Ksiezyk Acta Energ 4-6-2013 PDF
Ksiezyk Acta Energ 4-6-2013 PDF
Ksiezyk Acta Energ 4-6-2013 PDF
Authors
Krzysztof Ksiyk
Tomasz Zdun
Keywords
short-circuit calculations, initial short-circuit current, electrical equipment models
Abstract
Determining the short-circuit currents is usually conducted by network analyses. An
important feature of this calculation is carried out according to the recommendations
of the standard PN EN 60909. This paper describes the models of the basic elements
of the network with the method of determining the impedance parameters including
correction factors introduced by the standard. Thevenins method connected with
the nodal method are presented and used to determine the initial short-circuit for
the example medium voltage network. Results are compared with the ones obtained
without taking into account the correction factors.
DOI: 10.12736/issn.2300-3022.2013406
1. Introduction event, the equipment will become damaged and the failure may
Investments in power engineering infrastructure, such as the cover a larger area of the network which may result in significant
construction of new power lines and the installation of trans- losses. On the other hand, installation of circuit-breakers with rated
formers or power generating units at power plants are all current with breaking capacity which is much larger than expected
preceded by numerous analyses, including technical evalua- currents is unjustified from an economic point of view.
tions. One of such studies is the estimation of expected values of Short-circuit calculations cover a wide range of subjects [1, 2, 3].
short-circuit currents. Short-circuits within networks may not be The most crucial element is the designation of values character-
entirely eliminated; therefore, power engineering systems must istic to the short-circuit current flow i(t). In the RL circuit of alter-
be suitably prepared. This primarily means the correct selection nating current which is shown in Fig. 1, after the closure at instant
of connecting equipment and of the cross-sections of cables and t = 0 of the connector, current i(t) will flow, as described by the
busbars. Additionally, the results of short-circuit calculations may equation (1).
be decisive to the introduction of factors limiting the values of
short-circuit currents e.g. selection and installation of current-
limiting reactors, use of high-speed circuit-breakers which prevent
the current from reaching its peak value, etc. In order to control
the level of short-circuit power, short-circuit calculations should
also be conducted during the on-going use of power engineering
systems and when changing their network topology.
The accuracy of short-circuit calculations has a considerable
impact on the safety of power engineering systems themselves
as well as human safety. During a short-circuit condition, currents
with an intensity several times higher than operating currents may Fig. 1. RL circuit of alternating current
be flowing through network elements. The circuit where the short-
circuit occurred must be immediately deactivated by opening the
circuit-breaker the selection of the correct connecting equip- R
2E 2E t
ment is of vital importance here. If the circuit-breakers connecting i( t ) = sin(t + ) sin( )e L
Z Z
capacity is insufficient, it will not be capable of suppressing the arc (1)
i( t ) = i A.C + i D .C
which may occur during the opening of the contacts. In such an
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where: Z = R 2 + (L )2 module of transfer impedance of flux gradually enters the impeller which increases the reactance
a closed circuit, = arctg(L/R) argument of transfer imped- value of the generator. In the first instance of the short-circuit
ance of a circuit, E root-mean-square of voltage source, condition the reactance is the lowest and assumes a value of
voltage angle at instance t = 0 of short-circuit occurrence, 15% (subtransient state), during the short-circuit condition it
= 2f pulsation. increases to approx. 30% (transient state) and then it reaches the
There may be two components identified in equation (1). The first maximum value ~200% (steady state). As a result, the reactance
one relates to the alternating current component iAC, forced in the of the circuit increases during the short-circuit condition and the
circuit by the voltage source. The second component is an aperi- amplitude of the short-circuit current decreases (Fig. 3).
