
breast cancer risk (IARC, 1991). Also new case-control studies confirmed this result (Hunter, 1992,
McLaughlin et al., 1992, Folsom et al., 1993, Levi et al., 1993, Smith et al., 1994, Tavani et al.,
1998).
3.1.1.4.3 Colon
Cohort studies that addressed the issue of coffee drinking (up to 3 cups/day) and risk of cancer of the
colon have generally been interpreted as showing no association. There are case-control studies that
indicated inverse associations and others find a risk. Bias and confounding could not be excluded as the
source of the apparent associations (IARC, 1991 ). In recent case-control and cohort studies no increased
risk of colorectal cancer from caffeine intake (up to 7 cups/day) was found (Cipriani and Geddes,
1996, Giovannucci, 1998, Hartman et al., 1998, Tavani et al., 1997). The lower risk of colorectal
cancer with high vs. low coffee consumption as determined in the meta-analysis by Giovannucci (1998)
might be due to an avoidance of coffee by unidentified high-risk individuals, or due to enhanced colonic
motility induced by coffee, or due to antimutagenic components in coffee (not necessarily caffeine).
3.1.1.4.4 Bladder
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In cohort studies on coffee consumption neither an increase nor a decrease risk for bladder cancer was
found. Several case-control studies showed a weak positive association, while others did not. Taken as a
whole, the data are consistent with a weak positive relationship between coffee consumption (up to >5
cups/day) and the occurrence of bladder cancer, but the possibility that this is due to bias or confounding
cannot be excluded (IARC, 1991 ).
3.1.1.4.5. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, lung, pancreas

Cohort studies on the relationship between coffee consumption and pancreatic cancer did not report a
significant association with increased consumption; any nonsignificant increase was reduced after
adjustment for smoking. In an early case-control study a positive relationship between coffee consumption
(up to 5 cups/day) and pancreatic cancer was reported. Several subsequent reports (coffee intake 7
cups/day) have been less positive overall. Potential biases associated with the comparability of case and
control groups also complicate interpretation, and methodological problems were noted in some studies
(IARC, 1991). A recent case-control study showed a U-shaped dose-response relationship between
coffee intake (never, occasionally, and 3+ cups/day) and the relative risk for pancreatic cancer, suggesting
a preventive effect of small amounts of coffee. However, the authors did no present data to verify this
suggestion (Nishi et al., 1996).
In a case-control study no association between coffee consumption (up to 4 cups/day , resp. 2 or more
cups/day) and non-Hodgkins lymphoma was found (Tavani et al., 1994). Concerning lung cancer, there
have been reports of studies showing no or weak associations with the consumption of caffeine-containing
drinks (Mendilaharsu et al., 1998 , and others quoted by Mendilaharsu et al., 1998, Jacobsen et
al., 1986). Data are inadequate for an assessment.
3.1.1.5 Effects on reproduction

Christian and Brent, 2001 concluded in their recent review on reproductive and developmental risks of
caffeine that the usual range of human exposures to caffeine from food and beverages is below the
threshold dose that would result in developmental/teratogenic or reproductive effects.
With regard to the endpoints low birth weight and spontaneous abortion, some studies of good quality and
power have suggested an increased risk with higher coffee consumption (mostly more than 300 mg/day).
Therefore, these endpoints will be addressed more in detail while the evidence of other adverse effects can
be considered as inadequate based on the presently available data.
3.1.1.5.1 Delayed conception and infertility

Delayed conception was reported in association with coffee consumption of four to seven cups/day or
caffeine consumption as little as 100 mg/day (total dose) (Christianson et al., 1989, Wilcox et al.,
1988, Williams et al., 1990, Hatch and Bracken, 1993, Stanton and Gray, 1995, Bolumar et
al., 1997, Curtis et al., 1997). These findings were not confirmed in other studies (Riduan Joesoef et
al., 1990, Hakim et al., 1998, Jensen et al., 1998) or a slight association was only seen in women
who smoked and also consumed at least 8 cups of coffee per day (Olsen, 1991). Lack of information on
confounder like female body mass index, hormonal status, disease of female reproductive organs, semen
quality, frequency of intercourse, especially in the studies reporting delayed conception, suggests that these
findings need further verification.
Risk of infertility due to tubal disease or endometriosis was observed in women consuming upper levels of
caffeinated beverages (more than 7 g/month) (Grodstein et al., 1993). No significant association
between consumption of caffeinated beverages, except tea, and infertility was found in a prospective study
(Caan et al., 1998).
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3.1.1.5.2 Low birth weight
Several studies assessing coffee, tea and cola consumption to estimate caffeine intake have shown an
association between maternal caffeine intakes greater than 70 to 300 mg/day and low birthweight (Caan
and Goldhaber 1989, Martin and Bracken 1987, Fenster et al. 1991a,b, Vlajinac et al., 1997).
Dose-response relationships have been noted in the two studies mentioned first.
A meta-analysis (Fernandes et al., 1998) including three of these and four other studies (the studies
are: Caan and Goldhaber 1989, Fenster et al. 1991a,b, Fortier et al. 1993, Linn et al. 1982,
Martin and Bracken 1987, McDonald et al. 1992, Mills et al. 1993) with extractable data showed
an overall risk ration of 1.51 (95 % CI 1.39-1.63) for low birthweight (< 2500 g) in 64,268 pregnancies
of women consuming > 150 mg caffeine per day. However, although the odds ratios in the individual
studies were adjusted for some confounding factors, the meta-analysis used unadjusted data only.
Adjustment of individual studies for confounding factors significantly would decreased the odds ratios for
low birth weight calculated in these studies.
There are several other studies, which showed only a very weak decrease in birthweight after high
consumption of caffeine (4 cups and more/day) (Olsen et al., 1991) or no association at all (Fortier et
al., 1993, Shu et al., 1995, Santos et al., 1998, Grosso et al., 2001).
The study by Grosso et al. (2001), for example, is one of the methodically better studies taking into
account several potential confounders and distinguishing between exposures during the first and third
trimesters, but only 2% of the participating women consumed more than 300 mg caffeine per day during
month 7 of the pregnancy. The authors reported an adjusted odds ratio of 1.0 with a wide 95% confidence
interval (0.37-2.70) for > 300 mg/day during month 7.
A recent study by Clausson et al., 2002 with relatively good assessment of exposure and confounding
factors does not support an association between moderate caffeine consumption and reduced birth weight,
gestational age, or fetal growth.
Klebanoff et al., 2002 found an association between an increasing risk of reduced fetal growth only among
women who smoked. However, since paraxanthine concentrations could not be related to an amount of
caffeine consumption the results cannot be used for a quantitative assessment.
Based on the current data, it is not possible to decide whether

a) the observed associations between caffeine consumption and low birthweight are due to (residual)
confounding or recall bias, since in almost all studies data on the wide range of even the known
confounders were insufficient and exposure to caffeine has been determined retrospectively by
interviews/questionnaires/ or
b) true associations have been masked in the negative studies by non-differential misclassification of
caffeine exposure or have been missed due to a lack of power.
It might be suggested that caffeine intake up to 3-4 cups/day or 300 mg caffeine/day is unlikely to cause a
relevant reduction in birthweight.
However, it cannot be excluded that higher caffeine consumption (>300 mg/day) exerts a small, but
measurable effect on fetal growth.
3.1.1.5.3 Prematurity and abortion

Prematurity
Information concerning prematurity was insufficie nt for conclusions to be drawn about an effect of coffee
consumption by IARC, 1991, whereas caffeine consumption over a range of moderate to high intakes has
been reported to increase the risk of prematurity in a recent study (Wisborg et al., 1996).
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Spontaneous abortion
A meta-analysis (Fernandes et al., 1998) including six studies (the studies are: Armstrong et al.
1992, Dominguez-Rojas et al. 1994, Fenster et al. 1991a,b, Infante -Rivard et al. 1993, Mills et
al. 1993, Srisuphan and Bracken 1986) with extractable data showed an overall risk ratio of 1.36
(95 % CI 1.29-1.45) for spontaneous abortion in 42,988 pregnancies of women consuming > 150 mg
caffeine per day. However, although the odds ratios in the individual studies were adjusted for some
confounding factors, the meta-analysis used unadjusted data only. Adjustment of individual studies for
confounding factors significantly decreased the odds ratios for spontaneous abortion calculated in these
studies.
A potentially important factor which has not been addressed in this meta-analysis is the change in caffeine
consumption due to pregnancy-related nausea. Nausea can be considered as a marker for a healthy
pregnancy (Stein and Susser 1991 ).
Since nauseated women consume less caffeine and have a reduced risk of spontaneous abortion,
incomplete data on nausea and vomiting could lead to an overestimation of the risk associated with high
levels of caffeine consumption.
Cnattingius et al. (2000) point out that results of epidemiologic studies have given inconclusive results on
the association between caffeine consumption and spontaneous abortion. This might at least partly due to
the fact that most studies have not included data on symptoms of pregnancy (Armstrong et al., 1992,
Dlugosz et al., 1996, Infante-Rivard et al. 1993, Mills et al. 1993, Parazzini et al., 1998,
Srisuphan and Bracken, 1986) while those that did have used fairly insensitive markers such as
presence or absence of nausea at any time during pregnancy (Fenster et al.1991a,b, Fenster et al.,
1997, Klebanoff et al., 1999, Kline et al., 1991).
According to Cnattingius et al. (2000) only one study with sufficient sample size focused on the first
trimester of pregnancy when changes in caffeine intake, pregnancy-related symptoms, and the majority of
spontaneous abortions occur.
Cnattingius et al. (2000) found an association between caffeine consumption and spontaneous abortion
only in non-smokers (doses, odds ratios, and 95% confidence intervals as follows: 100-299 mg/day: 1.3
(0.9-1.8), 300-499 mg/day: 1.4 (0.9-2.0), >= 500 mg/day: 2.2 (1.3-3.8). However, retrospective
exposure assessment based on interviews by midwives is a limitation of this study, and spurious positive
results due to increased caffeine ingestion among the case patients in response to lessening of the severity
of symptoms cannot be ruled out.
Klebanoff et al. (1999) reported an association of serum paraxanthine, a caffeine metabolite, with an
increased risk of spontaneous abortion only at very high concentrations (>= 95 th percentile). In this study
most of the case women had spontaneous abortions in the second trimester, and the use of paraxanthine as
a marker of caffeine dose has to be regarded with caution (intra- and interindividual variations in caffeine
metabolism, short half-life, long-term storage).
A recent study by Wen et al. (2001) showed no association between caffeine consumption and
spontaneous abortion in women who did not report nausea. However, the authors did observe an
association between caffeine consumption of 300 mg/day and more and spontaneous abortion in women
reporting nausea (odds ratio 5.4, 95% confidence interval 2.0-14.6). This is based on 4 cases only,
prospective data on caffeine intake and nausea status and duration have been collected only monthly, and
nausea severity has not been taken into account. Thus, other explanations than a causal relationship with
caffeine consumption have to be considered.
In conclusion, caffeine intake up to 3-4 cups/day or 300 mg caffeine/day is unlikely to be causally related
to spontaneous abortions. Nevertheless, in some subgroups of women (e.g. non-smokers, women with
nausea), higher caffeine consumption (>300 mg/day) might increase the risk of spontaneous abortions.
3.1.1.5.4 Congenital anomalies
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Based on two cohort and four case-control studies it was concluded, that taken together these studies do
not provide evidence of a teratogenic risk of coffee intake (IARC, 1991). Two studies in mothers taking
caffeine-containing drugs during pregnancy showed either a nonsignificant increase of congenital
malformations in cases (2.4 %) compared to controls (1.5 %) (Nelson and Forfar, 1971) or a slight
nonsignificant decrease (RR=0.98, 95 % CI 0.7 to 1.2) (Heinonen, 1982) . More recent studies showed
no relationship between caffeine consumption during pregnancy and incidence of malformations in offspring
(Olsen, 1991, Olsen et al., 1991). Retrospective information on caffeine intake during pregnancy
showed developmental delay or central nervous system dysfunction and congenital anomalies with coffee
consumption of 2 or more cups of coffee (Tanaka et al., 1990). In conclusion there is no relationship
between caffeine consumption up to 2 cups/day and malformations.
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3.1.1.5.5 Fetal effects

Fetal heart rate changes and increases in aortic peal velocities were observed in mothers after orally
ingestion of a caffeine citrate solution (100 mg/m-2 body furface area) between 25 and 36 week of
gestation (Miller et al., 1994). In fetuses of mothers not exceeding a daily caffeine intake of 200 mg
temporal distributions of fetal behavioural states resembled those found in most normal thrid-trimester
pregnancies (Devoe et al., 1993).
3.1.1.5.6 Effects in infants

Newborn cardiac arrhythmias was associated with maternal caffeine intake (Hadeed et al., 1990,
1993) . Maternal caffeine consumption was associated with central and obstructive apnea in infants
(Bancalari et al., 1991, Ford et al., 1998). Except breech presentation no infant outcome measures
were associated with prenatal caffeine exposure in infants (Barr et al., 1991).
Conclusion: Data are inadequate for an assessment.
3.1.1.5.7 Effects on sperms

The addition of caffeine to human sperm increased sperm motility (IARC 1991). In a cross-sectional study
in male volunteers aged 19-35 common lifestyle factors (smoking, caffeine, and alcohol) were associated
with increased frequencies of sperm aneuploidy ( Robbins et al. 1997). No significant effects of smoking,
caffeine intake, and alcohol consumption on sperm morphometric parameters were observed in another
cross-sectional study in male volunteers aged 18-35 (Vine et al. 1997). Conclusion: Data are inadequate
for an assessment.
3.1.2 Acute Toxicity
After oral application the LD50 for rats (10 animals/group/sex) was found to be 261-383 mg/kg bw; as
clinical symptoms of toxicity, dyspnoea and staggering were seen after oral intake (BASF AG 1985a). In
further reports the oral LD50 for rats was reported to be 200-400 mg/kg bw (NTP 1982a) and for mice
185 mg/kg bw (NTP 1982b). The inhalation of the substance by rats as an aerosol for a period of 4 h
resulted in an LC50-value of ca. 4.94 mg/l. Irregular and accelerated respiration were noted in this study
(BASF AG 1989b).
The LD50 for dermal application was >2000 mg/kg bw; no clinical symptoms of toxicity were observed
(BASF AG 1988d)
Conclusion: In animals studies caffeine showed moderate toxicity after oral uptake and inhalation and a low
acute toxicity after dermal treatment.
3.1.3 Corrosiveness and Irritation
The undiluted substance was not irritating to the eyes of rabbits. Mean irritation indices were 0.9 (corneal
opacity), 0 (iritis), 1.6 (conjunctival erythema) and 0.6 (conjunctival edema). The strongest signs of
irritation were observed in 3/3 animals within the first 24h. By day 8 only one animal showed slight corneal
opacity and conjunctival redness. The substance in a 50% aqueous dilution was not irritating to the skin of
rabbits (Irritation index was 0) (OECD guideline 404 and 405, BASF, 1985b).
Conclusion: Caffeine is not irritating to skin and eyes.
3.1.4 Sensitization
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No valid data available.
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3.1.5 Repeated Dose Toxicity
In a 90-day oral toxicity study, the test substance was administered in drinking water to groups of Fischer
344 rats and B6C3F1 mice (groups of 12 animals/sex).
Rats were given 188, 375, 750, 1500, and 3000 ppm in the drinking water (ca. 19.7, 42, 85.4, 151, 272
mg/kg bw/d for males and 23, 51, 104, 174, and 287 mg/kg bw/d for females, calculated from weight and
water consumption); control groups were given tap water.
The body weight gains of all treated groups were decreased. The effect was significant in the highest dose
only (reduction of 26%, males, 20%, females). Water consumption was decreased in rats given 3000 ppm,
whereas it was increased in the 750 and 375 ppm groups. No marked changes in clinical signs of toxicity
were observed up to 1500 ppm. No dose-related changes inclinical chemistry were seen. With one
exception (cellular enlargement in salivary gland), no pronounced significant changes in gross morphology
or microscopic findings were observed. The authors gave no description of adverse effects. The effect
observed in the salivary gland was described as dose dependent in rats; in mice it was observed only in the
highest dose group. The effects in the salivary gland were considered adaptive. Reversible effects in the
salivary glands are a well known pharmacological effect of caffeine (sympathicomimetic). These
morphological changes are not considered to be an adverse effect of the substance. Finally, microscopic
evaluation of sex organs revealed no significant differences between exposed and control rats (NTP Expt.,
1983).
NOAEL rat : 1500 ppm (male 151 mg/kg bw/d; female 174 mg/kg bw/d)
Mice were given 94, 188, 375, 750, and 1500 ppm in the drinking water (ca. 21, 44, 85, 130, 167
mg/kg bw/d for males; 25, 47, 88, 134, 180 mg/kg bw/d for females, caclulated from weight and water
consumption); control groups were given tap water.
Mean body weight gain was significantly, but not dose-dependently depressed for the 188, 375, and 750
ppm male dose group animals by 26%, 25%, 18% resp., but not in the 1500 ppm dose. Females showed
little variation in weight gain. Food consumption was unaffected. Water consumption was decreased by
10% and more in the 1500 and 750 ppm dose group animals, whereas the water consumption was
increased by 10% and more in the 94, 188, 375 ppm dose group animals. Adaptive changes in the salivary
glands were also observed in mice in the highest dose group only (explanation see rats). Additionally, no
tumors were seen in the salivary glands of mice which were treated with caffeine in the drinking water over
2 years (Mohr et al. 1984). Since no clinical signs of toxicity, or changes in clinical chemistry were seen,
neither were statistically significant changes in gross morpology or microscopic findings (including the sex
organs) observed (NTP Expt., 1983), the highest dose was the NOAEL.
NOAEL mice : 1500 ppm (male 167 mg/kg bw/d; female 179 mg/kg bw/d)
Additionally no significant toxic effects were reported in older studies (i.p., drinking water or dermal
application) that are poorly documented.
Conclusion:
In adequately performed studies, administration of high doses of caffeine (ca. 160 mg/kg bw in rats, ca.
170 mg/kg bw in mice) caused no significant toxic effects. In these studies no histopathological changes
were found in the gonads of rats and mice. The findings of testicular athrophy and decreased absolute testis
weights described in earlier feeding studies with Holtzman and Spraque Dawley rats could thus not be
confirmed (Friedman et al., 1979, Gans 1984).
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3.1.6 Genetic Toxicity
There were many studies for different endpoints available. All studies were evaluated and in the following
text only the most relevant, well-documented studies are discussed.
Genetic Toxicology in vitro
Gene mutation in vitro

In a round-robin-study performed at several institutions the substance was negative in bacterial tests
(Salmonella typhimurium TA98, 100, 1535, 1537, 1538 and E. coli WP2 uvrA) with and without
metabolic activation tested up to 3333 ug/plate or 10, 000 ug/plate (Dunkel et al., 1985, Mortelmans et
al., 1985,) and in the Mouse Lymphoma test up to 10620 ug/ml without metabolic activation (Amacher et
al., 1980).
Generally, the tests for detecting gene mutations (e.g. bacterial tests, Ames tests, Mouse lymphoma test
and HPRT tests (in diffentent cell lines) showed negative results. A poorly documented UDS test in human
lymphocytes (tested up to 583 ug/ml) was also negative.
Chromosomal aberrations in vitro

Caffeine was not clastogenic in cytogenetic studies performed with human lymphocytes (tested up to 100
ug/ml exposure time 8h, which showed cytotoxic effects) (Aeschbacher et al., 1985), while test with CHL
cell lines without metabolic activation (Ishidate, jr. 1977) showed a positive response, due in part to testing
in concentrations above the levels recommended in the OECD/EU guidelines (i.e. over the 10mM level).
In a poorly documented study, positive findings were also noted in CHO cells in concentrations of 5.5
mM. Eight in vitro SCE-assays performed with different cell lines gave negative (3), positive (4) and
ambigous (1) results. The relevance, however, of results from SCE assays for the assessment of genetic
toxicity is presently unclear.
Genetic Toxicology in vivo

Gene mutation
A single oral dose of up to 1000 mg/kg bw did not induce UDS in pancreatic cells from F344 rats treated
with caffeine (abstract only, Steinmetz and Mirsalis, 1984).
Negative results were shown in a weakly documented host-mediated assay in mice with Salmonella
typhimurium G46 tested with up to ca. 33 mg/kg bw, i.m. application (Gabridge and Legator, 1969). In a
modified host-mediated assay in mice with E. coli K12, caffeine was also negative (2x91 mg/kg .ip.
injection) (King et al., 1979).
Chromosomal aberrations
The substance did not induce chromosomal aberrations in the blood of rats after administration in feed
(46 mg/kg bw/d) for 117 weeks, (Granberg-Oehman et al., 1980) or in the testicular tissue of mice after a
single i.p. administration of 200 mg/kg bw (Adler, 1966).
No chromosomal aberrations or aneuploidy was observed in the oocytes of mice after i.p. application of
150 mg/kg bw (Mailhes et al. 1996).
Investigations with lymphocytes from human volunteers who had a daily intake of 800 mg (4x200 mg) of
caffeine over 4 weeks showed no increase in chromosome damage. The highest level of caffeine detected
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in the plasma was 30 g/ml. Isolated lymphocytes from untreated donors administered this concentration
(30 g/ml) several times were also negative. However, caffeine produced damage in human lymphocytes in
culture after a single 48h treatment with 250-750 g/ml (Weinstein et al. 1972).
Further cytogenetic tests with bone marrow cells from mice and rats gave no indication of a clastogenic
effect (see IUCLID).
Most of the in vivo SCE-assays with rats, mice and hamsters were positive. However, in the 117 week
feed study in rats (Granberg-Oehman et al., 1978) no SCE induction was observed. However, a
toxicological relevance is questionable due to the other negative in vivo studies.
Caffeine was negative in the mouse bone marrow micronucleus test (i.p. administration of up to ca. 97
mg/kg) (King et al., 1979). In further micronucleus tests, Swiss CD-1 mice (in- and outbred mice)
received 50, 75 or 100 mg/kg bw caffeine and Chinese hamsters received 75, 150 or 300 mg/kg bw by
gavage twice with a 24h interval, and with the second dose being given 6h prior to sacrifice, or alternativly
given once 30h prior to sacrifice. Only the highest dose (in the range of the LD50) caused an induction of
micronuclei in hamsters and mice (Aeschbacher et al., 1986). Other poorly documented micronucleus
tests with rats and mice have been published and were also negative.
A study was performed by i.p. application to compare the ability of caffeine to induce micronuclei (in
mice and Chinese hamster) versus chromosomal aberrations , and SCE (in Chinese hamster)
(Tsuchimoto and Matter, 1979). In the micronucleus test with mice the doses used were 100 and 250
mg/kg bw and they were administered via i.p. twice with an interval of 24h. In the studies with hamsters,
100 and 200 mg/kg bw were used. For the micronucleus screening and chromosomal aberration tests, the
test substance was given twice via i.p. with an interval of 24h, and was only given one time via i.p. for the
SCE test. Niether a clastogenic effect nor an increase in SCE was seen in any of the studies.
In a Dominant lethal test male mice were gavaged with caffeine at 90 mg/kg bw for 5 consecutive days
or received it via drinking water at levels of 112 mg/kg bw for 8 weeks. No mutagenic induction of
dominant lethals, preimplantation losses or depression of female fertility attributable to the test substance
was observed (Aeschbacher et al., 1978). All other dominant lethal studies were likewise negative.
Conclusion:
A large number of in vitro results are available and were summarized in a comprehensive review (IARC
No. 51): Salmonella and classic E. coli studies were mostly negative. Special E. coli strains and
Saccharomyces showed positive results. In terms of gene mutation in mammalian cell cultures and UDS
assays, the results were consistently negative. Only at high concentrations were some indications of
clastogenic activity in cell lines found.
In the majority of in vivo tests (MNT; CA, DL, HMA) negative results were obtained in terms of
mutagenicity and clastogenicity. On the whole, the conclusion is drawn that under exposure relevant
conditions there are no indications of genotoxicity of caffeine. This is also the overall assessment of the
IARC evaluation (see publication No. 51, 1991 for more details).
3.1.7 Carcinogenicity
In a 104 week drinking water study, the substance was administered to Sprague -Dawley rats (groups of
50 animals/sex) at concentrations of 200, 430, 930 and 2000 ppm (12, 26, 49, 102 mg/kg bw/d males
and 15, 37, 80, 170 mg/kg bw/d, females). There was a slightly increased mortality in males at 2000 ppm.
Decreased body weights were found in both sexes at 930 ppm (11%) and 2000 ppm (25%), associated
with reduced food and water consumption.
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There were no statistically significant differences between control and treated animals for tumor incidences
of any type except for mammary fibroadenomas. The incidence of mammary fibroadenomas showed a
significant inverse dose-response relationship (26% high dose vs. 50% control) (Mohr et al. 1984).
Several other carcinogenicity studies, including initiation-promotion studies, have been performed, and all
of them were negative; however, they were judged by IARC to be of limited value (e.g. only one dose was
used, or only one sex, or only one tissue (mammary gland of mice), or the animals were not exposed to the
test substance for 2 years). Due to these limitations they were not used as key studies for caffeine.
Conclusion:
There was no statistically significant increase in the tumor incidence of caffeine treated rats as compared to
controls, even at doses exceeding the maximum tolerated dose and given to animals over a major portion
of their lifespan.
3.1.8 Toxicity to reproduction
Rat Study
The potential reproductive toxicity of caffeine in Sprague-Dawley rats was evaluated using the
Reproductive Assessment by Continuous Breeding (RACB) protocol.
Task 1 (dose-finding study)

Caffeine at dose levels of 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg/kg was given via gavage to 8 animals/sex/dose for
28 consecutive days. Based on decreased body weights, food consumption, increased water
consumption, and mortality the dose levels for the continuous breeding phase were set at 12.5, 25, and 50
mg/kg bw/d (5 ml/kg).
Task 2 (cohabitation period)

Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats (20 pairs/group) were exposed to caffeine in deionized water by
gavage. During 16 weeks of cohabitation, live pup weight adjusted for litter size was decreased by 7, 7,
and 8% in the 12.5, 25, and 50 mg/kg bw/d dose groups, respectively. No differences were observed in
litters per pair, number of live pups per litter, proportion of pups born alive and sex ratio.
Decreased pup weight was observed concomitant with dose-dependent reduced dam weight gain. At
necropsy, no differences were noted in F0 male or female absolute organ weight data; however, many
relative organ weights were increased in all dosed groups when compared to controls. These differences
were attributed to the decrease in terminal body weights. No treatment-related gross or microscopic
lesions were observed in kidneys, testes or epididymis of F0 males. In the F0 generation sperm parameters
(velocity and average radius) were decreased (7-12% and 22-36% resp.) in all treated males. Sperm
motility was dose-dependently decreased (3%) and percent normal sperm was slightly decreased in the
high dose males.
Task 3 (crossover mating)

A crossover mating trial revealed no changes on male or female fertility or in pup weight. Reproductive
parameters (as describe in Task 2) were comparable between dose groups when naive males were mated
with control or 50 mg/kg bw/d females and when naive females were mated with control or 50 mg/kg bw/d
males.
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Task 4 (second generation evaluation):
No mortality was observed in any of the F1 animals. No treatment-related differences were observed in
pup weights during lactation (post natal day 1-21). From the initiation of dosing (post natal day 22) through
the maturation phase up to the termination of Task 4, mean body weights of the F1 low-to-high dose males
and females were decreased dose-dependently (approximately 12%,18% and 23% when compared to
controls). Mean body weight and feed consumption were decreased (5-19%) in all treated groups.
A decrease in the number of live F2 pups per litter (21%) and the proportion of pups born alive (4%) in
the 50 mg/kg bw/d dose group was noted. No differences in other endpoints were observed between
dosed groups and controls.
At necropsy, many decreases were noted in F1 absolute organ weights and

many increases in F1 relative organ weights were observed in all treated groups. These differences may be
attributed to the decreased terminal body weights. No treatment-related gross or microscopic lesions were
observed in the F1 animals.
The motility and velocity of sperms was slightly decreased (4% and 9% resp.) in the 50 mg/kg F1 males
and average radius was decreased (23-26%) in the males of mid- and high dose group. The remaining
sperm parameters were unaffected.
A no-observable-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) was not established in this study as the 12.5 mg/kg
animals displayed reduced body weight gain in F0 and F1 animals (NTP, 1996).
Mice studies
Caffeine was tested for its effects on reproduction and fertility in Swiss CD-1 mice at two laboratories,
each using a variation on the standard RACB study design. One laboratory performed Tasks 1, 2, and 3,
while the other laboratory performed Tasks 1, 2, and 4 (see below) (NTP 1984 a,b).
In the first study:

Task 1 (dose-finding study)
Caffeine was administered via drinking water at dose levels of 0, 10, 30, 100, 300 and 1000 ppm (ca. 2,
6, 20, 60 and 200 mg/kg) to 8 animals/sex/group for 14 days.
All 16 animals exposed to 1000 ppm died within 2 weeks. The cause of the dead was diagnosed as
cardiac myodegeneration and tubular nephrosis. Data on body weight, clinical signs, and food and water
consumption were collected during this dose-range-finding phase, and used to set exposure concentrations
for Task 2 at 0, 120, 250, and 500 ppm ( = ca. 22, 44, and 88 mg/kg bw/d) in drinking water.

In this phase 40 animals/sex for the control and 20 animals/sex for the treated groups were paired.
The animals were exposed to caffeine via drinking water during a 7 day premating period and during the
100 day cohabitation period.
Water consumption and body weights were not affected. Three control mice, 1 low dose, and 1 middle
dose mouse died during the study (no data were given about the cause). Treated mice were also reported
to have lost facial hair, but the percentages and groups involved were not specified.
There was no effect on the mean number of litters/pair or on the mean number of pups/litter. However,
there was a 20% reduction in the number of live male pups/litter in the 500 ppm group. The proportion of
pups born alive was reduced by 3%, 5%, and 5% in the low, middle and high dose groups, respectively.
Additionally, pup body weight adjusted for litter size was reduced by 4% at the high dose.
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Task 3 (crossover mating)

A crossover mating trial was performed. There were no differences between the groups in the mating and
fertility indices, and no differences with respect to pup number or viability or weight.
Task 4 was not performed in this study. After 7 days of vaginal smears to evaluate cyclicity, the control
and high dose (500 ppm) Task 2 mice were killed and necropsied. Female body weight was reduced by
5%, while relative organ weights were unchanged. Ante-mortem vaginal cyclicity was unaffected. Male
body weight was unchanged by consumption of 500 ppm caffeine but adjusted liver weight was increased
by 10%. Absolute testis weight dropped by 7% and adjusted seminal vesicles weight decreased by 12%.
Sperm motility values for controls was low (47% motile), so the 21% reduction in the treated group should
be viewed with caution. Similarly, the control epididymal sperm density was nearly equal to half of the
subsequent control values for this lab, so the significant increase in sperm density in the caffeine-treated
group is likely erroneous.
In conclusion, the slight but significant reductions in (male) pup number, pup viability, and adjusted pup
weight suggest that caffeine produced some slight reproductive toxicity. This occured in the presence of
slight indications of general toxicity (body or organ weight changes) (NTP 1984 a).
NOAEL (mouse): ca. 22 mg/kg bw/d (120 ppm) (F0 parental) (Task 2)
22 mg/kg bw/d (120 ppm) (F1 offspring) (Task 2)
Caffeine was tested in the other laboratory that performed Tasks 1, 2, and 4.
Task 1 (the dose-range-finding)

8 male and 8 female CD-1 mice per dose group were given 0, 12, 33, 100, 300 and 1000 ppm (ca. 2.4,
6.6, 20, 60, 200 mg/kg) caffeine in their drinking water for 14 days. Based on body weights, clinical
findings, food and water consumption, the concentrations for Task 2 were set at to be 0, 120, 250, and
500 ppm (= 22, 44, and 88 mg/kg/d).

In this phase 40 animals/sex for the control and 20 animals/sex for the treated groups were paired.
The caffeine treatment was during the 7 day premating period, the 98 day cohabitation period and the 21
day segregation period. Water consumption was not affected in all treated groups. For the F0 animals,
there were no effects on body weight. Alopecia occurred in 55% of the mid dose and 50% of the high
dose animals.
While there were no exposure-related changes in the number of litters/pair, viability, or adjusted pup
weight, the number of live pups per litter, averaged over 4-5 litters was decreased for the mid (15%) and
high dose (20%) animals.
Task 4 (second generation evaluation)

The offspring from the last litter of control and high dose (500 ppm) mice were reared by their dams until
weaning, and then they were given the same treatment as their parents until mating at 74 10 days of age.
In the second generation mating trial, there were no changes in any reproductive endpoint.
At necropsy, in the 500 ppm group, male body weight was reduced by 8% while male adjusted liver
weight increased by 8%. No change was found in female body organ weights, or in any sperm endpoint.
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In summary, a reduction in the number of live pups/litter for the F0 generation was the only reproductive
effect observed in this study. This occurred in the absence of a change in body weights in the F0 parental
mice, but in the presence of clinical findings in form of alopecia (NTP 1984 b).
In addition to the key studies described above, there are numerous other studies some of them with unusual
study designs described in the IUCLID master. In a two generation study with Wistar rats the
administration of 30 mg of caffeine/kg bw led to a marked degeneration of the testis in the F0 generation
males after 38 treatment days. The findings were characterized by a significant overall size reduction in the
testis, breakdown of the germinal epithelium, accumulation of cellular debris in the lumen of seminiferous
tubules, and a significant reduction in the abundance of mature spermatozoa (Pollard et al. 1988).
In another study when caffeine was administered to the dams during pregnancy (30 mg/kg/day from day 1
of gestation until sacrifice), a significant inhibition in the differentiation of the interstitial tissues and Leydig
cells was observed in their male fetuses. In the ovaries of female fetuses caffeine had no influence on the
mitotic rate or morphology of germ cells. Later in development the numbers of female germ cells entering
meiosis were comparable to the controls (Pollard et al. 1990).
In a further 2-generation study in Sprague-Dawley rats with an unusual study design, it was demonstrated
that the exposure to caffeine (30 and 60 mg/kg/day) did not affect the sexual receptivity, fertility, gestation
length, or maternal behaviour of the F1 females, but parturition was prolonged and the viability of the F2
generation was seriously jeopardised (Pollard, et al. 1992). All three studies are not comparable with
guideline-studies, and thus, these data are difficult to assess.
Three experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of feeding caffeine to Osborn-Mendel and
Holtzmann rats at a dietary level of 0.5% (ca. 230 mg/kg/d). An induction of testicular atrophy,
oligospermatogenesis and aspermatogenesis was observed after 14, 64 and 75 weeks in Osborn-Mendel
rats and after 19 weeks in Holtzmann rats (Friedman at al. 1979, Weinberger et al. 1978). Because of the
high mortality (75% at 14 weeks, 35% at 64 weeks, 60% at 75 weeks, 63% at 19 weeks) and the single
dose tested, the studies are regarded to be of limited value for assessing the toxicological potential of the
substance. Similar findings were obtained in a study with Sprague Dawlay rats, which were fed 0.5%
caffeine (Gans, 1984). However, no data were given about the group size, surviving animals and the
number of rats with testicular atrophy.
In contrast, testicular findings were not observed histopathologically in well documented subchronic studies
in rats and mice (see 3.1.5).
Conclusion:
In summary in several well documented studies, caffeine resulted in slight reproductive effects at high doses
(e.g. reduced number of pups born alive per litter) occurring in the presence of general toxicity (body
weight gain) in parental rats and mice.
In well documented 90 day-studies performed in rats and mice, no significant differences in sperm
morphology, vaginal cytology and histopathology of the gonads were seen (see 3.1.5.).
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3.1.9 Developmental Toxicity / Teratogenicity
Developmental effects were studied in female Osborne-Mendel rats treated on days 0 to 20 of gestation.
The substance was administered in the drinking water at concentrations of 70, 180, 360, 700, 1000, 1500,
and 2000 ppm. The corresponding daily caffeine intake were ca. 10, 27, 51, 87, 116, 160, and 205
mg/kg bw/d. Sacrifice of the dams and examination of the pups was made on day 20 of gestation.
Decreased maternal food and water consumption and significantly decreased maternal body weight gain
[by 8% (700 ppm), 25% (1000 ppm), 50% (1500 ppm) and 71% (2000 ppm)] were observed. At 1500
and 2000 ppm, decreased implantation efficiency, increased resorptions, and decreased mean number of
viable fetuses were noted. The number of runts was increased at 1000 ppm and higher. Decreased fetal
weight and length, and an increased incidence of edematous fetuses were observed at 700 ppm and higher.
Variations in the form of sternebral ossification deficiencies were increased at all dose levels except at 70
ppm, and in the form of skeletal ossification deficiencies in a dose-related manner from 700 ppm and
higher. No teratogenic effect was found (Collins et al., 1983).
NOAEL maternal toxicity: 360 ppm (ca. 51 mg/kg bw/d)
fetotoxicity : 70 ppm (ca. 10 mg/kg bw/d)
teratogenicity : 2000 ppm (> 205 mg/kg bw/d)
Similar results were obtained in a drinking water and a gavage study with Osborn-Mendel rats (Collins et
al. 1981 and 1987). In the drinking water study body weight depressions as well as skeletal retardations in
fetuses were observed in doses of 360 ppm and higher. In the gavage study a teratogenic effect was found
in higher maternally toxic doses (80 mg/kg bw and higher).
In two NTP studies, CD rats were administered the test substance by gavage.
Administration of 0, 40, and 80 mg/kg bw/d on gestation days 1 to 19 to groups of 20 rats (developmental
evaluation on gestation day 20) resulted in maternal toxicity indicated by signficantly reduced maternal
weight gain in all treated groups (35% and 43% resp.). Fetal weight was significant reduced (13%) at the
high dose level. The number of implantation sites, the percent of live fetuses/litter and the number of
resorption and dead fetuses were not affected. No increase in the rate of external, visceral, or skeletal
malformations was seen (NTP, 1984c).
LOAEL: 40 mg/kg bw/d (maternal toxicity)
NOAEL: = 40 mg/kg bw/d (fetotoxicity)
NOAEL: = 80 mg/kg bw/d (teratogenicity)
In the second study groups of 12 dams were administered 0, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg bw/d of the substance
on gestation days 1 to 20 and were allowed to deliver. The pups were subsequently evaluated for postnatal
growth and several functional parameters. No adverse effects on offspring physical development,
behaviour or cardiovascular function were observed, although maternal body weight gain was significantly
reduced in all treated rats (14%, 12% and 18% resp.) (NTP, 1984c).
LOAEL: 10 mg/kg bw/d (maternal toxicity)
NOAEL: = 40 mg/kg bw/d (fetotoxicity)
NOAEL: = 40 mg/kg bw/d (teratogenicity)
Several studies were performed to assess reproductive and/or developmental toxicity with brewed or
instant coffee. In these studies the animals received coffee as their drinking fluid, which yielded doses of
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caffeine of ca. 38-80 mg/kg. In all studies with the exception of one (see below), no teratogenic effects
were found. In some cases delayed ossification of the sternebrae was observed. In more recent guideline -
like studies where rats were treated with higher doses of caffeine, these findings (malformations) could not
be confirmed (see below).
In this older study with rats, malformations were observed. Namely, in a combined subchronic,
reproductive, developmental study with freshly percolated coffee in drinking water (9, 19, 39 mg/kg bw/d)
or when caffeine was administered by gavage or in drinking water (30 mg/kg bw/d), cleft palates and
delayed ossifications were observed, however these findings were not dose-dependent. For coffee intake
of 0%, 12.5%, 25% and 50% the number of observed fetuses with cleft palates were 1/423; 8/207;
5/225; 4/229, and for caffeine gavage intake 1/252, and caffeine in drinking water 2/245, only. Delayed
ossification was found after coffee intake in 0/256; 8/128; 62/141; 11/148 and after caffeine intake in
12/171 and 15/160 animals respectively. The animals received coffee or caffeine before mating, throughout
gestation and up to 27 days after parturition. Effects on fertility, litter size and neonatal growth were not
observed. No information about maternal toxicity was given in the report (Palm et al., 1978). The fact that
these results were not dose-dependent calls into question their relevance. In several studies performed in
mice caffeine was given either once by i.p. injection, by feed (in pellets) or via drinking water. Cleft palats
were observed in the i.p. and feeding study, but not in the drinking water study. It is worth noting that feed
and water study were parallel studies using the same dose. It is known from literature (Schwetz et al.1977,
Beyer and Chernoff, 1986) that in this specie s stress (caffeine is a sympathomometic), or a decrease in
water intake during gestation may induce this type of malformation. Therefore, no mouse study was chosen
as a key study.
A behavioral study was performed with forty adult monkeys which were administered caffeine in drinking
water at concentrations of 0.15 and 0.35 mg/ml (ca. 10-15 and 25-30 mg/kg bw/d) before, during and
after pregnancy.
Previously reported results indicated that exposure to caffeine resulted in a dose-related increase in
reproductive failure (stillbirths, miscarriages) and decreased maternal weight gain and decreased infant birth
weight. These results may be the consequence of elevated serum levels of not only caffeine but also its
pharmacologically active metabolite theophylline, which is the major metabolite in monkey but not in
human.
Analysis of blood and 24-hour urine samples (collected every 2 weeks) revealed a number of both
pregnancy and treatment-related effects: decreased levels of serum cholesterol and triglyceride during
pregnancy in all groups (pregnancy-related), increased levels of serum and urine creatinine in the treated
groups (substance-related), unaltered serum glucose levels in the high dose group (substance-related, this
value usually declines during pregnancy), and depressed levels of serum estrogen in the high dose group
(substance-related).
According to the authors, these findings indicated that the test substance may influence maternal physiology
during gestation in the monkey.
Additionally, the somatic development (like body weight, tooth eruption, skelettal development and
measures etc.) of the infants was monitored. Maternal blood and milk concentrations of the test substance
were similar to infant blood concentrations.
Infant body weights and somatic measurements (like bone and head lengths), were reduced over the first
30 days in males. The deficits were reversible and not evident after one year of age. Tooth eruption and
milk consumption were not affected. According to the authors, this indicated that caffeine can alter infant
somatic development (treated monkeys were significant smaller than controls) when consumed during
pregnancy.
Behavioral tests were conducted in the infants. At 30 days of age, the infants were trained to press a button
to receive a reward (infant formula). Thereafter, a variable number of button presses (variable ratio
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schedule) were required to get formula. Monitoring of feeding time revealed that the treated infants spent
significantly more time feeding than controls. On the variable ratio schedule, the high-dose group had
consistently longer pause times and longer interresponses than controls. According to the authors, these
results indicated that in utero exposure to caffeine and its metabolites resulted in altered behavioral patterns
in infant monkeys (Gilbert and Rice, 1991a/b, 1994).
There were further developmental neurotoxicology studies, mostly performed in rats. However, according
to IARC monograph Vol 51(1991), these studies were reviewed and the effects observed were no t
consistent across the studies. Thus, it was concluded by IARC that caffeine may cause subtile changes in
discrete neuronal subsystems but has not to be regarded to be a neurotoxicant in the sense of disrupting
primary neuronal systems."
Conclusion:
In maternally nontoxic doses no teratogenic effect was observed in several studies with rats. Slight
fetotoxicity was observed in the rat study in the absence of maternal toxicity.
In summary, animal studies demonstrate that high bolus-doses of caffeine can result in gross malformations
and resorptions, while prolonged sipping or infusion of the same total dosage during organogenesis caused
only reversible delays in growth. The consideration of pharmacokinetic data is essential for appropriate
intra-species and interspecies risk extrapolation. Animal data indicate that the probable blood level of
caffeine required to produce teratogenic effects is in excess of 60 g/ml. This blood level can only be
reached in rodents as short-term peak concentrations by administration of large bolus dosages (gavage) in
amounts exceeding 40-60 mg/kg bw/d. It can also be assumed that this would correspond to 800 mg/kg
bw/d of caffeine given to rats in the drinking water. Using this hypothetical data, an 800 mg/kg bw/d
dosage of caffeine would require a 70 kg human to consume about 50 g of caffeine within a short time
period. This cannot be achieved by consuming usual caffeine-containing drinks over several hours (both in
human and animal) (Christian and Brent, 2001).
Christian and Brent (2001) concluded, that pregnant women, who do not smoke or drink alcohol and who
consume moderate amounts of caffeine (<5-6 mg/kg bw/d spread throughout the day) do not have an
increased risk of reproductive effects.
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4 Hazards to the environment
4.1 Aquatic effects
The following acute toxicity test results with aquatic organisms are available:
Leuciscus idus LC50(96h) 87 mg/l BASF AG, 1988b

