Tunnel Guide
Tunnel Guide
Tunnel Guide
Publisher:
Deutscher Ausschuss fr unterirdisches Bauen e. V. (DAUB)
German Tunnelling Committee (ITA-AITES)
Mathias-Brggen-Str. 41, 50827 Cologne / Germany
Tel. +49 - 221 - 5 97 95-0
Fax +49 - 221- 5 97 95-50
E-mail: info@daub-ita.de
www.daub-ita.de
Published by the DAUB (German Tunnelling Committee) working group "Lining Segment Design"
CONTENTS
Abstract
The recommendations give an overview of the state of the
art for the design, the production and the assembly of the
tunnel lining made of precast segmental rings. They were
executed by the working group Segmental Ring Design
of DAUB (German Tunnelling Committee). The recom-
mendations give a rsum of the construction fundamentals
and the necessary calculations and verifications for the di-
mensioning of the precast segments according to the actual
standards. Moreover they give references for the design of
transverse constructions to cross passages and portal build-
ings. Also treated are the dimensioning for fire loads and the
use of steel fibres.
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
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1.4 Abbreviations
CEN Comite Europen de Normalisation (Eu-
ropean Standards Committee)
DIN Deutsche Industrie Norm (German Indus-
trial Standard)
EPDM Ethylene propylene diene monomer
GW Groundwater
ISO International Standardization Organiza-
tion
QM: Quality management
QSS Quality assurance system
SM Shield tunnel boring machine
TBM Tunnel boring machine
TBM-DS Double Shield TBM
TVM Tunnel boring machine
SLS Serviceabilty limit state
UPL Limit state with a loss of equilibrium of
the structure or of the ground as a result
of floating by water pressure or other ver-
tical actions (uplift)
STR Limit state of failure or very large defor-
mations of the structure or its parts (struc-
tural)
GEO-2 Limit states of the ground where verifica-
tion method 2 is applied
GEO-3 Limit states of the ground where verifica-
tion method 3 is applied
BS-P Permanent design situation
BS-T Temporary design situation
DSV Jet grouting method
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
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2 Overview of typical lining can be at any point of the circumference. Rings tapered
on one side and on both sides are possible. One-sided
segment systems tapered rings, with the sloping side at the back in the
driving direction, are more suitable for immediate cor-
The typical concrete segment rings can be divided into var-
rections when installing in the tailskin.
ious systems (Figure1).
If the key segment is to be installed above the side wall
Fundamentally a difference can be made between rings with
if possible, in the top area of the ring, two separate rings
flat ring end faces (ring joints) and rings with offset ring
must be used (left and right ring).
joints (hexagonal or honeycomb segment rings).
c) Expanding segment rings
With the rings with flat ring joints, a difference is made be-
Expanding segment rings are mostly used in two-pass
tween tapered and parallel rings.
lining as simple rock stabilization. The segment ring is
Notes on the ring types: preassembled in the greatly simplified tailskin (without
a) Rings with flat ring joints tailskin sealing) with a laterally tapered key segment
With this, by far the most frequently used type of ring; shorter in width. After the TBM has moved forward, and
usually 6 to 9 individual segments are assembled to form the ring has left the tailskin, the key segment is pushed
a complete ring. further into the ring and thus the entire ring is expanded
so far apart that the segment ring abuts the rock. Filling
b) Tapered (conical) segment rings the annular gap can thus be dispensed with. Expanding
In order to allow installation of the segments horizontal- segment rings can only be used on their own in at least
ly and vertically without secondary bending even with temporarily stable, non-water-bearing subsoil. For a wa-
curve drives, the ring geometry must be executed accord- tertight tunnel, groundwater drainage during construc-
ingly: on the outside of the curve the ring width in the tion and an inner shell for the final state are imperative.