odic component of the short-circuit current iDC, fading with time
consonant R/L. It occurs when the current in the circuit cannot
change using the step mode, so the sum of two components in
the first instance of the short-circuit condition must be equal to
the current before the short-circuit condition. Most frequently,
before the short-circuit condition occurs, a current-free mode is
assumed, so that the instantaneous value of the current at the
point when the short-circuit condition occurs equals zero (i(0+)
= i(0) = 0). If the short-circuit condition occurs at such an instant
that the condition - = /2 is fulfilled, then the direct-current
component assumes the maximum initial value. Consequently, it
results in the i(t) assuming the largest instantaneous value. Such
a situation is shown in Fig. 2. In addition, the following character-
istic values are presented:
initial short-circuit current Ik component rms value Fig. 3. Flow of the short-circuit current i(t) in the RL circuit of the alterna-
periodical short-circuit component at the first instance of the ting current at a short-line fault
short-circuit condition
steady-state short-circuit current Ik
Short-circuit calculations should be conducted in compliance
with relevant current standards. In 2002, the Polish Committee
for Standardization (PKN) approved the international standard
IEC 60909:0 [4] as valid in Poland, in this way adapting the Polish
standards to the ones in force within the European Union. The
standard also defines the principal symbols of short-circuit values
which enables to eliminate any ambiguities in the design docu-
mentations. Also, the use of a single standard and single type
of designations facilitates the work performed and lowers the
costs for power engineering companies present on the common
European market.
transformer, non-rotating acceptances) short-circuit currents and the last document [8] includes calcula-
transformer ratios are equal to their rated values, and in trans- tion examples. The five listed documents provide together cohe-
formers operating in parallel, equal to the arithmetic average sive guidelines which should be followed when calculating prin-
of their rated values cipal short-circuit values.
during the short-circuit condition no changes occur both in
the network and in the character of the short-circuit condition 3. Short-circuit calculations using the node
no currents flow in the network prior to the short-circuit potential method
condition. In the case of a network with a large number of branches and
The value of the source volume introduced in the location of the nodes, manual circuit transformation would be very time-
short-circuit is cUn, where the voltage factor c should be selected consuming. In such circumstances, numerical algorithms based
according to Tab. 1. The initial three-phase short-circuit current on the node potential method are used [1, 2, 3]. The first step
may be calculated using the formula (2). is the creation of the admittance matrix Y, and then the matric
equation is solved (3).
cU n
I k'' = (2)
3 Zk I =Y U
I 1 = 0 Y 11 Y 12 Y 1k U 1 = ?
where: c voltage factor assumed in accordance with Tab. 1, I = 0 Y (3)
2 = 21 Y 22 Y 2 k U 2 = ?
Un rated voltage at the short-circuit location, Zk short-circuit
impedance. U = c U n
I k = ? Y k1 Y k 2 Y kk k
3
Voltage factor for calculations
From the equation (4), a row can be singled out which relates to In accordance with the standard PN-EN 60909, the transformer
any node j, creating in such a way a formula for voltage in node j impedance is multiplied by a correction factor KT, i.e. ZTK = KT ZT.
with the short-circuit condition k. The value of the factor KT is calculated using the equation (10).
cmax
K T = 0 ,95 (10)
Uj= Z i
ji I i = Z j1 I 1 + Z j 2 I 2 + + Z jk I k 1 + 0 ,6 xT
U j = Z k1 0 + Z k 2 0 + + Z jk I k (7) where: cmax voltage factor from Tab. 1 relating to the network
U j = Z jk I k value on the lower voltage side of the transformer, xT the reac-
tance of the transformer expressed in relative units, xT = uXr / 100%.
It should be emphasized that this is the voltage in a network
after the application of Thevenins principle and not the actual Fig. 4 presents a diagram with the values of the factor KT in the
voltage. On the identification of voltages in each node of the function of the short-circuit voltage ukr. Values lower than 1
network, current values in branches may be calculated using the result in the reduction of the transformers short-circuit imped-
Ohms law. ance and, consequently, the value of the short-circuit current will
U i U be higher than without taking into consideration the correction
j
I i j = (8) factors. From the equation (10), the limiting value xT(gran) may be
Z ij
calculated above which the correction factor will be lower than
1. For cmax = 1.1 the limiting value is xT(gran) = 7.5%, while for cmax =
where: i, j indexes of the initial and final nodes of a given branch, 1.05 the correction factor is always lower than 1.
Zij branch impedance between nodes i and j (from branch
parameters and not from the impedance matrix).
4.1. Lines
Electricity power lines are modelled via reactance and resistance
connected in series, and their values for a positive component are
the same as in the case of other calculations, e.g. when calculating
the distribution of power. In short-circuit calculations, transverse
branches are omitted i.e. the capacitance and resistance stem-
ming from the leakance. Only in the case of single-phase short-
circuit conditions in networks with a neutral point insulated or
earthed by means of impedance (MV networks) should the capaci-
tances to earth for the zero component be considered.