NOEC (96h) 46 mg/l
Daphnia magna EC50(48h) 182 mg/l BASF AG, 1989a
EC0 (48h) 3.91
Scenedesmus subspicatus ErC50(72h) >100 mg/l BASF AG, 2001b
(Desmodesmus subspicatus) ErC10 (72h) > 100 mg/l
Pseudomonas putida EC50(17h) 3490 mg/l BASF AG, 1988c
All effect values are related to nominal concentrations. In the alga test the test substance concentration was
monitored by HPLC. The measured concentrations were between 96.5 and 105.8 % of the nominal values
and the results were related to nominal concentrations.
Based on this data, caffeine is considered as harmful to aquatic organisms.
Results from prolonged or chronic studies are not available.
Based on the most sensitive data, Leuciscus idus LC50(96h) 87 mg/l, a PNEC for the aquatic
compartment of 0.087 mg/l can be derived by applying an assessment factor of 1000, according to the
Technical Guidance Document for the EU risk assessment procedure.
4.2 Terrestrial effects
In a non-standard study the effect of caffeine on rice seedlings was investigated over a 6 day period.
0.5 10 mM caffeine inhibited the growth dose-dependently. Shoot elongation was inhibited by 50 % with
2.5 mM caffeine (485 mg), whereas root elongation was inhibited by 80 % with one treatment at the same
concentration (Smyth, 1992). As the tests were performed without soil but with filter paper, the results
cannot be used for the derivation of a PNECsoil.
The LD50 for red flour beetle, exposed to flour medium treated with caffeine, was 288 mg/kg for adults
and 251 mg/kg for larvae (Mondal et al., 1992).
Investigations with red-winged blackbirds and starlings showed LD50 values of 316 mg/kg BW and >500
mg/kg BW respectively (Schafer et al., 1983).
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5 Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusions
In 1999 the estimated world production amounts to 10,000 15,000 tons including 3,000 to 4,000 tons
of natural caffeine. Worldwide, there are 18 production sites known for the technical product caffeine and
about 7 to 8 for natural caffeine.
The substance is predominantly used in the food (80 %) and pharma sector (16 %). A smaller part is used
in cosmetics (3 %) and in technical applications (1 %).
Releases into the environment may occur during production of caffeine, during formulation and use of food
and pharmaceuticals.
Measured data on emission into the atmosphere or into surface water via waste water treatment plants are
not available.
According to a Mackay I model the target compartment for the substance is the hydrosphere with 99.99
%.
Caffeine can be regarded as readily biodegradable. Hydrolysis is not expected to occur. In the atmosphere
the substance will be photodegraded by reaction with hydroxyl radicals with an estimated half-life of 19.8
h. The substance has no potential for bio- or geoaccumulation.
Short-term tests are available for fish, daphnia and algae. Based on acute toxicity studies caffeine can be
considered as harmful to aquatic organisms. Following the EU risk assessment procedure the PNEC for
the aquatic compartment can be calculated to 0.087 mg/l by applying an assessment factor of 1000 on the
most sensitive species ( Leuciscus idus LC50(96h) 87 mg/l).
In animals studies caffeine showed moderate toxicity after oral uptake and inhalation and a low acute
toxicity after dermal treatment.
LD50 rat oral: 261-383 mg/kg, LC50 rat inhalative: ca. 4.94 mg/l/4h; LD50 rat dermal: > 2000 mg/kg)
The undiluted substance was not irritating to the eyes of rabbits; the substance in a 50% aqueous dilution
was not irritating to the skin of rabbits.
In a 90-day-drinking water study in rats and mice a slight decrease of body weight gain was observed. No
clinical signs of toxicity or significant gross lesion were seen in either rats and mice. The NOAEL for rats
was 1500 ppm (ca. 151 - 174 mg/kg bw/day) and for mice 1500 ppm (ca. 167-179 mg/kg bw/day).
There are numerous studies available concerning genetic toxicity in vitro and in vivo. Collectively the results
indicate no evidence of mutagenic effects. The weakly positive result reported in one micronucleus study
with mice has so far not been confirmed.
There was no statistically significant increase in the tumor incidence in treated animals as compared to
controls even at doses exceeding the maximum tolerated dose and given to rats over a major portion of
their lifespan.
Caffeine resulted in reproductive effects occurring in the presence of general toxicity in parental rats and
mice. A NOAEL in rats was not established. NOAEL: mouse 22 mg/kg bw/d (F0 parental, F1 offspring),
88 mg/kg bw/d (F1 parental, F2 offspring).
No teratogenic effects were observed in several studies in rats. Fetotoxicity without maternal toxicity was
observed in one study. NOAEL: 360 ppm (51 mg/kg bw/d) (maternal), 70 ppm (10 mg/kg bw/d)
(fetotoxicity), 2000 ppm (205 mg/kg bw/d) (teratogenicity). However, in two other studies this finding was
not confirmed. No NOAEL for maternal toxicity could be established; the NOAEL for developmental
toxicity was 40 mg/kg bw/d; no teratogenic effects were observed.
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Absorption from gastrointestinal tract is rapid. Peak plasma levels are reached after 15 to 120 minutes
after ingestion. The elimination half-life in adults is about 2.5 to 4.5 hours. A small percentage is excreted in
bile, salvia, semen and breast milk. In both humans and rats, excretion mainly occures via urine (about 90
% dose in rats; > 95 % in humans).
Caffeine metabolism is qualitatively relatively similar in animals and humans. The main metabolic pathways
are: demethylation and hydroxylation of the 8-position leading to the formation of the respective uracil and
uric acid derivatives. There are, however, some quantitative differences in the metabolic profile.
Low doses (up to 2 g/ml in blood) stimulate the central nervous system, while high blood concentrations
(10-30 g/ml) produce restlessness, excitement, tremor, tinnitus, headache, and insomnia. Caffeine can
induce alterations in mood and sleep patterns, increase diuresis and gastric secretions. Acute toxicity is rare
and is the result of an overdose. Lethal dose is estimated to be 5 g.
Caffeine and coffee consumption are highly correlated in most populations studied; thus it is difficult to
separate the two exposures in epidemiologic investigations. No association between moderate
consumption of coffee/caffeine and cardiovascular diseases was demonstrated in more recent studies. In
short-term clinical trials an increase in blood pressure was seen, whereas in other surveys no relationship
between caffeine consumption and elevation of blood pressure was observed. Caffeine consumed in
moderate amounts did not cause persistent increase in blood pressure in normotensive subjects. Effect on
cardiac rhythm is still in debate. Small increase in calcium excretion associated with coffee/caffeine intake
was seen in subjects with dietary calcium deficiency. Caffeine has weak reinforced properties, but with little
or no evidence for upward dose adjustment, possibly because of the adverse effects of higher doses.
Withdrawal symptoms, although relatively limited with respect to severity, do occur, and may contribute to
maintenance of caffeine consumption. Caffeine use is not associated with incapacitation. There is little
evidence for an association of caffeine intake and benign breast disease. No association was found in a
study with biopsy-confirmed controls.
A cohort study with short follow-up period showed no association between caffeine consumption and
mortality from cancers at all sites. Case control studies of breast cancer showed no association to caffeine
intake. Available data are consistent with a weak association between bladder cancer and caffeine intake,
but the possibility that this is due to bias or confounding cannot be excluded. Effect of coffee consumption
on colon and pancreas is in debate.
There are conflicting reports on the effect of caffeine on human reproduction. A teratogenic effect has not
been proven. While caffeine intake up to 3-4 cups/day or 300 mg caffeine/day is unlikely to be causally
related to spontaneous abortions or relevant reduction of birth weight, an association between higher daily
caffeine intake and these endpoints can not be excluded. Conflicting results exist regarding a potential
relationship between caffeine/coffee consumption and delayed conception or infertility.
Risk characterization:
Caffeine is listed in GRAS Food Substances. The tolerance in foods is 0.02%. The substance is generally
recognized as safe when used in cola-type beverages in accordance with good manufacturing practice
(Code of Federal Regulations Title 21-Food and drugs revised as of April 1, 2001)
Caffeine in pharmaceutical use is described in specific regulation.
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Workplace:
Taking worst case assumptions, the maximum exposure of workers during the filter changes is 1.2mg/m3.
Considering this high exposure, which is unrealistical for 8 hours, the maximum uptake (absorption: 100 %;
ventilation rate: 1.8 m3 / h) is 17.28 mg/person (ca. 0.3 mg/kg bw/day).
With respect to the NOAEL in subchronic studies - NOAEL for rats was 1500 ppm (ca. 150 - 174
mg/kg bw/day) and for mice 1500 ppm (ca. 167-179 mg/kg bw/day) - there are safety factors of 500 an
higher.
NOAELs for developmental toxicity, the most sensitive endpoint are: NOAEL: 360 ppm (51 mg/kg bw/d)
(maternal toxicity), 70 ppm (10 mg/kg bw/d) (fetotoxicity), 2000 ppm (205 mg/kg bw/d) (teratogenicity).
Even under this worst case assumption, there is still a safety factor of 33 for fetotoxicity. This safety factor
is substantiated by a new publication of Christian and Brent, 2001 in which up to 5 6 mg/kg caffeine
uptake per day is regarded to have no reproductive risk for humans.
5.2 Recommendations
Environment: No recommendation for further work, as the substance is readily biodegradable, has a low
bioaccumulation potential and is only moderately toxic to aquatic organisms.
Human Health: No recommendation for further work for the following reasons:
The pharmacological properties of caffeine are well known. There are many studies relevant to
reproductive toxicity; some suggest an adverse effect but the total data base is inconsistent. The case of
caffeine is regulated by food and drug agencies of national governments.
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
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OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
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I U C L I D D a t a S e t
Existing Chemical ID: 58-08-2

CAS No. 58-08-2
EINECS Name caffeine
EC No. 200-362-1
Index number 613-086-00-5
Molecular Formula C8H10N4O2
Producer Related Part

Company: BASF AG
Creation date: 09-DEC-1992
Substance Related Part

Company: BASF AG
Creation date: 09-DEC-1992
Memo: master
Printing date: 04-MAR-2003

Revision date:
Date of last Update: 03-MAR-2003
Number of Pages: 291
Chapter (profile): Chapter: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10

Reliability (profile): Reliability: without reliability, 1, 2, 3, 4
Flags (profile): Flags: without flag, SIDS
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
1. GENERAL INFORMATION DATE: 04-MAR-2003
SUBSTANCE ID: 58-08-2
1.0.1 Applicant and Company Information
Type: lead organisation

Name: BASF AG
Contact Person: Product Safety Date:
c/o Dr. Hubert Lendle
GUP/Z - Z570
Street: Carl-Bosch-Str
Town: 67056 Ludwigshafen
Country: Germany
Phone: +49 621 60 44712
Telefax: +49 621 60 58043
Flag: Critical study for SIDS endpoint

09-AUG-2001
Type: cooperating company

Name: Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.
Country: United States

06-MAR-2001
1.0.2 Location of Production Site, Importer or Formulator
1.0.3 Identity of Recipients
1.0.4 Details on Category/Template
1.1.0 Substance Identification
IUPAC Name: Caffeine

Mol. Formula: C8 H10 N4 O2
Mol. Weight: 194,19 g/mol
Flag: non confidential, Critical study for SIDS endpoint

17-JAN-2003
1.1.1 General Substance Information
Substance type: natural substance

Purity: 98.5 - 100 % w/w
Remark: USP grade with the specification to contain not less than
98.5 and not more than 101% of the ingredient calculated on an
anhydrous basis
Source: Knoll AG Ludwigshafen
17-JAN-2003 (1)
Substance type: natural substance

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Colour: white
Odour: almost odourless

17-JAN-2003 (2)
1.1.2 Spectra
1.2 Synonyms and Tradenames
1,3,7-Trimethyl-2,6-dioxopurine

09-DEC-1992
1,3,7-trimethyl-2,6-dioxopurine

02-MAR-1994
1,3,7-Trimethylxanthine

09-DEC-1992
1,3,7-trimethylxanthine

02-MAR-1994
1H-Purine-2,6-dione, 3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl- (9CI)

09-DEC-1992
3,7-Dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-dione
Remark: CAS name

02-MAR-1994
7-Methyltheophylline

09-DEC-1992
Anhydrous caffeine

07-MAR-2001
Cafeina

09-DEC-1992
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Caffein

09-DEC-1992
Caffeine (8CI)

09-DEC-1992
Coffein, wasserfrei

24-MAR-1994
Coffeinum

02-MAR-1994
Guaranine

09-DEC-1992
guaranine

02-MAR-1994
Koffein

09-DEC-1992
Mateina

09-DEC-1992
Methyltheobromine

02-MAR-1994
Methyltheothylline

02-MAR-1994
Thein

09-DEC-1992
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Theine

09-DEC-1992
1.3 Impurities
Remark: According to USP specification not more than 0.1% residue

onignition, 0.5% max. weight loss on drying the anhydrous
formand not more than 8.5% of its weight when drying the
hydrous form.
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

07-MAR-2001 (1)
1.4 Additives
1.5 Total Quantity
Remark: Consumption World Market (1999): <15.000 t/a

EU-Part: 5.000-10.000 t/a
BRD-Part: 1.000-5.000 t/a
Trend: steady to weakly increasing
26-OCT-2000
1.6.1 Labelling
Labelling: as in Directive 67/548/EEC

Symbols: (Xn) harmful
Specific limits: no
R-Phrases: (22) Harmful if swallowed
S-Phrases: (2) Keep out of reach of children
Remark: Index-No.: 613-086-00-5

07-MAR-2001 (3)
1.6.2 Classification
Classified: as in Directive 67/548/EEC

Class of danger: harmful
R-Phrases: (22) Harmful if swallowed
Remark: Index-No.: 613-086-00-5

07-MAR-2001 (3)
1.6.3 Packaging
1.7 Use Pattern
Type: type
Category: Wide dispersive use

02-MAR-1994 (4)
Type: industrial
Category: other
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Beverage industry

26-OCT-2000 (4)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: use
Category: Cosmetics
Remark: Creams for the treatmant of cellulitis, hair loss, skin

aging
26-OCT-2000
Type: use
Category: Food/foodstuff additives
Remark: Beverage industry: flavour enhancer, vitalizing drinks

02-MAR-1994 (4)
Type: use
Category: Pharmaceuticals
Remark: Combination with analgesic, stimulant

06-MAR-2001 (4)
Remark: Shares on the world market (1999):

Food: 80%
Pharma: 16%
Cosmetics: 3%
Technical application: 1%
26-OCT-2000
1.7.1 Detailed Use Pattern
1.7.2 Methods of Manufacture
1.8 Regulatory Measures
1.8.1 Occupational Exposure Limit Values
Limit value: other: No components with workplace control parameters.

17-JAN-2003 (2)
Limit value: other: No MAK- or BAT-value

17-JAN-2003 (5)
1.8.2 Acceptable Residues Levels
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
1.8.3 Water Pollution
Classified by: other: VwVwS (Germany) of 17.05.1999, Annex 3

Labelled by: other: VwVwS (Germany) of 17.05.1999, Annex 3
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Class of danger: 1 (weakly water polluting)

04-JUL-2001 (6)
1.8.4 Major Accident Hazards
1.8.5 Air Pollution
1.8.6 Listings e.g. Chemical Inventories
Type: EINECS
Additional Info: EINECS-No. 200-362-1

17-JAN-2003 (7)
Type: ENCS
Additional Info: ENCS No. 9-419
Remark: ENCS CLASSIFICATION:

Low Molecular Heterocyclic Organic Compounds.
17-JAN-2003 (7)
Type: ECL
Additional Info: ECL Serial No. KE-10766

17-JAN-2003 (7)
Type: other: SWISS

Additional Info: SWISS No. G-3762
Remark: SWISS CLASSIFICATION:

Giftliste 1 (List of Toxic Substances 1), 31 May 1999.
Toxic Category 3.
Toxicity Category 3 is determined by acute oral lethal doses
of 50 - 500 mg/kg in small animals; however, other factors may
be taken into consideration regarding data in other types of
animals or other affects whether subacute, subchronic or
chronic.
17-JAN-2003 (8) (7)
Type: TSCA

17-JAN-2003 (7)
Type: DSL

17-JAN-2003 (7)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: AICS

17-JAN-2003 (7)
Type: PICCS

17-JAN-2003 (7)
1.9.1 Degradation/Transformation Products
EINECS-Name: No hazardous decomposition products known.

17-JAN-2003 (2)
1.9.2 Components
1.10 Source of Exposure
Remark: Sources of exposure depend on the production procedures and

the usage. Caffeine is produced by extraction (direct
decaffeination, extraction from tea wastes and dusts and
from fractments of tea leaves) and by synthetic processes
(methylation of various xanthines). Exposure results from
its use as drug or as drug ingredient as well as of caffeine
containing food or beverages with a varying content.
02-MAR-1994 (4)
1.11 Additional Remarks
1.12 Last Literature Search
Type of Search: Internal and External

Chapters covered: 5.10
Date of Search: 21-OCT-2002
07-FEB-2003
1.13 Reviews
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
2. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL DATA DATE: 04-MAR-2003
2.1 Melting Point
Value: 235 - 239 degree C
Method: Directive 84/449/EEC, A.1 "Melting point/melting range"
Reliability: (4) not assignable

Manufacturer/producer data without proof
28-AUG-2002 (6)
Value: 234 - 239 degree C

Sublimation: yes
Remark: Sublimation at about 180C

Reliability: (2) valid with restrictions
acceptable publication which meets basic scientific
principles
07-JUN-2001 (9)
Value: 235 - 237.3 degree C
Method: other
Remark: Method: digital melting point determination method

"elektrotermal Series IA 9200"
secondary quotation
07-JUN-2001 (10)
Value: = 236.8 degree C

secondary quotation
07-JUN-2001 (11)
Value: = 237 degree C

04-JUL-2001 (12)
Value: 238 degree C

Decomposition: no at degree C
Sublimation: yes
Remark: Sublimation at 178C

Reference Book
07-JUN-2001 (13) (14)
2.2 Boiling Point
Value: = 178 degree C
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Decomposition: no
Method: other
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: sublimes; pressure cited as 760 mm HG

Reference Book
07-JUN-2001 (13)
2.3 Density
Type: bulk density

Value: = 600 kg/m3 at 20 degree C

07-JUN-2001 (12)
Type: density
Value: = 1.23 g/cm
Remark: Temperature: 19, 18 and 4C

Reference Book
28-AUG-2002 (13) (14)
2.3.1 Granulometry
2.4 Vapour Pressure
Value: .000000047 hPa at 25 degree C
Method: other (calculated): MPBPWIN, vers. 1.28

accepted calculation method
07-JUN-2001 (15)
Value: < .000000013 hPa at 25 degree C
Method: other (calculated)
Remark: Original data: estimated < 1 * 10e -8 mm Hg

Reference Book
08-JUN-2001 (16) (17)
2.5 Partition Coefficient
log Pow: = -.091 at 23 degree C
Method: other (measured): according to OECD-guidelines of commission

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
67/548/EWG
GLP: no
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Reliability: (1) valid without restriction

guideline study
04-JUL-2001 (18)
log Pow: -.07 - .1
Method: other (measured)
Test condition: Shake-flask method and octanol-saturated, kieselguhr-packed

column
principles
07-JUN-2001 (19)
log Pow: -.05
Test condition: Shake-flask method and HPLC, Temperature 22 to 25C.

Test substance: analytical grade
principles
28-AUG-2002 (20)
log Pow: .61 - .65
Test condition: Automated log P(o/w) measurement (ALPM) utilizing HPLC

principles
07-JUN-2001 (21)
Result: The measured octanol/saline partition coefficient is 1.036

(log part. coefficient = 0.0154); the transintegumental
tissue uptake index in Schistosoma japonicum ranged between
ca. 65 and 75 %; linear regression analysis demonstrated a
good correlation between both values.
principles
07-JUN-2001 (22)
2.6.1 Solubility in different media
Solubility in: Water

Value: = 1.87 other: %(g/100g) at 16 degree C
GLP: no
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Method: visual observation of saturation point

Result: Temperature caffeine
C % (g/100g water)
10.0 1.35 (extrapolated value)
16.0 1.87
28.0 3.19
44.1 7.67
58.7 15.22
64.9 21.41
79.0 35.41
83.9 46.84
100.3 81.0 (extrapolated value)
Test substance: caffeine (unrefined product)

comprehensible and scientifically acceptable
12-FEB-2003 (23)

Value: ca. 20 g/l at 20 degree C
pH value: 5.5 - 6.5
Conc.: 10 g/l at 20 degree C

28-AUG-2002 (6)

Descr.: of low solubility
Result: at 20C: 22 g/l (1 g/46 ml)

at 80C: 181 g/l (1 g/5.5 ml)
at 100C: 666 g/l (1 g/1.5 ml)
Reference Book
28-AUG-2002 (13)

Value: = 20 g/l at 20 degree C
pH value: = 6.9
Conc.: 10 g/l at 20 degree C

28-AUG-2002 (12)
2.6.2 Surface Tension
2.7 Flash Point
2.8 Auto Flammability
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Value:
Result: no self ignition up to the melting point.

expert judgement
30-SEP-1998 (24)
2.9 Flammability
Result: other
Result: hardly flammable; ignition temperature at or above 540C

(BASF: > 600C) as measured according to DIN 51 794
04-JUL-2001 (6) (12)
Result: not highly flammable

expert judgement
30-SEP-1998 (24)
2.10 Explosive Properties
Result: not explosive
Remark: not explosive according to the German Blasting Agent Law

(Sprengstoffgesetz)
expert judgement
08-JUN-2001 (24)
2.11 Oxidizing Properties
2.12 Dissociation Constant
2.13 Viscosity
Result: dust explosible

expert judgement
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

30-SEP-1998 (24)
Result: Solubility:
freely soluble: pyrrole, tetrahydrofurene containing about
4 % water
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
soluble: pyridine, ethyl acetate

slightly soluble: petroleum ether
ethanol: ca. 8 g/l at 20 C; ca. 45 g/l at 60 C
acetone: 20 g/l
chloroform: ca. 180 g/l
diethyl ether: ca. 1.8 g/l
benzene: 10 g/l at 20 C
ca. 45 g/l in boiling benzene
Reference Book
07-JUN-2001 (13) (14)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
3. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND PATHWAYS DATE: 04-MAR-2003
3.1.1 Photodegradation
Type: air
INDIRECT PHOTOLYSIS
Sensitizer: OH
Conc. of sens.: 500000 molecule/cm
Rate constant: .0000000000194185 cm/(molecule * sec)
Degradation: 50 % after 19.8 hour(s)
Method: other (calculated): AOP, vers. 1.87

28-JAN-2003 (15)
Type: air
INDIRECT PHOTOLYSIS
Sensitizer: OH
Conc. of sens.: 500000 molecule/cm
Rate constant: .000000000152 cm/(molecule * sec)
Degradation: 50 % after 2.5 hour(s)
Method: other (calculated)

principles
07-JUN-2001 (25)
3.1.2 Stability in Water
Type: abiotic
t1/2 pH : > 1 year
Method: other: calculated with HYDROWIN, vers. 1.64
Result: hydrolysis rate is extremely slow

28-JAN-2003 (15)
Result: The estimated half-life was 0.8 days in the Rhine river,
which was thought to occur as a result of biological
removal processes.
principles
07-JUN-2001 (26)
3.1.3 Stability in Soil
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
3.2.1 Monitoring Data (Environment)
Type of measurement: background concentration

Medium: drinking water
Remark: During a two year period caffeine was qualitatively

detected in Philadelphia drinking waters
04-JUL-2001 (27)

Medium: other
Result: Caffeine in the order of magnitude of 1 g/l or > 1 g/l

was detected in sewage effluent or potable water; in the
river Lee (UK) 0.29 g/l was detected.
Test condition: GC analysis
04-JUL-2001 (28)

Medium: other
Remark: Study of organic pollutants in municipal wastewater in

Goeteborg, Sweden during 1989 - 1991
Result: The concentration in the influent water ranged between 6 -
30 g/l and in the effluent water between 0.1 - 0.5 g/l
Test condition: GC-MS analysis
06-NOV-2000 (29)

Medium: other
Result: Caffeine was detected in the range of 3 - 20 ppb in three

POTW facilities
Test condition: Determination by GC-MS in three New Jersey publicly owned
treatment works (POTWs)
06-NOV-2000 (30)

Medium: surface water
Result: Caffeine was detected in the Rhine at Lobith at 0.1 g/l;

the estimated half-life was 0.8 days assuming first order
reduction process
06-NOV-2000 (26)
Type of measurement: concentration at contaminated site

Medium: other
Remark: Concentrations in particulate organic matter in New York

city, Jan. - March 1975: 0.7 - 7.0 g/1000 cu m (equivalent
concentration); emissions from coffee-roasting plants are
implicated as contributors to ambient air levels
06-NOV-2000 (11)
Type of measurement: other
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Medium: other
Remark: Concentrations in primary domestic sewage plant effluent:

0.01 - 0.046 mg/l; concentration in particulate organic
matter in New York City, 1-3/1975: 0.7 g/1000 cu m.
06-NOV-2000 (11)

Medium: other
Remark: Caffeine was detected qualitatively in leachate of a

sanitary landfill near Barcelona (Spain)
06-NOV-2000 (31)

Medium: other
Remark: Caffeine was identified in base/neutral fractions of Ilona

Island wastewater and sludge in the concentration range of
16 - 292 g/l (19 samples) and the retention time was 16.3
min.
06-NOV-2000 (32)

Medium: other
Remark: Concentrations in crude sewage ranged between 10 - 46 ng/l

or 10 g/l and in sewage effluents between 10 - 46 g/l
(USA, sewage and effluents); concentration in sewage
effluent at Luton (UK) between 1977 - 1980 was < 1 ng/l;
concentration in the Rhine river was 10/1978 0.3 g/l at
Lobith and 2/1978 - 10/1978 between 0.1 - 0.3 g/l at
Maassluis; concentration at percolating filter effluent at
Stevenage (UK) between 1977 - 1980 was < 1.0 ng/l; in the
Rhine river between 7/21979 - 10/1979 at Lobith 0.1 g/l,
atMaassluis between 7/12979 - 10/1979 between 0.03 - 0.1
g/l and at Gorinchem in 7/1979 0.03 g/l.
Test condition: HPLC GC-MS; HPLC-UV; UV-MS; GC-MS
16-MAY-1994 (33)
3.2.2 Field Studies
3.3.1 Transport between Environmental Compartments
Type: adsorption
Media: water - soil
Method: other: calculated with PCKOCWIN, vers. 1.63
Result: estimated log KOC = - 0.0135

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
28-JAN-2003 (15)
Type: volatility
Media: water - air
Result: Based on the estimated Henry's law constant

(H = 1.9*10-19 atm m3/mol) caffeine will
not volatize from water to atmosphere.
acceptable calculation method
28-JAN-2003 (34) (35)
Type: adsorption
Media: soil - air
Result: According to the estimated soil adsorption coefficients

caffeine will display very high mobility in soil.
principles
28-AUG-2002 (35)
Type: adsorption
Media: water - soil
Result: Estimated soil adsorption coefficients ranged from 18 to 22

and indicated that it will not adsorb to sediment and
suspended matter (peer reviewed).
principles
08-JUN-2001 (21) (16) (17)
3.3.2 Distribution
Media: air - biota - sediment(s) - soil - water

Method: Calculation according Mackay, Level I
Method: Level I - Fugacity-based environmental equilibrium

partitioning model, Version 2.11
Result: water: 99.99 %
soil: 0.0064 %
sediment: 0.0065 %
Calculation basis:
water solubility: 20000 g/m3
Vp: 4.70E-6
log Kow -0.09
T: 20 C
28-JAN-2003 (15) (36)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
3.4 Mode of Degradation in Actual Use
3.5 Biodegradation
Type: aerobic
Inoculum: other: activated sludge from laboratory waste water plants
treating municipal sewage
Concentration: 43 mg/l related to Test substance
20 mg/l related to DOC (Dissolved Organic Carbon)
Degradation: > 90 - 100 % after 22 day(s)
Result: readily biodegradable
Method: OECD Guide-line 301 A (new version) "Ready Biodegradability:

DOC Die Away Test"
Year: 1993
GLP: yes
Test substance: other TS: Theophylline
Result: > 90 % degradation at the end of the 10-days-windowV

Test condition: reference substance: aniline
Test substance: Theophylline shows close structural similarities to
caffeine. Thus, this study can be used as analogues for this
compound.
Guideline-study
19-FEB-2003 (37)
Type: aerobic
Degradation: 71 % after 28 day(s)
Method: OECD Guide-line 301 F "Ready Biodegradability: Manometric

Respirometry Test"
GLP: yes
Test substance: as prescribed by 1.1 - 1.4
Remark: As the molecular structure of caffeine and theophylline is

very similar and the only difference is an additional methyl
group at the nitrogen N7, the classification of caffeine to
be readily biodegradable is supported by the degradation
result of theophylline which was shown to be readily
biodegradable in a DOC Die-away-test (OECD 301A).
Result: Degradation rates in the single assays were 58 % and 84 %
BOD/ThOD (NO3) after 28 days after a distinct lag phase,
average 71%. The single assays differ by 26%. Nevertheless
the criteria for readily biodegradability can be regarded as
just reached. This is supported by the result of a study
with theophylline (see below).
Reliability: (3) invalid
Guideline study. One of the validity criteria is not
fulfilled (the 2 parallels differ by more than 20%).
28-AUG-2002 (38) (39)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: aerobic
Method: other
Year: 1981
Method: Department of the environment (UK) - Standing Committee of

Analysts (1981), Methods for the examination o f waters and
associated materials: Assessment of biodegradability (1981)
Result: No further information given. The authors discriminate the
results of the biodegradation tests as follows: ultimate
biodegradation (readily biodegradable, readily biodegradable
after acclimatisation, inherently biodegradable), partially
biodegradable, persistent (non-biodegradable).
national standard
28-JAN-2003 (40)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
3.6 BOD5, COD or BOD5/COD Ratio
3.7 Bioaccumulation
Species: other: fish and aquatic organisms

BCF: .52 - 2.25
Method: other: calculation after Lyman et al. (1990)
Result: estimated
04-JUL-2001 (41) (16) (17)
Remark: Environmental fate/exposure summary:

Caffeine is a naturally occurring and a commercially
produced compound; emission into the environment may be as
a fugative emission during production or use and in
wastewater effluent, landfill leachate or incinerator fly
ash; caffeine will display very high mobility if released to
soil; volatilization to atmosphere will not occur from
either moist or dry soil or water; it has the potential to
biodegrade in soil and water; bioaccumulation in fish or
adsorption to sediment is not expected; atmospheric
caffeine may undergo a gas -phase reaction with
photochemically produced hydroxyl radicals at an estimated
half-life of 2.5 h; occupational exposure may occur by
inhalation of dust or dermal contact during its production,
formulation or use; exposure of the general population is by
ingestion of foods,medicines or consumer products containing
caffeine
secondary quotation
04-JUL-2001 (42)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
4. ECOTOXICITY DATE: 04-MAR-2003
AQUATIC ORGANISMS
4.1 Acute/Prolonged Toxicity to Fish
Type: static
Species: Leuciscus idus (Fish, fresh water)
Exposure period: 96 hour(s)
Unit: mg/l Analytical monitoring: no
NOEC: = 46
LC0: = 46
LC50: ca. 87
LC100: = 215
Method: other: according to DIN 38 412, Bestimmung der Wirkung von

Wasserinhaltsstoffen auf Fische - Fischtest (L15)
Year: 1982
GLP: no
Result: Groups of 10 fish were exposed to the test substance at

nominal concentrations of 10, 21.5, 46.4, 100, 215, and 464
mg/l. No deaths were observed at 46.4 mg/l and less. Three
fish exposed to 100 mg/l died within 24 and another four
fish within 48 hours. All fish exposed to 215 mg/l and more
died within 1 hour.
Test substance: caffeine (anhydrous); according to the authors, purity was
99.5-100.5%
test procedure according to national standards (DIN)
28-JAN-2003 (43)
Type: static
Species: Pimephales promelas (Fish, fresh water)
Unit: mg/l Analytical monitoring: no data
LC50: 720
Method: other: according to Birge, W.J. et al.: Environ. Toxicol.

Chem. 4, 807-821
Year: 1985
GLP: no data
Result: Teratogenicity screening test (exposure of larvae) using a

static renewal procedure, exposure time: 120 hours.
LC50 = 0.72 (0.50-0.94) mg/ml
LC50 = 0.07 (0.04-0.11) mg/ml (malformation)
LOEC = 0.02 mg/ml
TI = 10.29 (teratogenic index = LC50 / EC50)
principles
28-AUG-2002 (44)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
4.2 Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Invertebrates
Species: Daphnia magna (Crustacea)

EC0: = 3.91
EC50: = 182
EC100: > 500
Method: other: 79/831/EWG, Annexe V, p. C

Year: 1984
GLP: no
Test condition: Data related to nominal concentrations

Test volume: 10 ml, 4 parallels,
total animals/concentration: 20,
concentration range: 3.95 to 500 mg/l,
check of the study visually after 3, 6, 24 and 48
hours
Guideline-study
28-JAN-2003 (45)
4.3 Toxicity to Aquatic Plants e.g. Algae
Species: Scenedesmus subspicatus (Algae)

Endpoint: biomass
Unit: mg/l Analytical monitoring: yes
NOEC: = 6.25
LOEC: = 12.5
EC10: = 10.2
EC50: > 100
EC90 : > 100
Method: OECD Guide-line 201 "Algae, Growth Inhibition Test"

Year: 1984
GLP: yes
Method: new name of algae: Desmodesmus subspicatus

Test condition: The test substance was tested in the concentration range
between 100 and 6,25 mg/l.
The dilution factor was 2.
The analytical verifications of the test substance were
investigated at different concentrations in OECD-medium. The
analytical results yielded 80% or higher recoveries; they
varied between 96,5% and 105,8% of the nominal
concentrations at test initiation and between 98,3% and
100,2% at test termination. Therefore, all biological
results are related to the nominal concentrations of the
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
test item.
guideline study
28-AUG-2002 (46)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Species: Scenedesmus subspicatus (Algae)

Endpoint: growth rate
Unit: mg/l Analytical monitoring: yes
NOEC: = 6.25
LOEC: = 12.5
EC10: > 100
EC50: > 100
EC90 : > 100
Method: OECD Guide-line 201 "Algae, Growth Inhibition Test"

Year: 1984
GLP: yes
Method: new name of algae: Desmodesmus subspicatus

Test condition: The test substance was tested in the concentration range
between 100 and 6,25 mg/l.
The dilution factor was 2.
The analytical verifications of the test substance were
investigated at different concentrations in OECD-medium. The
analytical results yielded 80% or higher recoveries; they
varied between 96,5% and 105,8% of the nominal
concentrations at test initiation and between 98,3% and
100,2% at test termination. Therefore, all biological
results are related to the nominal concentrations of the
test item.
Guideline-study
28-JAN-2003 (47)
4.4 Toxicity to Microorganisms e.g. Bacteria
Type: aquatic
Species: Pseudomonas putida (Bacteria)
EC10: = 1530
EC50: = 3490
EC90 : = 5240
Method: other: DIN 38412/8 - draft

Year: 1986
GLP: no
Test condition: Data related to nominal concentrations

test volume: 10 ml, 4 parallels and 1 uninoculated parallel,
concentration range: 156 to 10000 ml
Comparable to guideline study with acceptable restrictions.
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
28-JAN-2003 (48)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: other
Species: Photobacterium phosphoreum (Bacteria)
Exposure period: 5 minute(s)
Unit: mg/l Analytical monitoring:
EC50: 603 - 707
Method: other
Test condition: "Microtox" test using an instrument by Beckman company;

after reconstitution of the bacteria assay tubes maintained at
15 C; emission of light was determined by spectrophotometry
Test substance: highest purity available
principles
08-JUN-2001 (49)
4.5 Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Organisms
4.5.1 Chronic Toxicity to Fish
4.5.2 Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Invertebrates
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
TERRESTRIAL ORGANISMS
4.6.1 Toxicity to Sediment Dwelling Organisms
4.6.2 Toxicity to Terrestrial Plants
Species: Oryza sativa (Monocotyledon)

Endpoint: growth
Method: other
Test substance: no data
Result: The effect of caffeine on early development of rice

seedlings (growth of roots and shoots) was examined after
single or multiple treatment. 0.5 - 10 mM inhibited the
growth dose-dependently during the first 5 days. Root growth
was more affected than shoot growth. Shoot elongation was
inhibited by 50 % at 2.5 mM, whereas root elongation was
reduced by about 80 % with one treatment (2.5 mM) or by
about 90 % with several treatments. Grain respiration was
not affected but the seedlings accumulated caffeine
dose-dependently.
principles
28-JAN-2003 (50)
Result: Caffeine inhibits growth in seedlings of Coffea arabica.

secondary quotation
04-JUL-2001 (51)
4.6.3 Toxicity to Soil Dwelling Organisms
4.6.4 Toxicity to other Non-Mamm. Terrestrial Species
Species: other: beetle

Endpoint: mortality
Expos. period: 20 day(s)
Unit: ppm
LC50: 250.62 - 288
Method: other
Result: LD50 adults (both sexes): ca. 288 ppm;

LD50 larvae: 250.62 ppm
Test condition: Adults and larvae of the red flour beetle (Tribolium
castaneum) were placed in a glass tube containing flour
medium treated with caffeine; 30 C; mortality was assessed
after 20 days
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

principles
28-JAN-2003 (52)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Species: other avian: starling

Endpoint: mortality
Unit: mg/kg bw
LC50: > 500
Method: other: no data
Result: acute oral LD50 >500 mg/kg

principles
28-JAN-2003 (53)
Species: other avian: red-winged blackbird

Endpoint: mortality
Unit: mg/kg bw
LC50: = 316
Test substance: other TS
Result: acute oral LD50 = 316 mg/kg

R50 = 13.9 mg/kg (repellency)
hazard factor = R50/LD50 = 0.044
According to the authors, a hazard factor > 1.00 indicates a
definite potential for acute oral avian poisoning in the
wild; a hazard factor of 0.25 - 1.00 indicates a possible
potential; and a hazard factor < 0.25 indicates little or no
potential.
principles
28-JAN-2003 (53)
Species: other: Xenopus laevis (frog)

Expos. period: 120 hour(s)
Unit: other: mg/l
LC50: = 190
Method: other
Result: Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay - Xenopus (FETAX) =

teratogenicity screening test (exposure of larvae) using a
static renewal procedure
LC50 = 0.19 (0.18-0.21) mg/ml
LOEC = 0.08 mg/ml (MCIG = mean minimum concentration to
inhibit growth)
TI = 1.46 (teratogenic index = LC50/EC50)
principles
28-AUG-2002 (54) (44)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
4.7 Biological Effects Monitoring
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
4.8 Biotransformation and Kin etics
Remark: The highest concentration of the tested 0.04, 0.2 and 1.0
mg/ml of caffeine induced aneuploidy in a short-term
hexoploid wheat assay
06-NOV-2000 (55)
Remark: At the tested concentration of 1 mM caffeine was not DNA

damaging in an environmental screening assay with the
ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis.
06-NOV-2000 (56)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
5. TOXICITY DATE: 04-MAR-2003
5.0 Toxicokinetics, Metabolism and Distribution
5.1 Acute Toxicity
5.1.1 Acute Oral Toxicity
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male/female
Vehicle: water
Value: = 192 mg/kg bw
Method: other
Year: 1959
GLP: no
Remark: Original value: LD50 = 0.192 +/- 0.018 g/kg.

Albino rats were administered the test substance at doses of
0, 160, 180, 200 and 220 mg/kg.
Test substance: caffeine
24-JUL-2002 (57) (58)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male
No. of Animals: 5
Vehicle: other: corn oil

Year: 1984
GLP: no data
Remark: Groups of 5 male Crl:CD rats (nonfasted) were administered

the test substance by gavage at doses of 90, 130, 200, 300,
450, 670, 1000, and 1500 mg/kg and were observed for 14
days. Deaths occurred at doses of 450 mg/kg and more within
the days of dosing.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was >99%
06-DEC-2001 (59) (60)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male/female

Year: 1944
GLP: no
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: LD50 = 233 +/- 14 mg/kg.

06-DEC-2001 (61)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male

Year: 1978
GLP: no data
Remark: LD50 = 355 (312 - 403) mg/kg.

06-DEC-2001 (62) (63)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: female

Year: 1978
GLP: no data
Remark: LD50 = 247 (220 - 277) mg/kg.

06-DEC-2001 (62) (63)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Method: other: conventional

Year: 1978
GLP: no data
Remark: Original value: LD50 = 0.344 (0.307 - 0.383) g/kg.

LD50 was determined in Sprague-Dawley rats using a
conventional method.
06-DEC-2001 (64)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Method: other: UP and Down

Year: 1987
GLP: no data
Remark: Original value: LD50 = 0.421 (0.320 - 0.552) g/kg.

LD50 was determined in Sprague-Dawley rats using the Up and
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Down method.
06-DEC-2001 (64)
Type: LD50
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Species: rat
Sex: male

Year: 1984
GLP: no data
Remark: fasted rats

06-DEC-2001 (59)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male
No. of Animals: 10
Vehicle: other: gum arabic

Year: 1989
GLP: no data
Remark: Groups of 10 fasted Sprague-Dawley rats were used. Muscular

ridigity and tremor was noted.
06-DEC-2001 (65)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male/female
Value: 50 - 500 mg/kg bw

GLP: no data
Remark: Groups of 3 male and/or female Sprague-Dawley or Wistar rats

were used. Daily observations and necropsies were included.
24-AUG-2000 (66)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male/female
No. of Animals: 10
Vehicle: CMC
Method: other: BASF test

Year: 1985
GLP: no
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Groups of 5 male and 5 female Wistar rats were given a

single dose of the test substance at dose levels of 178,
261, and 383 (by gavage; dissolved in 0.5% aqueous
carboxymethyl cellulose) and were observed for 14 days.
Three males and all females of the high dose group died
within the first day after dosing. Pathology revealed
general congestive hyperemia in the animals that died; and
no abnormalities were found in the survivers.
comparable to guideline study
06-DEC-2001 (67)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male/female
No. of Animals: 12
Vehicle: other: Trioctanoin
Method: other: National Toxicology Program (NTP)

Year: 1982
GLP: yes
Remark: LC50 was between 200 and 400 mg/kg for males and females.
Groups of 6 Fischer 344 rats/sex were administered the test
substance by gaveage at dose levels of 50, 100, 200, 400,
and 800 mg/kg.
The slope of the LC50 curve ws rather steep, especially for
males. LD10 was 220 mg/kg for males and 240 mg/kg for
females.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was 99.9+%
(analyzed)
guideline study (NTP)
06-NOV-2002 (68)
Type: other: ALD

Species: rat
Sex: male
No. of Animals: 1
Vehicle: other: corn oil

Year: 1986
GLP: no data
Remark: Determination of the approximate lethal dose (ALD = lowest

dose tested which produced death).
One male Crl:CD rat each was were administered the test
substance by gavage at doses of 90, 130, 200, 300, 450, 670,
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
1000, and 1500 mg/kg and was observed for 14 days. Deaths
occurred at doses of 450 mg/kg and more within the day of
dosing.
06-DEC-2001 (60)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: LD50
Species: mouse

Year: 1978
GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (69)
Type: LD50
Species: mouse
Sex: male/female
No. of Animals: 12
Vehicle: other: sodium benzoate

Year: 1982
GLP: yes
Remark: LC50 = 185 mg/kg (males and females), 95% confidence limit =
100-240 mg/kg
Groups of 6 B6C3F1 mice/sex were administered the test
substance by gavage at dose levels of 125, 250, 500, 750,
and 1500 mg/kg.
LD10 was estimated to be 35 mg/kg for males and females.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was 99.9+%
(analyzed)
06-NOV-2002 (70)
Type: other: MTD

Species: mouse
Sex: female
No. of Animals: 10
Vehicle: water

Year: 1983
GLP: no data
Remark: The median tolerated dose for a teratogenicity screening

test was determined. Groups of 10 nonpregnant CD-1 female
mice were administered the test substance for 5 days at one
of five dose levels.
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
06-DEC-2001 (71)
Type: LD50
Species: rabbit
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (69)
Species: rabbit

GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (72)
Type: LD50
Species: dog

GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (73)
Type: LD50
Species: guinea pig

GLP: no

06-DEC-2001 (74)
Type: LD50
Species: hamster

GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (69)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
5.1.2 Acute Inhalation Toxicity
Type: LC50
Species: rat
Sex: male/female
No. of Animals: 10
Vehicle: other: aerosol
Exposure time: 4 hour(s)
Value: ca. 4.94 mg/l
Method: OECD Guide-line 403 "Acute Inhalation Toxicity"

Year: 1988
GLP: no
Remark: LC 50: ca. 4.94 mg/l (males and females)

ca. 4.94 mg/l (males)
ca. 4.1 mg/l (females)
Groups of 5 Wistar rats/sex were exposed to an aerosol of

the test substance (mixed with 2% Aerosil R 972) at nominal
concentrations of 2.48 and 4.94 mg/l using a head-nose
inhalation system. The rats were exposed for 4 hours and
observed for 14 days (day of exposure = day 0). No deaths
were observed at the low dose level. In the high dose group,
6/10 animals died. Late deaths were observed; one male each
died at day 0 and 7, respectively; 2, 1, and 1 female died
at day 0, 1, and 2, respectively. Clinical signs of toxicity
included changes in respiration (irregular, accelerated,
intermittent, gasping), eyelid closure, salivation,
restlessness, attempts to escape, reddish nasal discharge,
apathy, and (in the high dose group only) decreased pain
reflex and death. Pathology revealed general congestion,
bloody ulcers in the glandular stomachs, and/or intensified
hyperemia in the animals that died. No pathological changes
were observed in the survivers.
According to the authors, a third test group (as required by

the OECD guideline no. 403) was not included since a third
dose level (higher than 4.94 mg/l) was expected to be lethal
to all exposed animals.
Test substance: caffeine (anhydrous powder); according to the authors,
purity was 99.5-100.5% referring to dried substance
OECD guideline study with 2 concentrations only, no GLP,
06-DEC-2001 (75)
5.1.3 Acute Dermal Toxicity
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Sex: male/female
No. of Animals: 10
Vehicle: other: olive oil (50% suspension)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Value: > 2000 mg/kg bw
Method: other: BASF test

Year: 1988
GLP: no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Five male and five female Wistar rats were given a 24-h
semiocclusive application of a 50% (w/v) aqueous suspension
of the test substance (dose level: 2000 mg/kg). After 24 h,
the application patches were removed, and the application
sites were washed with water. No deaths, signs of toxicity,
or local/pathological findings were observed within the
14-day observation period.
Test substance: caffeine (anhydrous powder)
24-JUL-2002 (76)
5.1.4 Acute Toxicity, other Routes
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Route of admin.: i.p.

GLP: no data

29-AUG-2000 (72)
Type: LD50
Species: rat

GLP: no

18-AUG-2000 (77)
Type: LD50
Species: rat

GLP: no
Remark: LD50 = 200 mg/kg (1.5-month old rat)

LD50 = 205 mg/kg (2- to 4-month old rat)
Groups of 10-20 rats were administered the test substance at
dose levels of 100, 150, 200, 210, 225, 230, and 275 mg/kg.
Deaths occurred at doses of 150 mg/kg and more; doses of 230
mg/kg and more were lethal to all animals.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
29-AUG-2000 (78)
Type: LD50
Species: mouse

GLP: no

18-AUG-2000 (79)
Type: LD50
Species: guinea pig

GLP: no data

29-AUG-2000 (72)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Route of admin.: s.c.