longitudinal direction of the tunnel must be made some-
what greater, on the inside of the curve somewhat small- d) Economical segment ring with reduced require-
er. The simplest implementation is with tapered segment ments
rings which can be twisted against each other as desired The economical segment can be used as a simplified ring
when installed (universal ring). The greatest ring width where the main loading will only occur after installa-
Concrete lining
segment rings
Tapered,
Tapered, completely
completely rotatable ring Spreading ring Economical ring
rotatable ring with key Complete ring without with reduced
(universal segment in the annullar gap requirements
ring) upper area
(left/right ring)
Figure 1: Classification of concrete lining segment rings in ring types
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
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tion of the inner shell, for example when tunnelling with With all rings one can differentiate between one-pass and
groundwater lowering or in swelling rock. Damage to the two-pass lining. In Germany one-pass lining is usual. In
segment ring can be tolerated as long as there is stabili- Austria and Switzerland, many large-diameter tunnels, es-
ty. pecially in hard rock, are constructed with two-pass lining
(outer shell: segment, inner shell: reinforced and plain in
This type of ring can also be used as a variant for sit-
situ concrete). With the two-pass ring a parallel ring is usu-
uations in which the segmental ring is removed after a
ally used.
temporary function, for example to pass through non-dug
pits for shaft or station constructions. With one-pass lining the relationships regarding load trans-
fer are clearly identifiable as the segment ring must handle
e) Rings with offset ring joints (hexagonal or honeycomb
all external and internal influences. With two-pass lining the
segmental rings)
load handling by the two shells depends on various factors.
This type of ring is very easy and quick to install and
Usually it is assumed that the segment ring as the outer shell
is therefore used in particular in the construction of wa-
without sealing handles all external influences (except wa-
ter tunnels in hard rock with low groundwater ingress.
ter pressure) and the in situ concrete inner shell deals with
The concrete segments all have a hexagonal shape and
the internal loads and, in the case of water pressure-retain-
are not bolted together. After tunnelling half a segment
ing sealing, has to handle the water pressure.
length, half of the segments of a complete ring are in-
stalled.
With this ring type, a watertight lining is not readily pos-
sible. For curve drives the resulting gap in the ring joints
must be compensated by installing intermediate layers of
varying thicknesses.
The tunnel can be pretensioned by deep rock injections;
the installation of an inner shell is also possible.
f) Other ring types
In hard rock in particular, other ring types are also used:
Rings with special invert segments
One-pass parallel ring system in head-race construc-
tion
Two-pass ring system with umbrella sealing
One-pass lining in the invert and two-pass lining in
the crown
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
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3 Segment design between 15 and approx. 75 cm. With one-pass lining with
compression joint strips the thickness should not be under
3.1 Description of the one-pass precast 30 cm.
segmental ring Depending on the diameter, the ring width is approximately
between 0.75 and 2.50 m.
3.1.1 General aspects of tunnel lining For curve drives tapered rings are used. The required taper-
The lining of tunnels built by underground construction ing (k) can be calculated with the following formula:
must fulfill several requirements both during construction
as well as in the final structure:
k=
Securing the rock to prevent rock falls
Handling the effects of dead weight, loading, rock and with:
groundwater
k tapering (difference of maximum to
Sealing the tunnel against groundwater
minimum ring width)
Mounting system for equipment components (for exam-
ple catenary, lighting, fans) A outer diameter of the segmentring
Absorbing the tunnelling and steering forces of the tun-
bm mean ring width
nel boring machine
R minimum curve radius
In lining with one-pass reinforced concrete segments the
segmental ring must handle all of the above-mentioned
A correction curve drive in the event of failed drives must
tasks.
be taken into consideration. The correction curve radius
When the segmental ring leaves the TBM, it can absorb should be at least 20 % less than the smallest desired curve
loads immediately. After annular gap grouting or backfill- radius horizontally and vertically.
ing it has largely reached its ultimate load bearing capacity.
Because the tunnel boring machine never follows the in-
Because reinforced concrete segments are manufactured in
tended curve exactly, tapered segment rings should also
a precast plant with extensive quality control capabilities,
be used for straight tunnel projects. This is especially true
the quality is usually high and consistent. By means of com-
when using intermediate layers in the ring joints, as these
pression sealing frames the tunnel is immediately sealed
are unevenly pressed together by varying jacking pressure.
against the prevailing groundwater pressure.