Fig. 4. Diagram of the value of the correction factor KT for a two-winding
4.2. Two-winding transformers transformer in the function of the short-circuit voltage ukr
Two-winding transformers (with the exception of unit trans-
formers) for the positive and negative components are modelled
as a connection in series of reactances, resistances and ideal 4.3. Three-winding transformers
transformer ratio. The reactance and resistance of a transformer Three-winding transformers for the purpose of short-circuit
is calculated on the basis of a short-circuit test, from equations calculations are modelled in the form of three branches
(9a-c). connected using a star system. Each branch relating to one of the
PkrT
windings (designated with letters A, B and C) consists of resist-
u Rr = 100% (9a) ance and reactance connected in series. In addition, the branches
1000 S rT
relating to windings B and C include the ideal transformer ratio.
Impedance values are calculated in a similar way as the two-
u Xr = u kr 2 u Rr 2 (9b) windings transformers (equations 9a-c).The main difference is
that from the results of the short-circuit tests, three impedances
2
u u U (9c) are calculated, one for each pair of windings (equation 11a-c).
Z T = RT + jX T = Rr + j Xr rT
100% 100% S rT
2
where: UrT rated voltage of the transformer (main side or lower u u U (11a)
Z AB = R AB + jX AB = RrAB + j XrAB rT
100 % 100 % S
rTAB
side) [kV], SrT rated power of the transformer [MVA], PkrT losses
in the transformer windings during a short-circuit test [kW], ukr 2
u u U
transformer short-circuit voltage expressed in percentages, uRr Z AC = R AC + jX AC = RrAC + j XrAC rT (11b)
100% 100% S rTAC
and uXr respectively, active and non-active components of the
short-circuit voltage, expressed in percentages.
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u u U
2
(11c) 4.5. Induction motors
Z BC = RBC + jX BC = RrBC + j XrBC rT
100% 100% S rTBC When calculating the minimum value of the initial short-circuit
current, the influence of induction motors is omitted. During the
where: UrT rated voltage of the transformer [kV], SrTAB, SrTAC , SrTBC calculation of the maximum value of the current I k it is permis-
through-power of the individual pairs of windings [MVA], uRrAB sible to omit the impact of the motors if it is lower than 5% (in rela-
and uXrAB active and non-active components of the short-circuit tion to the short-circuit current calculated without that impact).
voltage during the AB short-circuit test (side C open), expressed For the positive and negative component, induction motors are
in percentages, modelled using impedance defined by the equation (15).
uRrAC and uXrAC active and non-active components of the short-
circuit voltage during the AC short-circuit test (side B open), 1 U 2
ZM = rM
expressed in percentages, I LR / I rM S rM (15)
uRrBC and uXrBC active and non-active components of the short-
circuit voltage during the BC short-circuit test (side A open), where: ILR /IrM ratio of the current which is being consumed
expressed in percentages, while the impeller is blocked to the rated current of the motor,
UrM rated voltage, SrM rated power.
The impedances of the pairs of windings, in accordance with the When calculating values of resistance and reactance of a
specifications of the standard, are corrected by correction factors motor, the following dependencies may be used with sufficient
defined by equations (12a-c), i.e. ZABK = KTAB ZAB, ZACK = KTAC ZAC and accuracy:
ZBCK = KTBC ZBC. RM/XM: = 0,1 and XM = 0.995 ZM for MV motors with power assi-
gned to a pair of poles PM 1MW
cmax
K TAB = 0 ,95 (12a) RM/XM: = 0.15 and XM = 0.989 ZM for MV motors with power assi-
1 + 0 ,6 xTAB
gned to a pair of poles PM < 1MW
RM/XM: = 0.42 and XM = 0.922 ZM for LV motors.
cmax
K TAC = 0,95 (12b)
1 + 0,6 xTAC
4.6. Generator-transformer unit
The standard includes separate recommendations for a gener-
cmax
K TBC = 0,95 (12c) ator-transformer unit. In addition, it differentiates a unit with a
1 + 0,6 xTBC
transformer with an on-load tap changer from a unit with a trans-
where: cmax voltage factor from Tab. 1, xTAB, xTAC, xTBC reactances former without such a changer or with a deactivated regulation
of pairs of windings of the transformer expressed in relative units, function. In the first case, both impedances, belonging to the
xTA B = uXrAB / 100%. generator and transformer, should be multiplied by the correc-
The impedances of respective windings may be calculated by tion factor KS defined by the equation (16).
means of a transformation defined by the equations (13a-c).