GLP: no

18-AUG-2000 (80)
Type: LD50
Species: mouse

GLP: no

18-AUG-2000 (81)
Type: LD50
Species: dog

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

GLP: no data

29-AUG-2000 (73)
Type: LD50
Species: rat
Route of admin.: i.v.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

GLP: no

18-AUG-2000 (82)
Type: LD50
Species: mouse

GLP: no data

29-AUG-2000 (72)
Type: LD50
Species: mouse

GLP: no data

18-AUG-2000 (83)
Type: LD50
Species: rabbit

GLP: no data

18-AUG-2000 (84)
Type: LD50
Species: dog

GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

29-AUG-2000 (72)
Type: LD50
Species: guinea pig

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE


GLP: no data

29-AUG-2000 (72)
5.2 Corrosiveness and Irritation
5.2.1 Skin Irritation
Species: rabbit
Concentration: 50 %
Exposure: Semiocclusive
Exposure Time: 4 hour(s)
No. of Animals: 3
PDII: 0
Result: not irritating
EC classificat.: not irritating
Method: OECD Guide-line 404 "Acute Dermal Irritation/Corrosion"

Year: 1981
GLP: no
Remark: Two male and one female White Vienna rabbits were applied
ca. 500 mg of the test substance (a 50% (w/w) aqueous
formulation) for 4 hours under semiocclusive conditions.
After 4 hours, the application patches were removed, and the
application sites were washed with water and Lutrol/water
(1/1). The skin was scored at 30-60 minutes after removal of
the patches and at 24, 48, and 72 h. No signs of irritation
were observed; irritation indices (erythema and edema) were
0 in each animal at each reading time.
guideline study (OECD)
06-DEC-2001 (85)
5.2.2 Eye Irritation
Species: rabbit
Concentration: undiluted
Dose: .1 ml
Comment: not rinsed
No. of Animals: 3
Result: not irritating
EC classificat.: not irritating
Method: OECD Guide-line 405 "Acute Eye Irritation/Corrosion"

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Year: 1981
GLP: no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: One tenth millilitre (bulk volume; ca. 56 mg) of the test
substance was instilled into the right conjunctival sac of
each of 2 male and 1 female White Vienna rabbits. The
treated eyes were not washed. The eyes were scored at 1, 24,
48, and 72 h and at 8 days post instillation. Slight corneal
opacity was found in asll 3 rabbits at 24h and in 1 rabbit at
day 8. Slight to well-defined conjunctival redness was present
in all 3 rabbits at 24h (grad 2) and in 1 rabbit at day 8;
slight to moderate conjunctival swelling
was found in 1 rabbits at up to 48 hours. No iritis was
observed. Mean irritation indices were 0.9 (corneal
opacity), 0.0 (iritis), 1.6 (conjunctival erythema), and 0.6
(conjunctival edema).
guideline study (OECD)
08-JUL-2002 (85)
5.3 Sensitization
5.4 Repeated Dose Toxicity
Species: rat Sex: male

Strain: Sprague-Dawley
Route of administration: oral feed
Exposure period: 7 or 8 weeks
Frequency of treatment: continuously in the diet
Post exposure period: none
Doses: ca. 250 mg/kg/d (0.5% in the diet)
Control Group: yes, concurrent no treatment

Year: 1984
GLP: no data
Remark: Study of limited value on account of experimental procedure

and documentation.
Result: Four groups of rats were fed a diet containing the test
substance at concetrations of 0% (control groups) and 0.5%
for 7 and 8 weeks. Significant reduction of food consumption
and body weight was noted in the two treated groups when
compared to their corresponding controls. Absolute weights
of testes and thymus were significantly decreased while
relative weights were similar to control. Histopathology of
the testes revealed scattered areas of vacuolar cell
generation in the spermatogenic cells; this degeneration was
more pronounced after 8 weeks of feeding.
only one test concentration
06-DEC-2001 (86)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Strain: no data
Exposure period: 1, 3, 6, 8 months
Doses: ca. 70, 140, 280 mg/kg/d(0.125, 0.25, 0.5% in the diet)
NOAEL: ca. 70 mg/kg bw

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Result: The testicular effects of the test substance were studied in

mature and immature rats. Four-week old rats were fed a diet
containing the test substance at concentrations of 0
(control), 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5%. Decreased body weight gain
and food consumption was seen at the mid and high dose
level. In the high dose group, severely and irreversibly
impaired spermatogenesis was observed as early as 1 month;
testicular atrophy was observed at 8 months. In the mid dose
group, slightly impaired spermatogenesis was seen in ca. 27%
of the animals at 6 months. Spermatogonial chromosome damage
was not seen. However, there was a trend to decreased
mitosis and DNA synthesis in the high dose group at 3
months.
Biochemical parameters were changed at the high dose level.
Testicular cAMP was unchanged, dry weight, RNA, DNA and zinc
was significantly decreased. Serum cholesterol and
testosterone was increased. None of these effects were seen
in pair-fed controls. According to the authors, these
results indicated that high doses of the test substance
produced changes in testicular morphology and composition.
abstract only
06-DEC-2001 (87)

Route of administration: drinking water
Exposure period: 6 weeks
Frequency of treatment: continuously in the drinking water
Doses: ca. 15.4 mg/kg/d (ca. 3.86 mg/rat/d)
Control Group: yes

Year: 1989
GLP: no data
Result: The effect of the test substance on the rat pancreas was
studied. Male adult rats were given drinking water

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
containing the test substance for 6 weeks. According to the

authors, average daily intake of the test substance was ca.
3.86 mg/rat. Examination of the pancreas revealed no
substance-related effect on organ weight or DNA, RNA and
protein content while the number of zymogen granules was
slightly increased. Amylase, immunoreactive cationic
trypsin(ogen), and trypsinogen was elevated in pancreatic
homogenate while seerum levels of immunoreactive cationic
trypsin(ogen) and amylase were lower than control.
The rate of secretion of amylase, trypsin and chymotrypsin was
singificantly lower than in controls in response to CCK-8
and nicotine. Leucine incorporation was significantly
elevated in acini in the treated rats in the presence of
CCK-8, secretin and carbachol.
secondary literature
06-DEC-2001 (88)
Species: rat Sex: female

Strain: no data
Exposure period: before and during pregnancy and during lactation
Doses: ca. 36 mg/kg/d (0.04% in the drinking water)

Year: 1990
GLP: no data
Result: The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of

maternal caffeine uptake on the tyrosine level in neonatal
cerebrum. Dams were administered the test substance at a
concentration of 0.04% in the drinking water before and/or
during gestation and during lactation. Free amino acids in
the cerebrum of the neonates were examined on days 1, 5, and
10 post partum. The tyrosine concentration was increased in
the cerebrum (days 1 and 5, with approximate mean caffeine
levels of above 1.5-2.0 ug/g wet weight), but not in the
liver. The tyrosine level showed a positive correlation with
the caffeine level in neonates only on day 1 in the group
administered the test substance after pregnancy. There was
no significant increase in the fetal cerebral concentration
of MOPEG-sulfate. According to the authors, these results
suggested that maternal caffeine uptake of the test
substance disturbed the neonatal cerebrum through tyrosine
and thyrosine hyroxylase and then produced behavioural
changes in developing rats.
06-DEC-2001 (89)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Species: rat Sex: male/female

Strain: Fischer 344
Exposure period: 90 days
Doses: 19.7, 41.8, 85.4, 151.0, 271.9 mg/kg/d (males); 23.1,
51.0, 104.2, 174.2, 287.0 mg/kg/d (females) (188, 375,
750, 1500, 3000 ppm in the drinking water)
NOAEL: = 1500 ppm

Year: 1983
GLP: yes
Result: The aim of this study was to determine the dose levels for a
2-year chronic bioassay. Groups of 12 rats/sex were given
the test substance in the drinking water at concentrations
of 0 (control), 188, 375, 750, 1500, and 3000 ppm. According
to the authors, based on data of body weights and water
consumption, the daily doses were calculated to be 0, 19.7,
41.8, 85.4, 151.0, and 271.9 mg/kg for males and 0, 23.1,
51.0, 104.2, 174.2, and 287.0 mg/kg for females. All animals
were sacrificed at the end of the treatment period; body and
organ weights were recorded. Clinical chemical examinations
were performed on animals from the 188, 750, and 3000 ppm
and control groups. Microscopic pathology was performed on
all lesions appearing grossly and routinely in all major
systems in the high dose and control groups.
The body weight gains of all treated groups were decreased.
The effect was significant in the highest dose only (reduction
of 26%, males, 20%, females). Both food and water consumption
was decreased by ca. 10% in this group in both sexes. However,
water consumption was increased at 750 ppm (both sexes) and at
375 ppm (females). No significant clinical symptoms were
recorded in any group.
Clinical chemistry indicated some significantly increased
and/or decreased serum aspartate aminotransferase and
alanine aminotransferase values and significantly decreased
serum amylase values in treated rats; however, no
dose-related patterns were established.
There were no significant treatment-related gross lesions.
Microscopic examination revealed alterations (cell
enlargement) of the salivary gland which were most marked in
the high dose group, diminishing with decreasing dose.
The observed effect in salivary gland was dose dependent in
rats and mice in the highest dose group only, the authors gave
no description about adverse effect. These is a functional
adaptive and reversible effect of salivary glands to well
known pharmacological effect of caffeine (sympathicomimetic).
The morphological changes correlate to this function are so
fare not considered to be an adverse effect of the substance
According to the authors, these results indicated that the
maximum tolerated dose to be used for a 2-year chronic

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
bioassay should be 2000 ppm; doses of 0, 500, 1000, and 2000

ppm were recommended for this study.
Test condition: Groups of 12 animals/sex.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was 99.9%
(analyzed)
03-MAR-2003 (90)

Strain: Fischer 344

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Doses: 15, 31, 62, 123, 245 mg/kg/d (males); 20, 38, 80, 133,
285 mg/kg/d (females) (100, 200, 400, 800, 1600 ppm in
the drinking water)
NOAEL: > 1500 ppm

Year: 1983
GLP: yes
90-day study. Groups of 6 rats/sex were given the test
substance in the drinking water at concentrations of 0
(control), 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1600 ppm. According to
the authors, based on data of body weights and water
consumption the daily doses were calculated to be 0, 15, 31,
62, 123, and 245 mg/kg for males and 0, 20, 38 , 80, 122,
and 285 mg/kg for females.
No deaths occurred. Rough hair was seen in one male dosed
with 200 ppm (day 12); hunched posture was seen in a single
100-ppm female (day 7). No other clinical signs were noted.
Body weights and gross pathology r evealed no
substance-related effect. Microscopic examination of
controls and animals treated with 400 ppm and more revealed
some changes of the stomach, kidneys, lungs in individual
rats administered 800 or 1600 ppm. However, this was not
statistically significantly different from control; similar
lesions were also found in control rats.
According to the authors, these results suggested that there
were no significant dose-related lesions or toxic responses.
Based on these results, doses of 0, 188, 375, 750, 1500, and
3000 ppm were selected for the 90-day study.

(analyzed)
03-MAR-2003 (91)

Strain: Wistar
Route of administration: gavage
Frequency of treatment: 5 d/w
Doses: 110, 150, 191 mg/kg/d

Year: 1967
GLP: no
Remark: Study does not meet current standards; limited value.

Result: CBL Wistar rats were used. The max. LD0 (100 days) or max.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
dose that produced no deaths was 110 mg/kg, the LD50 (100
days) was 150 mg/kg and the LD100 (100 days) was 191 mg/kg.
Doses in the order of the LD0 (i.e. 110 mg/kg) produced a
stressor reaction in the adrenal and thymus glands.
Changes in behavior, gastric ulcers, hypertrophic effects in
several organs but in general to normal appearance and no
changes in growth or eating and drinking habits were noted.
Doses in the order of the LD50 (i.e. 150 mg/kg) caused
polydypsia and diuresis and some degree of toxic nephritis
as well as changes in the liver and other organs.
06-DEC-2001 (92)
Species: rat Sex: no data

Strain: no data
Route of administration: i.p.
Frequency of treatment: twice daily
Doses: 10, 25, 50 mg/kg/d
NOAEL: = 10 mg/kg bw
LOAEL: = 25 mg/kg bw

Year: 1990
GLP: no data
Result: The effect of repeated administration of the test substance

on monoamine and monoamine metabolite concentrations in the
rat brain was studied. The test substance was administered
twice daily for 30 days. Concentrations of brain tissue
monoamine, dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE), serotonine
(5HT), monoamine metabolites, dihydroxyphenylacetic acid
(DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA),
3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG), and
5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5HIAA) were determined.
No significant changes were found in the low dose group. At
the mid dose level, 5HT was significantly increased in
striatum while 5HIAA was unchanged. At the high dose level,
significant changes were observed with each monoamine
system. In striatum, DA and 5HT were increased while DOPAC
was decreased. In frontal cortex, NE was increased. In
cerebellum, 5HT and MHPG were increased.
06-DEC-2001 (93)
Species: mouse Sex: female

Strain: Balb/c

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Doses: ca. 100 mg/kg/d (500 mg/l = 500 ppm in the drinking
water)

Year: 1992
GLP: no data
Result: The caffeine-induced enhancement of mammary gland

lobulo-alveolar development was studied in ovariectomized,
estrogen- and progesterone-treated mice. Thirty mice were
administered the test substance at a concentration of 500
mg/l for 30 days (at the days 60 to 90 of age), 31 control
mice received tap water. A significant enhancement of
lobulo-alveolar development of the mammary gland of the
treated mice, compared with controls, was observed. Six
blood components, known to enhance normal or neoplastic
mammary gland growth processes (total free fatty acids,
glucose, IGF-1, insulin, prolactin, and corticosterone) were
assesed. Only corticosterone was signifcantly increased in
mice treated with the test substance; the other values were
similar to control. According to the authors, these results
suggested that the enhancement of mammary gland
lobulo-alveolar development by chronic consumption of
caffeine appeared to be a result of caffeine-enhanced
secretion of corticosterone.
While a consistent significant stimulatory effect on mammary

lobulo/alveolar differentiation was observed when the test
substance was consumed orally, no direct effect on mammary
development was seen when the test substance was placed
directly into the mammary gland (implantation of a pellet)
or in culture media.
mammary gland examination only
06-DEC-2001 (94) (95)
Species: mouse Sex: male/female

Strain: B6C3F1
Doses: 21.4, 43.6, 85.4, 130.5, 167.4 mg/kg/d (males); 24.6,
46.6, 87.9, 134.4, 179.4 mg/kg/d (females) (94, 188,
375, 750, 1500 ppm in the drinking water)
NOAEL: 1500 ppm

Year: 1983
GLP: yes

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
2-year chronic bioassay. Groups of 12 mice/sex were given
the test substance in the drinking water at concentrations
of 0 (control), 94, 188, 375, 750, and 1500 ppm. According
to the authors, based on data of body weights and water
consumption, the daily doses were calculated to be 0, 21.4,
43.6, 85.4, 103.5, and 167.4 mg/kg for males and 0, 24.6,
46.7, 87.9, 134.4, and 179.4 mg/kg for females. All animals
were sacrificed at the end of the treatment period; body and
organ weights were recorded.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Clinical chemical examinations were performed on animals from

the 94, 375, and 1500 ppm and control groups. Microscopic
pathology was performed on all lesions appearing grossly and
routinely in all major systemsin the high dose and control
groups.
Mean body weights were significantly depressed (by >10%) in
males treated with 188, 375, and 750 ppm. Final mean body
weights were significantly decreased at 94, 188, 375 ppm
(both sexes), and at 750 ppm (males only). Food consumption
was unaffected. Water consumption was decreased by 10% and
more in the groups given 1500 and 750 ppm (both sexes) and
increased by 10% and more in all other treated group (both
sexes). No significant clinical symptoms were recorded in
any group.
Clinical chemistry indicated significant decreases in the
levels of serum amylase (1500 ppm, both sexes), serum
aspartate aminotransferase (375 ppm, females), and alanine
aminotransferase (1500 ppm, females). However, no
dose-related trends were indicated.
There were no significant treatment-related gross or
microscopic lesions, though microscopic examination revealed
some alterations of the salivary gland at the upper limits
of normal in the high dose group.
maximum tolerated dose to be used for a 2-year chronic
bioassay should be 1500 ppm; doses of 0, 375, 750, and 1500
ppm were recommended for this study.

(analyzed)
03-MAR-2003 (96)

Strain: other: TO
Route of administration: dermal
Frequency of treatment: twice daily
Doses: 10 and 50 mM solution (ca. 1942, 9710 ug/ml)
Control Group: yes, concurrent vehicle

Year: 1984
GLP: no data
Result: The aim of the study was to investigate nuclear enlargement

as an early change produced in mouse epidermis by
carcinogenic compounds when applied in the presence of a
tumor promotor. The test substance was applied to the shaved
dorsal skin at concentrations of 10 and 50 mM for 3 days; a

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
0.1% (v/v) croton oil in methylethylketon was used as

solvent. The mice were sacrificed on day 4 of the study. The
skin was peeled and examined for enlarged nuclei.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Treatment of the test substance at 10 mM resulted in nuclear

enlargement which was just significant at the 5% level. No
effect was seen at 50 mM.
06-DEC-2001 (97)
Species: hamster Sex: male/female

Strain: other: Han:AU
Doses: ca. 9.0, 24.6, 65.2 mg/kg/d (males); 14.7, 50.8, 104.8
mg/kg/d (females) (91.3, 274, 822 ppm in the drinking
water)
NOAEL: > 822 ppm

Year: 1996
GLP: no data
Result: The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of the
test substance on the tyroid. Groups of 20 Syrian golden
hamsters/sex were given tap water containing the test
substance at concentrations of 0 (control), 91.3, 274, and
822 ppm. Based on data on body weight and water consumption,
daily doses were calculated to 0, 9.0, 24.6, and 65.2 mg/kg
for males and 0, 14.7, 50.8, and 104.8 mg/kg for females.
After 3 months of treatment, groups of 10 animals/sex were
sacrificed and autopsied.
Caffeine in plasma (measured at 3 days, 3 weeks and 3
months) was higher in females than in males, due to higher
uptake. A transient, non-dose-related increase in mean
tri-iodothyronine was seen in mid and high dose males after
3 days of treatment. At later time points, the values were
similar in all groups. No treatment- related changes were
found in thyroxine (days 3, 24, and 91), and other clinical
chemical parameters (day 91), absolute and relative adrenal
weight, gross pathology and thyroid histopathology.
According to the authors, in conclusion, no signs of thyroid
toxicity of caffeine was seen in Syrian golden hamsters.
Test substance: caffeine, pure, natural (DAB)
06-DEC-2001 (98)
5.5 Genetic Toxicity 'in Vitro'
Type: Ames test

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100, TA1535, TA1537,
TA1538
Concentration: no data
Metabolic activation: with and without

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Ames, B.N. et al.: Mutat. Res. 347-354

Year: 1984
GLP: no data
Remark: Plate incorporation assay with and without metabolic

activation with S-9 mix prepared from liver homogenate of
Aroclor-pretreated Sprague-Dawley rats. Results presented
only in tabular form; no further data.
06-DEC-2001 (99)
Type: DNA damage and repair assay

System of testing: Escherichia coli WP2, WP67, CM871
Result: positive

Year: 1984
GLP: no data
Remark: DNA repair test with and without metabolic activation with
S-9 mix prepared from liver homogenate of Aroclor-pretreated
Sprague-Dawley rats; endpoint: bacterial growth; MIC
(minimal inhibitory concentration) ranged between 187 and
1125 ug/plate. The test substance induced a nonraparable DNA
damage in Escherichia coli.
Results presented only in tabular form; no further data.
documentation unsufficient
06-DEC-2001 (99)
Type: Ames test

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium TA97, TA102
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Maron, D.M. and Ames, B.N.: Mutat. Res.
113, 173-215
Year: 1984
GLP: no data
Remark: Plate incorporation assay with and without metabolic

Aroclor-pretreated Sprague-Dawley rats. Results presented
only in tabular form; no further data.
06-DEC-2001 (100)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: Bacterial forward mutation assay

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium BA13
Concentration: ca. 58, 97, 291, 583, 971, 2524, 2913, 10098, 30100
ug/plate (0.3, 0.5, 1.5, 3, 5, 13, 15, 52, 155
umoles/plate)
Metabolic activation: without
Result: negative

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Method: other: according to Hera, C. and Pueyo, C.: Mutagenesis 1,

267-273
Year: 1986
GLP: no data
Remark: Salmonella Ara test (preincubation assay) without metabolic

activation.
06-DEC-2001 (101)
Type: other: sporulation test

System of testing: Bacillus subtilis 168DB, BY886
Concentration: 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 mg/ml
Result: positive
Method: other: according to Sacks, L.E. and MacGregor, J.T.: Mutat.

Res. 95, 191-202
Year: 1982
GLP: no data
Remark: Bacillus subtilis multigene sporulation test. At high

concentrations, the test substance was mutagenic.

unsuitable test system
07-DEC-2001 (102)
Type: other: micronucleus test

System of testing: Rat kidney cell line NRK-49F
Concentration: ca. 971, 1942, 3884 ug/ml (5, 10, 20 mM)
Result: positive

Year: 1987
GLP: no data
Remark: The cells were incubated with the test substance for 60
minutes at 37 degree C. At least 4000 interphase cells with
visible cytoplasm per treatment were scored. A
dose-dependent increase in % cells with micronuclei was seen
(ca. 4.5% micronucleated cells at the highest dose level;
ca. 0.3% micronucleated cells in controls; result presented
graphically).
The test substance was slightly cytotoxic. At a
concentration of 10 mM, cell viability was 92.3% and 83.6%
of control after 0 and 3 days of incubation, respect ively.
At a concentration of 20 mM, cell viability was 83.5% and

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
76.6% of control after 0 and 3 days of incubation,

respectively.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

relevant methodical deficiencies, substance was tested in
concentration over the level recommended in the OECD/EU
guidelines (10mM)
07-DEC-2001 (103)
Type: Cytogenetic assay

System of testing: neural ganglia obtained from Drosophila melanogaster
Concentration: ca. 97, 194, 971, 1942, 3884 ug/ml (0.5, 1, 5, 10, 20
mM)
Result: ambiguous

Year: 1980
GLP: no data
Remark: Third-instar larvae of the wild strain Oregon-R of

Drosophila melanogaster were dissected. Neural ganglia were
placed in a 0.7% sodium choride solution and treated with
the test substance for 2 hours. The ganglia were fixed at
set time intervals after treatment for the d etermination of
the effects of the test substance in different stages of the
cell cycle. Chromatid aberrations were induced only when the
test substance was administered in G2 or approaching
mitosis. No aberrations were observed after treatment in S
or early G2.
06-DEC-2001 (104) (105)

System of testing: Chinese hamster cell line (CHL)
Concentration: 250, 500, 1000 ug/ml
Result: positive

Year: 1977
GLP: no data
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test without metabolic activation,

CHL cells were exposed for 24 or 48 h, preparations were
made by an air-dry method, 100 metaphases/dose level were
evaluated. The test substance produced a dose-related
increase in the frequency of chromosomal aberrations at the
mid an high dose levels. These concentrations are above the
levels recommended in the OECD/EU guidelines (i.e. over the 10
mM level) and could be the reason for the positive results.
Negative control and solvent control cultures were included.
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
principles. Concentrations are above the levels recommended in

the OECD/EU guidelines (i.e. over the 10mM level)
03-MAR-2003 (106) (107)
Type: Ames test

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium
Result: negative

Year: 1983
GLP: no data
Remark: Preincubation test with and without metabolic activation

with S-9 mix prepared from liver homogenate of Aroclor
1254-pretreated male Sprague-Dawley rats and Syrian
hamsters.

06-DEC-2001 (108)
Type: Ames test

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100, TA1535, TA1537
Result: negative

Year: 1977
GLP: no data
Remark: Salmonella typhimurium reverse mutation assay

06-DEC-2001 (109)
Type: Escherichia coli reverse mutation assay

System of testing: Escherichia coli K12
Concentration: ca. 5000 ug/ml (25.75 mM)
Result: positive

Year: 1990
GLP: no data
Remark: Inductions of frameshift mutation was observed in strains of

Escherichia coli K12.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

only one concentration tested
06-DEC-2001 (110)
Type: Bacillus subtilis recombination assay

System of testing: Bacillus subtilis 17A (Rec+), 45T (Rec-)
Concentration: ca. 1000 ug/ml
Result: ambiguous

Year: 1972
GLP: no
Remark: Recombination test without metabolic activation;

mutagenicity was indicated by growth inhibition. No growth
inhibition was seen in tester strain 17A; borderline
activity was seen in tester strain 45T.
06-DEC-2001 (111)

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium
Result: negative

Year: 1978
GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (112)
Type: Ames test

TA1538, 1530, hisG46
Concentration: 6000 ug/plate
Result: negative

Year: 1975
GLP: no
Remark: Salmonella typhimurium reverse mutation assay; <70

revertants/plate were noted

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
06-DEC-2001 (113)
Type: Ames test

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100, TA 535, TA1537,
TA1538
Concentration: up to 1940 ug/plate (up to 10 umoles/plate)
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Ames, B.N. et al.: Mutat. Res. 31, 347-364
Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Remark: Ames test with and without metabolic activation with S-9 mix
prepared from liver homogenate of Aroclor 1254-pretreated
male Sprague-Dawley rats.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was of the finest
pure grade
06-DEC-2001 (114)
Type: Salmonella typhimurium reverse mutation assay

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium TA92
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: Salmonella typhimurium reverse mutation assay

06-DEC-2001 (115)

System of testing: Escherichia coli K12 ND 160
Concentration: 1000 ug/ml
Result: positive

GLP: no

no further data
06-DEC-2001 (116) (117)

System of testing: Escherichia coli K12 (343/113)
Concentration: up to 1940 ug/plate (up to 10 umoles/plate)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Mohn and Ellenberger in: Kilbey, B.J. et

al. (eds.): Handbook of mutagenicity test procedures,
Elsevier, Amsterdam; pp. 95-118
Year: 1977
GLP: no data
Remark: Test on mutations to 5-methyltryptophan resistance, arginine

galactose utilization and arginine independence with and
without metabolic activation with S-9 mix prepared from
liver homogenate of male NMRI mice.
pure grade
06-DEC-2001 (114)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: Bacterial gene mutation assay

System of testing: Escherichia coli
Result: positive

GLP: no
Remark: Endpoints:
- Phage T5 resistance (Novick and Szilard, 1951; Kubitschek
and Bendigkeit, 1958)
- Phage resistance (Gezelius and Fries, 1952; Glass and
Novick, 1959)
- Methionine and tryptophan independence (Greer, 1958)
06-DEC-2001 (118) (119) (120) (121) (122)

Result: negative

Year: 1958
GLP: no
Remark: Endpoint: Streptomycin dependence

06-DEC-2001 (123)

System of testing: Klebsiella pneumoniae
Result: negative

Year: 1969
GLP: no

06-DEC-2001 (124)
Type: other
System of testing: miscellaneous test systems
Remark: A summary on mutagenicity data was given.

Caffeine

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
- was generally mutagenic in algae;

- negative and positive in fungi;
- negative in Schizosaccharomyces pombe (however, meiotic
recombination was decreased mitotic gene conversion was
increased in this yeast);
- induced aneuploidy in Saccharomyces cerevisiae;
- increased the rate of point mutations in plants (Glycine
max.);
- induced chromosomal aberrations in plants (Allium, Hordeum
and Vicia species) with few exceptions;
- induced sister chromatid exchange in Vicia faba;
- induced recombination in some plant studies (Glycine max.
and Nicotiana tabacum).
30-AUG-2000 (72)

System of testing: Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells
Result: positive

GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (125)

System of testing: Chinese hamster V79 cells
Concentration: ca. 583, 1942, 5826 ug/ml (3, 10, 30 mM)
Result: negative

Year: 1976
GLP: no
Remark: Alkaline Elution Test, 2-hour incubation.

06-DEC-2001 (126) (127)

System of testing: Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells
Result: negative

Year: 1976
GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

06-DEC-2001 (128)
Type: Unscheduled DNA synthesis


OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: negative

GLP: no data

07-DEC-2001 (128)
Type: Mammalian cell gene mutation assay

System of testing: Chinese hamster cells (CHO, V79)
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: Gene mutation assays in CHO cells and V79 cells

06-DEC-2001 (129) (130) (131) (132) (133)
Type: Sister chromatid exchange assay

System of testing: various Chinese hamster cells
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: Don and Cl-1 cells were used.

06-DEC-2001 (134) (135)

System of testing: Mouse blastocysts
Result: positive

GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (136)

System of testing: various Chinese hamster cells

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Result: positive

GLP: no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: CHO, CHL, Cl-1 and endoreduplicated cells were used.

secondary test system
06-DEC-2001 (132) (137) (138) (139) (140)

System of testing: human HeLa cells, rat MCTI cells
Result: negative

GLP: no

06-DEC-2001 (141)

System of testing: various Human cells
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: Human lymphocytes, HeLa cells, Fanconi's anemia lymphocytes,

and leukocytes were used.
06-DEC-2001 (142) (143) (144) (145) (146)
Type: other: cell transformation test

System of testing: various cells
Result: positive

GLP: no
Remark: Syrian hamster embryo cells, hamster embryo cells and mouse
C3H2K cells were used.
07-DEC-2001 (128) (147) (148)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

System of testing: human lymphocytes
Concentration: ca. 97, 146, 194, 388, 583 ug/ml (0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 2.0,
3.0 mM)
Result: negative

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Remark: DNA repair test using lymphocytes obtained from healthy

donors and from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE; reduced levels of excision repair). The test substance
did not inhibit DNA repair in normal lymphcytes and did not
further reduce DNA repair in SLE cells).
07-DEC-2001 (149)

Result: negative

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Remark: Human lymphoblast MIT 2 and HH-4 cells

06-DEC-2001 (112)

Result: ambiguous

GLP: no data
Remark: Human lymphocytes, fibroblasts and XP lymphoblastoid cells

were used. Most of the results were positive.
31-AUG-2000 (150) (151) (152) (153) (154) (155) (156)
Type: other
System of testing: Photobacterium leiognathi

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: positive

GLP: no data
Remark: Bioluminescence assay; 2 mg/ml induced a rapid luminescence

within 30 min; the minimal concentration that reacted
positive in this assay was 20 g/ml.
07-DEC-2001 (157)

Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: No induction of ouobain-resistant mutants was induced by the

test substance.
Test substance: caffeine, reagent grade
22-AUG-2000 (158)

Result: negative

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Test substance: caffeine, reagent grade

only one concentration tested
07-DEC-2001 (158)

System of testing: Allium proliferum
Concentration: ca. 1940, 3880 ug/ml (10, 20 mM)
Metabolic activation: no data
Result: positive

Year: 1971
GLP: no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test. Positive results were observed

at concentrations of 10 and 20 mM. The results were
dependent on temperature and ATP content.
06-DEC-2001 (159) (160)

System of testing: human peripheral blood leukocytes
Concentration: 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 ug/ml (0.005, 0.01, 0.025,
0.05, 0.1%)
Result: positive

Year: 1971
GLP: no
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test, incubation during the last 24 h

of a 72-hour culture. Chromosomal damage was confined to
DNA-synthesis phase, S-phase was most sensitive, G1 and G2
phase were not affected.
no detailed data are given
06-DEC-2001 (161)

System of testing: human embryonic fibroblasts
Concentration: 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 ug/ml (0.005, 0.01, 0.025,
0.05, 0.1%)
Result: positive

Year: 1971
GLP: no
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test, incubation during the last 24 h

of a 72-hour culture. Chromosomal damage was confined to
DNA-synthesis phase, S-phase was most sensitive, G1 and G2
phase were not affected. Chromatid aberrations were
predominandly gaps and breaks, no exchanges were observed.
without metabolic activation only
06-DEC-2001 (161)

System of testing: human colon carcinoma LIM cells (1215/neo, 1215/wt,
1215/248, 1215/273, SW480)
Concentration: ca. 390 ug/ml (2 mM)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: ambiguous

Year: 1996
GLP: no data
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test without metabolic activation

using human hereditary non-polyposis colon carcinoma cell
lines with various p53 (tumor-suppressor gene) status.
Expression of p53 was measured by Western-blot analysis.
Treatment with the test substance for 2 h enhanced the
frequency of chromosomal breaks in all cell lines. No
increase in the number of cells with numerical chromosome
changes was seen in cell lines 1215/neo, 1215/273, and
SW480. In SW480 cells, the incidence of polyploid cells was
2-fold of control. An increase in the number of hyperdiploid
cells was only seen in LIM1215/248 cells.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

tumor cell line, unsuitable test system
06-DEC-2001 (162)

Concentration: 5, 10, 25, 50, 75, 100 ug/ml
Result: negative

Year: 1985
GLP: no data
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test with and without metabolic

Aroclor 1254-pretreated animals. The test substance did not
statistically significantly increase any type of aberrations
when compared with negative control (water); positive
control: 40 ug/culture endoxan.

acceptable, well documented publication which meets basic
scientific principles
06-DEC-2001 (163)
Type: Yeast gene mutation assay

System of testing: Saccharomyces cerevisiae D6
Result: positive

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Remark: Aneuploidy test in growing cells without metabolic

activation.
07-DEC-2001 (164)
Type: other: reverse mutation test

System of testing: Neurospora crassa
Result: positive

GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: The test substance induced meiotic nondisjunction producing

n+1 acespores in growing cultures.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

07-DEC-2001 (165) (166)

System of testing: Chinese hamster cells
Result: positive

Year: 1971
GLP: no
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test. A positive result was observed

at a concentration of 25 mM. The result depended on
temperature but not on ATP content.
one concentration only, the concentration was over the level
recommended in OECD guideline (10 mM)
06-DEC-2001 (160)

System of testing: Vicia faba
Result: positive

GLP: no
Remark: Summary of four different studies. The test substance was

mutagenic in three studies (Kaul and Zutshi, 1973; Oseicka ,
1976; Somborska-Ciania et al., 1974) and not mutagenic in
one study (Swietlinska et al., 1973).
30-AUG-2000 (167) (168) (169) (170)
Type: other: somatic mutation in plant

System of testing: Tradescantia clone 4430
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: The liquid test substance was negative after chronic

exposure at 1 mM in the Tradescantia assay (hybrid clone
4430) for testing mutagens

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

07-DEC-2001 (171)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: other: somatic mutation in plant

System of testing: Glycine max (L.) merill
Result: positive

GLP: no
Remark: The test substance was positive in the soybean (Glycine max
merrill) spot test as a short-term assay for environmental
mutagens.
07-DEC-2001 (172)
Type: Yeast Cytogenetic assay

System of testing: Schizosaccharomyce pombe
Concentration: ca. 1 ug/ml (0.1%)
Result: positive

Year: 1974
GLP: no
Remark: The tested substance reduced the number of single and double
crossing-over recombinants in in chromosome II and affected
the gene conversion frequency at the ade7 locus.
07-DEC-2001 (173)
Type: Ames test

Concentration: 4, 20, 100, 500, 2500 ug/plate
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Ames, B.N. et al.: Mutat. Res. 31, 347-364
Year: 1975
GLP: no data
Remark: Ames test (pour-plate method) with and without metabolic

activation with X-9 mix prepared from liver homogenate of
Aroclor-pretreated rats.
23-AUG-2000 (174)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
System of testing: human HeLa cells

Result: positive

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

GLP: no
Remark: After 1-4 weeks of treatment, a significant and

concentration-related increase in the frequency of terminal
breaks was seen in HeLa cells at concentrations of 40 ug/ml
and above.
06-DEC-2001 (175)

System of testing: rat MCTI cells
Result: negative

GLP: no
Remark: After 1-4 weeks of treatment, MCTI cells only showed minimal
effects at all concentrations tested.
06-DEC-2001 (175)

System of testing: skin fibroblasts of the Indian muntjac
Result: positive

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Remark: The frequency of SCE was almost doubled in the presence of

the test substance.
07-DEC-2001 (176)
Type: Ames test

TA1537, TA1538
Result: negative

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Year: 1977
GLP: no

06-DEC-2001 (177)
Type: Yeast gene mutation assay

System of testing: Saccaromyces cerevisiae D3
Result: negative

GLP: no

07-DEC-2001 (177)

System of testing: Escherichia coli B/Sd-4/1,3,4,5 and B/Sd-4/3,4
Result: positive

Year: 1951
GLP: no

06-DEC-2001 (178)

System of testing: rat liver epithelial cells
Result: positive

GLP: no data

06-DEC-2001 (179)

System of testing: rat liver epithelial cells
Result: negative

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Year: 1980
GLP: no data

07-DEC-2001 (179)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

System of testing: Escherichia coli PolA+, PolA-
Concentration: 6000 ug/well
Result: positive

GLP: no
Remark: Inhibition zone was 5 and 11 mm for tester strain PolA+ and
PolA-, respectively.
06-DEC-2001 (180)

System of testing: Escherichia coli WP2, WP-B
Result: positive

Year: 1972
GLP: no
Remark: Excision repair and recombination repair test in the

presence and absence of UV irradiation.
06-DEC-2001 (181)
Type: other: DNA binding

Concentration: ca. 3884, 9710 ug/ml (20, 50 mM)
Result: positive

Year: 1971
GLP: no
Remark: Binding to single strand DNA, but not to double strand DNA
was seen.
07-DEC-2001 (182)

System of testing: rat tracheal epithelium (cultured)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Concentration: ca. 19 - 1942 ug/ml (0.1 - 10 mM)

Result: negative

Year: 1981
GLP: no data
Remark: Rings of trachea from 8-week old male F344 rats were
incubated for 2 hours at 37 degree Centigrade containing
10uCi/ml (methyl-3H)dTd and the test substance. No induction
of UDS was observed.
07-DEC-2001 (183)
Type: Ames test

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100, TA1537
Result: negative

Year: 1980
GLP: no data

with rats liver S-9.
06-DEC-2001 (184) (185)

System of testing: Chinese hamster lung fibroblasts
Result: positive

GLP: no data
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test with and without metabolic

activation with rat liver S-9.
06-DEC-2001 (184) (186) (185)

Concentration: ca. 194 - 777 ug/ml (1 - 4 mM)
Result: positive

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

GLP: no
Remark: The frequency of chromosomal aberrations increased in a

dose-related manner.
06-DEC-2001 (187)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Concentration: ca. 194 - 777 ug/ml (1 - 4 mM)
Result: positive

Year: 1974
GLP: no
Remark: The frequency of SCEs increased gradually with the dose.

07-DEC-2001 (188)
Type: other: Rec-assay

System of testing: funghi
Result: negative

GLP: no data

07-DEC-2001 (189)

System of testing: preimplantation mouse embryo (two-cell stage)
Concentration: ca. 24, 49, 97, 194, 388, 777, 971, 1359 ug/ml (0.125,
0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 mM)
Result: positive

Year: 1985
GLP: no data
Remark: A linear increase in the number of microneuclei was seen at

concentrations of 1 mM (ca. 194 ug/ml) and more. Caffeine
did not induce micronuclei if the concentration was 1 mM or
less.
inconsistent results
07-DEC-2001 (190)
Type: Ames test

TA1538; Escherichia coli WP2 uvrA

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: negative

Year: 1981
GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Ames test with and without metabolic activation with S-9 mix
prepared from rats, hamsters, and mice.
06-DEC-2001 (191)
Type: other: umu test

System of testing: Salmonella typhimurium TA1535/psk 1002
Result: negative

GLP: no data

24-AUG-2000 (192)
Type: other: SOS test

System of testing: Escherichia coli PQ37 (sulA::lacZ, Pho(c))
Result: negative

Year: 1985
GLP: no data
Remark: No inhibiton of SOS induction or protein synthesis was

observed.
abstract, documentation insufficient for assessment
07-DEC-2001 (193)
Type: other: spindel disturbance

System of testing: Chinese hamster (V79) cells
Result: positive

GLP: no data
Remark: Effects on survival, aneuploidy, sulfhydryl and ATP

measurements and on C-mitotic activity were studied. Subtle
disturbance (partial C-mitosis) was seen.
07-DEC-2001 (194)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: other: cell transformation

Concentration: 1 - 250 ug/ml

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: negative

Year: 1983
GLP: no data

documentation insufficient for assessment
07-DEC-2001 (195) (196)

Concentration: ca. 485, 971 ug/ml
Result: positive

GLP: no data
Remark: The test substance increased the frequency of chromatid

breakage and decreased G2 duration in X-ray irradiated and
nonirradiated cells.
06-DEC-2001 (197)
Type: other: SOS Chromotest

System of testing: Escherichia coli PQ37
Result: negative

Year: 1985
GLP: no data

07-DEC-2001 (198)

System of testing: human hepatoma (Hep-G2) cells
Result: positive

Year: 1981
GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Dose-related increase in the number of micronuclei was seen

in all treated cells (incubation for 24 hours; scoring of
1000 cells/dose level).
abstract
07-DEC-2001 (199)
Type: other
System of testing: Simian Virus (SV) 40
Concentration: ca. 0.2 - 29 mg/ml (10 - 150 mM)
Result: positive

GLP: no data
Remark: The inibitory effect of the test substance on type I and

type II topoisomerases was evaluated as judged by its effect
on replicating SV40 chromosmes.
07-DEC-2001 (200)

System of testing: Escherichia coli Ds-4-73
Result: negative

Year: 1958
GLP: no
Remark: Test on reversion from streptomycin dependence to

independence, paper disc method.
06-DEC-2001 (201)
Type: other: test on mitotic activity

System of testing: human peripheral blood lymphocytes
Concentration: ca. 19, 194, 1942 ug/ml (0.1, 1, 10 mM)

GLP: no
Remark: The effect of the test subtance on mitosis was studied. At

0.1 mM, mitotic rate averaged 111% of control rate. The rate

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
was 192% in blood samples from females and 68% in blood

samples from males; this differenc was statistically
significant. At 1 mM, mitotic rate was 41% of control
(antimitotic activity). At 10 mM, mitotic rate was 0
(cytostatic activity). No chromosome damage was observed.
07-DEC-2001 (202)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

System of testing: human xeroderma pigmentosum cell lines (XP19, XP20)
Concentration: ca. 19, 97, 194 ug/ml (0.1, 0.5, 1.0 mM)
Result: positive

Year: 1988
GLP: no data
Remark: A marked increase in the frequency of SCE was observed at

concentrations of 0.1 to 1 mM in both cell lines.
unsuitable test system, tumor cell line
07-DEC-2001 (203)

System of testing: human diploid fibroblasts (WI -38)
Concentration: ca. 252, 505, 757 ug/ml (1.3, 2.6, 3.9 mM)
Result: positive

Year: 1977
GLP: no
Remark: Mitotic index was reduced to 58.8% at 1.3 mM with

significant clastogencity (breaks and gaps); no exchange
figures were seen (incubation with the test substance for 24
h, colcemid added 24 h later, scoring of 200 metaphases per
concentration).
06-DEC-2001 (204)

System of testing: human diploid fibroblasts (WI -38)
Concentration: ca. 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 mg/ml (5.1, 7.7, 10.3 mM)
Result: positive

GLP: no
Remark: Cytogenetic assay with and without metabolic activation with

S-9 mix prepared from livers of Aroclor-pretreated rats
(incubation for 24 h, then incubation with the test
substance in the presence and absence of S-9 for 1 h,
colcemid added 24 h later, scoring of 100 metaphases per

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
concentration). A significant increase in chromsome breaks

was observed only at the high concentration in the presence
of S-9. No exchange figures were seen with and without S-9.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

06-DEC-2001 (205)

Result: positive

Year: 1975
GLP: no
Remark: A significant increase in chromosome abnormalites (breaks)

was noted at 500 ug/ml and above. Mitotic indices were
reduced at 500 ug/ml and above. Results are available in a
graphical manner only.
06-DEC-2001 (206)
Type: other: cell transformation

System of testing: Syrian hamster cells, BHK 21cl13
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: Soft agar assay.

07-DEC-2001 (117)
Type: Ames test

Concentration: 100, 333.3, 1000, 3333.3, 10000 ug/plate
Result: negative

Year: 1986
GLP: no data

with S-9 mix prepared from liver homogenate of Aroclor
1254-pretreated male Sprague-Dawley rats and male Syrian
hamsters. Solvent (DMSO) controls and positive controls were
included. For positive control, 2-aminoanthracene (all
tester strains with metabolic activation), sodium azide

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
(TA1535 and TA100 -S-9), 9-aminoacridine (TA1537 -S-9), and

4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine (TA98 -S-9) was used.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

06-DEC-2001 (207)
Type: Ames test

TA1538; Escherichia coli WP2 uvrA (trp-)
Concentration: 3.3, 10, 33.3, 100, 333.3, 1000, 3333.3 ug/plate
Result: negative

Year: 1985
GLP: no data
Remark: Bacterial reverse mutation test with and without metabolic

both untreated and Aroclor 1254-pretreated male Fischer 344
rats, male BbC3F1 mice, and male Syrian hamsters. Solvent
(distilled water, DMSO) controls and positive controls were
included. For positive control, 2-nitro-fluorene (TA98 and
TAS1538 -S-9), sodium azide (TA100 and TA153 -S-9),
9-aminoacridine (TA1537 -S-9), 2-aminoanthracene (all
Salmonella strains with metabolic activation),
N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (E. coli -S-9), and
(2-2(furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acrylamide = Aflatoxine 2 (E.
coli +S-9) was used.
06-DEC-2001 (208)
Type: Mouse lymphoma assay

System of testing: L5178Y cells
Concentration: ca. 2950, 3555, 4270, 5125, 6155, 7380, 8855, 10620
ug/ml (15.2, 18.3, 22.0, 26.4, 31.7, 38.0, 45.6, 54.7
mM)
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Clive, D. and Spector, J.F.S.: Mutat. Res.

31, 17-29
Year: 1975
GLP: no data
Remark: Point mutation test without metabolic activation, incubation

time: 2 hours; cell viability declined in a dose-dependent
manner with the highest concentration being lethal to all
exposed cells.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

30-AUG-2000 (209)

System of testing: V79 cells
Concentration: up to 1.6x10e2 M ( 3.1 mg/ml)
Result: ambiguous
Method: other
Year: 1986
GLP: no data
Remark: Different study protocol were used, A: exposure to caffeine

for 3h before addition of BrdU, B: exposure for 24h before
addition of BrdU, C: chronic exposure for 24h in presence of
BrdU, D: exposure to caffeine during the first cell cycle
(10h) in the presence of BrdU, followed by cultivation in
BrdU-free medium for 13h. E: exposure during the second cell
cycle. BrdU for 10h and then to caffein for 13h in BrdU-free
medium.
Result: The chronic treatment and the treatment during the second
cell cycle in the presence produce SCE only.No SCE induction
was found, when cells with normal DNA were treated for 3 and
24h.
06-DEC-2001 (210)
5.6 Genetic Toxicity 'in Vivo'

Strain: ICR
Exposure period: single dose
Doses: 150 mg/kg
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Mailhes, J. and Yuan, Z.P.: Gamete Res.

17, 77-83
Year: 1987
GLP: no data
Result: The aim of the study was to investigate the ability of the
test substance to induce aneuploidy in mammalian oocytes.
Following superovulation, groups of 10 or 20 females mice
were given an i.p. injection of the test substance at
various times prior to metaphase I (MI). Ovulated oocytes
were collected from the oviducts and processed for
cytogenetic analysis. Statistical analysis of the
frequencies of hyperploid, MI, diploid, premature centromere
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
separation and single chromatids revealed non-significant

differences between control and treated groups. Structural
chromosomal aberrations were not seen. According to the
authors, these results indicated that the test substance
neither retarded the rate of oocyte meiotic maturation nor
increased the incidence of aneuploidy in mouse oocytes.
Test condition: Groups of 10 or 20 female mice.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

11-SEP-2000 (211)

Species: mouse Sex: male
Strain: C3H
Doses: 250 mg/kg/d
Result: negative

Year: 1967
GLP: no
Remark: Chromosomal aberration test in C3H mouse testes.

only one dose tested
07-DEC-2001 (212)

Species: rat Sex:
Result: positive

Year: 1980
GLP: no data
Remark: Rat Gurin ascites tumor cells were examined.

secondary literature, tumor cells
07-DEC-2001 (213)

Species: other: Chinese hamster, mouse Sex:
Doses: no data
Result: ambiguous

GLP: no data
Remark: Chinese hamster and BALB/c mouse bone marrow was scored;
positive and negative results were observed.

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07-DEC-2001 (214)

Species: mouse Sex:
Strain: other: see remark
Route of admin.: drinking water
Exposure period: see remark
Result: negative

Year: 1969
GLP: no
Remark: - C3H mouse meiotic metaphase spermatogenesis after an

application period of 351 days;
- male JU mouse after an application period of 90 days
Original reference not yet available
07-DEC-2001 (215) (216)

Species: mouse Sex:
Exposure period: 1 day
Result: negative

Year: 1967
GLP: no
Remark: Mouse ascites S2-sarcoma cells were injected to mice.