For straight tunnel sections the correction curve radius
Annular gap grouting, best done through the tailskin, is should be chosen according to the control options of the
performed continuously with the advance. It results in an tunnel boring machine (for example RCorrection = 400 m).
equalization of the actions on the segmental ring and en-
It should only be planned to use straight rings (parallel
sures immediate bedding.
rings) as special rings, for example when steel segments are
The segmental ring forms a hinged ring which receives its used in the region of later crosscuts.
stability mainly through the bedding in the surrounding
It must also be taken into consideration that with offset lon-
rock. Coupling possibilities across the ring joints and the
gitudinal joints the tapering cannot be fully exploited be-
absorption of moments in the longitudinal joint hinges by
cause the maximum/minimum can only be arranged within
eccentric normal force transfer contribute to the ring load
the parameters of the existing longitudinal joint offset in the
bearing capacity.
ring.
To avoid cross joints, the lining segments are usually in-
The tapering should be planned on one side and on the rear
stalled offset from ring to ring. Cross joints should be avoid-
side of the segment ring in the direction of tunnelling, as
ed in general or are only permissible to a limited extent.
this is the only way the new ring being built can immediate-
ly correct with the entire tapering.
3.1.2 Ring geometry
The ring position of the new ring being constructed should
In determining the ring inner diameter, care must be taken to always be chosen so that the front side of the ring ends up as
ensure that sufficient access tolerance is provided for. In Eu- centered as possible in the tailskin and the advance differ-
rope a tolerance radius for the shield drive of R = 10 cm is ences of the thrust cylinders are as small as possible.
usually allowed for, i. e. the diameter of the tunnel is made
20 cm greater than the required internal structural boundary. To avoid having to install the key segment below the side
In particular with long tunnels of over 10 km the measure- wall, left/right rings are frequently used Here the maximum/
ment tolerances and in some cases the breakthrough con- minimum ring length is arranged 90 from the key segment
ditions can require an additional allowance. With two-pass axis. Although the modern segment erectors and todays
lining the tolerance requirements can be reduced in some press controls are able to easily install the key segment in
cases. the lower shield area and the logistics are somewhat easier
to perform with the universal ring, left/right rings do not
The segment thickness is based on static and structural constitute a disadvantage: if the supplied ring type does not
factors (e. g. sealing details, durability) and is generally
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
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fit, it can be used like a universal ring, and the key seg- Sufficient edge distances in the arrangement of the
ment can be installed in the lower ring region. sealing frame for secure absorption of the pretensioning
forces
3.1.3 Design of the segmental ring If there is a local increase in concrete compressive
strength in accordance with the concept of partial sur-
The ring division must be matched to the press assembly of face pressures, split tensile forces occurring must be
the tunnel boring machine. With segment rings that are in- covered by conventional rebar or steel fiber reinforce-
stalled offset, this means that even distribution of the press- ment.
es across the extent of the TBM is provided for. The press- Impact of manufacturing and installation tolerances
es should always press on the individual segment at points
designated for this. The split tensile reinforcement and any a) Longitudinal joints
intermediate layers are installed specifically at these points Via the longitudinal joints, essentially the ring interface
to avoid damage to the segments. forces resulting from external and internal influences are
In order to avoid bending moments in the presses and eccen- transferred. In addition to this, the pretensioning forces re-
tric force application to the segment, the radius on which the quired for the compression of the sealing frames must be
presses are arranged in the machine should correspond to applied and absorbed here.
the axis radius of the load transfer surface of the ring joint. b) Ring joints
Every second segment ring should be installed offset to the In the ring joints the longitudinal forces from tunnelling are
previous ring by half or a third of the segment handling transferred between the rings and the coupling forces. The
length. This prevents continuous longitudinal joints across uneven load transfer through control forces during course
multiple segment rings (cross joints) that are detrimental to corrections by the TBM must be accounted for in measure-
the support and sealing effect of the segmental lining. ments.
When designing ring joints the following must be especially
3.1.4 Principle of ring building observed:
In ring building the segments of the new ring being built Consideration of joint liners and their compressibility in
must be placed against the most recently built ring so they the ring geometry
are free floating. It is important to ensure that the ring joint If the thrust cylinders come to lie in the region of the
surface of the segment has contact across the entire surface longitudinal joint, it must be ensured that the press
(avoid tilting) and the gasket is completely compressed with shoes do not act directly in the longitudinal joint region
the respective thrust cylinders. When putting the next seg- of the joint.
ment in place each time, it must be ensured that the longitu-
dinal joint seals are also completely compressed by the seg- 3.2.2 Joint shapes
ment alignment device (erector) and the bolted connection. a) Longitudinal joints
Any type of guide rails (shift bars), or other fixtures in the Four joint shapes are available:
tailskin should be avoided.