U nQ 2 U rTLV 2 cmax
KS = (16)
Z AK = 0 ,5 (Z ABK + Z ACK Z BCK ) (13a) U rG 2 U rTHV 2 1 + xd '' xT sin rG
Z BK = 0,5 (Z ABK + Z BCK Z ACK ) (13b) where: cmax voltage factor from Tab. 1, UrG rated voltage of the
generator, UnQ rated network voltage, xd reactance of the
Z CK = 0,5 (Z ACK + Z BCK Z ABK ) (13c) generator in relative units, rG - angular displacement between
the current and voltage in nominal operating conditions of the
4.4. Generators generator.
For the purpose of short-circuit calculations, generators are Fig. 5 presents a diagram showing the change of the value KS
modelled by means of the subtransient reactance multiplied by depending on |xd xT|. At the same time, the rated voltages of
the correction factor KG, calculated using the equation (14). This the generator and the lower voltage side of the transformer are
only applies to machines directly connected to the network, e.g. deemed to be equal, while the voltage of the HV side of the trans-
in the case of industrial networks or MV distribution networks, former is deemed to be 10% higher in relation to the network
while for generators operating in a block with a transformer, the voltage. The characteristics show that the introduction of
standard defines another equation for the correction factor. a correction factor lowers the impedance of the unit. Additionally,
Un c max the values of the factor KS are decreased to the same degree as
KG = (14) the difference is large between the reactances of the generator
U rG 1 + x d '' sin rG
and unit transformer in relative units..
where: cmax voltage factor from Tab. 1, UrG rated voltage of In a situation when the unit transformer is not equipped with an
the generator, Un rated network voltage, xd reactance of the on-load tap changer or its regulation system is deactivated (one
generator in relative units, rG angular displacement between of the tap changers is permanently fixed), the standard recom-
the current and voltage in nominal operating conditions of the mends the use of the correction factor KSO defined by the equa-
generator. tion (17).
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U nQ U rTLV cmax
c max
K SO = (1 pT ) K G ,S = (19a)
U rG (1 + pG ) U rTHV 1 + xd '' sin rG (17) 1 + x d '' sin rG
where: 1+pG factor increasing UrG to the voltage present in c max
K T ,S =
a continuous manner on the generator contacts (e.g. pG = 0.05), 1 xT sin rG (19b)
1pT factor including the change of the unit transformer ratio
by the on-load tap changer permanently fixed on one level, the where: KG,S factor correcting generator impedance, KT,S factor
remaining as in the formula (16). correcting transformer impedance, remaining as in the equation
(16).
4.7. Short-circuit condition within a gener-
ator-transformer unit with an on-load tap The above-mentioned equations confirm that the sum of rates
changer relating to the generator and transformer, calculated with the
A particular case is the calculation of currents during a short- consideration of the factors (18 ab), is not equal to the short-
circuit condition between a generator and unit transformer, circuit current calculated using the factors defined by the equa-
including within a network powered by an auxiliary transformer. tions (19 ab).
When calculating the rate in the short-circuit current, the gener-
ator impedance is corrected with a factor defined by the equa- 5. Test network
tion (18a), while the transformer impedance is corrected with The technical report IEC/TR 60909-4 [8], included in the standard,
a factor defined by the equation (18b). contains a collection of examples together with solutions, which
illustrate a method of calculating short-circuit values. One of the
test networks described in the report is presented in Fig. 6. It is
an industrial network which consists of a generator with a unit
transformer as well as an auxiliaries unit. Detailed parameters of
all the elements included in this network may be found in the
above-mentioned document.
To the 220 kV busbars, two equivalent power engineering
systems are connected one with short-circuit power of 8002
MVA, and the second with short-circuit power of 20005 MVA,
but during a short-circuit condition in a given location, only one
of them is active. The smaller one is active during a short-circuit
condition in a point marked F1, while the larger during a short-
circuit condition within MV network nodes F2, F3 and F4.