Chromosomal aberration were studied at ascites cells.
Original reference not yet available
07-DEC-2001 (217)

Species: human Sex:
Route of admin.: other: Caffeine tablets
Doses: 800 mg/daily (4x200 mg)
Result: negative

Year: 1972
GLP: no
Remark: Lymphocytes in culture from 9 human volunteers on a regimen

of 800 mg/kg/day (4 x 200 mg) for 4 weeks manifested no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
significant increase in chromosome damage. The highest level

of caffein in the plasma was 30 ug/ml. Multiple exposures of
lymphocyte cultures from other untreated donors to this
concentration (30 ug/ml) was also without
chromosome-damaging effect. However, single exposure of
cells at the 48h time of culture produced damage (gaps and
breaks only, no exchanges) in the 250- 750 ug/ml range.
These findings were the result of experiments with the
lymphocytes from the same four individuals tested on three
separate occasions.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Earlier additions at concentrations below 250 ug/ml produced

no significant breakeage.
Test condition: 9 volunteers, 25-50 methaphases were analysed per culture,
the aberrations examined were only breaks and gaps.
Test substance: caffeine, tablets "Vivarin" 200 mg
evaluation of chromosomal aberration not to the new standard
17-JUL-2001 (146)

Route of admin.: oral feed
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Result: Thirty rats were fed a diet containing the test substance at
a concentration of 0.102% (ca. 46 mg/kg/d); thirty control
rats were fed unsupplemented diet. The rats were sacrificed
when moribund or after 117 weeks of feeding. Blood was
collected by heart puncture and assayed for chromosomal
aberrations (gaps, breaks, and structural chromosome
changes). No significant difference in the frequency of
chromosomal aberrations between treated and control rats was
found.
Test condition: Groups of 30 rats.
11-SEP-2000 (218)

Strain: C3H
Doses: 0, 200 mg/kg
Result: negative

GLP: no
Result: Fourteen male mice were administered the test substance at

the maximum tolerated dose, control animals received the
vehicle (0.9% saline). After sacrifice, testicular tissues
were prepared. Meiotic chromosomes at metaphase I

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
(diakinesis) were evaluated by phase contrast microscopy for

breaks, translocations, and univalent chromosomes. No
unusual chromosome changes were seen.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Test condition: Groups of male rats; test group: 14 animals; vehicle control
group: no data on number of animals.
11-SEP-2000 (219)

Strain: Balb/c
Exposure period: 6 hours
Doses: 50, 100, 150 mg/kg
Result: ambiguous

Year: 1981
GLP: no data
Result: These results were the positive control part of a

clastogenicity study.
Groups of 3 male Balb/c male mice were given a single i.p.
injection of the test substance at dose levels of 50, 100,
and 150 mg/kg; 9 mice were injected with the vehicle and
were sacrificed at 6 hours after injection with the test
substance. A total of 200 well-spread metaphases from each
mouse were analysed. Caffeine significantly increased the
number of total chromosomal aberrations; however, this was
not dose-related. The number of abnormal metaphases per 100
cells was 0.61, 1.50, 6.33, and 3.66 in the groups
administered 0, 50, 100 and 150 mg/kg, respectively.
Chromosomal aberrations included gaps and breaks; chromatid
exchanges and centric fusions were not observed.
animals were killed 6h after treatment, no longer
incubation time, only 3 animals were used. Significant
methodological deficiencies.
17-DEC-2001 (220)

Strain: C57BL
Exposure period: up to 5 days
Doses: ca. 2000 mg/kg/d (1% in the drinking water)
Result: negative

Year: 1975
GLP: no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: The primary objective of this study was to investigate the

clastogenic effects of methyl methansulfonate (MMS) and
N-methyl-N-nitrosurea (MNNU) in the presence and absence of
caffeine.
Result: Groups of 3-4 female C57Bl mice were administered the test
substance at a concentration of 1% (w/v) in the drinking
water or unsupplemented water for up to 5 days and were
sacrificed thereafter. Bone marrow cells were prepared from
the femurs and tibiae; 50 or more consecutive well-spread
meatphases from each mouse were scored. The test substance
did not significantly alter the number of chromosomal
aberrations.
significant methodical deficiencies
07-DEC-2001 (221)
Type: Dominant lethal assay

Species: other: silkworm Sex: male
Route of admin.: other: injection
Doses: 0.1 - 100 ug/pupa
Result: negative

GLP: no
Result: No dominant lethality was observed in sperm of the silkworm

(Bombyx mori) after treatment of mid-pupae with the test
substance with (presumably single) doses ranging from 0.1 to
100 ug/pupa.
Only abstract available; no further data.
15-MAY-2001 (222)

Strain: other: C3H, 101 x C3H, C57Bl
Exposure period: 245 - 550 days
Result: negative

Year: 1972
GLP: no
Remark: Treatment periods:

- C3H and 101 x C3H mice for 550 days;
- C3H mice for 351 days;
- 101 x C3H mice for 246 days;
- C57Bl mice for 245 days.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
original reference not yet available

07-DEC-2001 (223)

Strain: CD-1
Doses: 3.6, 13.4, 49, 122 mg/kg/d (20, 60, 200, 600 ppm in the
drinking water)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: negative

Year: 1973
GLP: no
Result: Groups of 6 male mice were administered the test substance

in the drinking water at concentrations of 0, 0.02, 0.06,
0.2 and 0.6 mg/ml) for 8 weeks. Daily consumption of the
test substance averaged 0 (untreated control), 3.6, 13.4,
49, and 122 mg/kg bw. Subsequent mating of each male to five
females per week for 8 weeks showed no significant increase
in dominant-lethal mutations (embryonic deaths) whether
expressed as early deaths per pregnant female or as mutation
index. Although males of the two highest dose groups
produced
fewer pregnancies, litter sizes of females giving birth were
not reduced. Litter sizes showed no significant
preimplantation losses.
07-DEC-2001 (224)

Strain: other: 101 x C3H
Result: negative

GLP: no

07-DEC-2001 (223)

Strain: other: C3H, 101 x C3H, C57Bl
Route of admin.: other: see remark
Result: negative

GLP: no
Remark: Route of administration:

- C3H mice i.p.;
- 101 X C3H mice via drinking water;
- C57Bl mice unspecified oral application

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

07-DEC-2001 (225) (226)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Strain: ICR
Route of admin.: other: drinking water or i.p.
Doses: see remark
Result: negative

GLP: no
Remark: ICR/Ha Swiss mice were applied the test substance either via
the drinking water (0.1%; ca. 200 mg/kg/d) for 8 weeks prior
to mating or as a single i.p. injection at dose levels in
the range between 168 - 240 mg/kg.
significant methodicological deficiencies
07-DEC-2001 (227)

Species: mouse Sex:
Strain: other: CD
Route of admin.: oral unspecified
Exposure period: 3, 6 weeks
Doses: 90 mg/kg (6 weeks), 112 mg/kg (3 weeks)
Result: negative

GLP: no data

ORIGINAL REFERENCE NOT YET AVAILABLE
07-DEC-2001 (117)

Strain: CD-1
Route of admin.: other: drinking water or gavage
Exposure period: 8 weeks (drinking water) or 5 days (gavage)
Doses: ca. 112 mg/kg/d (drinking water) or 90 mg/kg/d (gavage)
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Result: The dominant lethal effect of the test substance was studied
in SPF Swiss CD-1 mice. Groups of 50 male mice were
administered the test substance (in tap water) by gavage at
doses of 0 (vehicle control) or 90 mg/kg/d daily for 5

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
consecutive days. Ten male mice were administered a single

i.p. dose of 0.125 mg/kg of trenimon (positive control).
Hundred and fifty males were administered the test substance
in the drinking water for 8 weeks; the average daily dose
was 112 mg/kg.
Controls (150 males) were given unsupplemented tap water.
At the first and third week after the treatment periods, each
male (treated or untreated) was mated with 2 untreated
females. No mutagenic induction of dominant lethals,
preimplantation losses or depression of female fertility
attributable to the test substance was observed.
Test condition: Groups of 50 male mice; control group: 150 male mice.
11-SEP-2000 (228)

Strain: CD-1
Doses: 15 mg/kg
Result: negative

GLP: no
Result: Five male mice were given a single i.p. injection of 15

mg/kg of the test substance; five control mice remained
untreated. Each male was mated to five females weekly for 7
weeks. Embryonic deaths did not show any effect of the test
substance. Litter sizes showed no significant
preimplantation losses.
07-DEC-2001 (224)

Strain: CD-1
Doses: 4, 13 mg/kg/d (20, 60 ppm in the drinking water)
Result: negative

GLP: no
Result: Groups of 5 male mice were administered the test substance

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
in the drinking water at concentrations of 0 (untreated

control), 0.02, and 0.06 mg/ml) for 16 weeks. Daily
consumption of the test substance averaged 0, 4, and 13
mg/kg bw. Each male was mated to five females per week for 7
weeks. Fertility and litter size were not affected by
treatment with the test substance; no substance-related
induction of dominant-lethal mutation was noted. Litter
sizes showed no significant preimplantation losses.
07-DEC-2001 (224)

Strain: C57BL
Exposure period: 100 or 140 days
Doses: ca. 50, 100, 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 mg/kg/d (0.025, 0.05,
0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5% in the drinking water)
Result: positive

GLP: no
Result: Male C57Bl mice were administered the test substance in the
drinking water for 100 days (0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3,
0.5%) of for 140 days (0.2 and 0.4%) and were then mated to
untreated C3H females for three weeks or more. According to
the authors, preliminary results showed that the test
substance induced dominant-lethal mutations as indicated by
preimplantation losses and resorptions. However, the data
were considered to be not sufficient to establish a good
dose-relationship.
inconsistent results
07-DEC-2001 (229)

Result: negative
GLP: no

07-DEC-2001 (230)
Type: Drosophila SLRL test

Species: Drosophila melanogaster Sex: male/female

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Strain: other: Canton-S

Route of admin.: other: i.p. and oral feed
Exposure period: see freetext
Doses: ca. 1940 ug/ml (0.01 M)
Result: negative
Method: other: Mueller-5

GLP: no
Method: For the detection of sex-linked recessive lethals, the

Muller-5 method was used (brood interval of 48 hours, each
male being mated to 3 Muller females). The test substance
was administered by 3 different methods:

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
- injection of 0.1 ul of a 10 mM solution in 0.7% saline

into
24-hour adult males
- allowing newly-emerged adult males to feed on 10 mM
caffeine plus 10% sucrose solution for 72 hours
- larvae were reared on unyeasted culture medium containing
10 mM of caffeine.
A total of 7 broods was collected in each experiment,
extending over a period of 14 days.
Result: In all experiments, the number of recessive lethals was not
statistically significantly different from the spontaneous
mutation rate.
18-MAY-2001 (231)

Species: Drosophila melanogaster Sex: male
Strain: other: Berlin K
Doses: up to 971 ug/ml (up to 5 mM)
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Wuergler, F.E. et al. in: Kilbey, B.J. et

Year: 1977
GLP: no data
Remark: Berlin K males were fed the test substance and mated with
untreated Basc females. Sex-linked recessive lethals were
scored in the F2 generation and confirmed in the F3
generation.
pure grade
30-AUG-2000 (114)

Species: Drosophila melanogaster Sex:
Result: ambiguous

GLP: no data
Remark: Positive and negative results were observed (route of

administration: oral feed, injection, or via unspecified
application).
30-AUG-2000 (232) (233) (234) (235)

Strain: other: rod X

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Exposure period: 24, 48 hours
Doses: nontoxic doses; no further data
Result: negative

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

GLP: no data
Result: Non-toxic concentrations of the test substance in 10%

sucrose were fed to adult rod X males for 24 or 48 hours.
The treated males were mated to Oster females; 4 sucessive
3-day broods were analysed to assess the sensitivity of
post-meiotic and pre -meiotic germ cells. Sex-chromosome loss
and sex-linked recessive lethal mutations were used as
endpoints. According to the authors, non-toxic doses of the
test substance did not induce any significant increase in
the frequency of sex-chromosome loss and sex-linked
recessive lethals.
Only abstract available; no further data.
15-MAY-2001 (236)

Exposure period: 1 hour
Doses: 1% in the diet
Result: positive

GLP: no
Remark: Induction of somatic damage (and premature aging),

chromosome breakage, dominant lethality, sex-linked
recessive lethals, X-chromosome loss, and differential
mortality (preferentally killing of males) were observed.
15-MAY-2001 (229) (237)

Strain: other: Canton-S, Oregon-R
Doses: 0.25, 0.5% in the diet
Result: negative

GLP: no
Remark: Second and third-instar larvae were reared on medium

containing the test substance. Treated adult males were
mated with untreated Muller-5 females. No substance-related
effect was seen.
25-AUG-2000 (238)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Strain: other: Canton-S
Doses: 0.5%
Result: negative

GLP: no
Remark: Adult males were injected with the tests ubstance in saline
and were mated with untreated Muller-5 females. No
substance-related effect was seen.
25-AUG-2000 (238)
Type: Heritable translocation assay

Result: negative

GLP: no
Remark: No induction of translocations was observed.

30-AUG-2000 (239)
Type: Micronucleus assay

Strain: NMRI
Exposure period: 2 times within 24 hours
Doses: up to ca. 97.1 mg/kg (up to 0.5 mmoles/kg)
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Schmid, W. in: Hollaender, A. (ed.):

Chemical Mutagens, Vol. 4, Plenum, New York; pp. 31-53
Year: 1976
GLP: no data
Result: Groups of 4 mice were administered the test substance at

three different dose levels (two i.p. injections within 24
hours); the highest dose level was 0.5 mmoles/kg (ca. 97.1
mg/kg). Four control mice received the vehicle. Six hours
after the second dose, the animals were sacrificed. Bone
marrow smears were prepared for the evaluation of
micronucleated cells (scoring of 1000 polychromatic
erythrocytes for each animal). No statistically significant
increase in the frequency of micronucleated erythrocytes was
found.
Test condition: Groups of 4 mice.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was of the

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
highest grade commercially available

11-SEP-2000 (114)

Species: Chinese hamster Sex: no data
Strain: no data
Route of admin.: gavage
Exposure period: 1 or 2 doses
Doses: 0, 45, 75, 100, 300 mg/kg/d
Result: positive
Method: other: according to Schmid, W.: Mutat. Res. 31, 9-15

Year: 1975
GLP: no data
Result: Groups of 8 hamsters were given 1 or 2 gavage doses of the

test substance in water at doses of 0 (negative control),
45, 75, 150, and 300 mg/kg or 10 mg/kg endoxan (positive
control). The doses were applied at 30 h and 6 h (in the
case of double dosing only) prior to sacrifice. Bone marrow
was removed from the femur and prepared for analysis.
According to the authors, a clear cut induction of
micronuclei was seen at the high dose only.
Test substance: caffeine, pure
07-DEC-2001 (240)

Strain: other: Swiss CD-1 (outbred), MS/Ae (inbred)
Exposure period: 1 or 2 doses
Doses: 0, 50, 75, 100 mg/kg/d
Result: ambiguous
Method: other: according to Schmid, W.: Mutat. Res. 31, 9-15

Year: 1975
GLP: no data
Result: According to the authors, a weak induction of micronuclei

was seen in both inbred and outbred mice at the high dose
only.
Test condition: 4 males and 4 females/ strain were treated. These groups of
8 mice/strain were given 1 or 2 gavage doses of
the test substance in water at doses of 0 (negative
control),50, 75 and 100 mg/kg or i.p. 5 mg/kg Thio-tepa
(positive control). The doses were applied at 30 h and 6 h
(in the case of double dosing only) prior to sacrifice. Bone
marrow was removed from the femur and prepared for analysis.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
2 x 1000 polychromatic erythrocytes were evaluated per

animal in 2 different slides.
18-DEC-2000 (240)

Species: mouse Sex: no data
Strain: other: C3H x C57
Exposure period: daily for 5 days
Doses: no data
Result: negative

GLP: no
Remark: Marrow suspension were prepared and 1000 reticulocytes were

examined
07-DEC-2001 (109)

Strain: CD-1
Doses: 100, 160, 250 mg/kg
Result: negative

Year: 1974
GLP: no data
Remark: Bone marrow micronucleus test using mice. The compounds were
given twice i.p. with an interval of 24h. No induction of
micronuclei were observed.
meets generally accepted scientific standards
07-DEC-2001 (241)

Species: other: Chinese hamster, mouse Sex:
Result: ambiguous

GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: CBA male mouse, rat bone marrow and peripheral blood and
Chinese hamster bone marrow was examined. Positive and
nebative results were observed.
07-DEC-2001 (242) (243)

Species: mouse Sex:
Strain: other: embryos in vitro
Route of admin.: other: in vitro treatment
Doses: 0.1 and 2 mM
Result: ambiguous

GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Mouse pre-implantation embryo, ex vivo

Combination study with x-ray, Caffeine alone only the
Control group. Slight increase of micronuclei in different
time postcoceptionem.
07-DEC-2001 (244)

Species: human Sex:
Route of admin.: unspecified
Result: positive

GLP: no data
Remark: Erythrocytes/reticulocytes of a splenectomized human were

examined.
07-DEC-2001 (245)

Strain: C57BL
Exposure period: single or 3 injections
Doses: 50, 100 mg/kg/d
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: Male, non-pregnant female and pregnant mice were given

single injections of the test substance (pregnants on day 17
of gestation) at dose levels of 50 and 100 mg/kg or 3 daily
injections of 100 mg/kg/d for 3 consecutive days (pregnants
on days 15 to 17 of gestation). No clastogenic effect was
seen in mouse bone marrow or in fetal livers. Untreated
controls and positive controls (30 mg/kg cyclophosphamide
(i.p.) or 2.0 mg/kg mitomycin C (i.p.)) were included.
07-DEC-2001 (246)

Strain: other: BDF1
Exposure period: single or 3 injections

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: Male, non-pregnant female and pregnant mice were given

single injections of the test substance (pregnants on day 17
of gestation) at dose levels of 50 and 100 mg/kg or 3 daily
injections of 100 mg/kg/d for 3 consecutive days (pregnants
on days 15 to 17 of gestation). No clastogenic effect was
seen in mouse bone marrow or in fetal livers. Untreated
controls and positive controls (30 mg/kg cyclophosphamide
(i.p.) or 2.0 mg/kg mitomycin C (i.p.)) were included.
07-DEC-2001 (246)

Strain: Swiss
Result: negative

Year: 1990
GLP: no data
Remark: Groups of 8 folate-deficient mice were adminstered the test

substance in saline (daily for 4 consecutive days). Bone
marrow and peripheral blood was evaluated for micronucleated
erythrocytes. A significant and dose-related increase in
micronuclei was observed in these mice. Both mature and
immature erythrocytes were affected.
No or a nonsignificant increase of micronucleated
erythrocytes were observed in normal mice.
The results demonstrated that folate deficiency causes
cytogenetic damage in mice and that caffeine act synergistic
with folate deficiencies to induce cytogenetic damage in
vivo.
07-DEC-2001 (247)
Type: Mouse spot test

Strain: other: other PT and HT mice
Doses: see test conditions
Result: negative

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

GLP: no data
Result: Combination study with urethan.

Caffeine was not mutagenic, no differences between control
and treated groups. No induction of spots in the
caffeine-treated group.
Posttreatment with caffeine did not suppress but rather
slightly but not significantly increased the incidence of
colored spots (p=0.35) and white midventral spots (p=0.1).
Test condition: Examination of effects of caffeine on urethan-induced
somatic mutations (combination study).
Pregnant mice received a single s.c. injection of 1.0 mg/g
bw of day 11. immediately after treatment with urethan, 5
i.p. injections 0f 0.25umol Caffeine/g bw. were given to
pregnant mice at 6 h intervals. One control group was
treated only with Caffeine.
significant methodical deficiencies, caffeine group only the
control (4 animals were treated)
19-DEC-2001 (248)

Species: Chinese hamster Sex: no data
Strain: no data
Doses: 0, 45, 75, 150, 300 mg/kg
Result: positive
Method: other: according to Allen, J.W. et al.: Somat. Cell. Genet. 4,

393-406
Year: 1978
GLP: no data
Result: Groups of 8 hamsters were given single gavage doses of the

test substance in water at doses of 0 (negative control),
45, 75, 150, and 300 mg/kg or 10 mg/kg endoxan (positive
control). BrdU tablets had been implanted at 2 h prior to
dosing. Twenty-four hours after implantation (22 h after
dosing), the animals were i.p. injected with 0.02 mg of
vincristine and were sacrificed 3.5 h later. Bone marrow was
removed from the femur and prepared for SCE analysis.
According to the authors, a slight increase in SCE was seen
at 150 mg/kg upwards; the increase was statistically
significant at the high dose only.
07-DEC-2001 (240)

Strain: Swiss

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Exposure period: 5, 10, 15 days
Doses: ca. 1000 mg/kg/d (0.5% ion the drinking water)
Result: positive

GLP: no data
Remark: Groups of 3 mice received the test substance at a

concentration of 0.5% in the drinking water for 5, 10 and 15
days and were sacrificed thereafter. Control mice received
unsupplemented water for 5 days and were then sacrificed.
BrdU and colchicine were administered by injection at 19 and

2 hours prior to sacrifice, respectively. Bone marrow was
expelled from long bones and prepared for SCE analysis; 25
metaphases per animal (75 metaphases per dose group) were
scored. In treated mice, the frequency of SCE/cell was
increased in a significant and exposure time-related manner.
3 animals were used only, one concentration only
07-DEC-2001 (249)

Strain: C57BL
Doses: 50 mg/kg
Result: positive

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Remark: A weakly positive result was reported.

Result: Mice (no data on number of animals) were intravenously
infused with 50 mg/kg/h BrdU in phosphate-buffered saline
for 26 h and were sacrificed thereafter. One hour after
starting the BrdU infusion, the mice were given a single
i.v.
dose of 50 mg/kg of the test substance; colcemid was
injected i.v. at 2 hours prior to sacrifice. Bone marrow was
removed from both femurs; and the bone marrow cells were
prepared for SCE analysis. SCE were enumerated in at least
20 second-replication-cycle metaphase cells. According to
the authors, the test substance was tested at doses of up to
50 mg/kg (no further details given); above this dose level,
cell replication was inhibited to the point where
insufficient second-replication-cycle cells could be found
for SCE determination.
According to the authors, the test substance was a weak

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
inducer producing an SCE level slightly greater than

baseline SCE level.
one concentration was tested only, no data about number of
animals used
07-DEC-2001 (250)

Species: Chinese hamster Sex: male/female
Exposure period: once
Doses: 100, 200 mg/kg bw
Result: negative

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Remark: Bone marrow was examined., no significant increase in SCE

rate
Test substance: Caffeine
caffeine
meets generally accepted standards
07-DEC-2001 (251)

Species: Chinese hamster Sex:
Doses: 0, 30, 75, 150, 225, 300, 450, 600 mg/kg

GLP: no data
Remark: Tablet method with BrdU; bone marrow cells were examined.
Results only in a graphical manner.
19-DEC-2001 (252)

Species: Chinese hamster Sex: male/female
Strain: no data
Exposure period: 2 doses within 24 hours
Doses: 0, 20, 100, 200, 400 mg/kg
Result: positive

Year: 1979
GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Groups of hamsters were administered by gavage an aqueous

solution of the test substance at dose levels of 0 (vehicle
control), 20, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg; each dose was
administered two times within 24 hours. Positive controls
were i.p. injected twice with 5 mg/kg of cyclophosphamide.
Solvent control group consisted of 6 hasters/sex; positive
control group and 20, 100, and 200 mg/kg/d groups consisted
of 4 hamsters/sex; 400 mg/kg/d group consisted of 2
hamsters/sex. Bone marrow smears were prepared for SCE
analysis. Six hundred metaphases (vehicle control), 400
metaphases (20, 100, 200 mg/kg/d and positive control), or
200 metaphases (400 mg/kg/d) were scored.
meets generally accepted standards
07-DEC-2001 (253)

Result: negative

GLP: no data
Result: Thirty rats were fed a diet containing the test substance at
a concentration of 0.102% (ca. 46 mg/kg/d); thirty control
rats were fed unsupplemented diet. The rats were sacrificed
when moribund or after 117 weeks of feeding. Blood was
collected by heart puncture and assayed for sister chromatid
exchanges. According to the authors, the frequency of sister
chromatid exchanges was similar in treated and control rats.
Test condition: Groups of 30 rats.
principles
11-SEP-2000 (218)
Type: Somatic mutation assay

Exposure period: 48 or 72 hours
Doses: 0.3% in the diet for 72 h; 0.5% in the diet for 48 h
Result: positive

GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Wing spot test; induction of somatic mutation and

recombination was observed.
15-MAY-2001 (254)

Strain: Fischer 344
Doses: up to 1000 mg/kg
Result: negative

GLP: no data
Remark: UDS was measured in pancreatic cells obtained from treated

rats.
abstract
07-DEC-2001 (255)
Type: other: Comparative cytogenetic studies: micronucleus,

chromosome aberration, SCE
Species: other: mouse, Chinese hamster Sex: male/female
Strain: other: CD-1; Chinese hamster
Exposure period: twice inert 24h
Doses: 100, 200, 250 mg/kg bw
Result: negative
Method: other: According Schmid 1975; Tsuchimoto and Matter 1977

Year: 1979
GLP: no
Remark: Comparative cytogenetic studies of bone marrow cells of mice

and Chinese hamster.
The animals received two applications of Caffeine for MNT
and CA, while those for the SCE received a single treatment.
Micronucleus test mice:
The substance was administered twice with an interval of
24h, 2 mice of each sex were used per dose level. Six hours
after the second application, the mice were killed. 1000
erythrocytes (including PCE and NCE) were examined for the
presence of micronuclei.
Micronucleus test and chromosome analysis Chinese hamster:
The MNT and CA were made using the same animals. Caffeine
was administered twice with an interval of 24h, 3 animals
per dose level were tested. 6h after the second application
the animals were killed. 1000 erythrocytes and 50 metaphases
were examined per animal.
SCE in Chinese hamster:

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Two animals/sex were tested per dose level, 50 metaphases

were analysed per animal. The hamsters were treated i.p with
FUDR and BUDR simultanously 0,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 h, the test
substance 2h after the first FUDR injection. Colchicine i.p.
24h after the first FUDR administration. Two hours later the
animals were killed and the chromosome preparations were
made.
Result: Caffeine did not show positive findings with any of the
three methods used. A slight and insignificant incresde in
chromosome aberrations at 200 mg/kg was considered an
indirect effect of an extremly high dosage.
Test substance: Caffeine (Sandoz), dissolved in 0.9% sodiumchloride
-solution
comparable to guideline studies with acceptable restriction
20-JUL-2001 (256)
Type: other: DNA damage

Strain: Swiss
Doses: 100 mg/kg
Result: positive

GLP: no data
Remark: Single strand DNA breaks (alkaline elution) were seen in

tissues of liver and kidney.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

07-DEC-2001 (257)
Type: other: aneuploidy test

Result: ambiguous

GLP: no
Remark: Induction (positive result) and no induction (negative

result) of aneuploidy was reported.
15-MAY-2001 (258) (239) (259) (260)
Type: other: aneuploidy test

Species: Drosophila melanogaster Sex: female
Strain: no data
Exposure period: 1 hour
Doses: 1% in the diet
Result: positive

GLP: no
Result: Female larvae were eposed to the test substance (1% in the
diet) for 1 hour, returned to normal millieu and were
allowed to hatch. A significant change in the sex ratio (%
of males in the total number of flies) was observed; sex
ratio was 47.1 and 52.6% males in the dosed and untreated
control group, respectively.
18-MAY-2001 (229)
Type: other: chromosome loss and non-disjunction

Strain: other
Route of admin.: other: i.p. and oral feed
Doses: ca. 1940 ug/ml (0.01 M)
Result: positive
Method: other
GLP: no
Method: Non-disjunction and chromosome loss in either parent were

estimated by crossing females with rod-X males or ring-X
males. Brood intervals were 72 hours of 48 hours. The test
substance was administered by 3 different methods:
- injection of 0.1 ul of a 10 mM solution in 0.7% saline

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
into 24-hour adult males

- allowing newly-emerged adult males to feed on 10 mM
caffeine plus 10% sucrose solution for 72 hours
- larvae were reared on unyeasted culture medium containing
10 mM of caffeine.
Result: In the larvae, increased frequencies of chromosome loss was
observed in both males and females (10 - and 5- fold of
control respectively). There was some evidence that
treatment with the test substance can lower the frequency of
non-disjunction, at least in males.
No significant effect of the test substance on chromosome
loss and non-disjunction was observed in adults.
Test substance: benzophenone-2 (2,2',4,4'-tetrahydroxybenzophenone); no data
on purity of the compound
18-MAY-2001 (231)
Type: other: host-mediated assay

Strain: NMRI
Exposure period: 3 hours
Doses: 2 x 91 mg/kg (2 x 0.5 mmol/kg)
Result: negative
Method: other: according to Mohn and Ellenberger in: Kilbey, B.J. et

Year: 1977
GLP: no data
Remark: Host mediated assay with Escherichia coli K12 (343/113).

Mice were i.v. injected with the bacteria and were then
given two i.p. injections of the test substance 2 x 0.5
mmol/kg = 2 x 91 mg/kg). After 3 hours, the mice were
sacrificed; livers were prepared for the bacterial
mutagenicity assay.
pure grade
meets general accpted scientific standards
07-DEC-2001 (114)
Type: other: host-mediated assay

Species: mouse Sex: no data
Strain: Swiss
Route of admin.: i.m.
Doses: up to 10 mg/ml
Result: negative

Year: 1969
GLP: no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Host mediated microbial assay in Swiss albino mice

receiving i.p. injection of Salmonella typhimurium and i.m.
injection of caffeine. The highest concentration tested was
1000 g/0.1 ml (= 10 mg/ml).
results in a table only, no further data
19-DEC-2001 (261)
Type: other: meiotic crossing over

Result: ambiguous

GLP: no
Remark: Induction of meiotic crossing over was seen in oogonia

(positive), but not in oocytes and stem cells (negative).
30-AUG-2000 (262)
Type: other: specific locus test

Strain: other: (C3H/HCH female x 101/H male) F1 female x CDT male
Doses: up to ca. 12000 mg/kg/d
Result: negative

Year: 1962
GLP: no
Remark: Mouse specific locus test.

The test substance was tested up to the maximum tolerated
dose (12000 mg/kg); this dose level was the higest
ineffctive dose in this assay.
07-DEC-2001 (263)
Type: other: test on abnormal sperm

Strain: other: C3H x C57
Exposure period: daily for 5 days
Doses: no data
Result: negative

GLP: no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Sperm abnormality assay; after 35 days sperm-cell suspension

were prepared and 1000 sperms were examined
07-DEC-2001 (109)
5.7 Carcinogenicity

Strain: Wistar
Post exposure period: 26 weeks
Doses: ca. 90, 180 mg/kg/d (0.1%, 0.2% in the drinking water)

Year: 1982
GLP: no data
Result: Groups of 50 rats/sex were given the test substance at

concentrations of 0% (control), 0.1%, and 0.2% in the
drinking water for 78 weeks and were sacrificed in week 104.
According to the authors, the total doses per animal
amounted 14.5 g (low dose males), 13.9 g (low dose females),
26.6 g (high dose males), and 21.7 g (high dose females).
Observations included mortality, body weight, water intake
and postmorten and histological examination. Various tumors
were found in both treated and control group; however, tumor
incidence was similar in all groups. There was no evidence
of carcinogencity of the test substance in rats.
Test substance: synthetic caffeine; according to the authors, purity was
100%
17-DEC-2001 (264) (265) (266)

Post exposure period: no data
Doses: 12, 26, 49, 102 mg/kg/d (males); 15, 37, 80, 170
mg/kg/d (females) (200, 430, 930, 2000 ppm in the
drinking water)
Result: negative

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Year: 1982
GLP: no data
Result: Groups of 50 animals per sex were administered drinking

water containing the test substance at concentrations of
200, 430, 930, and 2000 mg/l (ppm). According to the
authors, mean daily intake of the test substance was 12, 26,
49, and 102 mg/kg in males and 15, 37, 80, and 170 mg/kg in
females. Two control groups, each of 50 animals per sex were
given unsupplemented water.
There was a slightly increased mortality in males at 2000
mg/l. Decreased body weights were found in both sexes at
higher dose levels.
There were no statistically significant differences between
control and treated animals for tumors of any type except
for mammary fibroadenomas, the incidence of which was 50% in
the controls compared with 26% in the highest-dose group.
The incidence of mammary fibroadenomas showed a significant
inverse dose-response relationship.
In conclusion: There was no statistically significant
increase in tumor incidence in treated animals as compared
to controls even at doses exceeding the maximum tolerated
dose and given to animals over major portion of their
lifespan.
Test substance: food grade natural caffeine (containing less than 0.01%
theobromine)
comparable to guideline studies
17-DEC-2001 (267)

Strain: Wistar
Exposure period: 12 months
Doses: ca. 180 mg/kg/d (2000 ppm in the drinking water)

GLP: no data
Result: Rats were administered drinking water containing the test

substance at a concentration of 2000 mg/l (ppm). According
to the authors, total dose amounted ca. 13.5 g/animal.
Control rats were given unsupplemented water. Histopathology
was limited to the pituitary gland. An increased number of
pituitary adenomas was observed in the treated group.
According to IARC, the study was judged to be of limited
value due to short duration, only one sex (males) used,
limited histopathology, and that 10 controls were not
evaluated because of premature death.

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seconary literature
17-DEC-2001 (268)

Strain: Wistar
Control Group: yes

Year: 1995
GLP: no data
Remark: initiation/promotion study

Result: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of the test
substance on glandular stomach carcinogenesis induced in
rats by N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) and
sodium chloride (NaCl). Four groups of 30 5-week old rats
were given 100 ppm MNNG in the drinking water
(ca. 11 mg/kg/d) and simultaneously fed a diet containing 5%
NaCl (ca. 5550 mg/kg/d) for 8 weeks (initiation phase).
Thereafter, the four groups were treated for 32 weeks as
follows (promotion phase):
group 1: 0.25% caffeine in the drinking water (ca. 280
mg/kg/d), 5% NaCl in the diet
group 2: tap water, 5% NaCl in the diet
group 3: 0.25% caffeine in the drinking water,
unsupplemented
diet
group 4: no treatment (tap water, unsupplemented diet)
After termination of the post-initiation phase (at study
week 40), all surviving rats were sacrificed; and their
stomachs were examined.
Both caffeine and NaCl treatment resulted in growth
retardation. Body weight suppression was stronger with
caffeine than with NaCl; group-1 rats showed the lowest body
weights. The incidences of adenocarcinomas in the pylorus
and of atypical hyperplasia in the fundus were significantly
decreased in group 1 compared with group 2; however, in both
cases the incidences were significantly higher than in group
4 (control). These findings were in good agreement with
short-term assay results whereby lipid peroxidation in the
glandular stomach mucosa induced by NaCl ingestion was
partially inhibited by co-administration of the test
substance. In group 3, intake of the test substance alone
did not modulate glandular stomach tumor development.
According to the authors, these results suggested that the
test substance inhibited gastric tumor promotion activity of
sodium chloride in rats.
17-DEC-2001 (269)

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Strain: Fischer 344
Doses: ca. 90 mg/kg/d (1000 ppm in the drinking water)
Method: other: screening assay

Year: 1988
GLP: no data
Result: The hepatocarcinogenic potential of 112 compounds including

the test substance was evaluated in a screening assay using
groups of 12-20 rats. The rats were given a single i.p.
injection of 200 mg/kg diethylnitrosamine (DEN) and were 2/3
partially hepatectomized 3 weeks later. Treatment with the
test substance was begun 2 weeks after DEN injection. After
6 weeks of administration of the test substance (i.e. 8
weeks after DEN injection), the rats were sacrificed.
Carcinogenic potential was scored by comparing the number
and area of glutathione-S-transferase placental form
positive (GST-P+) foci in the liver of treated rats with
those of controls given DEN alone. No increase in the number
and area of GST-P+-foci was seen in caffeine-treated animals.
only one dose tested, initiation/promotion test
17-DEC-2001 (270)

Strain: Wistar
Exposure period: 21 months
Frequency of treatment: continuously in the drinkng water
Doses: 110 mg/kg/d
Control Group: yes

GLP: no data
Result: The effect of the test substance and phenacetin on

N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine (BBN)-initiated
urothelial carcinogenesis was studied in groups of 50 rats.
The rats were given 100 mg/kg BBN and were then administered
the test substance (110 mg/kg/d) in the drinking water for
21 months, either alone or in combination with 500 mg/kg/d
of phenacetin in the diet. The test substance alone revealed
no complete initiating carcinogenic potential for the
resting as well as the regenerating bladder urothelium

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
stimulated to proliferate by a partial cystectomy or

cyclophospamide. No cocarcinogenic and/or promoting activity
of the test substance on BBN-initiated bladder tumor
development was observed. In contrast, increased tumor
incidences were seen in rats given the test substance in
combination with phenacetin; this increase was greater than
an increase observed in rats given phenacetin alone.
only one dose tested, initiation/promotion test
17-DEC-2001 (271)

Strain: other: C3H, BD2F, BALB/c
Doses: ca. 50, 100 mg/kg/d (250, 500 mg/l = 250, 500 ppm in
the drinking water)

Year: 1988
GLP: no data
Remark: Histopathology was limited to mammary gland.

initiation/promotion study
Result: The effect of the test substance on carcinomatous and normal
mammary gland development was studied in BD2F mice
(54-55/group), C3H mice (37-43/group), and BALB/c mice
(20/group).
BD2F mice were administered the test substance in the

drinking water starting 1 week after a series of 6 weekly
7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) injection. C3H mice
were administered the test substance without any
pretreatment. In both strains, administration of the test
substance (low and high dose) resulted in an increse in
mammary carcinoma multiplicity (by 20 and 40%, respectively,
in BD2F mice and by 13 and 117%, respectively, in C3H mice).
In contrast, the incidence of mammary carcinomas (i.e. the
percentage of mice bearing mammary tumors) and mean time to
tumor appearance as well as body weight gain were not
affected. An increase of mammary adenocarcinomas per animal
was noted.
In a second series of studies, the effect of the test

substance on mammary gland development in BALB/c mice was
assessed in vivo (0, 500 mg/l in the drinking water) and in
vitro (organ culture). In treated mice, mammary gland
development was significantly increased. In the organ
cultures, mammary glands derived from treated mice were more
responsive in vitro to a mammotropic hormonal developmental
growth stimulus than were mammae derived from untreated

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mice.
According to the authors, these results suggested that

caffeine consumption enhanced mammary tumorigenesis in C3H
and carcinogen-treated BD2F mice and enhanced developmental
growth of normal BALB/c mouse mammary gland.
17-DEC-2001 (272) (273)

Strain: other: C3H/He, GR/A, SHN, SLN
Exposure period: 20 to 130 days

Year: 1987
GLP: no data
Remark: initiation/promotion study

Result: The formation of precancerous mammary hyperplastic alveolar
nodules (HAN) was studied in four strains of mice with
varying mammary tumor potentials. Beginning at 21 days of
age at weaning, the mice were administered tap water
containing 0 or 0.05% of the test substance and were
sacrificed at days 40, 60, 90, 120, and 150 days of age. HAN
appeared at 90, 60, 60, and 120 days in C3H/He, GR/A, SHN,
and SLN mice, respectively. The difference from controls in
the number of HAN was statistically significant in the
C3H/He mice only. The onset of time of HAN was associated
with mammary tumor potential of virgin mice.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
The test substance did not affect estrous cycle, plasma levels
of prolactin and growth hormones, or endocrine organ weights.
According to the authors, these results suggsted that
promotion by caffeine of HAN growth was minimally mediated
by the endocrine system.
17-DEC-2001 (274)

Exposure period: life-time
Frequency of treatment: 5 d/w
Doses: 100 mg/ kg/d

Year: 1981
GLP: no data
Result: The rats were administered the test substance at doses of 0

and 100 mg/kg. Reduced mean survival time were recroded for
treated rats.
value.
17-DEC-2001 (275)

Frequency of treatment: daily

Year: 1981
GLP: no data
Result: The rats were fed a diet containing the test substance at
concentrations of 0% (control) or 0.102%. Reduced mean
survival time was observed in treated animals.
value due to the use of only one sex (male) and high
mortality in treated animals.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was 99.6-99.9%

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

17-DEC-2001 (276)

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5.8.1 Toxicity to Fertility
Type: Fertility
Species: rat
Sex: male
Strain: other: Osborne-Mendel, Holtzman
Exposure Period: up to 75 weeks
Doses: ca. 60, 300 mg/kg/d (0.1, 0.5% in the diet)
Control Group: no data specified

Year: 1979
GLP: no data
Result: The rats were fed a diet containing the test substance at a
concentration of containing 0.5% of the test substance for
64 and 14 to 75 weeks. Testicular atrophy and
aspermatogenesis were observed in both experiments. (64
weeks: 13/13 animals had athrophy of testes and
aspermatogenesis, 14 weeks: 4/5 animals had atrophie and 3/5
oligospermatogenesis and 1/5 aspermatogenesis; 75 weeks: 8/8
had athrophy, 378 oligospermatogenesis and 5/8
aspermatogenesis)
In a third experiment caffeine were fed to Holzman rats for
19 weeks to determine whether testicular athrophy would be
induced in a second strain of rat. The effects were similar
to those in the other experiments (11/11 rats had athrophy,
1/11 oligospermatogenesis and 10/11 aspermatogenesis).
high mortality, small group size, one dose tested only
17-DEC-2001 (277)
Type: Fertility
Species: rat
Sex: male/female
Exposure Period: 23 weeks (during Task 2); for further details see
freetext
Frequency of treatment: no data
Premating Exposure Period
male: 1 week (Task 2)
female: 1 week (Task 2)
Duration of test: 36 weeks (Tasks 1, 2, 3, 4)
Doses: 12.5, 25, 50 mg/kg/d
NOAEL Parental: < 12.5 mg/kg bw
NOAEL F1 Offspring: < 12.5 mg/kg bw
Method: other: NTP Reproductive Assessment by Continuous Breeding

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
(RACB)
Year: 1996
GLP: yes

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Result: The effects of the test substance on reproduction and

fertility of rats was investigated. The test substance was
administered in deionized water.
Task 1 (dose f inding study; 4-week exposure):

The animals were administered the test substance at doses of
0, 50, 100, 150, or 200 mg/kg/d. According to the authors,
based on decreased body weights and food consumption,
increased water consumption, and mortality, dose levels of
12.5, 25, and 50 mg/kg/d were selected for the continuous
breeding phase.
Task 2 (continuous breeding period; 1-week pre-cohabitation

exposure, 16-week cohabitation exposure, 3-week delivery,
3-week weaning):
During 16 weeks of cohabitation, live pup weights were
decreased by 7, 7, and 8% in the low, mid and high dose
group, respectively. No effects were observed in other
reproductive endpoints. One control female and two low dose
females died.
According to the authors, the decreased pup weights were
concomitant with reduced dam weights. Body weights were
significantly lower than control throughout the study (4-7%,
9-15%, and 9-18% in the low, mid and high dose males,
respectively, and 5-18%, 5-19%, and 8-19% in low mid, and
high dose females, respectively). Food consumption was
decreased at the mid and high dose level during the first
week (both sexes). At necropsy, no differences were found in
the absolute organ weights of F0 males and females. However,
many relative organ weights were increased in all treated
groups. According to the authors, these increases were
attributed to the decreased terminal body weights. No
substance-related gross or microscopic lesions were observed
in the F0 rats. Percent sperm motility was significantly
decreased in high dose F0 males (3%); sperm velocity and
average radius was decreased in all treated males (7-12% and
22-36%, respectively). The percent normal sperm was slightly
decreased in high dose F0 males. The remaining endpoints of
F0 computer-assisted sperm analysis were similar in all
groups.
Task 3 (crossover mating, 1-week cohabitation):

No changes in male or female fertility or in pup weights
were observed. Reproductive parameters were similar between
the dose groups when naive males were mated with control or
high dose females and when naive females were mated with
control males or high dose males.
Task 4 (second generation evaluation; 8-week maturation

phase, 1-week cohabitation):
No mortality was observed in the F1 rats. No
substance-related differences in pup weights were found
during lactation (post natal days (PND) 1-21). From the
initiation of dosing at PND 22 through the maturation phase
up to termination of Task 4, mean body weights of the
treated males and females were decreased (by ca. 12, 18, and

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
23% in the low, mid, and high dose group, respectively).

Mean body weight and food consumption was decreased (5-19%) in
all treated groups.
A decrease in the number of live F2 pups/litter by 21% and
in the proportion of pups born alive by 4% was observed in
the high dose group. No differences were found in other
reproductive endpoints.
Many absolute organ weights were decreased and many relative
organ weights were increased in F1 rats (all treated
groups). According to the authors, this might be attributed
to the decreased body weights. No substance-related gross or
microscopic lesions were found in F1 animals. Decreased
percent motile sperm (4%) and sperm velocity (9%) was
observed in high dose F1 males. The average radius was
decreased by 23-36% in mid and high dose F1 males. Other
sperm parameters were unaffected.

test substance was not a selective reproductive toxicant,
since the minor effects on sperm motion parameters and on
weight/viability of the pups occurred at doses that caused
already general toxicity (reduced body weights).
Administration of the test substance to females resulted in
fetal toxicity even at the lowest dose level (reduced pup
weights at 12.5 mg/kg and more; reduced litter size and
viability at 50 mg/kg). Thus, a
no-observable-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) was not
established, based on the reduced body weight gain observed
in all treated groups.
29-JAN-2003 (278)
Type: Fertility
Species: mouse
Sex: male/female
Strain: CD-1
Exposure Period: 21 weeks (Task 2)
male: 1 week
female: 1 week
Duration of test: 34 weeks (Tasks 1, 2, 4)
Doses: ca. 22, 44, 88 mg/kg/d (0.012, 0.025, 0.05% in the
drinking water)
NOAEL Parental: 22 mg/kg bw
NOAEL F1 Offspring: 22 mg/kg bw

(RACB), according to Reel, J.R. et al.: J. Am. Coll. Toxicol.
4, 147-162

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Year: 1985
GLP: no data
Result: Water consumption was not affected by addition of caffeine.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
These levels of caffeine, and measured water consumption and

body weights, produced calculated consumption estimates
nearly equal to 22, 44, and 88 mg/kg/d.
For the F0 animals, there were no effects on body weight.