Flat joint
In hard rock in particular a jacking pressure ring is frequent- Tongue/groove joint
ly used. With this concept, in the tailskin the segment ring Convex-convex joint
must be put down on permanently installed rails before the Concave-convex joint
completely built ring is pushed against the last built ring.
For the one-pass segment ring the flat joint has prevailed.
No decisive simplification can be achieved in ring building
3.2 Joint design with a tongue and groove design. A reinforcement of the
The specifications are for one-pass, sealed lining segment tongue and groove elements is hardly possible because of
systems. For two-pass systems the specifications apply mu- the required concrete cover. This means reliable absorption
tatis mutandis. of the coupling forces in the tongue and groove construction
cannot be guaranteed. There is the risk that in the event of
3.2.1 Joint types assembly inaccuracies the tongue edges come to lie on the
groove edges and that in compressing the ring in the tailskin
Applicable for all joints:
or grouting the annular gap the groove edge tears off. When
Concentration of the load-transferring contact surfaces guiding rods are used (plastic rods axially inserted into
to the areas that are secured by means of constructive the longitudinal joint) there is not usually such a risk be-
reinforcement, i. e. the surfaces (edges and corners), cause in the event of major displacements the rods shear off
which cannot be secured by means of constructive re- due to their low strength.
inforcement must be relieved by appropriate geometric
With rounded joint constructions, although higher compres-
shaping (recesses, chamfers)
sive stress can be absorbed, only a small bending moment
Avoid notches and notch effects in the load-bearing
can be transferred via the joints, so that altogether the ring
joint area
can be moregreatly deformed. With convexconvex joints
ring building is also much more difficult.
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
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In the longitudinal joints no intermediate layers are provid- As a temporary connection, inclined bolts with plastic
ed for. dowels have proven particularly useful. They are easy to
assemble, represent an elastic connection and can be easily
b) Ring joints
removed again.
The following joint shapes are available:
In exact ring building, plug dowel joints in the ring shorten
Flat joint
the installation time and simplify the reinforcing, but can be
Tongue/groove joint
difficult to decommission again. The use of centering cones
Flat joint with additional centering or coupling elements
can make sense.
such as cam and pocket, dowel or centering cone
On some projects (for example North-South Line Amster-
For the one-pass segment ring the flat joint has prevailed.
dam, Brescia Metrobus, Metro C, Rome) bolt connections
Additional centering and coupling elements may be provid-
were dispensed with and the restoring force for the sealing
ed for. These can be dowels, centering cones, reinforced or
frames assured by means of high tensile strength dowel con-
unreinforced cam and pocket toothings.
nections.
In places where cam and pocket coupling is used, strips of
In the longitudinal joints, inserted longitudinal rods/guiding
bituminous material (e. g. Kaubit strips) can be inserted to
rods can prevent the segments slipping away from each oth-
achieve a defined force deformation behavior for the radial
er during ring building.
coupling of the segmental rings. For the transfer of great
coupling forces the cam and pocket connections must be
reinforced. In order not to compromise the water tightness 3.3 Mountings in the segmental ring
of the structure it must be ensured that when exceeding the With two-pass tunnel lining, any mountings that may be re-
load bearing capacity of the coupling the cam is sheared off quired (e. g. for the catenary or signals) are installed in the
before the pocket edge is damaged. Plastic dowel or spheri- in situ concrete inner shell. No special mounting hardware
cal coupling elements have also proven themselves. is required for the segment ring.
The tongue and groove constellation in the ring joint places With one-pass lining, later mounting options must be taken
increased demands on ring building because in the case of into account in the planning phase already.
slightly offset rings spalling often occurs during tunnelling.