The transformer T with an underload ratio control forms a power
generating unit together with generator G with power of 250
MVA. In the event of a short-circuit condition in node F1, their
Fig. 5. Diagram of the value of the correction factor KS for a generator- impedance is corrected by a factor defined by the equation (16).
transformer unit with an on-load tap changer, assuming UrG = UrTLV and In the event of a short-circuit condition in node F2, rates in the
UrTHV = 1.1 UnQ short-circuit current are calculated, originating in the generator
and then flowing though the transformer from the system.
Therefore, factors are then used which are defined by the equa-
cmax tions (18a) and (18b). For short-circuit conditions in F3 and F4,
K G ,S = (18a) the total current originating in the generator and system is of
1 + xd '' sin rG great importance, therefore, the factors defined by equations
(19a) and (19b) apply in this case.
K T ,S = 1 (18b) To both busbars 10 kV, powered by an auxiliary transformer, 21
motors with total power of 44.39 MW are connected. In addition,
where: KG,S factor correcting generator impedance, KT,S factor via MV/LV transformers, motors are connected with total power
correcting transformer impedance, remaining as in the equation of 10.1 MW. It can be concluded that in view of the number and
(16). total power of these motors, the analysis of short-circuit condi-
tions in points F2, F3 and F4 requires the consideration of their
For the purpose of calculating the total short-circuit current or operation. In the event of a short-circuit condition in node F1,
the sum of rates relating to the generator and transformer e.g. two variants are considered: with deactivated and activated
flowing through the HV windings of the auxiliary transformer, the motors in order to check their impact on the level of the short-
impedances of the elements are corrected by factors defined by circuit current.
the equations (19a) and (19b). The calculations were performed using the PlansSN program.
The software is dedicated to analyses conducted in MV networks,
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conducted without taking into consideration correction factors. 0.994 short-circuit condition in F3 and F4
condition on busbars 220 kV. This means that the impedances of T20, T26 0.963
these two elements will be lower, while the short-circuit current T15... 19 and T21 25 1.009
higher, than in the calculation which does not take the factors
into consideration. When calculating the short-circuit current in
points F3 and F4 i.e. inside the auxiliary network of the units, Tab. 2. Correction factors for the impedances of the test network
the correction factor for the unit transformer achieves the value elements
of 1.214, and as a result, the transformer impedance increases
and the short-circuit current decreases. The factors calculated for
the remaining elements are nearer to uniformity, and therefore, The calculation results for short-circuit currents in respective
it should be expected that their impact on the impedance and nodes of the test network are listed in Tab. 3 the second column
value of the short-circuit values will be lower. lists values calculated according to the specifications of the
standard PN-EN 60909, while the third column lists values calcu-
lated for the models without taking the correction factors into
consideration. The results confirm the analysis of values specified
in Tab. 2. In the case of a short-circuit condition in point F1 (without
induction motors), the inclusion of the factors has resulted in
the increase of the short-circuit current rate originating in the
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generator-transformer unit by nearly 10%. For the short-circuit principle together with the node potential method is well-
condition in the auxiliaries network, the rate from the generator known and has been used for many years, the correction factors
and from the system (via the unit transformer) is lower by approx. provide a crucial change in relation to the subject matter above.
8% for point F3 and nearly 2% for F4. In accordance with the principles presented by the authors of the
The inclusion of the correction factors in the test network has standard, the correction factors are to compensate for the errors
a considerable effect on the value of the short-circuit current resulting from the accepted simplifying assumptions.
originating in the second section with the motors. The rate of this The results of short-circuit analyses of test networks show that
current increases by over 20%, which means a change of 200 A. the introduced correction factors have a great impact on the
The operation of the motors during the analysis of the short- calculated values of the short-circuit currents. This applies in the
circuit condition in node F1 results in the increase of the rate highest degree to rates originating in transformers and genera-
originating in the generator-transformer unit by 7%. However, tors. As the distance from power generating stations decreases,
because it is the short-circuit power of the equivalent power and in particular from radial systems, the rate of the trans-
engineering system which is responsible for the value of the formers within a short-circuit impedance Zkk decreases, and the
short-circuit power in point F1, the influence of the motors on rate originating in the connectors and cables increases. As line
the total short-circuit current is negligible and is equal to 0.6%. impedances are not corrected by means of correction factors, the
The sum of current rates originating in the generator IKG and unit short-circuit current values calculated according to the specifica-
transformer IKT, calculated during the short-circuit analysis in tions of the new and previous standards, will in this case be more
node F2 is 44 731 A + 46 811 A = 91 542 A. However, the total convergent.