Alopecia occurred in 55% of the medium dose and 50% of the
high dose animals. While there were no exposure-related
changes in the number of litters/pair, viability, or
adjusted
pup weight, the number of live pups per litter, averaged
over the 4-5 litters, dropped 15% at the medium dose and 20%
for the high dose animals.
No crossover mating trial was conducted, and the offspring
from the last litter of control and high dose mice were
reared by their dams until weaning, when they were given the
same treatment as their parents until mating at 74 10 days
of age.
At the second generation mating trial, there were no changes

in any reproductive endpoint.
At necropsy, at 0.05% caffeine, male body weight was reduced

by 8% while male adjusted liver weight increased by 8%. No
change was found in female body or organ weights, or in any
sperm endpoint.
In conclusion, a reduction in the number of live pups/litter

for the F0 generation was the only reproductive effect
observed in this study. This occurred in the absence of a
change in body weights in the F0 parental mice.
Test condition: Caffeine was tested simultaneously at two laboratories, each
using a variation on the standard RACB study design. This
study used Tasks 1, 2, and 4, while the other study in mice
utilized Tasks 1, 2, and 3.
Data on body weights, clinical signs, and food and water
consumptions were collected during the dose-range-finding
phase (Task 1), and used to set exposure concentrations for
Task 2 at 0.0, 0.012, 0.025, and 0.05% in drinking water.
Water was chosen to mimic the route of human exposure.
Groups of 20 animals/sex (Task 2).
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was >98.5%
29-JAN-2003 (279) (280) (281) (282) (283) (284)
Type: Fertility
Species: mouse
Sex: male/female
Strain: CD-1
Exposure Period: 21 weeks (Task 2)
male: 1 week
female: 1 week

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Duration of test: ca. 34 weeks (Task 1,2,3)

Doses: ca. 22, 44, 88 mg/kg/d (0.012, 0.025, 0.05% in the
drinking water)
NOAEL Parental: 22 mg/kg bw

(RACB), according to Reel, J.R. et al.: J. Am. Coll. Toxicol.
4, 147-162
Year: 1985
GLP: yes
Result: Water consumption was not affected by addition of caffeine.

These levels of caffeine, and measured water consumption
and body weights, produced calculated consumption estimates
nearly equal to ca. 22, 44, and 88 mg/kg/d.
Three control, 1 low dose, and 1 middle dose mouse died
during the study. Treated mice were also reported to have
lost facial hair, but the percentages and groups involved
were not specified.
There was no effect on the mean number of litters/pair

produced, or on the aggregate mean number of pups/litter
(the total number of pups/total number of litters for all
pairs at a treatment level). There was a 20% reduction in
live male
pups/litter, however. Evaluating each litter individually,
after the first litter, the high dose group always delivered
1-2 pups less than the controls; at the fifth litter, the
controls delivered a mean of 10.3 7 pups (mean SEM),
while the high dose group delivered a mean of 8.6 1 pups.
The proportion of pups born alive was reduced by 3%, 5%, and
5% in the low, middle and high dose groups, respectively.
Additionally, pup body weight adjusted for litter size was
reduced by 4% at the high dose.
A crossover mating trial (Task 3) was performed. There were

no differences between the groups in the mating and
fertility indices, and no differences with respect to pup
number or viability or weight.
Task 4 was not performed on this study. After 7 days of

vaginal smears to evaluate cyclicity, the control and high
dose Task 2 mice were killed and necropsied. Female body
weight at necropsy was reduced by 5%, while
body-weight-adjusted organ weights were unchanged.
Ante-mortem vaginal cyclicity was unaffected by caffeine
exposure. Male body weight was unchanged by consumption of
0.05% caffeine, but adjusted liver weight was increased by
10%. Absolute testis weight dropped by 7% and adjusted
seminal vesicles weight decreased by 12%. Sperm motility
values for controls was low (47% motile), so the 21%
reduction in the treated group should be viewed with
caution. Similarly, the control epididymal sperm density was
nearly equal to half of the subsequent control values for
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this lab, so the significant increase in sperm density in

the caffeine-treated group is likely erroneous.
The slight but significant reductions in (male) pup number,

pup viability, and adjusted pup weight suggest that caffeine
produced some slight reproductive toxicity. This occured in
the presence of very slight indications of other toxicities
(body or organ weight changes).
Test condition: Caffeine was tested simultaneously at two laboratories, each
using a variation on the standard RACB study design. This
study performed Tasks 1, 2, and 3, while the other study in
mice performed Tasks 1, 2, and 4. Caffeine was among the
very first compounds run at these labs using this protocol.
Data on body weights, clinical signs, and food and water
consumptions were collected during the dose-range-finding
phase (Task 1), and used to set exposure concentrations for
Task 2 at 0.0, 0.012, 0.025, and 0.05% in drinking water.
Water was chosen to mimic the route of human exposure.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was > 98.5%
(analyzed)

29-JAN-2003 (285)
Type: Fertility
Species: hen
Sex: male
Strain: no data
Exposure Period: no data
Doses: ca. 100 mg/kg (0.1% in the diet)

Year: 1976
GLP: no
Result: Hens inseminated with sperm from treated roosters had

reduced numbers of fertile eggs. In treated roosters, semen
and sperm count were reduced 17-21 days after
administration; and no semen could be collected after 30
days. According to the authors, the effects were reversible.
17-DEC-2001 (286)
Type: Two generation study

Species: rat
Sex: female
Strain: no data
Route of administration: oral unspecified
Exposure Period: 1 week prior to mating until day 20 post partum

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

female: 7 days
Control Group: yes

Year: 1983
GLP: no data

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Females received the dose levels seven days before mating
and through to 20 days of lactation; F1 offspring received
the same treatment, mature F1 offspring were mated with
untreated animals
Result: Females received the test substance starting seven days
before mating and through to 20 days of lactation. F1
offspring were treated in the same manner. Mature F1
offspring were mated with untreated animals.
Pregnancy rate and reproduction were unaffected in F0
females and F1 males. Among F1 females, the pregnancy rate
was unaffected but a decrease in the number of corpora
lutea, implants and fetuses was observed in the high dose
group. F2 fetuses of these high dose females were small and
edematous.
abstract
18-DEC-2001 (287)
Type: Two generation study

Species: rat
Sex: male
Strain: Wistar
male: 15 days
female: untreated
Doses: 30 mg/kg/d

Year: 1988
GLP: no data
Result: The effect of the test substance on male reproduction was

studied over two generations. Male Wistar rats were
administered an aqueous solution of the test substance or
the vehicle only (F0 generation). According to the authors,
the selected dose of 30 mg/kg/d was equivalent to human
caffeine uptake of ca. 10-12 cups of brewed coffee daily.
Beginning on day 15 of dosing, treated and control males
were mated with untreated females. F1-pups were weaned at 23
days. At the age of ca. 100 days, F1 animals were randomly
chosen for the breeding of the second generation (F2) which
was obtained by back breeding. At the end of the breeding of
the F1 generation, the F0 males were treated for another 38
consecutive days, Then, they were sacrificed; and their
testes were examined microscopically.
In F1 offspring, significant fetal growth retardation (both
sexes) and increased postnatal mortality of the pups between
weeks 1 and 2 was noted. Many of these pups displayed
characteristics of runts. Persistent caffeine effects were
also seen in the F2 generation. From the female breeding
line, pups of both sexes were born significantly heavier

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
when compared to their control counterparts. From the male

breeding line, 33% of the litters conceived were aborted in
utero, and among the F2 pups born runts were again evident.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Microscopical examination of the F0 males revealed marked

degeneration characterized by significant overall size
reduction, breakdown of the germinal epithelium,
accumulation of cellular debris in the lumen of the
seminiferous tubules, and significant reduction in the
abundance of mature spermatozoa. On ultrastructural
examination, there appeared to be genetic damage to the
spermatozoa where nucleic cysts and pouches were seen.
not comparable with guideline studies
17-DEC-2001 (288)
Type: other: four generation study

Species: mouse
Sex: no data
Strain: no data
Frequency of treatment: continuously
Doses: 4-5, 12-18, 25-39 mg/kg/d

Year: 1973
GLP: no
Remark: Four generation study in mice continuously exposed

Result: In a four generation study, mice were continuously exposed
to the test substance.
No consistent, dose-related effects on fertility, sexual
maturation, mean litter size, weight of offspring at
weaning, sex ratio or fetal abnormalities were observed. A
few pairs exposed to the high dose level failed to produce
litters; this was recorded only for the F1 brother-sister
and the F3 matings.
18-DEC-2001 (289)
Type: other: multigeneration study

Species: rat
Sex: male/female
Strain: Wistar
Doses: 10 mg/kg/d

Year: 1981
GLP: no data
Result: Exposure to the test substance was continued over five

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
successive sets of litters. Reduced growth and increased

neonatal mortality were observed in the offspring over
sequential pregnancies.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

18-DEC-2001 (290)
5.8.2 Developmental Toxicity/Teratogenicity

Strain: Osborne-Mendel
Exposure period: days 0 to 20 of gestation
Duration of test: until day 20 of gestation, postnatal day 0, or
postnatal day 6
Doses: 24.7-29.0, 42.7-48.8, 70.6-75.1 mg/kg/d (180, 360,
700 ppm in the drinking water)
NOAEL Maternal Toxity: = 180 ppm
NOAEL Teratogenicity: > 700 ppm

GLP: no data
Remark: Number of females were mated are 60 (for control and lowest
dose and 30 for mid and high dose group
Result: The rats were administered the test substance at
concentrations of 0, 0.018, 0.036, and 0.07% (0, 180, 360,
and 700 ppm) and were sacrificed at gestation day (gd) 20,
postnatal day (pnd) 0, or pnd 6.
Maternal toxicity consisted of reduced drinking water and
food consumption at 700 ppm (all groups) and retarded body
weight gain at and above 360 ppm for rats sacrified on gd 20
and at 700 ppm for rats killed at pnd 0 and 6.
Results for animals killed on gd 20:
decreased number of viable fetuses, increased incidence of
sternebral variations and specific other skeletal variations
(mainly as signs of delayed ossification) at and above 360
ppm.
Results for animals killed on pnd 0:
no reproductive effects; at 700 ppm affected sternebral
development and increased other skeletal variations as well
as single cases of reduced ossification at 360 ppm and
above.
Results for animals killed on pnd 6:
no reproductive effects; at 700 ppm transient impaired
weight gain in neonates and reduced sternebral ossification.
General assessment:
Reversibility of most of the skeletal effects was shown
Test substance: caffeine, USP standard, purity 98.7%
13-AUG-2002 (291)


OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

Duration of test: until day day 20 of gestation

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Doses: ca. 10.1, 27.4, 50.7, 86.6, 115.8, 160.9, 204.5

mg/kg/d (70, 180, 360, 700, 1000, 1500, 2000 ppm in
the drinking water)
NOAEL Maternal Toxity: ca. 50.7 mg/kg bw
NOAEL Teratogenicity: > 204.5 mg/kg bw
Method: other: according to Collins, T.F.X. et al.: Regul. Toxic.

Pharmac. 1, 355
Year: 1981
GLP: no data
Result: The teratogenic potential of the test substance was

investigated. Groups of 61 females were administered the
test substance at concentrations of 0, 0.007, 0.018, 0.036,
0.07, 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2% in the drinking water, resulting
in average daily uptakes of the test substance of 0, 10.1,
27.4, 50.7, 86.6, 115.8, 160.9, and 204.5 mg/kg,
respectively. At day 20 of gestation, the dams were
sacrificed, and the pups were excised by Caesarean section.
No substance-related deaths occurred. Maternal food and
water consumption was signifcantly decreased at doses of
0.1% and more. Mat ernal body weight gain was statistically
significantly decreased at doses of 0.07% and more. Doses of
0.15% and 0.2% resulted in decreased implantation
efficiency, increased resorptions, and decreased m ean number
of viable fetuses. The numbers of runts were significantly
increased at dosages of 0.1% and more. At doses of 0.07% and
more, fetal weights and lengths were decreased; and the
number of edematous fetuses was increased. No dose-related
gross anomalies were observed in any group. Sternebral
ossification deficiencies were increased in all dosed groups
except the lowest dose group. Skeletal ossifications
deficiencies were increased in a dose-related manner at dose
levels of 0.07% and above.
In summary, the no-observable effect (NOEL) for maternal
toxicity was 0.036% (ca. 50.7 mg/kg/d); and the NOEL for
developmental toxicity was 0.007% (ca. 10.1 mg/kg/d). No
teratogenic effect was observed.
Test condition: Groups of 51 pregnant rats.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was >=98.5%
08-AUG-2001 (292)

Duration of test: 5 weeks
Doses: 30 mg/kg bw
Control Group: yes

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Method: other
Year: 1978
GLP: no data
Remark: In this older study with rats malformations were observed.

In this combined subchronic, reproductive, developmental
study with freshly percolated coffee in drinking water (9,
19, 39 mg/kg bw/d) or when caffeine was administered by
gavage or in drinking water (30 mg/kg bw/d), cleft palates
and delayed ossifications were observed (not dose -dependent).
For coffee intake of 0%, 12.5%, 25% and 50% the number of
observed fetuses with cleft palates were 1/423; 8/207; 5/225;
4/229, and for caffeine gavage intake 1/252, and caffeine in
drinking water 2/245, only. Delayed ossification was found
after coffee intake in 0/256; 8/128; 62/141; 11/148 and after
caffeine intake in 12/171 and 15/160 animals respectively. The
animals received coffee or caffeine
before mating, throughout gestation and up to 27 days
after parturition. Effects on fertility, litter size and
neonatal growth were not observed. No information about
maternal toxicity was given in the report (Palm et al,
1978).
Test substance: Caffeine 30 mg/kg per gavage or drinking water.
Coffee as drinking fluid,(ca. 9, 19, 39 mg/kg Caffeine)
methodical deficiencies
12-AUG-2002 (293)
Species: monkey Sex: female

Strain: Macaca Fascicularis
Exposure period: before, during and after pregnancy
Duration of test: eight weeks before pregnancy to several months after
pregnancy
Doses: ca. 10-15, 25-30 mg/kg/d (0.15, 0.35 mg/ml = 150, 350
ppm in the drinking water)

Year: 1988
GLP: no data
Result: Forty adult female monkeys were administered the test

substance in the drinking water at concentrations of 0, 0.15
and 0.35 mg/ml before, during and after gestation. According
to the authors, the concentrations administered corresponded
to doses of ca. 0, 10-15, and 25-30 mg/k, respectively.
Several parameters were evaluated.
Exposure to the test substance resulted in a dose-related

increase in reproductive failure (stillbirths, miscarriages,
decreased maternal weight gain). Analysis of blood and

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24-hour urine samples (collected every 2 weeks) revealed a

number of both pregnancy and treatment-related effects:
decreased levels of serum cholesterol and triglyceride
during pregnancy in all groups (pregnancy-related),
increased levels of serum and urine creatinine in the
treated groups (substance-related), unaltered serum glucose
level in the high dose group (substance-related, this value
usually declines during pregnancy), and depressed levels of
serum estrogen in the high dose group (substance-related).
According to the authors, this indicated that the test
substance may influence maternal physiology during gestation
in the monkey.
Additionally, the somatic development of the infants was

monitored. Maternal blood and milk concentrations of the
test substance were similar to infant blood concentrations.
Infant body weights and somatic measurements were reduced
over the first 30 days in males, as were a number of initial
somatic measurements in male and female infants. The
deficits were reversible and not evident after one year of
age. Tooth eruption and milk consumption were not affected.
According to the authors, this indicated that the test
substance can alter infant somatic development when consumed
during pregnancy.
Behavioural tests were conducted on the infants. At 30 days

of age, the infants were trained to press a button for a
formula reward, after which they performed on a variable
ratio schedule for a 14-day period. Monitoring of feeding
effect revealed that the treated infants spent significantly
more time feeding than controls. On the variable ratio
schedule, the high-dose group had consistently longer pause
times and longer interresponses than controls. According to
the authors, these results indicated that in utero exposure
to caffeine and its metabolites resulted in altered
behavioural patterns in infant monkeys.
18-DEC-2001 (294) (295) (296) (297) (298) (299)

Duration of test: max. 12 months; see remark
Doses: 30, 60 mg/kg

Year: 1992
GLP: no data
Remark: After mating, F0 animals were treated daily by gavage from

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day 2 to day 21 to obtain F1 animals. The F2 generation was

obtained by breeding female F1 offspring with offspring from
control and both dose groups. The second breeding was
back-crossed to the F0 males avoiding father-daughter
matings. Litters were removed 3 days after birth and the
females were returned to the same familiar male for repeated
breeding. The experiment was terminated before litter 8 in
most cases and before any of the females were 12 months
old.
Result: Exposure did not affect sexual receptivity, fertility,
gestation length or maternal behaviour of the F1 females;
however, parturition was prolonged.
The viability of the F2 generation was affected. Many F2 pups
were born larger, and a significant proportion of litters
(after the first two litters) were stillborn. The severity of
the effects was dose-dependent and a NOEL was not established.
18-DEC-2001 (300) (301)

Duration of test: day 0-19
Doses: 6, 12, 40, 80, 125 mg/kg
NOAEL Maternal Toxity: 12 mg/kg bw
NOAEL Teratogenicity: = 40 mg/kg bw
Method: other
Year: 1981
GLP: no data
Remark: 61 rats were randomly assigned to each dose level, control

rats were treated by gavage with distilled water at the same
days (0-19).
Result: Six females died at the highest dose level. The experimental
animals gained less weight during gestation than did the
control (greates decease was seen during the first 7 days of
dosing). Food consumption decreased primarily during the first
week gestation. Two litters were totally resorbed at 80 mg/kg
and four litters at 125 mg/kg. Resorptiuons increased at the
dose levels 80 and 125 mg/kg. There were significant decreases
in fetal weight and crown-crump lenght at 40 mg/kg.
Ectrodactyly was seen only at the dose levels 80 and 125
mg/kg, along with assorted skeletal ossification problems such
as misshappen centra, missing centra, reduced dorsal arch,
reduced pubis, missing hind phalanges, reduced metacarpals,
and reduced metatarsals. In addition, delayed ossification of
the sternebrae was seen at all dose levels. No soft tissue
variations appeared related to caffeine intake.
Test substance: caffeine, USP specification > 98.5%, 0.06% theobromine and

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0.01% theophylline. Vehicle: destilled water, the solution for

intubation was determined to be stable.
acceptable, publication meets basic scientific principles
16-AUG-2002 (302)

Strain: Wistar
Frequency of treatment: daily; as single bolus or as four divided doses every
three hours
Duration of test: until day 21 of gestation

Year: 1987
GLP: no data
Result: The rats were administered the test substance at dose levels
of 10 or 100 mg/kg/d, either as single bolus or as four
divided doses given at 3 hour intervals throughout the day.
Controls were given distilled water at the same time.
Maternal body weight and food and water consumption were
reduced in the two groups receiving a total dose of 100
mg/kg/d and given 2.5 mg/kg four times daily. Dose-related
decreases in fetal weight, placental weight and crown-rump
length and related retardation of skeletal ossification were
observed. Major fetal abnormities, mainly ectrodactyly were
only seen in the group given 100 mg/kg in a single daily
dose.
well documented
18-DEC-2001 (303)

Duration of test: until 9 weeks post partum
Doses: 5, 25, 50, 75 mg/kg/d

Year: 1986
GLP: no data
Result: The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of the
test substance on postnatal neurobehavioral development.
Groups of 14-15 pregnant Sprague-Dawley (Charles River CD

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
strain) albino rats were administered the test substance in

distilled water. Physical and behaviour observations were
conducted on dams during gestation and lactation and on the
offspring for up to 9 weeks of age. Observation included
parturition parameters, body weights, food and water
consumption, locomotor activity, open field activity,
incisor eruption, auditory startle development, eye opening,
vaginal opening, passive avoidance, shuttle box activity,
pup retrieval, thermoregulation, testes decent, and air
righting.
Decreased maternal weight and delayed postnatal development
was noted in all treated groups. Some physical and
neurobehavioural effects were observed in individual dams
and offspring at all dose levels. Decreased fetal weights
were seen at 50 mg/kg and above.
Incisor eruption was delayed in all groups, except the 25
mg/kg females. Auditory startle developed earlier at 5
mg/kg, but was delayed in 75 mg/kg males. Eye opening was
delayed at both sexes at 25 mg/kg and above.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

18-DEC-2001 (304)

Strain: Wistar
Doses: 56, 75, 100, 130, 180, 240, 320 mg/kg/d
NOAEL Maternal Toxity: = 56 mg/kg bw

Year: 1968
GLP: no
Remark: The lowest observed effect level for teratogenicity was 130
mg/kg. Teratogenic effects were only observed at dose levels
that were maternally toxic and fetotoxic. According to the
authors, administration of the test substance via diet
produced no teratogenic effects.
abstract
18-DEC-2001 (305)

Exposure period: day 1 of gestation until sacrifice
Duration of test: until day 13, 14, 15, 16, or 20 of gestation
Doses: 30 mg/kg/d

Year: 1990
GLP: no data
Result: The aim of the study was to determine the influence of the
test substance on the early differentiation of fetal rat
ovaries and testes. Treatments were begun at day 1 of
gestation and were continued until sacrifice on day 13, 14,
15, 16, or, for the ovaries only, day 20 of gestation.
In the male fetuses, the test substance significantly
inhibited differentiation of the interstitial tissue and
Leydig cells; the number of Leydig cells exhibiting
3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity was decreased
and thus testosterone biosynthesis in the fetal testes was
reduced (days 15 and 16). The test substance had also an
effect on the early morphogenic organisation of the

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seminiferous cord on day 13 where the aggregation of the

Sertoli cells forming the seminiferous cord was slightly
advanced in controls.
In the female fetuses, ovaries were similar to control in
morphology, tissue arrangement and overall appearance.

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The test substance did not affect the rate of early mitotic
proliferation of germ cells, nor later in development, the
numbers of cells entering meiosis.
18-DEC-2001 (306)

Exposure period: days 7-19, 7-16, 16-19 or day 19 of gestation
Duration of test: until day 20 of gestaion
Doses: 100 mg/kg/d

Year: 1988
GLP: no data
Result: Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were administered the test

substance (in distilled water) at a dose of 100 mg/kg/d at
different periods of gestation. Litters were removed on day
20 of gestation, weighed and examined for external and
skeletal abnormalities. Decreased maternal and fetal body
weight was observed in the group administered the test
substance on gestation days (gd) 7-19. Marked effects on the
fore- and hindpaw structures and greater incidence of
bipartite and mishappen supraoccipital bones was seen in the
groups treated on gd 7-19 and 16-19. The reduction in
ossification was more pronounced in the group treated on gd
16-19. The rate of resorption or the litter size was
unaffected in every group.
18-DEC-2001 (307)

Strain: Wistar
Doses: 150 mg/kg/d
Method: Chernoff-Kavlok teratogenicity screening test

Year: 1982
GLP: no data
Result: The aim of this study was to validate the Chernoff-Kavlock

assay. Groups of 9-15 pregnant Alpk:AP (Wistar-derived) rats
were administered single doses of the test substance on days
7 to 17 of gestation. Offspring observations were litter

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size and litter weight of live pups, and number of live and
dead pups on days 1 and 5 post partum. No substance-related
effects were observed. According to the authors, based on
the results of this study, the test substance was predicted
to have no fetotoxic or teratogenic effects.

18-DEC-2001 (308)

Strain: other: CD
Duration of test: until day 20 of ges tation
NOAEL Maternal Toxity: < 40 mg/kg bw
NOAEL Teratogenicity: > 80 mg/kg bw

GLP: yes
Result: Groups of 20 pregnant rats were administered the test

substance in distilled water and were sacrificed on days 20
of gestation. The fetuses were removed and examined for
external, visceral or skeletal malformations.
Both dose levels significantly reduced maternal weight gain
during gestation, but did not increase the prenatal death or
malformation rate. Fetal weight was reduced in the high dose
group.
06-NOV-2002 (309) (310)

Strain: other: CD

GLP: yes
Result: Groups of 12 pregnant rats were administered the test

substance in distilled water and were allowed to litter. The

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pups were subsequently evaluated for postnatal growth and

several functional parameters (swimming, developmental
activity, blood pressure and electrocardiographic
recordings). There were no consistent effects of dose on any
of the physical or functional parameters, although caffeine
reduced maternal weight gain at all dose levels. According
to the authors, these results suggested that administration
of the test substance during gestation at doses of up to 40
mg/kg appered to have no adverse effect on offspring
physical development, behaviour or cardiovascular function.
NOAEL maternal <10 mg/kg bw/d, developmental toxicity 40
mg/kg bw/d
06-NOV-2002 (309)

Strain: CD-1
Duration of test: until day 3 post partum
Doses: 200 mg/kg/d
Control Group: yes

Year: 1982
GLP: no data
Remark: A battery of 28 compounds of known teratogenic potential

including the test substance was assayed for an evaluation
of the teratogenicity screen.
General procedure:
Groups of 24 to 30 pregnant mice were administered the test
substance on gestation days 8 to 12 at doses of the medium
tolerated dose (MTD). Litters were counted and weighed at
days 1 and 3 post partum. Maternal body weights were
recorded.
Result: Maternal body weight gain was significantly lower than
control during treatment. Average litter weight was
significantly lower than control when evaluated at day 3
post partum.
screening test
18-DEC-2001 (311) (71)

Strain: CD-1

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Doses: 50, 100, 250, 400 mg/kg/d


Year: 1991
GLP: no data
Result: Reduced maternal body weight gain was observed at doses of

100 mg/kg/d and more. Developmental effects (on fetal weight
and ossification) were observed at doses of 250 mg/kg/d and
more.
18-DEC-2001 (312)

Strain: CD-1
Exposure period: day 8 of gestation
Frequency of treatment: single dose
Doses: 350 mg/kg

GLP: no data
Result: The aim of the study was to determine the effect of acute
maternal toxicity on fetal development. The dams were
administered a slightly to moderately toxic dose of the test
substance in distilled water on day 8 of gestation and were
sacrificed on day 18 for evaluation of developmental
toxicity. No difference between treated and control group
was seen concerning embryonic resorption, growth, skeletal
development, or terata. Supernumerary ribs was the only
observed fetal effect with a linear inverse relationship
between maternal body weight gain during gestation.
screening
18-DEC-2001 (313)

Doses: 5, 10, 20 mg/kg

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GLP: no data
Result: The effect of the test substance on fetal rat brain

parameters was studied in 4 groups of 4 pregnant rats. From
gestational day 10 onwards, the dams were fed a diet
containing 20% of protein and the test substance at
concentrations providing dose levels of 0 (control), 5, 10,
and 20 mg/kg body weight (concentration was adjusted to body
weight). On day 22 of gestation, pups were delivered
surgically; their brains were rapidly removed and analysed
for DNA protein, cholesterol, zinc and alkaline phosphatase
activity as well as for plasma and brain caffeine levels
(treated groups only). The dams' brains were analysed for
the same parameters.

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In the pups, brain weights, DNA content, cholesterol and

zinc concentration, and alkaline phosphatese activity of the
brains were decreased showing a trend to dose-response.
Protein concentration of the brain was increased in the high
dose pups. The biochemical parameters of the dams were
similar in all groups, except an increased cholesterol
concentration in the treated groups. Plasma and brain levels
of the test substance were higher in the high dose group
than in the mid and low dose groups.
According to the authors, these results indicated that
maternal caffeine intake exerted different effects on fetal
brain growth, while the effects on the dams' brain was
relatively minor.
unsuitable test system, only brain observation after
caffeine intake
18-DEC-2001 (314)

Strain: ICL-ICR
Doses: 200, 250 mg/kg

Year: 1969
GLP: no data
Remark: NOEL for maternal toxicity can not be given since data were
insufficient reported; study does not meet current standard
Result: About 30% of the high dose females died. Dyspnoea and
convulsions were observed at 200 and 250 mg/kg. Increased
resorptions were recorded for the high dose group. Fetal
body weight was decreased in both dose groups. Malformations
occurred dose-dependently in all fetuses, these included
cleft palate, digital defects and macrognathia; subcutaneous
hematomas were also observed.
documentation insufficient for assessment
18-DEC-2001 (315)

Strain: other
Exposure period: one of days 7 to 14 of gestation
Doses: 250 mg/kg

GLP: no

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Result: Increases of fetal resorptions, cleft palate and digital

defects dependent on the day of treatment were noted.
18-DEC-2001 (316)

Strain: other: TO
Doses: 200 mg/kg/d
Control Group: yes

Year: 1998
GLP: no data
Result: The malformation of the joints and bones induced by the test
substance was studied in two groups of TO mice. One group
was administered the test substance on days 10 to 14 of
gestation; fetuses were collected on day 18 of gestation.
The second group was prepared as a control. A modest
increase in resorption, and significant reduction of both
body weight and length of the fetuses was noted. Limb
malformations were found in 40%. Alizarin and Alcain blue
revealed reduction in endochondral ossification, especially
in small bones. Histologically, the large joints (knee and
hip joint) were not affected while small joints showed some
defects (absence of the joint cavity). Absence of the
forearm and/or the hand was seen in some fetuses. These
anomalies were common in th 11th day of gestation group.
According to the authors, these results suggested that a
high dose of the test substance retarded the skeletal growth
and inhibited the differentiation of some of the small
joints.
abstract
18-DEC-2001 (317)

Strain: other: CF-1
Exposure period: days 11 and 12 of gestation
Doses: 25, 100, 200, 250 mg/kg/d (129, 515, 1030, 129
umoles/kg)

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Year: 1987
GLP: no data
Result: The mice were administered the test substance in 0.5%

methylcellulose on days 11 and 12 of gestation and were
sacrificed on day 17 of gestation. The implants were removed
and classified.
No effect was seen at a dose level of 25 mg/kg. Doses of 100
mg/kg were maternally toxic and embryotoxic; decreased
maternal body weights were recorded. At 200 mg/kg and more,
increased resorption rates, decresed fetal body weights and
malformations (cleft palate, ectrodactyly, and
microgranthia) was observed.
methodological deficiencies
18-DEC-2001 (318)

Strain: other: CD
Route of administration: i.v.
Duration of test: until postnatal day 240
Doses: 75, 150 mg/kg

Year: 1987
GLP: yes
Result: Groups of 15 pregnant rats were administered a single i.v.

injection on day 11 of gestation and allowed to litter. Pups
were evaluated for physical defects and functional
abnormalities. Groups of pups were sacrificed on postnatal
days (PND) 225, 90, 120, or 240 and their skeletons were
examined for defects.
At birth, 15% of the high dose pups had tail defects; at
later ages, 50% of the pups of this group showed defects in
the lumbar and caudal region. However, viability and growth
rate was unaffected, and g ait and landing foot spread
patterns were normal. Alterations in other functional
endpoits were evident. Such changes included higher levels
of immobilization during swimming (150 mg/kg), elevated
activity levels (75-mg/kg-males on PND 12, 16, and 20), and
increased systolic blood pressure (both groups at 4 months
of age).
According to the authors, these results suggested that
physical and functional abnormalities were produced by i.v.

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administration of the test substance given during

organogenesis, but that the functional changes were not
necessarily related to the physical abnormalities.
no guideline study, only one unphysiological application.
07-NOV-2002 (319)

Strain: no data
Exposure period: during organogenesis
Duration of test: until day 22 post partum
Doses: 200 mg/kg/d

Year: 1984
GLP: no data
Result: No difference in viability was seen at day 3 post partum

between treated and control groups. Lower body weights of
the pups were noted at days 3 and 22 post partum. There was
no effect on the reproductive development and morphology of
the offsprings.
screening test
18-DEC-2001 (320)

Strain: NMRI
Doses: 100 mg/kg
Control Group: yes

Year: 1987
GLP: no data
Result: The potentiating effect of the test substance on

embryotoxicity of cyclophosphamide (CPA) was studied.
Pregnant mice were administered the test substance on day 2
of gestation. Uteri were excised on day 17 and examined for
dead and resorbed embryos; the surviving embryos were
examined for external, internal and skeletal malformation.
No increase in embryolethality was seen.
Other groups were administered the test substance in

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combination with CPA (20 mg/kg), a known embryotoxic

compound. The embryotoxicity of CPA did not increase when
the test substance was either given 6 h before of
simultaneously with CPA on day 2. However, when the test
substance was given 6 h after CPA administration, a
potentiated increase of embryolethality was observed.

combination study with cyclophosphamide, only one dose
tested
18-DEC-2001 (321)

Route of administration: other: drinking water, gavage
Doses: 14, 40, 125 mg/kg

Year: 1986
GLP: no data
Result: Pregnant rats were administered the test substance either in

the drinking water or by gavage at doses of 14, 40, and 125
mg/kg. Teratogenic effects were observed in rats
administered 125 mg/kg by gavage.
secondary study
18-DEC-2001 (322)
Species: rabbit Sex: female

Route of administration: other: drinking water, gavage
Doses: 14, 40, 125 mg/kg

GLP: no data
Result: Pregnant rabbits were administered the test substance either

in the drinking water or by gavage at doses of 14, 40, and
125 mg/kg. No teratogenic effects were observed.
secondary study
18-DEC-2001 (322)

Strain: no data
Route of administration: s.c.
Duration of test: see freetext
Doses: 18 mg/kg/d
Control Group: yes

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Year: 1993
GLP: no data
Result: The reproductive and teratogenic effect of the test

substance was studied in 5 groups of inbred mice. The test
substance was administered daily by subcutaneous injection
at a dose level of 18 mg/kg. In detail, the five groups were
treated as follows:
- males; dosed for 21 days, then mated with control females
- pregnant females; dosed from gestations day (gd) 1 and
throughout embryonic development
- females; dosed 21 days prior to mating and throughout
embryonic development, mated with control males
- males and females; dosed 21 days prior to mating, mated
with each other, treatment of females continued throughout
embryonic development
- untreated controls (males and females)
In parent animals, the test substance increased death rate
and percentage of abortion and decreased maternal body
weight gain and uterine weight. Lethargy and a decrease in
mating rate was noted for treated females. In treated males,
increased activity and normal mating rate was noted. Marked
histopathological alterations of ovaries and testes was
observed.
In the treated groups, the incidence of resorptions (early
fetal death) and stillbirth (late fetal death) was
increased. Retarded ossification and shortness of some bones
was observed. Skull, sternum, girdles and limbs were the
main bones affected.
18-DEC-2001 (323) (324)
Species: rabbit Sex: female

Strain: no data
Route of administration: unspecified
Doses: 100 mg/kg
Control Group: no

GLP: no
Result: Induction of ectrodactyly in 6/64 offsprings.

No further information available.
18-DEC-2001 (325)

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5.8.3 Toxicity to Reproduction, Other Studies
5.9 Specific Investigations
5.10 Exposure Experience
Remark: remark on selection of studies

The scientific literature of caffeine comprises thousands
of published studies and reviews due its containment in
beverages (coffee, tea, cocoa, cola drinks, etc.) and is
use as pharmaceutical. With a focus on health and safety
issues comprehensive reviews including those of the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Nehlig
and Debry, 1996 and Emerson and Chappel, 1999 studies cited
in these reviews were choosen for the data set of caffeine.
For selected endpoints (e.g. reproductive toxicity)
additonal up-date retrieval were done.
27-AUG-2001
Remark: review (general)

Review on research topics: caffeine consumption, caffeine
intake levels in children, caffeine intake and bone
density,
undestanding balance studies as they relate to caffeine and
calcium metabolism, effect of caffeine, alcohol and tobacco
on bone density, medium-term carcinogenicity bioassay,
health professionals follow-up study, Framingham study,
Norwegian study, meta-analysis of coffee and coronary heart
disease, boiled/filtered coffee and cholesterol, central
pathways affected by xanthines, behavioural aspects of
caffeine, caffeine, brain calcium and behaviour, chronic
effects of caffeine on function of adenosinergic,
dopaminergic and cholinergic systems, methodological issues
in assessing caffeine consumption/exposure, caffeine
cinsumption and malignancy in women, systematic evaluation
of environmental reproductive risk: caffeine as a model,
maternal caffeine consumption and foetal behaviour in
normal third-trimester pregnancy, endurance performance and
caffeine ingestion, mehtylxanthine metabolism and
epinephrine during exercise, metabolic adaptations to
caffeine ingestion, caffeine and short intense exercise,
caffeine use and drug abuse, discriminability of caffeine
in humans, regular caffeine use does not imply dependence,
caffeine compared with traditional drugs of abuse,
historical research into mental effects of caffeine,
caffeine and stress: psychological interactions,
electrophysiological brain activity and attention, effects
of caffeine on the performance and mood of subjects with
low levels of arousal.
14-FEB-2001 (326)

Review on research topics: caffeine metabolites, effects of
prenatal caffeine exposure on growth and development of
children, effects of caffeine on cognitive function,

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caffeine and cardiac arrhythmias, coffee and cholesterol,

and caffeine and baroflex control.
14-FEB-2001 (327)
Remark: In sum, the epidemiologic data on the role of caffeine in

most of the major chronic diseases studied - including
myocardial infarction, cancer of selected sites, and
unfavourable pregnancy outcome - is reassuring in that no
marked elevations in risk habe been found in the majority
of studies for most diseases and, even for those conditions
for which a small number of studies showed elevated risks,
dose-response relations with caffeine were usually not
demonstrated. It should acknowledged that some studies have
studied coffe only, some coffee and tea only, while others
have created indices of caffeine or methylxanthine exposure
that included cola drinks and chocolate; all studies have
depended on patient report of consumption, often requiring
recall of past exposures. Many studies are not comparable
because very different patient populations were studied,
confounding variables were often not taken into account,
caffeine exposure categories were defined using very
different cut-points, numbers of patients differed
dramatically, and others.
review (general)
14-FEB-2001 (328)

review on health effects of coffee, tea, and their major
methylxanthine components
27-AUG-2001 (329)
Remark: Absorption from gastrointestinal tract is rapid, virtually

complete and dependent on the pH. Plasma curves suggest
that there is no pronounced first-pass effect. After oral
ingestion, peak plasma levels range from 15 to 120 minutes
and are dependent on gastric emptying and the presence of
dietary constituents.
Distribution is rapid and uniformly into body fluids. The
volume of distribution range from 0.5 to 0.8 l/kg. 10-35%
is bound to plasma proteins (mainly albumin) over a wide
range of concentrations. The binding capacity to breast
proteins is about 3.2%.
Elimination is by first-order kinetics described by
one-compartment open model system. The half-life decreases
after birth and reaches adult values (2.5 -4.5 h) at ca. 6
months of age. Serum clearance is 31.5 ml/kg (1-2.5 months
old child) and ca. 330 ml/kg (5-6 months old child); values
of ca. 155 ml/kg are recorded for adults (smokers and
non-smokers).
The metabolic disposition or volume of distribution do not
differ between man and woman. However, the use of
contracepives double the half-life, and the half life is
also prolonged during pregnancy while clearance is
increased
by more than 3-fold 2-12 weeks post partum. Concentrations

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in human and fetal gonads are similar to plasma.

A small percentage is excreted unchanged in the urine.
Excretion is also found in bile, saliva, semen and breast
milk.
The metabolism is the rate-limiting factor for plasma

clearance. Caffeine is metabolized by hepatic microsomal
enzymes, while no significant metabolism occurs in other
organs. After oral ingestion, plasma concentrations of
theophylline and theobromine show a small increase, while a
10-fold higher paraxanthine is observed. The amount of
urinary metabolites depends on the rate of each
transformation step, the distribution of metabolites, their
plasma concentration and their renal excretion.
The most important metabolic pathway is demethylation
(95%); only 5% gives trimethyl derivatives. Paraxanthine is
formed and is the precursor of 5-acetylamino-6-formylamino-
3-methyluracil (which is only found in humans). The
variability of the production and excretion rates of
acetylated urinary metabolites is related to acetylation
polymorphism. Fecal excretion of 2.5% also occurs with the
important products being 1,7-dimethyluric acid,
1-methyluric acid, 1,3-dimethyluric acid,
1,3,7-trimethyluric acid and unchanged caffeine.
kinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism and
excretion, review)
28-MAR-2001 (330) (331) (332)
Remark: kinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism and

excretion, review)
review on absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
elimination of caffeine
14-FEB-2001 (333)

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excretion)
The emptying and absorption of caffeine (175 mg caffeine in
350 ml) from the stomach were studied in six healthy
subjects compared to water of equal volume. Emptying of
caffeine and water proceeded at the same rate up to 20 min
at which 86 % had left the stomach. Absorption of caffeine
was directly related to the time present in the stomach and
at 20 min. reached a peak of 16.3 +- 1.1% of the ingested
dose. In a further study with six subjects ingested dose
buffered to pH 1.0, 2.1, 3.5, 7.0 and 9.0 and gastric
emptying delayed by glucose. Absorption of caffeine at pH
1.0 was negligible and increased siginificantly with
increased pH up to a peak of 21.5 % of the ingested dose at
pH 7.0.
13-MAR-2001 (334)

excretion)
The rise in plasma-caffeine concentration following
ingestion of 150-160 mg caffeine given in the form of tea,
coffee and Coca Cola was investigated in three male
volunteers. Maximum plasma-caffeine concentrations of about
7 mg/dl were reached at 30 min. after coffe and tea but at
60-120 min after Coca-Cola.
13-FEB-2001 (335)
Remark: Caffeine disposition was studied in four men after 1, 5 and

10 mg/kg per oral. Plasma peak was reached 47 +- 5 min.
after dosing (mean concentration of 8.3 +- 0.1 g/ml),
absorption rate constant was 6.3 +- 1.9 and elimination
rate constant 0.11 +- 0.02 hour-1. 99 % of the administered
dose was absorbed. The least polar metabolites
3,7-diemthylxanthine, 1,3-dimethylxanthine, and
1,7-dimethylxanthine could be measured in plasma. About 85%
of the dose was recovered in thr urine within 48 hours. The
main excreted metabolites were 1-methyluric acid,
1-methylxanthine, 1,7-dimethyluric acid, 7-methylxanthine,
and 1,7-dimethlyxanthine.
excretion)
14-MAR-2001 (336)

excretion)
The absolute bioavailibility of orally administered
caffeine was investigated in 10 healthy adult male
volunteers. The subjects were administered a 5 mg/kg dose
of caffeine (oral or i.v.). The oral absorption was very
rapid, reaching a peak plasma concentration after 29.8 +-
8.1 min. The rapid absorption resulted in essentially
complete bioavailability of the oral caffeine,
F(%)=108.3 +- 3.6%. The caffeine plasma half-lives varied
from 2.7 to 9.9 hours.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
13-FEB-2001 (337)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: In vivo and in vitro studies have shown that caffeine is

bound (10-30%) to plasma albumin over a wide range of
concentrations (1-100 g/ml), ages, and species examined.
excretion, review)
14-MAR-2001 (338)

excretion)
Plasma kinetics of caffeine and dimethylxanthines was
studied in humans. Before caffeine administration, low but
significant amounts of caffeine and dimethylxanthines were
found in the plasma of all the 6 subjects tested. After
caffeine administration (8 mg/kg bw), a small increase was
observed for theobromine and theophylline.
14-MAR-2001 (339)

excretion)
Nine healthy subjects received, in randomized five day
treatment blocks, placebo, 4.2 mg/kg/d caffeine (low dose)
or 12 mg/kg/d caffeine (high dose) in six divided doses
spaced throughout the day. On the 3rd day, 25 mg labelled
caffeine was administered i.v.. Clearance fell from 0.118
(placebo) to 0.069 (low dose) to 0.054 l/h/kg (high dose).
The formation and metabolic clearance of paraxanthine
(major primary metabolite) decreased comparing the low and
high dose, indicating a probably saturable process. The
authors concluded a dose-dependency of the metabolism of
caffeine and its metabolites, leading to disproportionate
increases in blood levels with increasing daily doses of
caffeine.
13-FEB-2001 (340)

excretion)
Single oral doses of 70, 200, and 300 mg/kg to healthy
subjects exhibited dose-dependent pharmcokinetics
indicating a saturable caffeine metabolism in the tested
dose range.
At the low, mid and high dose level, mean half time (t1/2)
was 4.5, 6.0, and 6.4 h, respectively; clearance was 1.52,
1.14, and 1.08 ml/min/kg, respectively.
13-FEB-2001 (341)

excretion)
The developmental changes in caffeine elimination were
studied in 7 infants aged between 2.5 weeks and 6 months.
Adult plasma clearance rate of caffeine was achieved at 3
to 4.5 months of age. Plasma half-life elimination rate
reached adult levels after 3 to 4.5 months and seemed to
exceed adult capacity thereafter.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
13-FEB-2001 (342)
Remark: Elimination of caffeine in 15 healthy term newborn infants,

who have acquired substantial amounts of caffeine
transplacentally. Caffeine was found in every cord plasma
sample. Its mean concentration was 1.4 mg/l. The plasma
elimination half-life time for caffeine varied from 31 to
132 hours, with a mean of 82 hours.
excretion)
14-MAR-2001 (343)

excretion)
Kinetics parameter of caffeine were measured in 9 pregnant
women and 4 women 4 days post partum. The result showed a
significant prolongation of caffeine elimination in
pregnant women. Normal kinetics parameters seem to be
restored as soon as 4 days post partum.
13-FEB-2001 (344)

excretion)
The effect of oral contraceptive steroids (OCS) on the
disposition and elimination of caffeine was examined in 13
healthy males, nine healthy females taking no OCS, and nine
healthy females on OCS. The elimination half-time was
significantly prolonged in women on OCS (10.7 vs. 6.2
hours) as compared to women taking no OCS. Women on OCS had
a significantly lower total p lasma clearance (0.79 vs. 1.3
mml/min/kg) and free clearance (1.12 vs. 1.97 ml/min/kg)
than women not taking OCS. When women taking no OCS were
compared with men, all kinetic parameters were similar
except for volume of distribution, which was significantly
larger in the women.
13-FEB-2001 (345)

excretion)
The effect of chronic (> 3 months) administration of
low-dose oestrogen-containing (< 50 g oestrogen) oral
contraceptives (OCS) on the kinetics of caffeine has been
examined in 9 treated females mated with 9 controls. Each
subject received 162 mg caffeine base orally. OCS sunjects
had a prolonged elimination half-life of caffeine (7.88 vs.
5.37 h). Plasma clearance decreased (1.05 vs. 1.75
ml/min/kg) and apparent volume of distribution did not
change. Peak plasma concentrations were 3.99 vs. 4.09 g/ml
and time to peak concentration 1.52 vs. 0.79 hours.
13-FEB-2001 (346)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

excretion)

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The elimination of caffeine from salvia was compared in

groups of healthy smokers (n=13) and nonsmokers (n=13).
Mean caffeine t 1/2 in smokers (3.5 hr) was shorter than
that in the nonsmokers (6.0 hr). The body clearance of
caffeine in the smokers (155 ml/kg/hr) was greater than
that in the nonsmokers (94 ml/kg/hr). No significant
difference was noted in the apparent volume of distribution
in smokers (720 ml/kG) and nonsmokers (619 ml/kg).
13-FEB-2001 (347)

excretion)
The effect of smoking on caffeine elimination was measured
in 7 healthy volunteers and in 18 smoking and in 30
nonsmoking patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis
following oral application of 366 mg caffeine. In an
intraindividual experiment in smoking healthy probands,
caffeine clearance decreased from 118 to 77 ml per min
after abstaining cigarette smoking for 3 weeks. In a
control group without liver disease, caffeine clearance of
114 per min in smokers and 64 in nonsmokers. Smoking and
nonsmoking patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis did not
differ with respect to clinical and laboratory data and
hexobarbitone elimination.
However, caffeine clearance was 63 per min in smoking
patients compared to 34 ml per min in nonsmokers. Fasting
plasma concentrations of caffeine were higher in nonsmokers
(5.1 g/ml) than in smokers (2.1 g/ml).
13-FEB-2001 (348)
Remark: Caffeine equilibrates freely between plasma and tissue

water in the case of human ovary and testis, and also
between maternal plasma and human 7 -8 week fetus. Tissue
sample were obtained from surgical specimens or abortions.
Caffeine (574 mg) was given by intravenous infusion over a
period of 5 min.
excretion)
13-FEB-2001 (349)

excretion)
Simultaneous serum and cerebrospinal fluid samples were
obtained from seven premature infants who were receiving
methylxanthines for control of apnea. CSF concentration of
caffeine was slightly lower than that of serum. The
realtionship of caffeine in serum and ventricular fluid was
close to unity.
13-FEB-2001 (350)
Remark: Excretion of caffeine in semen was studied in 10 healthy

volunteers receiving 200 or 400 mg caffeine per oral. In
the semen of six subjects, in each of whom 2 samples were

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
recovered during the elimination phase, the elimiantion

half-life time of the drug ranged from 2.7 to 4.4 hours.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
The concentration ratio of caffeine between blood and semen

is about 1.
excretion)
14-MAR-2001 (351)

excretion)
Kinetics of caffeine was investigated in microsomes
isolated from livers of human kidney donors. PAH-inducible
isozyme of cytochrome P-450 is involved in metabolism of
each of the four detectable primary metabolites of
caffeine:
1,7-dimethylxanthine, 3,7-diemthylxanthine,
1,3-dimethylaxanthine, and 1,3,7-trimethyluric acid.
27-FEB-2001 (352)
Remark: Accumulation of serum caffeine was observed in a patient

with severe liver disease. Serial serum caffeine
concentrations revealed a serum elimination half-life time
of 96 hours.
excretion)
13-FEB-2001 (353)

excretion)
Nine healthy volunteers participated in a randomised
cross-over study and received caffeine in doses ranging
from 1.52 mg/kg to 17.53 mg/kg. The maximum caffeine
concentration in urine recorded was 14 g/ml, 3 hours after
ingestion. The mean recovery of caffeine in urine was
between 0.74% and 0.91% of th e administered dose.
14-MAR-2001 (354)

excretion, review)
review on metabolism of coffee constituents: minerals,
carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids, lipids, aliphatic
compounds, aromatic compounds, heterocyclic compounds, and
alkaloids (incl. caffeine). Five uracil derivates have now
been identified, produced from caffeine, theobromine, and
paraxanthine. Except the formation of 1-methyluricc acid
from 1-methylxanthine where xanthine oxidase is involved.
All of the other metabolic tranformations were observed
with liver microsomal enzymes.
14-MAR-2001 (355)

excretion)
Radiolabelled caffeine was administered orally at 5 mg/kg
to adult, male volunteers. The elimination half-life time
of caffeine in both serum and salvia was appr. 3 hours,

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
with the concentration of caffeine in salvia samples

ranging from 65 to 85% of that found in the serum samples.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
The major metabolites found in serum and salvia were the

dimethylxanthines. The major urinary metabolite
5-acetylamino-6-amino-3-methyluracil ranged from 7 to 30 %
of the administered dose. The other principal urinary
metabolites were 1-methylxanthine at appr. 18% of the
administered dose and 1-methyluric acid at 15%.
27-FEB-2001 (356)
Remark: Dimethylxanthine formation from caffeine in plasma and

salvia was investigated in ten healthy volunteers after
oral ingestion of 200 mg caffeine. Salvia concentration of
caffeine, paraxanthinee, and theophylline were lower than
plasma concentrations, whereas theobromine concentrations
in plasma and salvia were similar. The AUC for
diemthylxanthine in plasma underestimates the formation of
paraxanthine, overestimates the formation of theobromine
and gives a similar formation of theophylline from
caffeine, as judged from the urinary metabolites formed
through the paraxanthine, theobromine and theophylline
pathway.
excretion)
27-FEB-2001 (357)
Remark: Low doses (up to 2 ug/ml in the blood) stimulate the

central nervous system while high blood concentrations
(10-30 ug/ml) produce restlessness, excitement, tremor,
tinnitus, headache, and insomnia. Caffeine can induce
alterations in mood and sleep patterns, increase urine
production and gastric acid secretions, alter myocardial
functions and increase plasma catecholamine levels and
plasma renin activity. Excessive consumption may lead to an
anxiety neurosis called caffeinism.
Acute toxicity is not very common, although some adverse
effects (e.g. gastric symptoms, insomnia, diuresis) are the
results of an overdose.
toxic effects (review)
07-MAR-2001 (331)
Remark: review on toxicity to humans: Severe intoxication due to

caffeine is not common. Symptoms of caffeine toxicity in
adults were: acute psychosis, anorexia, anxiety, cardiac
arrhythmia, convulsions, coma, confusion, depression,
diarhoea, disorientation, flushing, headache, haematemesis,
hypokalaemia, insomnia, metabolic acidosis, muscular
twitching, nervousness, seizures, tremor, and vomiting.
Caffeine may cause severe intoxications and even death.
Habitual users of methylxanthines (especially caffeine)
develop a tolerance.
07-MAR-2001 (358)
Remark: Pharmacological/toxic effects of caffeine were summarized.