rate originating in the generator and the system, calculated The standard specifies three separate cases for the generator-
when analysing the short-circuit condition in point F3, is consid- transformer unit, depending on the short-circuit location. Each
erably lower and amounts to 83 781 A. The difference is a result case possesses different equations for the calculation of correc-
of assuming various correction factors for these two cases, as tion factors. In order to obtain correct results, it is crucial to ensure
recommended by the standard. that the applicable variations are suitably considered.
7. Conclusions
Calculations of short-circuit currents are crucial to the design and
use of power engineering systems. The methods of conducting
these calculations should be compliant with the recommen-
dations of the valid standard PN-EN 60909. While Thevenins
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Krzysztof Ksiyk
PLANS
e-mail: krzysztof.ksiezyk@plans.com.pl
Graduate of Warsaw University of Technology. Between 1999 and 2010, he worked as an assistant at the Power Engineering Institute of Warsaw University of Technology.
Currently working for the PLANS company. His professional interests include modelling and analyses of operational modes of power engineering systems.
Tomasz Zdun
PLANS
e-mail: tomasz.zdun@plans.com.pl
Graduate of Warsaw University of Technology. For seven years he worked as a research scientist and lecturer at Warsaw University of Technology. Currently employed
by PLANS as a programmer and specialist in power engineering systems. His responsibilities include the development of software for the analysis of operational modes
of power transmission and distribution grids.
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This is asupporting translation of the original text published in this issue of Acta Energetica on pages 6270. When referring tothe article please refer tothe original text.
PL
Autorzy
Krzysztof Ksiyk
Tomasz Zdun
Sowa kluczowe
obliczenia zwarciowe, pocztkowy prd zwarciowy, modele elementw
Streszczenie
Wyznaczanie wielkoci zwarciowych naley do najczciej wykonywanych analiz sieciowych. Przeprowadzanie tych oblicze
powinno by zgodne z obowizujc norm PN-EN 60909. W artykule zostay opisane modele podstawowych elementw sieci
wraz ze sposobem wyznaczania ich parametrw impedancyjnych z uwzgldnieniem wspczynnikw korygujcych wprowadzo-
nych przez norm. Przedstawiono wyniki oblicze pocztkowego prdu zwarcia dla przykadowej sieci SN oraz porwnano je
z wynikami uzyskanymi bez uwzgldniania wspczynnikw poprawkowych.
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Naley podkreli, e jest to napicie w sieci cmax wspczynnik napiciowy z tab. 1 napicia zwarcia przy prbie zwarcia AC
po zastosowaniu twierdzenia Thevenina, odniesiony do napicia sieci po stronie (strona B otwarta), wyraone w procentach
a nie napicie rzeczywiste. dolnej transformatora, uRrBC i uXrBC skadowe czynna i bierna
Po wyznaczeniu napi w kadym wle xT reaktancja transformatora wyraona napiCia zwarcia przy prbie zwarcia BC
sieci mona wyznaczy wartoci prdw w jednostkach wzgldnych, xT = uXr / 100%. (strona A otwarta), wyraone w procentach.
w gaziach na podstawie prawa Ohma. Impedancje par uzwoje zgodnie z zaleceniami
Na rys. 4 przedstawiono wykres wartoci normy s korygowane przez wspczynniki
U i U wspczynnika K T w funkcji napicia poprawkowe zdefiniowane wzorami (12a-c),
I i j =
j (8) zwarcia ukr. Wartoci mniejsze od 1 powo- tzn. ZABK = KTAB ZAB, ZACK = KTAC ZAC oraz
Z ij duj, e impedancja zwarciowa transfor- ZBCK = KTBC ZBC.
matora maleje i w zwizku z tym warto cmax
gdzie: prdu zwarciowego bdzie wiksza ni bez K TAB = 0 ,95 (12a)
i, j indeksy wzw pocztkowego uwzgldnienia wspczynnikw popraw- 1 + 0 ,6 xTAB
i kocowego danej gazi, kowych. Ze wzoru (10) mona wyznaczy cmax
Zij impedancja gazi pomidzy wzami warto graniczn xT(gran), powyej ktrej K TAC = 0,95 (12b)
i oraz j (z parametrw gazi, a nie wspczynnik poprawkowy bdzie mniejszy 1 + 0,6 xTAC
z macierzy impedancyjnej). od 1. Dla cmax=1,1 wartoci graniczn jest cmax
xT(gran) = 7,5%, natomiast dla cmax = 1,05 K TBC = 0,95 (12c)
4. Modele elementw wspczynnik poprawkowy jest zawsze 1 + 0,6 xTBC
4.1. Linie mniejszy od 1. gdzie:
Linie elektroenergetyczne modelowane s cmax wspczynnik napiciowy z tab. 1
poprzez szeregowo poczon reaktancj xTAB, xTAC, xTBC reaktancje par uzwoje
i rezystancj, a ich wartoci dla skadowej transformatora wyraone w jednostkach
zgodnej s takie same jak w przypadku wzgldnych, xTAB = uXrAB / 100%.
innych oblicze, np. wyznaczania rozpywu
mocy. W obliczeniach zwarciowych pomija Impedancje poszczeglnych uzwoje mona
si gazie poprzeczne, tzn. pojemno wyznaczy poprzez przeksztacenie zdefi-
oraz rezystancj wynikajc z upywnoci. niowane wzorami (13a-c).
Jedynie w przypadku zwar jednofazowych
w sieciach z izolowanym lub uziemionym
poprzez impedancj punktem neutralnym Z AK = 0 ,5 (Z ABK + Z ACK Z BCK ) (13a)
(sieci SN) naley uwzgldnia pojemnoci
doziemne dla skadowej zerowej. Z BK = 0,5 (Z ABK + Z BCK Z ACK ) (13b)
4.2. Transformatory 2-uzwojeniowe Rys. 4. Wykres wartoci wspczynnika poprawkowego Z CK = 0,5 (Z ACK + Z BCK Z ABK ) (13c)
Transformatory 2-uzwojeniowe (za wyjt- KT dla transformatorw dwuuzwojeniowych w funkcji
kiem transformatorw blokowych) dla ska- napicia zwarcia ukr
dowej zgodnej oraz przeciwnej modelowane 4.4. Generatory
s jako szeregowe poczenie reaktancji, Na potrzeby wyznaczania prdw zwar-
rezystancji i przekadni transformatora 4.3. Transformatory 3-uzwojeniowe ciowych generatory modelowane s reak-
idealnego. Rezystancja i reaktancja transfor- Transformatory 3-uzwojeniowe do obli- tancj podprzejciow pomnoon przez
matora wyznaczana jest na podstawie prby cze zwarciowych s modelowane w postaci wspczynnik poprawkowy KG, wyznaczony
zwarcia, ze wzorw (9a-c). trzech gazi poczonych w gwiazd. Kada ze wzoru (14). Dotyczy to tylko maszyn
z gazi, odpowiadajca jednemu z uzwoje przyczonych bezporednio do sieci, np.
PkrT (oznaczonych literami A, B i C), skada si w sieciach przemysowych lub rozdzielczych
u Rr = 100% (9a) z szeregowego poczenia rezystancji i reak- SN, natomiast dla generatorw pracujcych
1000 S rT tancji. Dodatkowo gazie odpowiadajce w bloku z transformatorem norma definiuje
uzwojeniom B i C zawieraj przekadni inny wzr na wspczynnik poprawkowy.
transformatora idealnego. Wartoci impe-
u Xr = u kr 2 u Rr 2 (9b) dancji wyznaczane s w podobny sposb Un c max
jak dla transformatorw 2-uzwojeniowych KG = (14)
2 (wzory 9a-c). Gwna rnica polega na tym, U rG 1 + x d '' sin rG
u u U (9c) e z wynikw prby zwarcia wyznaczane s
Z T = RT + jX T = Rr + j Xr rT
100% 100% S rT trzy impedancje, po jednej dla kadej pary gdzie:
uzwoje (wzory 11a-c). cmax wspczynnik napiciowy z tab. 1
gdzie: UrG napicie znamionowe generatora
UrT napicie znamionowe transformatora 2
Un napicie znamionowe sieci
(strona grna lub dolna) [kV] u u U xd reaktancja generatora w jednostkach
Z AB = R AB + jX AB = RrAB + j XrAB rT
SrT moc znamionowa transformatora 100% 100% S rTAB wzgldnych
[MVA] (11a) rG przesunicie ktowe pomidzy prdem
PkrT straty w uzwojeniach transformatora 2 i napiciem w warunkach pracy znamio-
u u U
w czasie prby zwarcia [kW] Z AC = R AC + jX AC = RrAC + j XrAC rT nowej generatora.