An intake of one cup of coffee (100-150 mg caffeine) can
increase alertness, reduce fatigue, and stimulate gastric

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
acid secretion. The amount of 3 or more cups of coffee may

cause mild anxiety, headache, diuresis, rapid breathing,
insomnia, tachycardia, and tremors.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Doses of more than 5000 mg can cause convulsions, coma, and

death. Reactions to caffeine vary widely from person to
person.
14-FEB-2001 (359)
Remark: review on kinetics, effects on central nervous system,

cardiovascular system, renal function, respiratory system,
and gastrointestinal effects of caffeine.
toxic effects (review kinetics, pharmacology)
27-FEB-2001 (360)
Remark: The lowest fatal doses in humans were 3.2 g administered

intravenously to a 35-year-old woman, and 5.3 g
self-administered orally in a 5-year-old girl, of which 2.3
g was found in the stomach. It is concluded that the lowest
oral dose that might be fatal to an adult is probably in
the
order of 5 g, a dose that is unlikely to be encountered
through beverage consumption.
toxic effects (fatal dose)
15-FEB-2001 (361)
Remark: It has been estimated that 5 to 10 gm. may be fatal in man.

toxic effects (fatal dose)
26-FEB-2001 (362)
Remark: Doses larger than 300 mg caffeine are anxiogenic, producing

symptoms indistinguishable from anxiety neurosis including
insomnia, headache, irritability, tremor, nausea, and
diarrhoea. Sensitivity to these effects varies among
individuals, depending on tolerance, rate of absorption,
and metabolism.
toxic effects (poisoning)
15-FEB-2001 (363)
Remark: The widespread of use of caffeine is most commonly linked

to the stimulatory action it has on the central nervous
system.
Generally, adverse effects include gastrorrhea, insomnia,
and diuresis. Tolerance and withdrawal symptoms have been
observed and excessive consumption can lead to an anxiety
neurosis condition (caffeinism). The actions of caffeine
may involve its effects on neurotransmitter turnover and
metabolism; its promotion of the cellular messenger, cAMP,
its sensitization of the calcium releasing mechansims of
cellular recticulum; or its antagonism of the autoacoid,
adenosine. Caffeine lethality is rare in man but caffeine
poisoning with its gastrointestinal, CNS, and
cardiovascular stimulation could especially be hazardous to
children. Nothing but circumstantial evidence implicates
caffeine as a human carcinogen or teratogen.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
toxic effects (poisoning, review)

14-MAR-2001 (364)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Report of intentional caffeine posiing in a 5-week-old boy.

Initial symptoms were agitation and tachycardia. Childs
serum level of 117 g/ml correspondes to a potential
ingestion 600 mg, 125 mg/kg, of caffeine. After symptomatic
treatment the child was discharged on the fifth hospital
day.
14-JAN-2002 (365)
Remark: A one-year-old white female ingested appr. two to three

grams of caffeine (200-300 mg/kG). The patient survived the
ingestion wit a maximum caffeine concentration of 385 g/ml
four hours post ingestion. The child developed ventricular
arrhythmias, seizures, metabolic disturbances, and severe
pulmonary edema. She survived without apparent long-term
sequelae.
01-MAR-2001 (366)
Remark: Case report of caffeine ingestion in a 5-year-old boy. On

admission at the hospital he was subcomatose with bilateral
mydriasis, generalized muscular hypotonia ans an increase
heart rate. Serum caffeine level was 15.5 g/ml and
theobromine 3.5 g/ml. Clinical condition improved under
symptomatic threatment and the child was discharged after
24 h in good health.
01-MAR-2001 (367)
Remark: A case report of a 16 year old male who ingested an

estimated 6-8 grams of caffeine is described. The patient
showed adverse effects including hypokalemia, elevated
blood glucose, tachcardia, bigeminy and agitation,
respiratory alkalosis and chest pain was also observed.
Three serum caffeine levels were analyzed and an abnormally
long elimination half-life time of approximately 16 hours
was calculated.
14-MAR-2001 (368)
Remark: Case report of an 22-year-old female with cardiac arrest

and death after ingestion of diet pills containing
caffeine.
Serum caffeine concentration was 1,560 g/ml.
01-MAR-2001 (369)
Remark: Case report of a 58-year-old woman who ingested more than

35 g of caffeine in a suicide attempt. The patient showed
multiple dysrhythmias and was successfully treatet with the
1-blocker esmolol.
01-MAR-2001 (370)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Report of case of overdosing of caffeine (7.5 g of caffeine

over the previous three days in the form of nutrition
tablets).

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
The 28 year old man complained of tiredness and

nausea and during a strenuous circuit training he collapsed
and was witnessed to have a grand mal seizure lasting 15
minutes. Caffeine serum concentrations was 12.3 mg/l. After
three days on the ward and no further fits the patient was
discharged with outpatient follow up. He remains
seizure-free and has normal renal function.
01-MAR-2001 (371)
Remark: Report of a case of caffeine-induced fever. Skin prick test

were negative. Single-blind oral challenges with caffeine
were positive, reproducing chills, high-grade fever,
myalgia, and cephalea.
toxic effects (fever)
14-JAN-2002 (372)
Remark: The effect of caffeine consumption on mortality was

evaluated in a historical cohort study of 10,064 diagnosed
hypertensive individuals participating in the Hypertension
Detection and Fol low-up Program from 1973 to 1979. No
evidence was found supporting an association between
increased level of caffeine consumption and increased
all-cause mortality or cardiovascular disease mor tality
during the following four years.
toxic effects (CVD)
15-FEB-2001 (373)
Remark: In a prospective study over 4 years in a base population of

1,980 men to examine association to several social and
dietary effects. 88 cases of coronary heart disease have
developed. This approximates one case per 100 men. No
relation was encountered between body weight, mean blood
sugar levels, lipoprotein lipase levels, or diet (other
than coffee). Data for a total of 1,108 the men during the
last 9 months of the first year showed a significant
correlation.
toxic effects (CHD)
15-FEB-2001 (374)
Remark: 276 patients with acute myocardial infarction has been

compared with 1,104 controls to assess association to coffe
intake. patients with acute myocardial infarction were
found to drink appreciably more coffee than the matched
controls.
toxic effects (CHD)
15-FEB-2001 (375)
Remark: A positive association between coffee consumption and acute

myocardial infarction was confirmed in a survey of 12,759
hospital patients, including 440 with a acute myocardial
infarction. As compared with those who drink no coffee, the
risk ofs of infarction among those drinking one to five and
six or more cups of coffee per day are estimated to be

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
increased by 60 and 120 per cent, respectively.

toxic effects (CHD)
15-FEB-2001 (376)
Remark: Association of coffee intake and coronary heart disease was

examined in a series of 649 patients who died of coronary
heart disease and an equal number of controls. The RR
associtaed with coffee drinking was 1.1 (95% CI 0.8-1.6).
toxic effects (CHD)
14-MAR-2001 (377)
Remark: The effect of caffeine-containing coffee on the risk of

myocardial infarction was investigated in 487 female
patients with first infarction and 980 controls. Overall
and in various subgroups, coffee drinking and myocardial
infarction were weakly and not significantly associated:
the overall estimated RR for women drinking at least five
cups daily, compared with women drinking none, was 1.4 (95%
CI 1.0-1.9) after control for all identified potential
confounding factors.
toxic effects (CHD)
14-MAR-2001 (378)
Remark: Relationship between coffee consumption and risk of

coronary
heart disease among women was examined in a prospective
cohort study with a total of 85,747 women. During ten years
of follow-up 712 cases of CHD were documented. No evidence
for any positive association between coffee consumption and
risk of subsequent CHD was found.
toxic effects (CHD)
14-MAR-2001 (379)
Remark: The relation of coffee and alcohol consumption to the risk

of coronary heart disease during a six-year period was
examined in a cohort of 7,705 Japanese men. The analysis
was based on 294 new cases of coronary heart disease. There
was a positive association between coffee intake and risk,
but it became insignificant when cigarette smoking was
taken into account. There was a strong negative association
between moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of
nonfatal myocardial infarction and death from coronary
heart disease.
toxic effects (CHD)
14-MAR-2001 (380)
Remark: A prevalence survey was conducted during 1960 to 1962, and

the study population was reexamined between 1967 and 1969.
During this second study of 2,530 adults attended and were
asked concerning coffee consumption. The cohort was
followed up annually for 4.5 years with questionnaires. A
total of 339 deaths occurred, 130 attributed to
cardiovascular and cerebrovascular causes. Total mortality
showed no asociation with coffee usage. Death of coronary
heart disease showed no significant difference between high
and low coffee consumers.
toxic effects (CHD)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
14-MAR-2001 (381)
Remark: In this cohort study, 16,911 men who had completed a mailed
dietary questionnaire were followed for 11.5 years with 721
deaths reported from ischemic heart disease (IHD). Although
no association was found between coffee consumption and
mortality from IHD, a negative association between coffee
consumption and mortality from diseases other than IHD was
found. This negative association, found exclusively in the
first four years of follow-up, was observed in deaths from
digestive diseases, other than malignancies, and paralysis
agitans. The negative association appeared to reflect a
reduction in coffee consumption.
toxic effects (CHD)
14-MAR-2001 (382)
Remark: Relation between coffee consumption, coronary heart

disease,
and mortality in two prospective studies were examined. In
the observational study a negative correlation for blood
pressure and coffee consumption was found. Coffee
consumption was not related to total mortality or CHD (when
smoking habits was taken into account). In the Primary
Preventive Trial a weak negative association between coffee
consumption and blood pressure and a significant positive
correlation between coffee consumption and serum
cholesterol was found.
toxic effects (CHD)
14-MAR-2001 (383)
Remark: The relation of coffee consumption with risk of myocardial

infartion and stroke was examined in a prospective study
with 45,589 men. During two years of follow-up observation,
221 participants had a nonfatal myocardial infarction or
died of coronary heart disease, 136 underwent
coronary-artery surgery or angioplasty, and 54 had a
stroke.
Total coffee consumption was not associated with an
increased risk of coronary heart disease or stroke.
toxic effects (CHD)
14-MAR-2001 (384)
Remark: The effect of coffee consumption on the incidence of

coronary heart disease was studied prospectively in a
population sample of 6,765 men. During a 7.1-year follow-up
there were 230 non-fatal myocardial infarctions, 169
coronary deaths and 478 deaths from all causes. Among men
who were smokers at baselne there was no relationship
between either non-fatal MI or death from CHD, and coffee
consumption. Among non-smokers, a weak but far from
significant trend towards an increasing incidence of CHD in
heavy consumers of coffee was observed. There was an
inverse relationship between mortality from all causes and
coffee consumption.
toxic effects (CHD)
14-MAR-2001 (385)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: In a prospective study with a 21 year follow up coronary

heart disease mortality and coffee consumption was examined
in a total of 5,766 men. Altogether 625 men died from
coronary heart disease. No clear evidence of an overall
relationship between coffee use and coronary heart disease
mortality was found, although the small number of men
consuming high amounts of coffee may have limited the power
of the study to detect a statistically robust effect.
toxic effects (CHD)
01-MAR-2001 (386)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Eight case-control and 15 cohort studies were analyses to

examine the association between coffe drinking and risk of
coronary heart disease. The pooled case-control odds ration
(for the effect of drinking five cups of coffee/day versus
none) was 1.63 (95% CI 1.5-1.78). The pooled cohort study
relative risk was 1.05 (95% CI 0.99-1.12). The discrepancy
between the pooled case-control and cohort study results
could not be attributed to differences in the end points
chosen, period of study, or to confounding by smoking
status or sex.
toxic effects (CHD)
15-FEB-2001 (387)
Remark: Association of caffeinated and decaffeinated, and tea with

myocardial infarction was investigated in a study of 340
cases and community-matched controls. The OR for drinking
>=4 cups/day of caffeinated coffee versus drinking <=1
cups/week was 0.84 (95% CI 0.49-1.42). For tea, the OR for
drinking >=1 caup/day versus nondrinkers was 0.56 (95% CI
0.35-0.90).
toxic effects (CHD)
16-FEB-2001 (388)
Remark: Single oral dose of caffeine on plasma renin activity,

catecholamines and cardiovascular control was studied in
nine healthy subjects. Caffeine (250 mg or placebo)
increased plasma renin activity by 57%, plasma
norepinephrine by 75% and plasma epinephrine by 207%. Mean
blood pressure rose 14/10 mmHg one hour after caffeine
ingestion. Heart rate showed a slight fall and then a rise.
toxic effects (RR)
15-FEB-2001 (389)
Remark: In a double-blind crossover trial the effect of 4 week

daily ingestion of 504 mg caffeine (8 cups) vs. 8 cups of
decaffeinated coffee was studied in 10 healthy volunteers.
Caffeine immediately led to a significant increase in mean
blood pressure (+3 and +5 mmHg respectively). The increase
existed only in the first 3 to 5 days of intake. On day 5
after ingestion and thereafter no significant increase in
catecholamine excretion was observed.
toxic effects (RR)
27-FEB-2001 (390)
Remark: The association between coffee intake and blood lipids and
blood pressure was studied in 14,168 men and 14,859 women.
Serum cholesterol increased linearly with increasing coffee
consumption (8% for men and 10% for women). Triglycerides
showed a negative association with coffee consumption.
Drinking 1 cup of coffee or more, a significantly negative
association between both systolic and diastolic blood
pressure and number of cups was found.
toxic effects (RR)
14-MAR-2001 (391)
Remark: Relationship between dietary variables and blood pressue in

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
men randomly assigned into the Multiple Risk Factor

Intervention Trial was investigated. There was a
significant inverse relation of caffeine intake to both
systolic and diatolic blood pressure for all participants.
toxic effects (RR)
14-MAR-2001 (392)
Remark: The relation between habitual coffee consumption and blood

pressure was studied in 500 subjects. Blood pressure levels
showed a significant decrease with increasing coffee
consumption. Systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood
pressure were respectively 130.4 mmHg and 81.5 mmHg for
non-coffee drinkers, 129.4 and 82.2 mmHg for 1 cup per day,
128.4 and 81.4 mmHg for 2-3 cups per day, and 124.1 and
78.7 mmHg for more than 6 cups of coffee daily.
toxic effects (RR)
14-MAR-2001 (393)
Remark: Association between coffee consumption, tobacco

consumption,
and blood pressure was examined in a cross-sectional study
of 1,098 men and 393 women. Systolic blood pressure was
negatively and significantly correlated with cigarette
smoking. Diastolic blood pressure was positively and
significantly associated with coffee consumption and
negatively and significantly with cigarette consumption.
toxic effects (RR)
31-AUG-2001 (394)
Remark: The possible link between coffee drinking and blood

pressure was studied in a cross -sectional epidemiologic
survey of 6,321 subjects. Systolic and diastolic blood
pressue levels were higher among the 5,430 coffee drinkers
than among the 891 nondrinkers. Blood pressure levels
increased gradually from the non-coffee consumption
category (125.6 mmHg) to the highest consumption category
(>=5 cups/day) (128.1 mmHg) for systolic blood pressure.
The positive association was significant for systolic blood
pressure.
toxic effects (RR)
31-AUG-2001 (395)
Remark: Coffee consumption was determined at the fourth biennial

examination in the Framingham Study to ascertain its
relation to cardiovascular disease. The association between
coffe and other risk factors, including c igarette smoking,
was also investigated over the 12-year follow-up period.
Coffee drinking was studied in relation to total coronary
heart disease, angina pectoris, myocardial infarction,
sudden death, and death from all causes. A statistically
significant increase in risk with increasing coffee
consumption was observed only in the categorie "death from
all causes", which could be accounted for by the
association between coffee consumption and cigarette
smoking.
toxic effects (RR)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
13-MAR-2001 (396)
Remark: A screening of initial examinations in 72,101 subjects

performed relating coffee consumption to blood pressue
showed essentially the same distribution in all
coffee-drinking categories.
No specific relation between daily coffee consumption and

blood pressure elevation was seen.
toxic effects (RR)
14-MAR-2001 (397)
Remark: 21 healthy, nonsmoking, habitual coffee drinkers received

daily doses of 100 mg and 500 mg of caffeine on 2 days in a
crossover design. Ambulatory monitoring was conducted for 6
to 9 hours during normal workday acitivites. The average
workday blood pressure and heart rate were significantly
higher when the higher dose of caffeine was consumed.
Dose-related differences were 4 mm Hg for systolic and 3 mm
HG for diastolic blood pressure, and were 3 bpm for heart
rate.
toxic effects (RR)
14-MAR-2001 (398)
Remark: Review on effects of caffeine on blood pressure and heart

rate: results from epidemiological studies are
inconsistent.
Experimental laboratory studies have generally found that
caffeine produces acute rises in systolic and diastolic BP
that are additive to any stress-induced increases. Synergic
effects which might pose a more serious risk are rarely
found. Heart rate data are less consistent, possibly due to
the different ways HR is measured. Tolerance to the
cardiovascular effects of caffeine has reliably been
reported; however, overnight abstinence may be sufficient
to negate tolerance effects to most levels of caffeine
ingestion in typical users. Though caffeine drinkers may
exhibit acute increases in BP, the long-term effects appear
to be minimal. However, persons at risk for hypertension
may be more vulnerable to the BP effects of caffeine.
toxic effects (RR)
14-MAR-2001 (399)
Remark: toxic effects (RR)

Twenty-three hypertensive patients who refrained from
caffeine for 2 to 3 weeks were given 250 mg oral caffeine
powder dissolved in water. A significant increase in
systolic and diastolic blood pressure occurred in 13
subjects. A statistically significant decrease in heart
rate was seen during first hour of caffeine intake. Marked
diuresis and natriuresis were observed for the first 6
hours after intake. Renin and endothelin levels were
unchanged.
Although chronic studies point to development of tolerance
to long-term caffeine ingestion, acute studies showed

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
immediate effects.
27-FEB-2001 (400)
Remark: Psychomotor stress plus caffeine (3.3 mg/kg bw) was

investigated in 24 men with borderline hypertension and 24
controls. BH men had modestly larger BP increases to the
task and showed a greater combined effect of caffeine plus
the task (+15/+11 mmHG) than controls (+10/+6 mmHg).
toxic effects (RR)
01-MAR-2001 (401) (402)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: A population survey of 7,311 men was done to examine the

association of ventricular premature beats with caffeine
intake. A significant relationship with ventricular
premature beats was found for the average daily number of
tea or coffee consumed. Heavy coffee consumption (>= 9
cups/day) was associated with more than twice the
likelihood compared to light cosnumption (<= 2 cups/d) or
abstinence.
toxic effects (arrhythmia)
14-MAR-2001 (403)
Remark: Prevailing cardiac rhythm an rate, the prevalence and

frequency of ventricular dysrhythmia, and Q-T intervals
were compared in two populations over an initial 24-hour
caffeine-free period and a subsequent 24-hour period in
which caffeine was ingested in a dosage of 1 mg/kg of body
weight at intervals of one elimination half-time during
waking hours. Group 1 was composed of 18 clinically normal
subjects; group 2 was 18 subjects with frequent ventricular
ectopic beats and no (n=16) or minor (n=2) cardiac disease.
The data suggest that in the given doses and in the absence
of major underlying cardiac disease, caffeine does not
significantly affect prevailing cardiac ryhthm or rate, nor
the mean rate of ventricular repolarization. The data also
suggest, that caffeine can have a ventricular
dysrhythmogenic effect, and alt hough the clinical
significance is still not completely certain, it seems
reasonable to use it with caution in patients who may be at
increased risk from ventricular dysrhythmia.
28-JUN-2001 (404)
Remark: The effect of chronic caffeine adminsitration (250 mg/d) on

blood pressure, heart rate, plasma epinephrine, plasma
norepinephrine, plasma renin activity, and urinary
catecholamines were studied in 18 health subjects. Near
complete tolerance, in terms of both humoral and
hemodynamic variables, developed over the first 1-4 days of
caffeine.
No long-term effects of caffeine on blood pressure, heart

rate, plasma renin activity, plasma catecholamines, or
urinary catecholamines were found. Discontinuation of
caffeine ingestion after 7 d of adminsitration did not
result in a detectable withdrawl phenomenon.
14-MAR-2001 (405)
Remark: Caffeine (300 mg) was administered to each of 70 patients a

mean of 7 days after the onset of acute myocardial
infarction to determine its effects on ventricular
arrhythmias. Caffeine increased mean blood pressure from
116 to a maximum of 125 at 4 hours. Plasma epinephrine
increased from 58 to a maximum 88 pg/ml e hours after
caffeine ingestion. No increase in occurence or severity of

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
ventricular arrhythmias were observed.

15-FEB-2001 (406)
Remark: The role of caffeine restriction in patients with

symptomatic idiopathic ventricular premature beats was
assessed in 13 patients. The intervention achieved
signifiant alterations in serum caffeine concentrations
which correlated with coffee consumption. No significant
changes in palpitation scores or ventricular premature beat
frequencies during the intervention weeks and no
significant correaltions were found between these variables
and caffeine concentrations.
20-FEB-2001 (407)
Remark: review: acutely administered caffeine modestly increases

blood pressure, plasma catecholamine levels, plasma renin
activity, serum free fatty acid levels, urine production,
and gastric acid secretion. Chronic caffeine consumption
has no effect on blood pressure, plasma catecholamine
levels, plasma renin activity, serum cholesterol
concentration, blood glucose levels, or urine production.
Caffeine does not seem to be associated with myocardial
infarction; lower urinary tract, reanl, or pancreatic
cancer, teratogenicity, or fibrocystic breast disease. The
role of caffeine in cardiac arrhythmias or gastric or
duodenal ulcers remains uncertain.
toxic effects (arrhythmia, review)
14-MAR-2001 (408)
Remark: The association between coffee consumption and stroke was

examined in men at high risk for cardiovascular disease.
Subjects were 499 hypertensive men. In the cours of
follow-up, 76 men developed stroke. Risk of thromboembolic
stroke increased significantly with increases in coffee
consumption. No relationship were observed with hemorrhagic
stroke. When adjusted for other factors, the risk of
thromboembolic stroke was more than doubled for men who
consumed three cups of coffee per day as compared to
nondrinkers of coffee (RR 2.1, 95% CI 1.2-3.7).
toxic effects (stroke)
15-FEB-2001 (409)
Remark: The effect of decaffeinated versus regular coffee (5 cups a

day for 6 weeks) on serum lipids was examined in 45 healthy
volunteers in a randomized double-blind crossover trial.
Differences between the effects of decaffeinated and
regular coffee on blood lipids were essentially zero; the
effect on total serum cholesterol was 0.01 (+- 0.36
mmol/l), on high density lipoprotein cholesterol was 0.01
(+- 0.11 mmol/l), and on triglycerides was 0.03 (+- 0.29
mmol/l).
toxic effects (lipids)
14-MAR-2001 (410)
Remark: 181 men consumed a standard caffeinated coffee for 2 months

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followed by randomization to continue caffeinated coffee,

change to decaffeinated coffee or no coffee for 2 months.
Plasma low-density lipoproatein (LDL) cholesterol and
apolipoprotein B concentrations increased significantly in
the group that changed to decaffeinated coffee.
Discontinuation of caffeinated revealed no change.
This findings suggest that a coffee component other than
caffeine is responsible for LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein
B, and lipase activity changes reported in this
investigation.
toxic effects ( lipids)
15-FEB-2001 (411)
Remark: Thirteen normal men participated in a randomized,

doube-blind test of the effects of caffeine (600 mg/day or
placebo) on plasma lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins,
fat tolerance, and post-heparin lipases. There was no
significant differences between the placebo and caffeine
intake, resp., in total cholesterol (190 vs. 191 mg/dl),
LDL-cholesterol (123 vs. 119 mg/dl), apoB (99 vs. 98
mg/dl), HDL-cholesterol (49 vs. 51 mg/dl), HDL2-cholesterol
(19 vs. 20 mg/dl), or triglycerides (89 vs. 103 mg/dl).
15-FEB-2001 (412)
Remark: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled clincial studies

on coffee consumption and serum lipids was performd of 14
published trials. A dose-response relation between coffee
consumption and both total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol
was identified (p <0.01). Increases in serum lipids were
greater in studies of patients with hyperlipidemia and in
trials of caffeinated or boiled coffee. Trials using
filtered coffee demonstrated very little increase in serum
cholesterol. Consumption of unfiltered, but not boiled
coffee increases serum levels of total and LDL cholesterol.
14-MAR-2001 (413)
Remark: Effect of 200 mg caffeine peroral on glucose tolerance was

investigated in 30 healthy subjects. Caffeine intake
induces an insulin independent rise in blood glucose
levels.
toxic effects (glucose)
01-MAR-2001 (414)
Remark: The association between smoking, caffeine and alcohol

intake and the risk of duodenal ulcer was examined in a
prospective cohort of 47,806 men using a mailed baseline
questionnaire in 1986, with follow-up ever 2 years through
1992. The results indicate that smoking is not associated
with a substantial increase in risk of duodenal ulcer, nor
is high intake of alcohol and caffeine.
toxic effects (gastrointestinal)
15-FEB-2001 (415)
Remark: Effect of caffeine intake on calcium excretion was examined

in 17 young women. After both abstention and adaptation

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weeks, addition of caffeine significantly increased

excretion from 2.9 to 6.7 mg Ca/hour. Caffeine similarly
affected urinary magnesium and sodium. Young women
chronically consuming 300 mg caffeine/day contiuned to
excrete increased calcium, magnesium and sodium after a
caffeine callenge when compared to caffeine-free week.
toxic effects (calcium)
14-MAR-2001 (416)
Remark: Total urinary three hour excretion of calcium, magnesium

and sodium was increased significantly in twelve female
subjects after intake of 150 or 300 mg caffeine peroral.
Total urine volume correlated significantly with dose of
caffeine per body weight when 300 mg of caffeine was
consumed.
31-AUG-2001 (417)
Remark: toxic effects (calcium)

Urinary calcium excretion was measured in nine female
fasting subjects who each randomyl ingested four treatments
on nonconcurrent mornings; no drug, caffeine (5 mg (kg bw),
ASS 650 mg, or caffeine plus ASS. Urinary calcium excretion
rose with caffeine treatment (0.49 mmol/mmol creat. vs.
0.23
mmol/mmol creat.). ASS caused a significant reduction in
urinary calcium to 0.13 mmol/mmol creat.; when it was
combined with caffeine, caffeine-induced calcium excretion
fell significantly to 0.35 mmol/mmol creat. Sodium
excretion tended to reflect calcium excretion.
01-MAR-2001 (418)
Remark: Relationships among nutrition, hormone concentrations, and

bone density of the spine in 27 vegetarian and 37
nonvegetarian premenopausal women were evaluated. Caffeine
intake in both groups had a positive effect on urinary
calcium excretion, but no association was observed between
bone density and caffeine intake.
01-MAR-2001 (419)
Remark: The influence of coffee drinking as a possible risk factor

for loss of bone mass was assessed in a cohort of 619
70-year-old men and women. Coffee drinking was not a
contributory independent risk factor for loss of bone mass
and fractures in this population.
14-MAR-2001 (420)
Remark: The effect of caffeine consumption on rates of change in

bone mineral density were examined in 205 healthy,
nonsmoking, postmenopausal women. Among women consuming
less calcium (< 800 mg/d), those with highest caffeine
intakes (>450 mg/d) had significantly more bone loss than
did women consuming less caffeine (0-171 and 182-419 mg/d).

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

01-MAR-2001 (421)
Remark: In a case-control study (102 hip fracture, 154 wrist

fracture, and 277 controls) the effect of diet on the risk
of postmenopausal fracture of the hip and wrist was
examined. Higher dietary calcium intake only slightly
increased the risk of hip fracture; however, it was
associated with a significantly decreased risk for frature
of the wrist, at the level >= 1 g/day. Coffee and tea
consumption appeared to be unrelated to fracture risk.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
01-MAR-2001 (422)
Remark: Bone density of both hips and the total body was measured
in 138 healthy postmenopausal women aged 55-70 to examine
effect of caffeine intake and bone loss. The habitual
dietary caffeine intake of this cohort of 138
postmenopausal women ranged from 0-1400 mg/d and was not
associated with total body or hip bone density
measurements.
01-MAR-2001 (423)
Remark: The effect of caffeine on hip fracture in 3,170 individuals

attending the 12th (197-1973) Framingham Study examination
was examined. For intake of 3 -4 cups of coffee/tea per day,
the RR of fracture was not significantly elevated compared
with less intake. Consumption of >=5 cups per day
significantly increased the risk of fracture.
14-MAR-2001 (424)
Remark: A positive relation between caffeine intake and risk of hip

but not forearm fracture was found in 593 forearm and 65
hip fractures occurred in asociation with mild to moderate
trauma. After potential risk factors were controlled for,
the RR of hip fracture for women in the top quintile of
caffeine consumption was 2.95 (95 % CI 1.18-7.28).
14-MAR-2001 (425)
Remark: The effect of nutrition and dietary caffeine consumption

and physical activity on bone gain in women during the
third
decade of life was investigated in a longitudinal,
descriptive study of 145 healthy women. The median rates of
bone gain were 5.9% for spine bone mineral content, 6.8%
for
spine bone mineral density and 12.5% for total body bone
mineral. In a multiple regression analysis the significant
predictors of the rate of gaine were age (-), activity (+),
calcium intake (+) and protein intake (-). Caffeine
consumption was not associate d with significant reduction
in rates of bone gain.
14-MAR-2001 (426)
Remark: The association between dietary caf feine consumption and

bone mineral gain and hip bone density was studied in 81
females aged 12 to 18 years. There were no significant
differences among the three caffeine intake groups (<25 mg,
25-50 mg, >50 mg) for total body bone mineral gain or hip
bone density.
01-MAR-2001 (427)
Remark: The cross-sectional association between caffeine intake and

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endogenous androgens, estrogens, and sex hormone-binding

globulin was examined in 728 postmenopausal women.
Significant inverse associations were noted between
caffeine intake and bioavailable testoterone.

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At high doses (more than two cups of coffee a day),

caffeine intake was positively associated with plasma
estrone. Sex hormone-binding globulin levels were
positively associated with increasing caffeine intake.
toxic effects (hormone)
27-AUG-2001 (428)
Remark: The most frequently reported withdrawl symptom is headache.

Other symptoms, in roughly decreasing order of prominence,
are: drowiness, increased work difficulty, decreased
feelings of well-being/contentment, decreased
sociability/friendliness/talkativeness, flu-like feelings,
and blurred vision.
Caffeine has two defining characteristics of prototypic
drugs of abuse. In as much as the relative abuse liability
of a drug can be consiered to be multiplicative function of
the degree of reinforcing effect and the degree of adverse
effects, the modest reinforcing effect and modest adverse
effects documented would suggest a low abuse potential.
toxic effects (tolerance and withdrawl, review)
15-FEB-2001 (429) (430)
Remark: Thirty-two healthy subjects with histories of moderate

caffeine consumption abstained from dietary caffeine
throughout the study. Subjects received either caffeine
(300 mg t.i.d.) or placebo for 18 consecutive days. The
study documented tolerance development to the subjective
effects of caffeine: after chronic dosing, administration
of caffeine produced significant subjective effects in the
chronic placebo group but not in the chronic caffeine
group.
The study also provided indirect evidence for tolerance
development: during chronic dosing, the chronic caffeine
and placebo did not differ meaningfully on ratings of mood
and sunjective effect.
toxic effects (tolerance and withdrawl)
31-AUG-2001 (431)
Remark: Tolerance to the diuretic effect of caffeine intake was

examined in three healthy volunteers. Distinct evidence of
tolerance to the diuretic effect of caffeine was present.
Minimal doses of caffeine usually shortened reaction time
and dicrimination time in individuals who were tolerant to
the diuretic effect. Minimal doses of caffeine usually
lengthened reaction time and discrimination time in
individuals who were not tolerant to the diuretic effect.
15-FEB-2001 (432)
Remark: Pharmacokinetics and effect on mood and alertness of a

single oral dose of 600 mg of a slow release caffeine in
120 healthy subjects was investigated. The dose was well
tolerated due this relative low plasma Cmax (10.37 g/ml).
Between placebo and caffeine intake there were no
significant differences for alertness, contendness and
sleep quality of the night after treatment.

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14-MAR-2001 (433)
Remark: Caffeine withdrawl was examined in 12 caffeine-dependent

humans living in a residential laboratory in a 17-day
study.
Participants were maintained on caffeine (100 mg 3 times a
day), except on days 5-6 and 12-13, when caffeine was
replaced by placebo. Caffeine abstinence selectively
influenced subjective effects without altering social
behavior or performance on tasks assessing memory,
vigilance, and psychomotor skills.
01-MAR-2001 (434)
Remark: The effects of short-term caffeine-deprivation on mood,

withdrawl symptoms and psychomotor performance were studied
in 31 habitual coffee drinkers receiving 250 mg caffeine or
placebo. Caffeine deprivation was associated with decreased
vigor and increas ed fatigue and with symptoms including
sleepiness and yawing. Blood pressure was lower by 5-6
mmHg.
No changes in psychomotor performance were observed.
toxic effects (tole rance and withdrawl)
01-MAR-2001 (435)
Remark: Thirty normal children completed the single blind,

within-subject repeated-measures study with weekly sessions
to determine withdrawl effects after cessation of caffeine
intake. Subjects were evaluated with self-report measures
of symptoms and objective measure of attention, motor
performance, processing speed, and memory. During caffeine
withdrawl, there was a significant deterioration on
response time of a visual continous performance test
attention. The deterioration in response time appeared to
persist for 1 week.
01-MAR-2001 (436)
Remark: review on caffeine dependence. Caffeine has both positive

effects that contribute to widespread consumption of
caffeine-containing beverages and adverse unpleasant
effects
if doses are increased. Caffeine has weak reinforced
properties, but with little or no evidence for upward dose
adjustment, possibly because of the adverse effects of
higher doses. Withdrawl symptoms, although relatively
limited with respect to severity, do occur, and may
contribute to maintenance of caffeine use is not associated
with incapacitation. The positive stimulatory effects of
caffeine appear in large measure to be due to blockade of
A2A receptors that stimulate GABAergic neurons of
inhibitory pathways to the dopaminergic reward system of
the striatum.
However, blockade of striatal A1 receptors may also play a

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role.
toxic effects (tolerance and withdrawl, review)
01-MAR-2001 (437)
Remark: toxic effects (tolerance and withdrawl)

Twenty healthy volunteers paricipated a study to
investigate whether measurable changes in cerebral blood
flow velocities could develop from caffeine use or from its
withdrawl.
After 24 h of complete caffeine abstinence 10 suffered from
moderate to severe headache with complete recovery within 1
h after caffeine intake. The BFVs in both middle cerebral,
both posterior cerebral and basilar arteries were higher
following the withdrawl period, reaching statistical
significance in the left middle cerebral basilar and both
posterior posterior arteries. BFVs decreased significantly
within half an hour after caffeine intake in all subjects,
and were simmilar to baseline values after 2 hours.
14-MAR-2001 (438)
Remark: Review of medical literature on fibrocystic breast disease

and caffeine intake indicated a weak evidence for an
association.
toxic effects (benign breast disease, review)
15-FEB-2001 (439)
Remark: Overview: benign breast disease in relation to caffeine and

other methylxanthines (case series, intervention in trials
and etiological studies).
There is controversy about the role of caffeine in benign
fibrocystic breast disease (FDB). Some investigators
associate caffeine with FBD, since the substance is a
phosphordiesterase inhibitor and increases the cAMP level
(which stimulates epithelial proliferation and high levels
of which are found in benign breast tissue). Many other
authors fail to find a significant correlation between
caffeine (or coffee) intake and FBD. Several factors are
responsible for the inconsistencies in the results. These
factors include unknown precise cause of FBD, variability
in diagnosis, difficulties in matching controls and
classifying patients, and mixed intake of several
methylxanthines. No association was found in a study with
biopsy-confirmed controls.
toxic effects (benign breast disease, review)
20-FEB-2001 (331) (440)
Remark: The relation of coffee and tea consumption to fibrocystic

disease of the breast and to breast cancer was studied in
451 women hospitalized. A modest, positive association
between caffeinated beverage consumption and both diseases
was found. However, there was no apparent dose-response
effect.
toxic effects (benign breast disease)
15-FEB-2001 (441)
Remark: In a case-control study with 323 women with beningn breast

disease and 1,428 controls, no differences were noted in

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the coffee and tea consumption patterns of the case and the
controls.
15-FEB-2001 (442)
Remark: Association of caffeine and fibrocystic breast disease was

studied in a retrospective 5-year study of 358 women and a
6-month prospective study of 72 women. More than 70 % of
women with histologically proven fibrocystic breast disease
show change with breast examinations 6 to 12 months, thus
no stable clinical findings in fibrocystic breasts were
observed over a long period. Caffeine intake did not
change.
In the prospective study 90% of left breasts and 83% of
right breasts showed changes in position or number of
nodules. All nodules disappeared from 13% of the right
breasts and from 17% of the left. In 28 % of left breasts
and 39% of right breasts, the nodules disappeared only to
reappear during the 6 months. Caffeine consumption
increased by 24 mg/d between the first and last
examination.
14-MAR-2001 (443)
Remark: A dietary case-control study of 854 histologically

diagnosed cases of benign breast disease, 755 matched
surgical controls, and 723 matched neigborhood controls was
conducted. No association between coffee consumption and
BBD was found. Analyses by histological type, degree of
ductal atypia, age, sex, and ethnic origin, controlling
several confounding factors, confirmed the lack of
association.
16-MAR-2001 (444)
Remark: A case-control study involving 383 cases of biopsy-

confirmed
benign proliferative epithelial disorders of the breast and
192 controls whose biopsy did not show epithelial
proliferation and 383 unbiopsied community controls to
examine the relationship to methylxanthine intake was
performed. There was relatively little variation in risk
with total methyxanthine intake, or with intake of the
xanthine derivates theophylline and caffeine, while the
positive association between theobromine intake and risk
was observed only when cases were compared with biopsy
controls.
16-MAR-2001 (445)
Remark: The relationship between methylxanthine consumption and

benign breast disease was evaluated in a case-control study
of 288 women with histologically confirmed benign breast
lumps and 2 groups of control women (285 patients in the
hospital for acute conditions apparently unrelated to the
consumption of methylxanthine-containing beverages and 291
outpatients). The RR estimates of dysplastic breast lesions

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
for women who drank 1 -2 or 3 or more cups of coffee per day

were 4.1 and 6.4, respectively, when the hospital controls
were the comparison group and 2.0 and 3.7, respectively,
when the outpatient controls were the comparison group.
29-MAR-2001 (446)
Remark: A limited number of human population studies analyzed

lymphocytes for chromosomal changes in freshly isolated and
cultured lymphocytes from individuals consuming caffeinated
beverages. It should be noted that the exact quantities of
coffee, type of coffee, or caffeine consumed are not
reported in these studies. Thus it is possible that
compounds other than caffeine elicited the described
results. A study reported that the percentage of human
lymphocytes cultured from healthy normal males with
chromosomal aberrations corresponded to the amount of
coffee
consumed per day. Those individuals consuming greater than
for cups coffee per day had significantly higher 3.9 vs.
2.6) aberrations than those consuming one to four cups per
day. Another study indicated that there was a positive
relationship between coffee consumption and the number of
SCE in human lymphocytes cultured from 30 nonsmoking and
smoking healthy normal male blood donors. In a different
study those smoking mothers who consumed >14
caffeine-containing beverages per week exhibited a
significantly higher amount of a DNA adduct in
humanplacental DNA. In another study cytogenetic damage, as
indicated by the incidence of micronucleated erythrocytes,
was statistically increased twofold in splenectomized
individuals who consumed five cups of caffeinated coffee
and tea.
mutagenicity (review)
01-MAR-2001 (447)
Remark: Based on the results of mutagenicity tests (in vitro and in

vivo) with different test systems, the authors concluded
that the changes of coffee and caffeine consumption in
moderate to normal amounts to induce mutagenic effects in
humans are almost nonexistent.
mutagenicity (review)
01-MAR-2001 (448)
Remark: mutagenicity
The effect of methylxanthines on chromosomes of human
lymphocyte in culture was investigated. Caffeine and the
dimethylxanthines cause breakage at 750 g/ml. No
chromosome damage was exhibited by monomethylxanthines.
01-MAR-2001 (449)
Remark: Lymphocytes in culture from human volunteers on a regimen

of 800 mg of caffeine daily for one month manifested no
significant increase in chromosome damage. The highest
level of caffeine in plasma was 30 g/ml. Multiple
exposures of lymphocyte cultures from other untreated
donors to this concentration was also without chromosome-

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damaging effect.
mutagenicity
14-MAR-2001 (450)
Remark: carcinogenicity (review)

review on kinetics, toxic effects, effects on reproduction,
genetic effects, and carcinogenicity: caffeine ia s
methylxanthine and occurs naturally in more than 60 plant
species throughout the world. It is prepared on an
industrial scale by methylation of theobromine. Global per-
capita consumption of caffeine from all sources was
estimated to be 70 mg per day in 1981-82. Caffeine is
consumed in beveages such as coffee, tea, and mate and in
soft drinks to which caffeine is added. Coffee is the main
source of dietary caffeine consumption. The caffeine
content of beverages varies widely. Caffeine is also used
in numerous prescription and non-prescription
pharmaceutical preparations.
A cohort study with short follow-up period showed no
association between caffeine consumption and mortality from
cancers at all sites, although there was few deaths on
which to base an analysis. Four case-control studies of
breast cancer in which an attempt was made to measure
methylxanthine intake showed no association. A slight
increase in risk was seen in premenopausal women in one
study, but in general the relative risks were below unity.
One case-control study of bladder cancer showed a weak
association with caffeine-consumption. Caffeine and coffee
consumption are highly correlated in most of the
populations studied; thus it is very difficult to seperate
the two exposures in epidemiological studies. It was
therefore not possible to evaluate adequately the effect of
caffeine per se.
Caffeine intake from pharmaceutical sources has not been
related to teratogenic effects in humans. High levels of
either coffee or caffeine consumption were related to an
increased frequency of low birthweight. On the basis of the
available evidence, caffeine consumed in moderate amounts
does not cause any persitent increase in blood pressure in
normotensive subjects. Whether caffeine consumed in amounts
present in coffee or tea causes cardiac arrhythmia in
healthy subjeczs or in patients with heart disease remains
an open question. One epidemiological study revealed no
effect of caffeine (in coffee-drinking subjects) on the sex
ratio of their children. In lymphocytes of normal,
caffeine-exposed people, chromosomal aberrations were not
observed. An increased frequency of micronucleated blood
cells was observed in otherwise healthy splenectomized
people exposed to caffeine.
Evaluation: There is inadequate evidence for the
carcinogenicity in humans of caffeine. Caffeine is not
classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.
13-MAR-2001 (331)

review on carcinogenicity: coffee is the main source of
dietary caffeine consumption. The caffeine content of

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beverages varies widely.