ukr napicie zwarcia transformatora wyra- 100% 100% S rTAC
one w procentach (11b) 4.5. Silniki indukcyjne
uRr i uXr odpowiednio skadowa czynna 2 Przy wyznaczaniu minimalnej wartoci
u u U
i bierna napicia zwarcia, wyraone Z BC = RBC + jX BC = RrBC + j XrBC rT pocztkowego prdu zwarcia pomija si
w procentach. 100% 100% S rTBC wpyw silnikw indukcyjnych. Podczas
(11c) oblicze maksymalnej wartoci prdu I 'k'
Zgodnie z norm PN-EN 60909 impedancja dopuszczalne jest pominicie udziau od
transformatora jest mnoona przez wsp- gdzie: silnikw, jeeli jest on mniejszy ni 5%
czynnik poprawkowy KT, tzn. ZTK = KT ZT. UrT napicie znamionowe transformatora (w stosunku do wartoci prdu zwarciowego
Warto wspczynnika KT jest wyznaczana [kV] wyznaczonego bez udziau silnikw).
ze wzoru (10). SrTAB, SrTAC, SrTBC moc przechodnia poszcze- Silniki indukcyjne dla skadowej zgodnej
cmax glnych par uzwoje [MVA] uRrAB i uXrAB i przeciwnej modelowane s impedancj
K T = 0 ,95 (10) skadowe czynna i bierna napicia zwarcia przy okrelon wzorem (15).
1 + 0 ,6 xT prbie zwarcia AB (strona C otwarta), wyra-
one w procentach 1 U 2
ZM = rM
gdzie: uRrAC i uXrAC skadowe czynna i bierna I LR / I rM S rM (15)
73
K. Ksiyk, T. Zdun | Acta Energetica 4/17 (2013) | translation 6270
gdzie: zmian przekadni transformatora bloko- prdu zwarciowego lub sumy udziaw do
ILR /IrM stosunek prdu pobieranego przy wego przez przecznik zaczepw ustawiony generatora i transformatora, np. pyncego
zablokowanym wirniku do prdu znamio- na stae na jednej pozycji, pozostae jak we przez uzwojenie HV transformatora potrzeb
nowego silnika wzorze (16). wasnych, impedancje elementw s kory-
UrM napicie znamionowe, gowane wspczynnikami okrelonymi
SrM moc znamionowa. wzorami (19a) i (19b).
(17)
gdzie:
1+pG wspczynnik zwikszajcy UrG
do napicia obecnego w sposb cigy na
zaciskach generatora (np. pG = 0,05)
1pT wspczynnik uwzgldniajcy Rys. 6. Testowa sie SN zamodelowana w programie PlansSN
74
K. Ksiyk, T. Zdun | Acta Energetica 4/17 (2013) | translation 6270
75
K. Ksiyk, T. Zdun | Acta Energetica 4/17 (2013) | translation 6270
Krzysztof Ksiyk
dr in.
PLANS
e-mail: krzysztof.ksiezyk@plans.com.pl
Wychowanek Politechniki Warszawskiej. W latach 19992010 zatrudniony by na stanowisku asystenta w Instytucie Elektroenergetyki Politechniki
Warszawskiej. Obecnie pracuje w firmie PLANS. Jego zainteresowania zawodowe dotycz modelowania i analiz stanu pracy systemu elektroenergetycznego.
Tomasz Zdun
mgr in.
PLANS
e-mail: tomasz.zdun@plans.com.pl
Absolwent Politechniki Warszawskiej. Przez 7 lat by pracownikiem naukowo-dydaktycznym swojej macierzystej uczelni. Obecnie pracuje w firmie PLANS jako
programista i ekspert od systemw elektroenergetycznych. Zajmuje si rozwojem oprogramowania do analiz stanw pracy sieci przesyowych i rozdzielczych.
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