There is limited evidence in humans that coffee drinking is
carcinogenic in the urinary bladder. There is evidence
suggesting lack of carcinogenicity of coffe drinking in the
human female breast and in the large bowel. There is
inadequate evidence in humans that coffee drinking is
carcinogenic in the pancreas, ovary and other body sites
20-AUG-2001 (451)

review on on coffee and cancer: it was concluded, that in
the doses usually consumed by man, coffee does not have any
potential genotoxic, mutagenic or carcinogenic effect.
There is still some debate on the effect of coffee in the
carcinogenesis of the pancreas, colon, bladder and urinary
tract.
20-AUG-2001 (452)
Remark: carcinogenicity (all)

The unadjusted RRs showed no association between caffeine
consumption and mortality from cancer or any other cause in
a study on mortality from cancer at all sites among 10,064
participants in the Hypertension Detection and Follow-up
program in the USA.
27-FEB-2001 (453)
Remark: A dietary case-control study based on 818 newly diagnosed

breast cancer patients was conducted between 1975 and 1978.
The role of coffee and total methylxanthine intake in
breast cancer patients was compared to two matched control
populations (surgical controls and neighborhood controls).
A nonsignificant negative association was found between
coffee and/or methylxanthine consumption and breast cancer.
carcinogenicity (breast)
13-FEB-2001 (454)
Remark: carcinogenicity (breast)

Relationship between methylaxanthine consumption and breast
cancer using data from a case-control study which included
1,510 cases and 1882 controls identified through a
nation-wide breast cancer screening program. No evidence of
a positive association between methylxanthine consumption
and risk of breast cancer was observed. Particularly in
women diagnosed after age of 50 some suggestion of a
negative association was found. The results of caffeine
alone were similar to those of total methylxanthines.
13-FEB-2001 (455)

In a population-based case control study including 451
cases and one control mateched to each case, methylxanthine
intake was measured by means of self-administered,
quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Intake of
caffeine was calculated in different coffees and
caffeine-containing drinks as well as that of theobromine
intake. No increased risk was found in post-menopausal
women in association with total caffeine and total

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methylxanthine intake. In pre-menopausal women the

increased risk at higher levels of intake was not
statistically significant and not
dose-dependent.
27-FEB-2001 (456)
Remark: A case-control study of diet and breast cancer was carried

out in 150 in 1984-1985. 150 case were identified and for
each case a hospital and a neighborhood control was
matched.
Multivariate analysis (adjusted for known risk factors)
showed no effect of caffeine-containing beverages on breast
cancer.
27-FEB-2001 (457)
Remark: carcinogenicity (breast, review)

Results from studies on benign breast disease have been
inconsistent, with some investigators observing a positive
association and others no association. However, all but one
of the studies which have examined methylxanthine intake
and
malignant breast disease have concluded that methylxanthine
do not play a role in the development of this cancer.
Although various methodlogies were employed and different
populations were evaluated, results were consistently
negative.
29-MAR-2001 (458)
Remark: 101 women with brest cancer were were examined to determine
whether caffeine or coffee intake influence cell
differentiation (well and moderate versus poor) in tumors.
Women with moderately to well-differentiated tumors had
higher caffeine or coffee intake than women with poorly
differentiated tumors.
29-MAR-2001 (459) (460)

The association of caffeine intake and postmenopausal
breast cancer incidence was assessed among 34,338 women
aged 55-69 years in 1986 and followed through 1990.
Caffeine intake was assessed by food frequency
questionnaire. Median caffeine intake was 212 mg/day in
women who developed breast cancer (n=580) and 201 mg/day in
women who remained free of the disease (p=0.95). There was
no apparent association between breast cancer occurence and
quintile of caffeine intake, either adjusted for age or for
multiple breast cacer risk factors. The same was true for
regular coffee and other caffeine-containing foods.
10-AUG-2001 (461)
Remark: A prospective study of breast cancer in 89,494 women in the

Nurses Health Study who completed a 61-item food frequency
questionnaire in 1980 with repeation in 1984 (n=70,999) was
conducted. After a 8 years follow-up, 14,39 invasive breast
cancers were diagnosed; in the 4 years of follow-up for the

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1984 cohort, 666 cases ocurred. No adverse effect of

caffeine was observed; the possibility of a weak inverse
association was raised.
10-AUG-2001 (462)
Remark: carcinogenicity (breast, review)

Review on nutrition and breast cancer; the epidemiologic
evidence donot suggest any substantial increase in breast
cancer risk associated with drinking coffee.
27-AUG-2001 (463)

Relationship between methylaxanthine and breast cancer was
investigated in a large case-control studyof 3,234 women.
1,617 patients were selected from among femals residents,
ages 20 to 79, who were diagnosed with a primary, incident
breast cancer and a equal number of controls. The size of
the study allowed the ability to detect very small
increases
in risk. As with most other studies of breast cancer and
methylxanthines, no increased risk was observed for the
consumption of coffee or caffeine.
27-AUG-2001 (464)

Relationship between smoking, alcohol consumption and
caffeine consumption and the risk of breast cancer was
examined in a case-control study with a total of 755 women
with breast cancer diagnosed before the age of 36, each
matched with general population control. There was no
evidence of a significant association between caffeine
consumption and breast cancer risk, and no apparent t rend
in
the amount of caffeine consumed. There was no evidence of a
statistically significant difference in breast cancer risk
between subjects who had ever smoked as much as one
cigarette per day and those who had not. Consumers of 0.1 -
4.9 and 5.0 - 14.9 g alcohol per day generally had
non-significantly increased risks compared with never
drinkers, but consumers of more than 15 g per day had
reduced risks.
27-AUG-2001 (465)

The relationship between dietary factors and the risk of
breast cancer was investigated in a case-control study a
total of 107 incident, histologically confirmed cases of
breast cancer and 318 controls. Risk for breast cancer and
coffee intake was slightly but not statistically
significant reduced for moderate and high intake (OR=0.8
and 0.9) and equals unity for low intake.
27-AUG-2001 (466)

In two case-control studies conducted in Italy, no
association between breast cancer and coffee intake was

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
found. Cases were 5984 women aged 22-74 years; controls

were 5504 women aged 15-74 years.
10-AUG-2001 (467)
Remark: carcinogenicity (colorectal)

No effect or a protecting effect of caffeine on the
formation of colon tumors was reported in a cohort study.
According to the authors, this was coherent with the lack
of mutagenicity observed in Ames tests.
13-FEB-2001 (468)

The combined results from 12 case-control studies showed an
inverse association between coffee consumption and risk of
colorectal cancer (pooled RR for high vs. low category of
coffee consumption (RR) = 0.72, 95% confidence interval
(CI) 0.61-0.84); the findings were similar in population-
based case-control studies. Five cohort studies did not
support an association (pooled RR = 0.97, 95% CI 0.73-
1.29). The combined results of all studies were driven
largely by the case-control studies, which comprised 85% of
the cases (RR = 0.76, 95% CI 0.66 -0.89).
13-FEB-2001 (469)

The association between coffee and black tea consumption
and the risk of colon and rectal cancer was investigated in
a clinical trial cohort (111 cases of colon cancer and 83
of rectal cancer). Coffee was not significantly associated
with colon or rectal cancer. A positive association was
seen for increased consumption of tea drinking and colon
cancer.
14-MAR-2001 (470)

Relationship between social class indicators and colorectal
cancer was investigated in a case-control study in 190
patients and 393 controls. The consumption of coffee, tea,
and mate was not significantly related to colorectal
cancer,
but ORs were below unity (0.9, 95% CI 0.1-1.3 for coffee,
0.9, 95% CI 0.6-1.5 for mate and 0.8, 95% CI 0.6-1.2 for
tea).
14-MAR-2001 (471)

The relationship between coffee, decaffeinated coffee and
tea intake and risk of cancers of the colon and rectum was
investigated in two case-cotrol studies in 2,166 (colon)
and 1,364 (rectum) cases and 7,057 controls. Compared with
coffee non-drinkers, the risk of colon-cancer was reduced
in drinkers of 4 or more cups/day (OR 0.73, 95% CI 0.60-
0.89), with a significant trend in risk with dose. No
significant association emerged between coffee drinking and
risk of rectal cancer (OR 1.00 for drinkers of 4 or more
cups/day).
20-FEB-2001 (472)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: A population-based case-control study of bladder cancer

including papilloma was performed from 1979-1981 in a total
of 371 patients, and a comparable group of 771 controls.
The relative risk of bladder cancer in relation to coffee
drinking was not statistically significant. A significant
association was found betwe en bladder cancer and tea
drinking among men, but with no regular trend for
increasing consumption. An association was found between
risk of bladder cancer and both daily liquid intake and
non-cola soft drink. No evidence of an isolated influence
of coffee drinking or caffeine intake on bladder cancer is
provided.
carcinogenicity (urinary bladder)
13-MAR-2001 (473)
Remark: carcinogenicity (NHL)

In a case-control study conducted in Italy no association
between non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and consumption of regular
or decaffeinated coffee and tea was found. Cases were 429
subjects aged 17-79 years; controls were 1157 subjects aged
17-79 years.
13-FEB-2001 (474)
Remark: carcinogenicity (lung)

Effect of coffee or tea on lung cancer in male cigarette
smokers was examined in a case-control study in 427 lung
cancer cases and 428 controls. Coffee drinking had no
effect on the lung cacer risk. Black tea consumption
decreased the risk (two or more cups a day, RR 0.34, 95% CI
0.14-0.84).
14-MAR-2001 (475)
Remark: carcinogenicity (lung)

Prospective study of coffe drinking , mortality, and cancer
incidence in 13,664 Norwegian men and 2,891 women.

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Estimated odds ratio (>= 7 versus <= 2 cups of coffee per

day) 1.09 (p=0.84)
16-JAN-2002 (476)
Remark: A case-control study was conducted to investigate the

dose-relationship betwen coffee and risk of pancreas
cancer.
The case-control study was community-based and was carried
out in 141 patients with pancreas cancer and 282 controls.
The dose-response relationship between coffee (cups/day)
and the relative risk of the disease formed a U-shaped
curve: in non-smokers and coffee consumption: 1.0 never,
0.3 (0.2-0.7) occasionally, 0.9 (0.5-1.8) 1-2 cups/day, 1.1
(0.4-2.0) 3+ cups/say and for smokers and coffee-
consumption: 1.5 (0.8-3.1) never, 0.5 (0.2-1.3)
occasionally (0.2-1.3), 0.3 (0.1-0.8) 1-2 cups/day, 2.0
(0.9-4.2) 3+ cups/day.
carcinogenicity (pancreas)
14-MAR-2001 (477)
Remark: In five to six studies a relationship to time to conceive

and caffeine and/or coffee have been indicated. There is
some evidence that caffeine consumption is associated with
miscarriage, but further work is needed to ensure that this
is not an artefact due to the increased likelihood of
mothers without nausea (and less likely to have reduced
coffee intake) being more likely to miscarry. No
relationship to major congenital defects was seen. No
relationship of preterm delivery and caffeine intake was
found. Equivocal evidence of intrauterine growth
retaration.
A study of long-term problems in the surving child did not
show adverse effects.
reproductive toxicity (review)
13-MAR-2001 (478)
Remark: female subfecundity: results of research on caffeine and

subfecundity are equivocal. Two reasonably well controlled
cohort studies showed evidence of pronounced and consistant
dose-response effects of caffeine on fertility. However,
the
generalizibility of these findings is unknown. Both studies
enrolled select groups of subjects. While the effects of
caffeine is not large and it is likely to be obscured in
studies of women with other risk factors for delayed
conception. Spontaneous abortion: several studies have
examined the relation of maternal caffeine use in pregnancy
to increased risk of spontaneous abortion, with
inconsistent
results. At least three earlier studies suggested an
association, and a recent retrospective analysis also
reported a small but significant trend for increased coffee
intake to relate to 1.7% increased risk fo spontaneous
abortion. Other studies have reported not finding an
asscoiation. Male infertility: caffeine has been
hypothesized to influence male fertility because it is
deposited in gonadal tissue and excreted into the seminal

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
fluid. Current data are too sparse to draw conclusions

about the effects of caffeine consumption on male
infertility.
Teratogenicity: there is virtually no evidence to implicate
caffeine in the etiologigy of human congenital
malformations. Five of six epidemiologic studies of
caffeine
use and malforamtions did not find a significant
association. Case reports of malformations in the offspring
of high-level users are remarkably rare, despite extensive
use of this drug worldwide. Fetal growth: associations
between frequent daily coffee drinking and low birth weight
were first described in the mid-1970s in two large cohort
studies. Considering the limited knowledge of relations
between caffeine use and childbearing, disparate results
from early research are not surprising, but the the reason
for dissimilar results in recent studies that adjusted for
relevant confounders is not clear. Preterm delivery was
unrelatd to caffeine consumption in all studies of this
potential relation, so it is possible that caffeine exerts
its influence on low birth weight through intrauterine
fetal growth retardation.
16-MAR-2001 (479)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (review)

The effects of caffeine/coffee on fertility, reproduction,
lactation, and neonatal development are summarized.
There are conflicting reports on the effect of caffeine on
human fertility and spontaneous abortion. A teratogenic
effect has not been proven. Excessive caffeine exposure
(consumption of >7 cups of coffee per day) may result in
slight birth weight reduction; moderate coffee consumption
has no effect. Caffeine half-life is increased in the
neonatal period. Caffeine is excreted in breast milk.
Caffeine exposure in utero does not seem to affect
long-term neurobehavioural development.
According to the authors, it appears that maternal
coffee/caffeine consumption during gestation and/or
lactation does not seem to have measurable consequences on
the fetus or the newborn, as long as ingested in moderate
quantities (<300 mg caffeine per day; corresponding to 2-3
cups of coffee of 2.5-3 l of coke).
15-FEB-2001 (480) (481)
Remark: Caffeine intake from pharmaceutical sources has not been

related to teratogenic effects in humans. High levels of
either coffee or caffeine consumption were related to an
increased frequency of low birth weight. One
epidemiological
study revealed no effect of caffeine (in coffee-drinking
subjects) on the sex ration of their children.
20-AUG-2001 (331)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (review)

review on reproductive toxicity: the teratogenic potential

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
of coffee and caffeine-containg beverages was investigated

in two cohort and four case-control studies. Two studies
(one cohort and one case-control) found significant
positive
associations between the consumption of caffeine-containg
drinks and the risk formalformations. The remaining four
studies (one cohort and three case-control), which included
the most informative reports, failed to find an
association.
Taken together, these studies do not provide evidence of a
teratogenic effect of coffee intake.
Eight studies reported an association between decreased
birth weight and intake of coffee and caffeine-containing
beverages, which was statistically significant in the crude
analyses. After correction for confounding variables,
including smoking, four studies reported an increased risk
among heavy consumers which, however, was not significant,
and the other reported a positive association of oly
borderline significance. The two remaining studies did not
show an association after adjustment for confounding.
Reporting of coffee consumption was usually most complete
for the first and seconf trimester, while the greatest
impact on birth weight may be vrom consumption during the
last trimester. Overall, the data provide an indication
that maternal coffee drinking reduces the birth weight of
offspring. Of the three studies with adequate design and
interpretation, only one showed a clear dose-response
relationship.
Information concerning prematurity was insufficient for
conclusion to be drawn about an effect of coffee
consumption. Ons study provided evidence of a relationship
between late spontaneous abortions and modeate to heavy
coffee consumption.
20-AUG-2001 (451)
Remark: Observational studies of women have evaluated the

association between consumption of caffeine-containing
beverages and the risk of delayed conception, spontaneous
abortion, prematurity, low birthweight, and congenital
malformations. The design and analytic deficiencies of many
of these studies limit the inferences based on their
findings. The larger and higher quality studies tend to
show no relationship between caffeine (or coffee)
consumption and pregnancy adversities.
15-FEB-2001 (482)
Remark: Human epidemiologic studies that examine the relationship

between caffeine use and congenital abnormalities are not
conclusive; however, there is some evidence to suggest a
caffeine effect upon fetal growth patterns. Because
caffeine drinking is so often associated with the use of
other drugs such as tobacco, it is difficult to ascertain
which drug has the effect on growth, or if it is a combined
effect.
14-MAR-2001 (483)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: evaluation of the reproductive and developmental risks of

caffeine
review, see remar k on selection of studies
14-JAN-2002 (484)
Remark: Association between caffeine consumption and decreased

fertility was examined in women interviewed during early
pregnancy. The women who were heavy coffee drinkers before
pregnancy (7 or more cups per day) had, either before or
after adjustment, almost a doubled chance of difficulty in
becoming pregnant compared with the women who drank little
or no coffee (less than 1 cup).
reproduvtive toxicity (delayed conception, infertility)
14-FEB-2001 (485)
Remark: 104 healthy women who had been attempting to become

pregnant for three months were interviewed about their use
of caffeinated beverages, alcohol, and cigarettes. In their
subsequent cycles, women who consumed more than the
equivalent of one cup of coffee per day were half as likely
to become pregnant, per cycle, as women who drank less. A
dose-response effect was present.
14-FEB-2001 (486)
Remark: In a cross-sectional study the relation between intake of

caffeine-containing beverages and time to conception in a
population of 1,909 married women was investigated. Intake
of caffeine from coffee, tea, and caffeinated soft drinks
was associated with an increased risk of a delay of
conception of 1 year or more. Compared with no caffeine
use,
consumption of 1-150 mg/day of caffeine resulted in an odds
ration for delayed conception of 1.39 (95% CI 0.9-2.13),
consumption of 151-300 mg/day of caffeine was associated
with an odds ration of 1.88 (95% CI 1.13-3.11), and that of
over 300 mg/day resulted in an odds ration of 2.24 (95% CI
1.06-4.73), after controlling for last method of birth
control used, parity, and number of cigarettes per day.
07-MAR-2001 (487)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (delayed conception, infertility)

The effect of caffeine intake on fecundability was
examined in a retrospective study of 1,430 women. Although
smoking per se was associated with a significant increased
risk of delayed conception, no effect of high caffeine
consumption was observed among women who smoked.
Fecundability was reduced among nonsmokers who consumed
more than 300 mg caffeine daily.
07-MAR-2001 (488)
Remark: reproduvtive toxicity (delayed conception, infertility)

The effect of caffeine on delayed conception were evaluated

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
in a European multicenter study in a randomly selected

sample of 3187 women (aged 25-44) from 5 countries
(Denmark, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain) between August
1991 and February 1993. Caffeine intake was categorized as
0-100, 101-300, 301-500, and >500 mg. A significantly
increased odd ratio (OR) of 1.45 (95% confidence interval
(CI) 1.03-2.04) for subfecundicity in the first pregnancy
was observed for women consuming more than 500 mg of
caffeine per day, the effect being stronger in smokers (OR
= 1.56, 95% CI 0.92 -2.63) than in non-smokers (OR = 1.38,
95% CI 0.85-2.23). Women in the highest level of
consumption (>500 mg/day) had an increase in the time
leading to the first pregnancy of 11% (hazard ratio = 0.90,
95% CI 0.78-1.03).
These results were similar for all countries. According to
the authors, these results suggested that high levels of
caffeine may delay conception among fertile women.
07-MAR-2001 (489)
Remark: In a retrospective cohort study of farm couples was done to

determine whether smoking, caffeine, or alcohol use affect
fecundability. Information on 2,607 planned pregnancies
over previous 30 years were gathered by questionnaires.
Caffeine consumption of 100 mg or less versus more than 100
mg in women and men was not associated with fecundability.
07-MAR-2001 (490)

The association between time to conceive reported by 2,817
fertile women who had recently had a liveborn child and
consumption of coffee, tea, and caffeinated beverages was
investigated. No evidence for an adverse effect of caffeine
was found. For levels of consumption ranging from less than
one cup of coffee per week (501 mg caffeine per month) to
more than two cups of coffee per day (7000 mg caffeine per
month), the average time to conceive was similar.
14-MAR-2001 (491)
Remark: A population-based survey of life-style factors and

subfecundity (prolonged time to pregnancy) was conducted
between 1984 and 1987. 11,888 women filled out a
questionnaire in the last trimester of pregnancy (an 86%
response). No association was found between subfecundity
and consumption of hot caffeinated beverages. For women who
smoked and also consumed coffee a statistically significant
association was seen (OR 1.35, 95% confidence interval
1.02-1.48).
13-MAR-2001 (492)

To examine the effects of alcohol and caffeine on
conception a prospective observational study was done in
124 women, who provided daily urine samples for measurement
of steroid hormones and hCG. There was a >50% reduction in
the probability of conception during a menstrual cycle

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
during which participants consumed alcohol. Caffeine did

not independently affect the probability of conception.
07-MAR-2001 (493)
Remark: Independent and combined effects of smoking and caffeine

intake on the probability of conception was examined in a
total of 430 couples. At enrollment and in six cycles of
follow-up, both partner filled out a questionnaire on
different factors including smoking habits and their intake
of caffeine. Compared to nonsmoking women with caffeine
intake less than 300 mg/d, nonsmoking women who consumed
300 to 700 mg/d caffeine had a fecundability odds ratio
(FR) of 0.88 (95% CI 0.6-1.31), whereas women with higher
caffeine intake had a FR of 0.63 (95 % CI 0.25-1.60). No
dose-response relationship was found among smokers. Among
males, the same decline in point estimates of the FR was
present.
07-MAR-2001 (494)
Remark: Caffeine intake and delay to conception was investigated in

1,050 women with primary infertility and 3,833 women who
had recently given birth during the period 1981-1983. A
significant increase in the risk of infertility due to
tubal disease or endometriosis was observed for the upper
levels of caffeine intake, indicating a threshold effect.
For tubal infertility, a relative risk of 1.5 (95% CI 1.1-
2.0) was found in women who consumed more than 7 g of
caffeine per month as compared with those who consumed 3 g
or less per month. For endometriosis, the RR was 1.9 (95 %
CI 1.2-2.9) in women who consumed 5.1-7 g/month and 1.6
(95% CI 1.1-2.4) in those with intake of more than 7
g/month.
14-MAR-2001 (495)

Two hundred and ten volunteer members of a medical program
who were trying to conceive were followed for 12 months or
until the month after they became aware they were pregnant.
Mean total caffeine intake was 610 mg weekly. There was no
significant decrease in fertility associated with total
caffeine, coffee, decaffeinated coffee, or caffeinated soda
for either moderate or high consumption.
14-MAR-2001 (496)

Times to conception for different levels of daily coffee
intake were examined in 3,010 women. For all 3,010 women
the median time to conception was 2.47 months. Times to
conception were longest for the 129 women who drank four or
more cups of coffee per day. Times for those drinking 3, 2,
1, or no cups of coffee were similar.
13-MAR-2001 (497)
Remark: Effects of smoking, alcohol, and caffeine consumption and

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
socioeconimic factors and psychosocial stress on birth

weight was examine in a prospective population study in a
group of 1,513 women. Smoking was the most important single
factor (5% reduction in corrected birth weight). Passive
smoking was not a significant factor (0.5% reduction).
After smoking was controlled for, alcohol had an effect
only in smokers and the effects of caffeine became
nonsignificant.
Only for the socioeconomic and stress factors significantly
reduced birth weight and these effects became
nonsignificant after smoking was controlled for.
reproductive toxicity (low birth weight)
13-FEB-2001 (498)
Remark: 11,858 pregnant women out of 13,815 responded to a mailed

questionnaire on eating and drinking habits during
pregnancy. Data on pregnancy were recorded from medical
files. Maternal coffee consumption of four cups a day or
more was associated with a moderate decrease in
birthweight,
especially among smokers. The association between coffee
consumption and preterm births or congenital malformations
were very weak. No unexposed group was available in the
study, and the exposure was probably misclassified to some
extend. Information on potential important time-specific
exposure are missing and most measures were also based upon
prevalence recording at birth.
14-MAR-2001 (499)
Remark: A population-based study in 7,025 women was done to assess

effect of caffeine intake during pregnancy on intrauterine
retardation, low birth weight, and preterm birth. Caffeine
consumption was associated with an increased risk of
intrauterine growth retardation. For women whose average
daily caffeine consumption was 0-10, 11-150, 151-300., or
>300 mg, the adjusted odds ratios for delivering a newborn
with growth retardation were 1.00, 1.28 (95% CI 1.04-1.59),
1.42 (95% CI 1.07-1.87), and 1.57 (95% CI 1.05-2.33),
respectively. Caffeine intake however, was not related to
preterm delivery or low birth weight.
14-MAR-2001 (500)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (low birth weight)

The effect of alcohol and caffeine consumption on birth
weight and the possible interaction of these substances
with smoking was investigated in 628 women who where
interviewed at their first visit to a maternity hospital. A
significant reduction in birth weight was found to be
associated with an average daily alcohol consumption of
three drinks or more after gestational age, infant sex,
maternal age, pariy, weight, and height, and ciagrette
smoking hab bee n controlled for. The relation observed
between caffeine and birth weight disappeared after
adjustment for smoking.
07-MAR-2001 (501)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: In a prospective study of 712 pregnancies the association

between maternal smoking, alcohol, and caffeine consumption
and fetal growth was examined. Patients were interviewed at
entry into care (12.9 +- 4.3 weeks), and at 28 and 36 weeks
of gestation. Caffeine consumption showed no relation to
fetal growth, even among heavy consumers, although they
were relatively few. Low birthweight is implicated by
smoking at any point in pregnancy, and moderate alcohol
drinking in the early months.
07-MAR-2001 (502)
Remark: A matched case-comtrol study to investigate the effects of

caffeine intake during pregnancy on birth weight was
conducted in 401 cases and 802 controls. Crude analyses
showed no effect of caffeine on low birth weight, preterm
births or intrauterine growth retardation. The results did
not change after allowing for confounders.
14-MAR-2001 (503)
Remark: A prospective study of 3,891 antenatal patients at Yale-New

Haven hospital was conducted (1980-1982). The effects of
caffeine consumption on mean birth weight, mean gestational
age, rates of low birth weight and preterm deliveries and
intrauterine growth retardation were assessed. The level of
caffeine consumption was divided into three categories;
1-150 mg/d, 151 -300 mg/d, and >300 mg/d. A significant
dose-response relationship between caffeine consumption
during pregnancy and risk of having a low birth weight
infant was found. Maternal caffeine intake seems to exert
an effect on birth weight through growth retardation in
term newborns.
14-MAR-2001 (504)

The aim of the study was to examine the association between
maternal caffeine consumption and low birth weight,
intrauterine growth retardation, and prematurity, adjusting
for multiple confounders (interviews on 1,230 women with
singleton live births). The crude odds ratio (OR) for
intrauterine growth retardation in infants of women
reporting heavy caffeine consumption (>300 mg/day) was 3.86
(95% CI 1.80-8.40) which decreased to 2.90 (95% CI
1.23-6.87) after controlling for confounding factors. The
adjusted OR for low birth weight and heavy caffeine
consumption was also increased (OR = 2.05, 95% CI
0.86-4.88). Reduction of daily caffeine intake (>300 mg to
<300 mg) early in pregnancy resulted in lower risks of
delivering infants with either intrauterine growth
retardation or low birth weight. Preterm delivery appeared
to be unrelated to caffeine intake.
07-MAR-2001 (505)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
review: toxic fetal effect: IUGR (<250 g at term); reported

rate of occurence: 7.5% (177/2357) vs. 4.7% (47/998) in
unexposed controls; comments: heavy maternal coffee intake;
incidence of IUGR increased to 9.9% (34/343) in neonates of
mothers who also smoked regularly during pregnancy.
07-MAR-2001 (506)

The association of plasma caffeine concentrations during
pregnancy with growth was examine. Stored plasma was
available for 1,500 women who had provided a blood sample
on
at least one occasion and for 640 women who had provided a
sample on all three occasions (at booking for delivery, 28
weeks, and 36 weeks). Caffeine intake showed no changes
during pregnancy, but blood caffeine concentration rose by
75 %. Although caffeine intake increased steadily with
increasing cotinine concentration above 15 ng/ml, blood
caffeine concentrations fell. Caffeine consumption was
inversely related to adjusted birth weight, the estimated
effect being a 1.3% fall in birth weight for a 1000 mg per
week increase in intake (95 % CI 0.5-2.1). The apparent
caffeine effect was confined to cigarette smokers, among
whom the estimated effect was -1.6%/100 mg a week after
adjustment for cotinine. Adjusted birth weight was
unrelated to blood caffeine concentrations overall, after
adjustment for cotinine, or among current smokers. Blood
caffeine concentrations during pregnancy are not related to
fetal growth, but caffeine intake is negatively associated
with birth weight, with this effect being apparent only in
smokers.
14-MAR-2001 (507)

The association between coffee consumption in pregnancy and
fetal growth was investigated in a retrospective unmatched
case-control study in 356 mother/baby pairs with
intrauterine growth retardation and 356 mother/baby pairs
with appropriate growth for gestational age. The proportion
of mothers who delivered IUGR babies increased as the
average consumption of coffe increased. The tendency for
heavy coffee drinkers to deliver IUGR babies remained after
controlling for alcohol intake and cigarette smoking.
07-MAR-2001 (508)

The effect of caffeine consumption during pregnancy on
birth weight and its possible interaction with smoking was
examine in 1,001 women who were interviewed during their
first 3 days after delivery. A significant reduction in
birth weight was found to be associated with an average
caffeine intake of >=71 mg/day, after adjustment for
gestational age, infant sex, parity, and maternal height
and weight, but only in infants born to nonsmoking mothers.
07-MAR-2001 (509)
Remark: In a population-based cohort study of 7,855 livebirths

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
conducted in California, USA, the relation of maternal

decaffeinated and caffeinated coffee consumption during
pregnancy to fetal growth and gestational duration was
examined (questionnaire, primarily Hispanic and Non-
Hispanic
white women, mean age was 25 +/- 6 years). Compared with
women who drank neither decaffeinated nor caffeinated
coffee, those who consumed decaffeinated coffee showed no
increased odds of small-for-gestational age birth, low
birth weight or preterm delivery, nor lowered mean birth
weight or shortened mean gestational age. Women who
consumed caffeinated coffee alone had an adjusted odds
ratio of 1.3 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.0-1.7) for
preterm delivery, whereas those who consumed both
caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee had an adjusted odds
of 2.3 (95% CI 1.3-4.0).
07-MAR-2001 (510)
Remark: A prospective study was performed to examine the effect of

alcohol and caffeine consumption on birth weight in 414
smoking mothers. When alcohol, caffeine, and smoking were
analysed together, alcohol and caffeine were both
associated with reduction in birthweight. Alcohol was
associated with a reduction of up to 8% after adjusting for
tobacco and caffeine intake, and caffeine was associated
with a reduction of up to 6.5% after adjusting for tobacco
and alcohol intake. Heavy smoking women (>=13 cig/day),
heavy drinkers (>= 100 g/week), and high caffeine intake
(>= 2801 mg/week) had a predicted reduction in mean birth
weight of 18%.
14-MAR-2001 (511)
Remark: A case-control study, examing the effect of first trimester

maternal caffeine consumption on low wirthweight in
retrospectively followed 9,564 pregnancies. Heavy
consumption (> 3 servings/day) of coffee, cola and >300
mg/day of caffeine from all sources was associated with a
marignally increased risk of low birthweight.
31-AUG-2001 (512)
Remark: Effect of maternal caffeine consumption throughout

pregnancy
on fetal growth was studied in 2,714 women who dlivered a
liveborn infant. Average caffeine intake during month 1 of
pregnancy was higher than for month 7 (72.4 vs. 54.0 mg
per
day). Consumption of >300 mg caffeine per day during month
1
and during month 7 was not associated with intrauterine
growth retardation. There was little evidence for any
effect
modification due to cigarette smoking on the caffeine
association.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

acceptable study, meets basic scientific principles
05-DEC-2001 (513)

retrospective cohort study, RR=1.59 (1.44-1.75) comparing
low birth weight caffeine exposure (>150 caffeine mg/d) to
controls
basic data given, restrictions
14-JAN-2002 (514)
Remark: An association between an increasing paraxanthine

concentration during the third trimetser and an increasing
risk of reduced fatel growth only among women who smoked.
However, since paraxanthine cocnentrations could not be
related to an amount of caffeine consumption the results
cannot be used for an quantitative assessment.
21-OCT-2002 (515)
Remark: A study with relative good assessment of exposure and

confounding factors does not support an association between
moderate caffeine consumption and reduced birth weight,
gestational age, or fetal growth.
acceptablle study, meets basic scientific principles
21-OCT-2002 (516)
Remark: Heavy coffee drinking (7 >= cups per day) occurs in 13 % of

the study cohort, while the incidence among mothers of low
birth weight infants was 21.4 %. Increasing consumption of
coffee appeares to be associated with increasing rates of
prematurity in all subclasses. Among heavy coffee drinkers,
there is a large proportion of smokers (63.5 %) and the
coffee effect on prematurity appears to be entirely
explainable by the association with smoking.
reproductive toxicity (fetal loss, abortion)
14-MAR-2001 (517)
Remark: A case-control study in 331 women with fetal loss and 993
controls with normal pregnancy was done to determine the
influence of caffeine intake before and during pregnancy
and the risk of fetal loss. The adjusted ORs for fetal loss
associated with caffeine intake before pregnancy were 1.29
(95% CI 0.85-1.95) for 48 to 162 mg; 1.37 (95% CI
0.92-2.04) for 163 to 321 mg; and 1.85 (95% CI 1.18-2.89)
for more than 321 mg. The respective adjusted ORs for
caffeine intake during pregnancy were 1.5 (95% CI 0.82-
1.63), 1.95 (95 % CI 1.29-2.93), and 2.62 (95% CI 1.38-
5.01). OR increased by a factor of 1.22 (1.10 to 1.34) for
each 100 mg of caffeine ingested daily during pregnancy.
The results of this study are discussed controversely by
other authors.
05-MAR-2001 (518) (519) (520) (521)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Prospective information gathered through the course of

pregnancy, perinatal measurements, and retrospective data
collected postnatally were used to investigate the changing
pattern and effects of caffeine use of 286 women. During
pregnancy most women continued to consume caffeine but
usually at lower intake levels. After pregnancy, caffeine
consumption tended to persist at reduced levels for several
months and then returned to prepregnancy patterns. Maternal
caffeine intake of more than 300 mg daily during pregnancy
was associated with lowered birth weight and smaller head
circumference of the infant after accounting for nicotine
use. No relationship was apparent between maternal caffeine
use and the incidence of caesarian sections, brech births,
miscarriages or premature birth.
15-FEB-2001 (522)
Remark: A case-control study in 607 cases and 1,284 controls was

conducted to evaluate the potential association between
caffeine consumption during the first trimester of
pregnancy
an spontaneous abortion. The crude odds ratio for heavy
caffeine consumption (<300 mg/day) was 1.55 (95% CI
1.04-2.31), which decreased to 1.22 (95% CI 0.8-1.87) after
controllin gfor confounding factors. For these heavy users,
nausea modified the association of spontaneous abortion and
caffeine; heavy caffeine consumers reporting nausea had a
doubled risk for spontaneous bortion (adjusted OR=2.1, 95%
CI 1.2-3.7), in contrast to those who did not report nausea
(adjusted OR=0.53, 95% CI 0.27- 1.04).
07-MAR-2001 (523)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (fetal loss, abortion)

The effects of caffeine ingestion during pregnancy was
examined in a total nuber of 9,921 healthy pregnant women
with gestational age after 24 weeks. The women who drank
more than 5 cups of coffee per day had a high incidence of
impending abortion, premature labor, and fetuses small for
gestational age. The heavy coffee drinkers (more than five
cups) among the pregnant women had high rates of
spontaneous
abortion, chromosomal abnormality and congenital
multi-anomalies. The autors stress that the multiple
socioeconomic varibales might be more important than any
direct effect of caffeine.
14-MAR-2001 (524)

The association between smoking and caffeine intake during
pregnancy and preterm birth was investigated in a follow-up
study in 4,111 nulliparous women. The overall rate of
preterm delivery was 4.3 %. Smokers had a 40 % higher risk
of preterm birth compared with non-smokers. Among women
with
an intake of less than 400 mg of caffeine per day no

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
difference in the risk of preterm birth between smokers and

nonsmokers was found. However, among women with an intake
of
more than 400 mg of caffeine per day, the risk of preterm
birth was increased almost threefold among smokers compared
to nonsmokers. Furthermore, among women with high intake of
caffeine a dose-response relationship was found.
05-MAR-2001 (525)

The relation between caffeine beverage consumption and
spontaneous abortion in 2,967 pregant women was
investigated. As compared with abstention from caffeine
beverages (coffee, tea, and soda), the adjusted odds ratios
for spontaneous abortion associated with consumption of
1-150, 151-300, and >300 mg caffeine daily were 0.81 (95%
CI 0.54-1.20), 0.89 (95% CI 0.48-1.64), and 1.75 (95% CI
0.88-3.47), respectively. Drinking >= 3 cups of tea or
coffee was associated with elevated risks of spontaneous
abortion (adjusted odds ratio = 2.33, 95% CI 0.92-5.85; and
adjusted odds ratio = 2.63, 95% CI 1.29-5.34).
07-MAR-2001 (526)

The association between coffee intake in pregnancy and risk
of spontaneous abortion was investigated in a case-control
study in 782 cases and 1,543 controls. The corresponding
multivariate odds ratios of spontaneous abortion, in
comparison with non-drinkers, were 1.2, 1.8, and 4.0,
respectively, for drinkers of 1, 2 or 3, and 4 or more cups
of coffee per day. No relationship emerged between maternal
decaffeinated coffee and cola drinking in pregnancy, as
well
as paternal coffee consumption, and risk of spontaneous
abortion. With regard to duration in years of coffee
drinking, the estimated multivariate odds ratio of
spontaneous abortion were, in comparison with non-coffee
drinkers, 1.1 (95 % CI 1.5-2.6) for women reporting a
duration of coffee consumption <=10 or >10 years.
05-DEC-2001 (527)

The relation of moderate to heavy caffeine consumption
during pregnancy to spontaneous abortion and abnormal fetal
growth was examined. Literatur data (case-control or cohort
studies) were evaluated statistically. There was a small
but
statistically significant increase in the risk for
spontaneous abortion and low birth weight infants in women
consuming more than 150 mg/day during pregnancy. However, a
possible contribution to these results of maternal age,
smoking, ethanol use, or other confounders could not be
excluded.
07-MAR-2001 (528)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
The association between maternal caffeine consumption and

the risk of spontaneous abortion was examined in a
population-based prospective study. The study population
comprised 575 women dilvering s ingleton livebirth and 75
women who had spontaneous abortions. Maternal coffee
consumption before pregnancy did not increase the risk of
spontaneous abortions, whereas maternal caffeine during the
first trimester after nausea started might increase risk of
spontaneous abortion (risk ration = 5.4, 95% CI 2.0-14.6
for
caffeine consumption >= 300 mg per day compared with <20 mg
per day).
14-MAR-2001 (529)

The aim of the study was to examine whether caffeine
consumption during pregancy is associated with spontaneous
abortion of intrauterine growth retardation. A total of 431
pregnancies was evaluated. After adjusting for other risk
factors (smoking, maternal weight), no statistically
significant effect of caffeine consumption on spontaneous
abortion or intrauterine growth retardation was seen.
07-MAR-2001 (530)
Remark: A cohort of 431 women was monitored throughout pregnancy to

determine caffeine exposure, exposure to other risk
factors,
fetal growth, and pregnancy outcome. The mean first
trimester caffeine consumption was not significantly higher
in women who aborted than in women who delivered liveborn
infants. the adjusted OR for spontaneous abortion was 1.15
(95% CI 0.89-1.49). Early fetal growth was not affected by
caffeine. The adjusted ORs were 1.11 (95% CI 0.88-1.40) for
decreased birth weight and 1.09 (95% CI 0.86-1.37) for
smaller head circumference.
14-MAR-2001 (531)
Remark: In a prospective study of 5,144 women the relation between

spontaneous abortion and caffeine consumption was examined.
Neither total estimated caffeine nor individual caffeinated
beverage consumption during the first trimester was
associated with an appreciable increase in risk for
spontaneous abortion. The adjusted OR for consumption of
greater than 300 mg per day of caffeine was 1.3 (95% CI
0.8-2.1). The adjusted OR for spont aneous abortion related
to consumption of three or more cups of decaffeinated
coffee during the first trimester was 2.4 (95% CI 1.3 -4.7).
14-MAR-2001 (532)

The association of caffeine from beverages with spontaneous
abortions of knwon karyotype was investigated. Spontaneous
abortion (cases were classified as chromosomally normal
(n=510) or chromosomally aberrant (n=389) and, within the
latter category, by type of aberration (237 trisomies, 54

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
monosomiesX, 49 triploidies, 49 others). Controls

registered
for prenatal care before 22 weeks gestation and delivered
at 28 weeksor later (n=1,432). Caffeine intake in the
perifertilization period did not differ among case groups
and controls. For the highest category, 225+ mg/day, odds
ratios , adjusted forpayment group ans maternalage, were
1.0 for chromosomally normal cases, 0.9 for trisomies, 1.6
for monosmiesX, and 0.8 for triploidies. Although the
proportion of subjects with intake of 225+ mg/day of
caffeine was higher in cases than in controls, it was
similar for those with chromosomally normal and aberrant
losses (OR=1.2, 95 % CI 0.8-1.8). Caffeine intaked in the
perifertilization does not influence the risk of
chromosomally normal loss or trisomy. For monosomy X and
triploidy, no strong associations were observed.
07-MAR-2001 (533)
Remark: A population group consisting of 800 households of women

who recently had been pregnant was surveyed to determine
the level of consumption of a variety of beverages. Of a
subgroup of 16 women identified as having an estimated
daily intake of caffeine of 600 mg or greater, 13 had
experienced a reproductive loss in the form of spontaneous
abortion (eight) or stillbirth(five), two had given birth
to premature infants, and only one had an uncomplicated
delivery. An inordinately high rate of reproductive loss
also was noted in 13 households where the mans estimated
daily intake of caffeine was grater than 600 mg. The
authors stated that a cause-relationship cannot be
determined by this type of retrospective study.
31-AUG-2001 (534)
Remark: In a prospective cohort study, 3,135 pregnant women were

followed to evaluate the association of caffeine
consumption during pregnancy with late first- and second-
trimester spontaneous abortion. Almost 80 % of pregnant
women used some caffeine; among useres the average daily
intake was 99.3 mg from all sources. The adjusted relative
risk of miscarriage after caffeine consumption >= 151 mg
daily was 1.73 (p=0.03). Light caffeine use (1 to 150 mg
daily) was associated with increased risk of spontaneous
abortion only among women who aborted in their pregnancy
(RR=4.18, p=0.04).
16-MAR-2001 (535)
Remark: A population-based, case-control study of early spontaneous

abortion was performed in 562 women who had spontaneous
abortion at 6 to 12 completed weeks of gestation and 953
women who did not have spontaneous abortion and were
matched to the case patients. Among nonsmokers, more
spontaneous abortion occurred in women who ingested at
least 100 mg caffeine per day than in women who ingested
less than 100 mg per day, with the increase in risk related

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
to the amount ingested (100 to 299 mg per day: odds ratio

1.3, 95 % CI 0.9 to 1.8; 300 to 499 mg per day: odds ratio
1.4, 95 % CI 0.9 to 2.0; and 500 mg and more per day: odds
ratio 2.2, 95 % CI 1.3 to 3.8). Among smokers, caffeine
ingestion was not associated with an excess risk of
spontaneous abortion.
05-DEC-2001 (536)
Remark: In a nested case-control study, serum paraxanthine was

measured in 591 women who had spontaneous abortions at less
than 140 days gestation and in 2558 matched women . A
total of 487 women who had spontaneous abortions and 2087
controls had quantifiable serum paraxanthine
concentrations. The odds ratio for spontaneous abortion was
not significantly elevated in the women who had serum
paraxanthine concentrations of 1845 ng/ml or lower. The
adjusted odds ratio for spontaneous abortion among women
with serum paraxanthine concentrations higher than 1845
ng/ml, as compared with women who had concentrations below
50 ng/ml, was 1.9, 95 % CI 1.2 to 2.8.
acceptable study meets basic scientific principles
05-DEC-2001 (537)
Remark: Nausea in pregnancy effetcs the exposure to caffeine.

Intake is often reduced in early pregnancy. Although this
this reduction is partly an epiphenonmenon in its own
right, it is more marked in the presence of nausea. Nausea
is affected by the outcome. It manifests with differing
frequencies according to whether a pregnancy will terminate
either as a miscarriage or as a live birth. Nausea
indicates a concurrently surviving pregancy.
reproductive toxicity (fetal loss, abortion, review)
review
05-DEC-2001 (538)

Retrospective cohort study, RR 1.23 (1.18-1.29) comparing
spontaneous abortion in caffein exposure (>150 caffeine
mg/d) to controls.
14-JAN-2002 (539)

retrospective cohort study, RR 2.89 (1.92-4.35) comparing
spontaneous abortions in caffeine exposure (>150 caffeine
mg/d) to controls
14-JAN-2002 (540)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: In a retrospective study the drug consumption during

pregnancy with congenital abnormalities in infants was
examined in 1,369 mothers. In mothers taking caffeine no
increased numbers of congenital abnormalities in infants
were observed.
reproductive toxicity (birth defects)
19-FEB-2001 (541)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: In a case-control study of 2,030 malformed infants, six

selected birth defects were evaluated in relation to
maternal ingestion of caffeine intake during pregnancy. 380
infants with inguinal hernia, 299 with cleft lip, 277 with
cardiac defetcs, 194 with pyloric stenosis, 120 with
isolated cleft palate, and 101 with neural tube fusion
defects were compared to 712 other malformed infants who
served as control. None of the point estimates of relative
risk was significantly greater than unity.
13-MAR-2001 (542)
Remark: 755 pairs of mothers of malformed children and their

controls were studied to examine an association between
coffee consumption and malformations. The coffee
consumption during pregnancy was similar for the mothers of
malformed or non-malformed children. The comparison of the
mothers drinking at least four cups of coffee a day during
pregnancy with those not consuming coffee at all showed a
RR of 1.0 (95% CI 0.7-1.3).
13-FEB-2001 (543)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (birth defects)

Retrospective information on maternal caffeine intake
during pregnancy and abnormal offspring was obtained by
questionnaire during 1989. 14 cases were examined.
Spontaneous abortion or stillbirth was associated with high
level of caffeine consumption (about 1,000 mg) each day.
Low birth weight infants or premature birth infants were
caused by caffeine intake >200 mg a day. Developmental
delay or central nervous system dysfunction was also
associated with caffeine intake >200 mg a day. Congenital
anomalies were noted also with >200 mg caffeine per day.
27-FEB-2001 (544)
Remark: Interviews and medical-record data of 12,205 were analysed

to evaluate the relationshipbetween coffe consumption and
adverse outcomes of pregnancy. After controlling for
smoking, other habits, demographic characteristics, and
medical history no relation between low birth weight or
short gestation and heavy coffee consumption was found.
Furthermore there was no excess of malformations among
coffee drinkers.
13-MAR-2001 (545)
Remark: A large North American study followed 5378 women exposed

during pregnancy to caffeine-containing drugs for possible
malformations in their offspring. For all malformations
considered together (n=350) the RR was 0.98. For
malformations at individial sites, the RRs ranged from 0.70
to 1.2 (nonsignificant).
20-AUG-2001 (546)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: reproductive toxicity (fetal effects)

The effect of caffeine on fetal heart rate pattern was
evaluated. A 3-fold prolongation of metabolism and duration
of action of caffeine is observed in pregnant women.
Sensitivity of the fetal heart to caffeine appears as early
as in the first trimester of prenatal life. Caffeine
produces age- and concentration-dependent positive chrono-
and inotropic effects.
27-FEB-2001 (547)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (fetal effects)

The acute maternal and fetal cardiovascular effects of
caffeine were studied. Cafffein citrate was administered to
7 caffeine-naive gravidas longitudinally at 25.7 (+/-0.7)
and 36.1 (+/-0.7) weeks' gestation. Significant before and
after caffeine differences, regardless of gestational age,
were noted for maternal pulse (decreased), diastolic blood
pressure (increased), mean arterial blood pressure
(increased), uterine artery systolic-to-diastolic (S/D)
ratio (increased), fetal heart rate (decreased), fetal
heart rate accelerations (increased), and fetal aortic peak
velocities (increased). According to the authors, these
results suggested that ingestion of moderate amounts of
caffeine citrate to caffeine-naive gravidas significantly
affected both the fetal and maternal cardiovascular system.
27-FEB-2001 (548)
Remark: A longitudinal cohort study of 20 normal third-trimester

pregnancies was performed to observe whether the level of
long-term maternal caffeine ingestion influenced
intrauterine fetal behavior. Fetuses of mothers whose mean
daily caffeine intake did not exceed 200 mg exhibited
temporal distribution of fetal behavioral states that
resemble those found in most normal third-trimester
pregnancies.
reproductive toxicity (fetal effects)
05-MAR-2001 (549)
Remark: Newborn cardiac arrhythmias associated with maternal

caffeine
use during pregnancy were investigated. Daily maternal
caffeine intake was >500 mg/day in the so called "caffeine
group" (16 persons) and <250 mg/day in the so called
"control group" (56 subjects). Urine screen of all infants
of the women consuming >500 mg/day was positive for
caffeine. Tachyarrythmia, premature atrial contractions,
fine tremors, and tachypnea were greater in the caffeine
group than in the control group.
reproductive toxicity (effects in infants)
05-MAR-2001 (550) (551)
Remark: Maternal caffeine consumption was associated with an

increased risk of central and obstructive apneas in the
infant. The meachnism for this effect is not clear;
however, it may be related to an increased number of
adenosine receptors in the brain stem.
reproductive toxicity (effects in infants, review)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
28-MAR-2001 (552)
Remark: In a case-control study surveying parents of 393 sudden

infant deaath syndrome victims the association to maternal
caffeine consumption during pregnancy was examined. Infants
whose mothers had heavy caffeine consumption (400 mg/day or
more) throughout their pregnancy had a significantly
increased risk for SIDS (OR 1.65, 95 % CI 1.15-2.35).
05-MAR-2001 (553)
Remark: Linear and threshold effects of prenatal caffeine on

pregnancy outcome and offspring development were examined
in a cohort of appr. 500 offspring. Prenatal caffeine
exposure was not related to most newborn and infant outcome
measures, including height, weight or head circumference,
or to individually administered IQ and attention tests at 7
years of age. Only one isolated dependent variable of the
many was siginificantly associated with prenatal caffeine
exposure: breech presentation.
14-MAR-2001 (554)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (effects on sperms)

The potential contribution of common lifestyle exposures
(smoking, caffeine, and alcohol) to the aneuploidy load in
human sperm was investigated in a cross -sectional,
observation study. Sperm specimen were observed from 45
healthy men 19-35 years of age. Sperm FISH (fluorescence in
situ hybridization) was used to determine aneuploidy and
diploidy frequencies for chromosomes X, Y, and 18. Caffeine
was significantly associated with increased frequencies of
sperm aneuploidy XX18 and XY18, doploidy XY1-18 and the
duplication phenotype YY18-18 controlling for alcohol,
smoking and donor age.
13-FEB-2001 (555)
Remark: reproductive toxicity (effects on sperms)

The aim of the study was to determine whether sperm nuclear
size, shape, and chromatin texture parameters are
associated with lifestyle exposures including smoking,
caffeine and alcohol consumption. Eighty-six healthy male
volunteers, aged 18-35 years, provided a semen, blood, and
urine sample and completed a questionnaire. No significant
effect on sperm morphometric parameters was found.
14-MAR-2001 (556)

27-AUG-2001 (557)
Type: Behaviour
Remark: The aim of the study was to evaluate behavioral effects of

exposure to the test substance (via the drinking water)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
during gestation and/or lactation. Dams were exposed to 26

or 45 mg/kg during gestation or to 25 or 35 mg/kg during
lactation or to the two low or high doses during both
gestation and actation. Open-field behavior and latencies of
emerge from a darkened chamber of the offspring was recorded
at 1, 2, 4, and 6 months after birth. Behavioral impairments
were recorded at 1 to 6 months after birth in male and
female rats and included less locomotor and rearing
activity, reduced tendecies to emerge and increased
defacation in the open field.
30-JAN-2002 (558)
Type: Biochemical or cellular interactions
Remark: Repeated oral administration of the test substance (100,

200, 400 and 800 ug/ml in the drinking water for eight weeks
or application by gavage of 40 and 160 mg/kg for four days)
to male Swiss mice increased the biochemical activity in
liver and lung cells as it was demonstrated by enhancement
of AHH, Cytochrome P-450, GST and GSH activity.
22-AUG-2000 (559)
Remark: The effect of the test substance on acetaminophen-induced

hepatotoxicity was studied in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats
(uninduced and induced). Hepatic glutathione (GSH) was
determined 4 h after dosing. No hepatotoxicity was observed
after administration of the test substance alone (200
mg/kg). Depleted GSH was noted; however, according to the
authors, this was most likely caused by decreased core body
temperature. In phenobarbital-induced rats, the test
substance substantially potentiated the hepatotoxicity of
acetaminophen. No potentiation was seen in rats induced with
3-methylcholanthren. According to the authors, the most
likely mechanism for the effects observed was activation of
the phenobarbital-inducible forms of cytochrom P-450 toward
formation of acetaminophen reactive metabolites by caffeine.
31-AUG-2000 (560)
Remark: Contraction of canine cerebral artery induced by the test

substance was studied in cultures of basiliar cerebral
arterial rings. In the complete absence of Ca2+, the test
substance (10 mM, ca. 1942 ug/ml) induced transient
contractions followed by relaxation in K+-depolarized
cerebral vascular tissue.
24-AUG-2000 (561)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: The effect of the test substance on gap junctional

communication in V79 Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cells
was studied using the V79/metabolic cooperation assay
(vehicle: media). No substance-related effects were seen at
concentrations or up to 500 ug/ml.
31-AUG-2000 (562)
Remark: The caffeine-induced uncoupling of mitosis from the

completions of DNA replication was studied in Syrian hamster
fibroblasts (BHK cells). The cells were incubated for 24 h,
then treated with medium, calf serum and hydroxyurea for
another 14 h, and finally given the test substance along
with colcemid. The test substance induced the translation or
stabilized the protein products of mitosis-related RNA that
accumulated in S-phase cells when DNA replication was
suppressed.
31-AUG-2000 (563)
Remark: The effect of the test substance on the contact feeding

phenomenon in Chinese hamster V79 cells, 6-TG-resistent
clone and T2-14 cells was investigated. The test substance
did not give any increase of the recovery in the
contact-feeding assay. According to the authors, this result
suggested that the test substance did not inhibit the
phenomenon of metabolic cooperation.
31-AUG-2000 (564)
Remark: The effect of the test substance on the disposition of brain

serotonin was studied. Male young Wistar rats were given
caffeine containing beverages or fed diets containing
caffeine from various sources of caffeine plus adenosine for
1 or 4 days. Brains were collected for fluorimetric assay of
tryptophan, serotonin and 5HIAA. Serum cAMP concentations
were determined by radioimmunoassay. Brain tryptophan,
serotonin and 5HIAA and serum cAMP were significantly
increased. Adenosine partially reduced the caffeine-induced
increase in brain serotonin but increased cAMP levels. Brain
findings were similar after 1 and 4 days.
31-AUG-2000 (565)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: The effect of the test substance on urinary electrolyts and

renal prostaglandin (PG) synthesis was studied. Female
Sprague-Dawley rats were given a single dose of the test
substance (1.5, 5, 15, 50 mg/kg). No effect was seen at 1.5
mg/kg. Renal function was altered at 5 mg/kg and above. At
50 mg/kg, increased excretion of Na+ and Ca2+ was noted; at
later time, K+ and Ca2+ decreased below control. Increased
PGE2 and 6-keto-PGF1-alpha excretion was observed.
31-AUG-2000 (566)
Type: Chemobiokinetics general studies
Remark: Male rats were given 1, 2.5, 10 and 25 mg/kg of the test
substance i.v. and the kinetics found were compared with
liver perfusion patterns. For doses less than 10 mg/kg or
mg/l, caffeine blood or perfusate concentrations/time
profiles followed first order kinetics and the elimination
rate constant (average 0.013/min) and half-life (55 min)
were similar for in vivo and ex vivo conditions. After doses
of 10 and 25 mg/kg or mg/l, kinetics were nonlinear. The
area under the blood or medium con centration-time curve
increased; however, this increase was not dose-related.
31-AUG-2000 (567)
Remark: Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion in

animals was summarized:
Caffeine absorption and distribution from gastrointestinal
tract is rapid and complete and it is distributed to all
body fluids and appeared in all tissues within 5 min. There
is no accumulation of caffeine or its metabolites in any
organ even after high doses. No blood-brain barrier or
placental barrier was detected. The fraction bound to plasma
albumin varies from 10 to 30%. It is eliminated by various
species by first-order kinetics, described by a
one-compartment open model system. The half-life for several
species ranged between 0.7 to 12 h (rats to baboons) and a
mean volume of distribution of 0.8 l/kg has been reported
for various species. Decreased as well as increased
half-lifes were found in pregnant animals. Caffeine is
metabolized by liver microsomal mixed-function oxidases and
can increase metabolizing enzymes at high doses (75 mg/kg).
Caffeine is eliminated in animals by biotransformation to
dimethylxanthines, dimethyl- and monomethyluric acids and
uracil derivatives. Differences in formation and elimination
of metabolites were noted in rats, mice and Chinese hamsters
and mainly in monkeys, where it is almost completely
metabolized to theophylline. In contrast, the acetylated
uracil derivative,

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
5-acetylamino-6-formylamino-3-methyluracil, one of the most

important metabolites in human, was not found in rodents or
other species.
Pharmacokinetic differences were recognized in mice after
oral administration, which may account for interstrain
variation in toxicity and in rabbits two subpopulations were
described with slow or rapid metabolizing capacity (IARC,
1991).
For further reviews see Nau,1987; Arnaud,1993; Arnaud et
al.,1988; Sawynok and Yaksh, 1993).
review, comparable with relaibility 2, data from Handbook
or collection of data, selected for ICCA RSS
30-JAN-2002 (568) (569) (72) (570) (571)
Remark: The disposition of the test substance and its

dimethylxantine metabolites (theobromine, theophylline and
paraxanthine) was studied in non-pregnant and 20-day
pregnant rats. The rats were administered a single oral dose
of the test substance (5 or 25 mg/kg). Peak plasma levels
were reached at 1-3 hours in all fluids and tissues
examined. However, the elimination phase differed
significantly between pregnant and non -pregnant rats. At the
high dose level, plasma half life was significantly lower in
the pregnant rats; at the low dose level, elimination half
life was similar in both groups. Area-under-curve (AUC)
values were used to compare caffeine and metabolite exposure
in fetal tissue. At 25 mg/kg, peak concentrations for
amniotic fluid, fetal blood, liver and kidneys were not
significantly different from one another. At 25 mg/kg, peak
levels in fetal liver and kidney were significantly less
than those of fetal blood, amniotic blood or placenta.
According to the authors, this observed increase in maternal
elimination half life at the high dose level suggested that
a cautionary note was sounded about caffeine intake during
pregnancy.
21-AUG-2000 (572)
Type: Cytotoxicity
Remark: The cytotoxicity was determined in rat hepatocytes, McCoy

and MDBK cells; the respective CT50 values were determined.
The CT50 is the minimum test concentration inducing
morphological changes or 50% cell deaths and/or 50-100%
increase in LDH release and represent the mean value for all
three effects.
CT50 = 1.596 mM (ca. 0.3 mg/ml) (rat hepatocytes)
CT50 = 15.44 mM (ca. 2.3 mg/ml) (McCoy cells)
CT50 = 15.87 mM (ca. 3.1 mg/ml) (MDBK cells)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
22-AUG-2000 (573)
Type: Cytotoxicity
Remark: The acute in vitro cytotoxicity was assayed biochemically

inhuman lymphocytes and resulted in LC50 values of 1020
ug/ml (LDH assay), 1200 mg/ml (DNA assay) and 800 ug/ml (MTT
assay). The IC50 value for HeLa cells was 1300 ug/ml.
Test substance: caffeine; according to the authors, purity was of the
highest grade commercially available
31-AUG-2000 (574)
Type: Cytotoxicity
Remark: Cytotoxicity was determined in human foreskin fibroblast

cell line (HFF), human hepatoma cell line (HepG2), human
melanoma cell line (Mel/27), human epidermal keratinocytes
(NHEK) and in human endothelial cells (ENDO) using the
Neutral Red assay. The following midpoint cytotoxicity
values (NR50%) were determined:
ENDO: 5 mM (ca. 971 ug/ml)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
NHEK: 18 mM (ca. 3495 ug/ml)

HEF: 19 mM (ca. 3690 ug/ml)
Mel/27: 12 mM (ca. 2330 ug/ml)
HepTG2: 15 mM (ca. 2913 ug/ml)
22-AUG-2000 (575)
Type: Cytotoxicity
Remark: The hepatoxicity of the test substance was studied in vitro.

Isolated rat hepatocytes were incubated with the test
substance at concentrations of 0, 2.5, 5.0, and 10 mM (ca.
0, 485, 971, 1942 ug/l) at 37 degree C for 60, 120, and 180
minutes. A significant, dose-and time-related loss of cell
viability, as measured by cell count and lactate
dehydrogenase leakage to the medium was observed.
31-AUG-2000 (576)
Type: Distribution
Remark: Pregnant FDA-strain Osborne-Mendel rats were administered

the 14C-labelled test substance on days 12 to 15 of
gestation. The test substance was applied at a dose level of
80 mg/kg/d either by gavage or via the drinking water. After
administration in the drinking water, radioactivity in the
blood was variable. The highest level on day 12 was 0.2%/ml
blood; the highest level observed during a 24-hour sampling
period averaged 5.7 ug/ml. After gavage dosing, blood
radioactivity peaked of 0.4% of the dose per ml blood and
declined rapidly thereafter. The highest amount observed in
blood averaged 63.1 ug/ml at 1 h after dosing. The overall
blood elimination half-life of radioactivity was 2.6 h in
gavage-treated rats; the caffeine half-life in blood was 1.7
h. The levels of radioactivity in the fetus and maternal
muscle were comparable after each method. Increased
resorptions were seen in both treated groups ectrodactyly
was evident in offsprings of the gavage-treated rats.
31-AUG-2000 (577)
Type: Excretion
Remark: After i.v. injection of 200 ug (10 uCi) to female pigs, about
68% and 17% of the radioactivity was excreted in the urine
and the feces, respectively. Total excretion was ca. 85%.
Topical application of 200 ug (10 uCi) resulted in a total
excretion (urine and feces) of 11.8% (urinary excretion:
8.5%)
30-JAN-2002 (578)
OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: Immunotoxicity

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: The methylxanthine-induced inhibition of the antigen- and

superantigen-specific activation was studied in T and B
lymphocytes. The test substance (in vitro) induced the
inhibition of the antigen and superantigen-specific
activation of T and B lymphocytes as tested by the responses
of mouse and human lymphocytes to stimulation with
polyclonal T- and B-cell mitogens, antigens, and the
microbial superantigen, staphylococcal enterotoxin B.
22-AUG-2000 (579)
Type: Immunotoxicity
Remark: Administration of the test substance (2, 6 and 18 mg/kg) for

at least 120 consecutive days by gavage to male Sprague
Dawley rats led to no plausible alteration of the tested
immunological cell activities except an increased response
to the T-cell mitogen PHA at 18 mg/kg. However, in vitro
application decreased B- and T-lymphocyte proliferation; NK
cell activity was not effected (neither in vivo nor in
vitro).
22-AUG-2000 (580)
Type: Metabolism
Remark: In both humans and rats, excretion of caffeine mainly

occures via urine (about 90 % dose in rats; > 95 % in
humans).
Caffeine metabolism is qualitavely relatively similar in
animals and humans. The main metabolic pathways are:
demethylation and hydroxylation of the 8-position leading to
the formation of the respective uracil and uric acid
derivatives. There are, however, some quantitative
differences in the metabolic profile. Humans are
characterized by the importance of 3-methyl demethylation
leading to the formation of paraxanthine and especially
metabolites thereof through subsequent metabolic steps. The
main urinary metabolites in humans are 1-methyluric acid,
1-methylxanthine, and 1,7-dimethyluric acid. In rats and
mice, the metabolism of caffeine is predominantly via
theobromine and theophylline. The main urinary metabolites
are1,3-dimethyluracil, paraxanthine, trimethyluric acid,
theophylline, and theobromine.
Caffeine metabolism decreases during pregnancy, resulting in
higher serum concentrations.
data from Handbook or collection of data
30-JAN-2002 (581)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: Toxicokinetics
Remark: Pharmacokinetics were examined in horses after 2.5 mg/kg

i.v., i.m. or p.o. application. Pharmacokinetics after i.v.
were decribed by assumption of a two-compartment model and
those after i.m or p.o. by assumption of one-compartment
model. Half-lifes were 15.5; 18.6 and 16.4 h after i.v.,
i.m. of p.o. application, respectively. Pharmacokinetic
parameters differed not significantly among the
administration routes.
31-AUG-2000 (582)
Type: other
Remark: Evaluation of the genotoxicity of caffeine by the

carcinogen prediction and battery section (CPSB) method on
the basis of four mutagenicity assays predict that caffeine
has potential for genotoxic carcinogenicity (Rosenkranz and
Ennever, 1987) but the available animal bioassays clearly
indicates that caffeine does not have carcinogenic potential
(Grice, 1987).
30-JAN-2002 (583) (584) (585)
Type: other
Remark: The aim of the study was to investigate the lasting effects
of early exposure to the test substance. Pregnant rats were
fed the test substance (20 mg/kg/d) starting on day 9 of
gestation until day 93 post partum (weaning of the pups: day
22 post partum). Thereafter the dams received caffeine-free
diet and were sacrificed at day 388. In the offspring,
lasting effects on the behavior (increased locomotive
activity) and biochemically altered brain regions were
noted.
31-AUG-2000 (586)
Type: other
Remark: Administration of 60 mg/kg to male BALB/c mice via the

drinking water used for impregnation and gestant modified
the passive avoidance behavior of offsprings. The author
assessed this as preliminary indication that functional
effects of fetal caffeine exposure can be expressed in a
second generation.
22-AUG-2000 (587)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: The effects of the test substance on gamma-radiation induced

DNA damage was studied in ataxia telangiectasia
lymphoblastoid cells obtained from adult humans. The test
substance potentiated the induction of chromosomal breaks in
G2 arrested AT heterozygote and normal lymphoblastoid cells,
but not in homozygous AT lymphoblastoid cells.
31-AUG-2000 (588)
Remark: The DNA modifying activity of the test substance was

evaluated using normal and DNA-polymerase-deficient strains
of Escherichia coli. The test substance gave positive
results.
24-AUG-2000 (589)
Type: other: anticancer effect
Remark: The inhibitory effect of the test substance on the induction

of cutaneous tumors by ultraviolet rays was studied in
female SPF-derived Swiss mice. A solution of the test
substance (0.2% in acetone) was painted onto the ears of the
mice prior to irradiation for 90 minutes. Untreated mice
were used as control. According to the authors, the test
substance significantly reduced the incidence of cutaneous
tumors produced by UV rays (by ca. one half). No
substance-related lesions were seen in nonirradiated,
caffeine treated mice.
31-AUG-2000 (590)
Type: other: carcinogenicity in vitro
Remark: A rapid in vitro assay for carcinogencity was validated.

Rauscher leukemia virus-infected rat embryo cells (2FR450
cells) were seeded into plastic flasks and incubated for 24
hours. The test substance was added to the cells (440 ug per
5.2 x 10E4 cells); control cultures received the solvent.
After 72 hours of incubation at 37 degree C, cells were
removed from the flasks by trypsinization and washed, after
which viable cell counts were obtained. Viable cells were
then seeded into dishes having a solid bottom layer of agar.
The dishes were incubated at 37 degree C with a control set
of dishes seeded with untreated cells (negative control) and
with 3-methylcholantrene-treated cells (positive control).
Three and six days later, cells were harvested and viable
cells were counted. According to the authors, in cultures
treated with the test substance, percent increase over
control was greater than 118%. This result was judged as
positive.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
31-AUG-2000 (591)
Type: other: classification
Remark: There is inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of

caffeine in humans and in experimental animals.
Caffeine is not classifiable as to its carcinogencity to
humans (group 3).
31-AUG-2000 (72)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: other: effect on sperm
Remark: The effect of the test substance on macaque sperm motility

and interaction with the zona pellucida was studied in
vitro. Semen from 6 cynomolgus macaques was incubated for
2.5 hours with the test substance at a concentration of 2 mM
(ca. 288 ug/ml). Immature oocytes were placed into drops of
sperm suspensions, coincubated with sperm for 30 seconds,
and either fixed immediately or removed to sperm-free media
and incubated 1 hour before fixation. There were no
differences between treated and control cultures in the
percentage of live, acrosome-reacted sperm in suspension.
Treatment with the test substance significantly increased
the number of sperm bound to the zona pellucida.
21-AUG-2000 (592)
Type: other: effect on sperm (human)
Remark: Incubation of human spermatozoa with 6 mM caffeine resulted

in alteration of motility and velocity and affected the
metabolism of the spermatozoa.
31-AUG-2000 (593)
Type: other: effect on sperm (human)
Remark: The effect of lifestyle (smoking, caffeine intake and

alcohol consumption) on human sperm was studied. Samples of
semen, blood and urine were collected from 86 volunteers,
combined with a questionaire on demography and lifestyle.
Sperm nuclear size, shape and chromatin texture parameters
were measured by a computer image analysis. Results
indicated no associations between the sperm nuclear
morphometric parameters andage, smoking, or alcohol
consumption. A weak evidence for an association with
caffeine intake was seen.
21-AUG-2000 (594)
Type: other: gastric irritation
Remark: The aim of the study was to investigate gastric irritation

and bleeding after drug administration. Grousp of 4-6 rats
received a single dose of the test substance in distilled
water (20 ug/ml) after a 24-hour fast. Sacrifice was 1 h
after dosing. No bleeding or ulceration of the stomach was
noted.
31-AUG-2000 (595)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Type: other: inhibition of DNA synthesis
Remark: Inhibition of DNA synthesis in mouse L5178Y cells, LS929

mouse fibroblasts and V79 Chinese hamster cells was
recorded. Reduction of newly synthesized DNA was inhibited
in both unradiated and ultraviolet radiated cells.
22-AUG-2000 (596)
Type: other: inhibiton of DNA synthesis
Remark: The HeLa DNA-synthesis inhibiton test, a rapid screen for

mutagenic carcinogens was validated. HeLa cells were
incubated with the test substance in the presence and
absence of S-9 for 60 and 30 minutes, respectively. No
mutagenic effect was observed.
31-AUG-2000 (597)
Type: other: maternal-fetal effect
Result: The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship

between fetal exposure and cardiovascular functional
effects. The test substance (100 mg/kg) was administered
i.v. to pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats on day 21 of gestation.
The transplacental transport of the test substance was
evaluated. by obtaining maternal and fetal blood sampes
(umbilical vein) at designated times after administration.
Concurrent maternal-fetal electrocardiograms (ECGs) were
measured and evaluated for substance-related changes.
Maternal and fetal plasma caffeine levels as well as area
under curve (AUC) values were proportionally related
throughout the study, indicative of equal exposure to the
test substance. The fetal ECG exhibited more extensive
changes associated with the test substance than did the
dams'. The fetal effects were not detected within the first
30 minutes, suggesting a lag period for the activity of the
test substance to the fetal heart.
22-AUG-2000 (598)
Type: other: prevention of malformation
Remark: The prevention of limb malformations induced by the test

substance by maternal adrenalectomy was studied in AKR mice.
Pregnant dams were adrenalectomized on day 6 of gestation
and were administered the test substance on day 11 and 12 of
gestation (175 mg/kg i.p.). Control mice were administered
the test substance without adrenalectomy. Fetuses were
evaluated on day 18 of gestation. Thirty percent of the
surving pups of contol dams were malformed compared to 7%
malformed pups in the group of adrenalecomized dams.
According to the authors, caffeine teratogenesis was

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
initiated by release of catecholamine from apparently the

maternal adrenal gland.
31-AUG-2000 (599)
Type: other: recombinagenicity

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Concentrations of 50 mM (ca. 9.7 mg/ml) or higher inhibited

cell replication and induced gene segregation in Candida
albicans cultured on defined complete medium. Caffeine
concentrations above 150 mM (ca. 29.1 mg/ml) caused cellular
inactivation. Consequently, the test substance was
recombinagenic but not mutagenic for Candida albicans.
31-AUG-2000 (600)
Type: other: reproductive effects in vitro
Result: CD-1 mouse oocytes were exposed to the test substance at

concentrations of 1, 2.5, 5, or 10 mM (ca. 194, 485, 971,
1942 ug/ml) for 10, 30, or 60 minutes (control: exposure to
10% ethanol and unstimulated aging oocytes). Pronuclear
embryos from CD-1, CF-1 and B6C3F1 hybrid mice were cultured
in 0.16, 0.33, 0.66, 1.2 5, 2.5, 5 or 10 mM (ca. 31, 64, 128,
243, 485, 971 or 1942 ug/ml) and development was scored over
96 hours of culture.
Exposure to the test substance artificially activated mouse
oocytes in a concentration- and exposure time-dependent
manner. The level of activation was significantly greater
than that associated with aging but less than
ethanol-induced activation. Caffeine-activated oocytes had
limited developmental capacity compared with the
ethanol-activated oocytes. The test substance affected
embryo development in a dose-dependent manner with
developmental inhibition and embryotoxicity.
31-AUG-2000 (601)
Type: other: reproductive toxicity
Remark: The embryotoxic risk of exposure to the test substance

during the preimplantation period was studied in mice.
Pregnant NMRI mice were given the test substance by gavage
at dose levels of 24, 48, 100 and 200 mg/kg before
implantation; the test substance was given in 4 divided
doses. No embryotoxicity was observed at doese of up to 100
mg/kg. In mice administered 200 mg/kg, decreased fetal body
weight, significantly increased percentage of retards or
resorbed fetuses, and embryolethality was recorded.
31-AUG-2000 (602)
Type: other: review (general)
31-AUG-2000 (72) (603) (604) (605) (606) (607)
Type: other: review (mutagenicity)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Literature reviews of papers on general or selective

mutagenicity and/or carcinogenicity studies
21-AUG-2000 (117) (608) (609) (610) (195) (611) (612) (613) (614) (615)
Remark: Literature reviews of papers on general or selective

mutagenicity and/or carcinogenicity studies
22-AUG-2000 (616) (72) (617) (618) (619) (620) (584) (621) (622)
22-AUG-2000 (623) (448)
Type: other: review (reproduction)
Remark: Review about reproductive effects of caffeine
31-AUG-2000 (624) (625) (626)
Type: other: strain A mouse carcinogencity screen
Remark: Male strain A mice received i.p. doses of 8, 20 and 40

mg/kg three times a week for eight weeks and were examined
24 weeks after the first injection in a screening assay based
on the accelerated induction of lung tumors. All three
doses decreased the incidence of lung tumors.
31-AUG-2000 (627)
Type: other: teratogenicity
Remark: Caffeine induced dose-dependent malformations in a new

Drosophila bioassay that was developed to screen possible
malformation-inducing chemicals (exposure of developing
Drosophila from egg through three larval stages by
incorporating the test substance into the culture medium).
24-AUG-2000 (628)
Remark: The patterns of response of intact Drosophila to known

teratogens were studied. Wild-type Oregon-R fly larvae were
exposed to the test substance in medium over their entire
morphogenic cycle (concentrations: 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
ug/ml). Each adult fly was systematically examined for
external morphological abnormalities. Substance-related
effects were seen at each dose level.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
31-AUG-2000 (629)
Remark: Forelimb buds of day 14 rat fetuses were cut into pieces and
transplanted subcutaneously into athymic (nude) mice. On the
7th, 9th, and 11th day after grafting, the nude mice were
treated orally with the test substance at doses of 200, 400,
and 800 mg/kg. On the 20th day, the grafted tissue was
examined macroscopically and histologically. The
differentiation of the graft was significantly inhibited at
all dose levels.
31-AUG-2000 (630)
Type: other: teratogenicity in vitro
Remark: The teratogenic activity of the test substance was tested in

the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay - Xenopus (FETAX), a
teratogenicity screening test. Frog larvae were exposed to
the test substance using a static renewal procedure,
exposure time was 120 hours.
LC50 = 0.19 (0.18-0.21) mg/ml
LOEC = 0.08 mg/ml (MCIG = mean minimum concentration to
inhibit growth)
TI = 1.46 (teratogenic index = LC50/EC50)
31-AUG-2000 (631)
Remark: In the in vitro teratogenicity screening assay using the

whole chick embryo culture, the IC50 was ca. 0.525 +/- 1.6
mmol/l (ca. 102 ug/ml); IC50 = concentration that induced
malformations in 50% of the embryos.
24-AUG-2000 (632)
Remark: The effects of the test substance on cultured whole rat

embryos obtained from nulliparous Sprague-Dawley rats was
studied. Exposure to 1 mmol/1 ml serum (ca. 0.2 ug/ml) on
cultured whole rat embryos delivered on gestation day 10 and
cultured to gestational day 12 in vitro resulted in a
multiple delay in development.
31-AUG-2000 (633)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: The developmental toxicity of the test substance was studied

in frog larvae. In vitro exposure of larvae of Xenopus
laevis to concentrations of 100, 250, 500, 1000, and 2000
ug/ml for 48 hours induced dose-dependently developmental
toxicity (shortened body with wavy fins). Affected larvae
were frequently accompanied by abnormal body flexure and
edema in the fin. Light microscopy revealed severe damage in
the myotome and neural tube; damage of the epidermal tissue
was seen at higher concentrations. The highest concentration
was completely lethal.

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
31-AUG-2000 (634)
Remark: The teratogenicity of the test substance was evaluated in

the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay - Xenopus (FETAX), a
96-hour whole embryo developmental toxicity screening assay.
LC50 was in the range of 0.22 to 0.37 mg/ml.

23-AUG-2000 (635)
Remark: The effects of an embryotoxic dose of the test substance on

the ultrastructure and mitochondrial function of the
embryonic heart was studied in chick embryos. Doses of 1.0
to 4.7 mg were applied to extraembryonic membranes through
an observation window of white Leghorn eggs. Abnormalities
in the ultrastructure of embryonic cardiocytes (disruption
of mitochondrial christae and marked intracellular edema)
and inhibition of the mitochondrial succinate oxidation was
noted aftr application of 3.5 mg. Increased heart rate (up
to 30%), stroke volume, ejection fraction and cardiac output
was observed.
23-AUG-2000 (636) (637)
Remark: Cultures of whole embryos from RAI rats (explanted on day

9.5 of gestation) were treated in vitro with the test
substance at concentrations of 30, 100, 300, and 600 ug/ml
in the presence of Aroclor-incuced rat liver S -9 mix.
Malformations (hypoplasia of the telencephalon, malformed
mandibular aches, reduced somite number, reduced crowm-rump
length, and reduced yolk sac size) was seen even at the
lowest concentration (Cicurel and Schmid, 1988).
Studies conducted in the presence and absence of a metabolic
acivation system showed that the induced malformations
occurred at much lower concentrations when a liver
microsomal system (S-9 and NADP) was present (Schmid and
Cicurel, 1987)
31-AUG-2000 (638) (639)
Remark: The teratogenicity of the test substance was studied in the

Frog Embryo Teratogenicity Assay - Xenopus (FETAX) in the
presence of metabolic activation system (MAS). The 4-day
LC50 (median lethal concentration) EC50 (malformation and

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
MCIG (Minimum Concentration to Inhibit Growth) was

calculated.
LC50 = 0.48 mg/ml in the presence of MAS
LC50 = 0.18 mg/ml in the absence of MAS
EC50 = 0.12 mg/ml in the presence of MAS
EC50 = 0.08 mg/ml in the absence of MAS
MCIC = 0.05 mg/ml in the presence of MAS
MCIC = 0.01 mg/ml in the absence of MAS
The result was judged to be positive.
31-AUG-2000 (640)
Remark: The aim of the study was to evaluate an in vitro

teratogenicity model. Swiss Webster mouse embryos were
excised on day 11 of gestation, hindlimb buds were dissected
and cultured. After 24 hours of culture, the test substance
(50 - 1000 ug/ml) was added for 96 hours. 3H-Thymidine and
35S-sulfate were added after treatment for 72 hours.
Teratogenic activity was measured by determining the
incorporation of radioactivity. Preferential inhibition of
proteoglycan or DNA-synthesis was judged to be indicative of
teratogenicity. According to the authors, a significant
inhibition of 35S incorporation into sulfated proteoglycan
and 3H-thymidinde incorporation into DNA was noted,
indicative of depressed cartilage proteoglycan synthesis.
The test substance was judged to be positive in this assay.
23-AUG-2000 (641)
Remark: The test substance gave positive results in the hydra assay
(in vitro developmental toxicity prescreen).
31-AUG-2000 (642) (643)
Remark: The vaccina virus test was used as a model system for
teratology testing. Strain western reserve was grown in
primate cell cultures (vehicle: medium). According to the
author, this assay was determined to be 92% sensitive,
specific and accurate in predicting rodent teratology. The
RD50 was the dose which inhibited or stimulated virus growth
by 50%. Positive results were obtained for the test
substance. RD50 was 200 ug/ml.
24-AUG-2000 (644)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: Cultured fetal palates prepared from gestation day 12.5 ICR
mice were incubated with the test substance at
concentrations of 0.5, 1, and 2 mM (ca. 97, 194, 388 ug/ml)
for 72 hours (vehicle: ethanol). The stage of palatal fusion
was evaluated by microscopy. No substance-related effect was
seen at the low and mid concentration. At 2 mM, palatal
development was inhibited.
31-AUG-2000 (645)
Remark: The teratogenic activity of the test substance was studied

in cultures of whole chick and rat embryo as well as
aggregating embryonic brain cell cultures.
Whole chick embryos were preincubated with the test
substance and allowed to develop for another 3 days.
Anomalies noted were brain vesicles, branchail region,
somites irregular/opposited heart. An IC50 value of 0.3
mmol/l (ca. 58 ug/ml) was established. The test substance
showed weak teratogenic potential.
Whole rat embryos were explanted at gestation day 9.5 and
incubated with the test substance for 48 h. At a
concentration of 0.3 mmol/l (ca. 58 ug/ml),
microtelencephalia was noted. Predominant abnormality was
hypoplasia of the telencephalon and of the branchial region.
The test substance was weakly teratogenic.
Aggregating brain cell cultures were treated with the test
substance for 5 to 14 days. At a concentration of 1 mmol/l
(ca. 194 ug/ml), decreased levels of 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide
c-phosphohydrolase (CNP) were observed.
Based on these results, the test substance was classified as
positive with regard to teratogenicity.
31-AUG-2000 (646)

using a standardized chick embryo culture. Eggs were
preincubated for 20 hours. Test solutions were mixed with
egg albumin (1:1) prior to application; growth and
morphogenesis of the embryos were evaluated after 42 hours.
Normal survival was noted at up to 0.1 mM (ca. 19 ug/ml).
Anomalies and malformations in 50% of the embryos were
present at 0.7 mM (ca. 136 ug/ml). Perturbations in the
extraembryonic membrane were noted at 1 mM (ca. 194 ug/ml).
Embryonic growth was affected at 5 mM (ca. 970 ug/ml). Data
on mortality revealed an LD50 of 4 mM (ca. 777 ug/ml) and an
LD100 of 5 mM (ca. 970 ug/ml).

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
31-AUG-2000 (647)

using chick embryos in vitro. Eggs were incubated at 37.5
degree Centrigrade. The embryos at the stage of gastrulation
were explanted from the egg into transparent silicon
chambers where they continued to develop for 3 days. The
test substance was tested in this culture. Survival scores,
growth perturbations and early signs of anomalies of the
nervous, skeletomotor and cardiovascular systems were noted.
Cardiovacular anomalies probably linked to an incomplete
torsion and shortening of the cervicothoraic region was
seen. LD50 was 623 ug/ml; malformations in 50% of the
embryos occurred at 60 ug/ml.
31-AUG-2000 (648)
Remark: In toto mouse embryos were cultivated at embryonic day 8.5

and were incubated with the test substance (105, 310, 620
uM; ca. 20, 60, 120 ug/ml) for 26 h. According to the
authors, the doses selected corresponded to concentrations
transferred by the placenta of heavy caffeine consumers.
Failure of neural tube closure, excessive proliferation of
the neuroepithelial cells and premature evagination of
telencephalic vesicles were present in 50% of the embryos.
When reaching the embryonic neural tube before neuronal
migration, the test substance modified the schedule and/or
the rate of neuronal proliferation.
31-AUG-2000 (649)
Remark: A short-term screening test for teratogens was evaluated.

The ability of the test substance to interfere with
morphological differentiation in mouse neuroblastoma cells
(N1E-115 clone) was studied (vehicle: water or ethanol). No
substance-related effect was seen at a concentration of 0.01
mM (ca. 1.9 ug/ml). Differentiation of the cells was induced
at a concentraion of 0.1 mM (ca. 19.4 ug/ml).
24-AUG-2000 (650)
Remark: The stem-cell test, an in vitro teratogenicity assay was

validated. Embryonic stem cell line D3 was incubated with

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
the test substance for 7 days. Effects on cell survival

(cytotoxicity) and differentiation were measured. The
criterion for classification as a teratogen was specific
inhibition of cell differentiation, i.e. materials were
classified as positive if the ratio (A/D) of the IC50 for
cytotoxicity (A) to the IC50 for differentiation (D)
exceeded 2. The sensitivity of this test was 73%, its
specificity was 70%
With caffeine, IC50 for cytotoxicity was 78 ug/ml; IC50 for
differentiation was 68 ug/ml, resulting in an A/D ration of
1.15.
31-AUG-2000 (651)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
Remark: The teratogenic potential of the test substance was

determined in an in vitro screening assy using growth
inhibition of human embryonic cells. The ability of the test
substance to inhibit the growth of human embryonic
mesenchymal cells was studied at a concentration of 1 mM
(ca. 194 ug/ml); vehicle was medium, water, ethanol or DMSO.
No effect of the test substance was found.
31-AUG-2000 (652)
Remark: The teratogenicity of the test substance was studied using

limb bud cell cultures. Embryos were removed from
Sprague-Dawley dams on day 13 of gestation.; limb buds were
removed and cultured. The cells were incubated with the test
substance at five different concentrations for 5 days. Cell
differentiation was quantified spectrophotometrically. The
test substance was classified as a positive specific
inhibitor of proloferation at concentrations of 100-1000
ug/ml.
24-AUG-2000 (653)
Remark: The teratogenicity of the test substance was evaluated in

the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay: Xenopus (FETAX). Groups
of 20 normally developing mid-cleavage blastulae from female
Xenopus were continuously exposed to the test substance at
concentrations of 0-100 ug/ml for 96 hours. Mortality and
stage of development were checked at 24, 48, 72 and 96
hours. Remaining endpoints, including LC50, EC50
(malformation-teratogenesis), NOEC, growth, motor behaviour,
pigmentation and gross anatomy were recorded at 96 hours.
Teratogenicity index (TI50) was determined. According to the
authors, TI50 was > 2.5, representative of a high potential
for teratogenicity.
31-AUG-2000 (654)
Remark: The teratogencity of the test substance was tested in the

embryonic stem cell test using BALB/c 3T3 fibroblasts and
D3ES embryonic stem cells. The cells were incubated with the
test substance (155-795 ug/ml) for 1, 3, and 10 days. The
MTT assay was used to assess cytotoxicity in both cell
lines. Inhibition of differentiation was measured in the
D3ES cells. According to the authors, the stem cells were

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
slightly more sensitive to caffein than the adult 3T3 cells.

31-AUG-2000 (655)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
6. ANALYT. METH. FOR DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION DATE: 04-MAR-2003
6.1 Analytical Methods
6.2 Detection and Identification

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
7. EFF. AGAINST TARGET ORG. AND INTENDED USES DATE: 04-MAR-2003
7.1 Function
7.2 Effects on Organisms to be Controlled
7.3 Organisms to be Protected
7.4 User
7.5 Resistance

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
8. MEAS. NEC. TO PROT. MAN, ANIMALS, ENVIRONMENT DATE: 04-MAR-2003
8.1 Methods Handling and Storing
Fire/Exp. Prot.: prevent electrostatic charge - sources of ignition should be

kept well clear - fire extinguishers should be kept handy
Storage Req.: Keep tightly sealed. Protect from light.
Transport Code: Not classified as hazardous under transport regulations.
Remark: PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Respiratory protection: dust mask
Hand protection: protective gloves
Eye protection: Wear eye/face protection.
General safety and hygiene measures: The usual precautions for

thehandling of chemicals must be observed.
17-JAN-2003 (2)
8.2 Fire Guidance
Ext. Medium: water, dry extinguishing media, carbon dioxide (CO2), foam
Add. Information: Dispose of fire debris and contaminated extinguishing water in
accordance with local regulations.
Products arising: unknown

17-JAN-2003 (2)
8.3 Emergency Measures
Type: other: general advice
Remark: Remove contaminated clothing.

17-JAN-2003 (2)
Type: injury to persons (skin)
Remark: Wash with soap and water.

17-JAN-2003 (2)
Type: injury to persons (eye)
Remark: Immediately wash affected eyes for at least 15 minutes under

running water with eyelids held open, consult an eye
specialist.
17-JAN-2003 (2)
Type: injury to persons (oral)

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
8. MEAS. NEC. TO PROT. MAN, ANIMALS, ENVIRONMENT DATE: 04-MAR-2003
Remark: Immediately rinse mouth and then drink plenty of water, summon
physician.
17-JAN-2003 (2)
Type: injury to persons (inhalation)
Remark: keep patient calm, remove to fresh air, summon medical help
17-JAN-2003 (2)
Type: accidental spillage
Remark: Personal precautions: Ensure adequate ventilation.
Environmental precautions: Do not let product enter drains.

Prevent product from entering water courses or the ground.
Methods for cleaning up: Sweep up and then dispose of.

17-JAN-2003 (2)
8.4 Possib. of Rendering Subst. Harmless
8.5 Waste Management
Memo: other: Must be disposed of by special means, e.g. suitable

incineration, in accordance with local regulations.

17-JAN-2003 (2)
8.6 Side-effects Detection
8.7 Substance Registered as Dangerous for Ground Water
8.8 Reactivity Towards Container Material

OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
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OECD SIDS CAFFEINE
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10. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION DATE: 04-MAR-2003
10.1 End Point Summary
10.2 Hazard Summary
10.3 Risk Assessment

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OECD SIDS CAFFEINE

SIDS Initial Assessment Report

1. Chemical Name: Caffeine

- Review of data and assessment of the quality of data

- Review of data evaluation

- Review of key study description according robust summaries requirements; completeness

- Review o f validity of structure -activity relationships

SIDS INITIAL ASSESSMENT PROFILE

CAS No. 58-08-2

Chemical Name Caffeine

The chemical is currently of low priority for further work.

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS OF THE SIAR

Experience with human exposure

NATURE OF FURTHER WORK RECOMMENDED

CAS NO: 58-08-2 SPECIES PROTOCOL RESULTS

2.1 Melting Point 235 239 C

ENVIRO NMENTAL FATE AND

3.1.1 Photodegradation calculated Indirect photolysis: air

3.5 Biodegradation readily biodegradable, estimated from ready

4.6.2 Toxicity to terrestrial plants Oryza sativa Growth inhibition at 0.5 10 mM

Tribolium LD50 adults (20 days) = 288 mg/kg

5.1.1 Acute Oral Toxicity Rat Comparable to OECD

Rat NTP program LD50 200-400 mg/kg bw

mice NTP programm mice 185 mg/kg bw

5.5 Genetic Toxicity In Vitro

Human Comparable to OECD Negative (with and without metabolic

5.6 Genetic Toxicity In Vivo Rat Cytogenetic, feed, 117 Negative

Mouse Cytogenetic, oocytes, i.p. Negative

Mouse Cytogenetic, Negative

Mouse Micronucleus, i.p. Negative

Mouse Micronucleus, gavage Weak positive in the highest dose

Mouse Dominant lethal test, Negative

Mouse Host-mediated assay with Negative

Mouse Continuous breeding , task

Gavage, day 1-20,allowed

Further Corrosiveness/Irritation Skin Rabbit OECD 404 Not irritating

Sensitisation Guinea Pig No data

Carcinogenicity Rat Drinking water up to Negative

Rapid absorption from gastrointestinal tract;

Toxicity Low doses (up to 2 g/ml in blood): stimu-

Epidemiology Caffeine and coffee consumption are highly

Cardiovascular No association between moderate consumption

Other effects Small increase in calcium excretion in subjects

No association with mortality from cancers at

Conflicting reports on the effect of caffeine on

High exposure (consumption of >3 -4 cups of

SIDS Initial Assessment Report (SIAR)

Chemical Name: Caffeine

CAS Number: 58-08-2

General Substance Information

Substance type: organic, natural substance

Physical and chemical properties

2.1 Environmental exposure and fate

2.2 Human Exposure

3.1 Effects on human health

3.1.1 Experience with human exposure

3.1.1.1 Toxicokinetics and metabolism