It is generally only used in very poor subsurface conditions. Fundamentally the following mounting options are avail-
able:
To compensate for irregularities, intermediate layers of hard
fiberboard material or plywood should be installed in the Installation of anchor rails (laying in the segment
ring joints. Plastically deformable intermediate layers (for mould)
example tiles made of bituminous material) should not be Installation of steel mounting plates (laying in the seg-
used for this purpose as they are greatly deformed plasti- ment mould)
cally under load and cannot maintain the intended spacing. Subsequent dowelling of the mountings
It is also possible to dispense with intermediate layers. In When installing anchor rails or mounting plates it must be
this case, however, greater accuracy in manufacturing the ensured that the intended position in the tunnel is secured.
segments must be ensured. With tapered, rotatable rings in particular the anchoring
With planned transfer of the longitudinal forces without must be installed all round or a predetermined position on
intermediate layers increased demands on the ring joints the ring provided for during ring building. Consideration
flatness apply. Areas in which no force is to be transferred must be given to the required edge distances (to the ring and
must be protected by chamfers. longitudinal joints).
In the planning it must be ensured that the spacing of the
3.2.3 Connections mountings is matched to the width of the rings. If there are
changes in the components to be mounted after installation
The connections in the joints are generally required only
of the relevant segment rings, consideration must be giv-
during ring building, especially for the pretensioning of the
en to the existing installed components. The position of the
compression joint strips, and the advancement of the tunnel
anchor rails or mounting plates generally also affects the
boring machine. After setting of the annular gap grout or
geometry of the suction plate of the erector.
after installation of about 10 rings this function is usually
no longer needed and the bolts can be removed. In traffic When the mountings are dowelled later it is possible to
tunnels, the bolts must be removed in the area over the track more flexibly address the requirements of the fitters regard-
or roadway to prevent bolts from falling out during later ing the necessary fixing components. To prevent hitting and
operation. severing the segment reinforcement when drilling the dow-
els, dowel lanes must be specified and coordinated with the
Permanently remaining bolts, for example in the area of
reinforcement. Dowel lanes must be marked on the inner
transitions to in situ concrete and connections to the tun-
segment surface or the dowels drilled with the help of drill-
nel must be secured against loosening and protected against
ing jigs.
corrosion.
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
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With all mountings the auditability later in the course of of measurements need to be established in the construction
site inspections must be taken into consideration. For road contract. The measurement results must be passed on to the
tunnels, chloride contamination is a major problem, so the client. The measurement location (e. g. roofed hall with
relevant material specifications must be observed. For large temperatures between 15 and 20C) should be specified in
loads, for example fans, mounting directly onto the rock can the construction contract. If manufacturing tolerances are
also be considered, in which case the segment is perforated exceeded in any measurement, all segments produced af-
(buttonhole). This type of design is only possible, howev- ter the last measurement (with compliant tolerances) must
er, with relatively benign hydrogeological conditions. be remeasured working backwards from the most recent.
All segments within the tolerances should be accepted, all
segments exceeding the tolerances must be considered sep-
3.4 Manufacturing tolerances arately.
3.4.1 Fundamental considerations At the initial inspection of the formwork, lining segments
The design tolerances are manufacturing tolerances of the are produced from all moulds and measured in three dimen-
individual segments and segmental rings. Access tolerances sions. The fit of the ring joint can be tested by building up
of the tunnelling machine, installation tolerances of the seg- two rings (without installed sealing frame) on top of each
ment ring in the tunnelling machine and deformations of the other.
segment ring during the advance and afterwards need to be A ring diameter and circumference measurement on the up-
considered separately. per ring is not useful because the upper ring can only be
Tolerance specifications are used to limit deviations from built up relatively imprecisely.
the planned segment geometry. Deviations may only be After the start of production, the 50th ring produced from
permitted to an extent that damage from tension peaks in every formwork mould should be remeasured. The next
the segment and leaks due to insufficient compression of the measurements should be performed after every 100 fillings,
sealing profiles is sufficiently unlikely. unless otherwise provided for in the construction contract
In this sense, the permissible degree of the deviations is ac-
tually dependent on several different factors: 3.4.3 Tolerance requirements
Stress level with planned geometry The manufacturing tolerances are specified for ring inner
Utilization and deformation characteristics of the seal- diameters 8.0 and 11.0 m. For diameters between 8.0
ing profile and 11.0 m, the tolerance values can be linearly interpolated
Main segment dimensions (length, width, thickness, and and rounded up to 1/10 mm.
radius). When the segments are installed in the tunnelling machine
The contractually predefined tolerances specify the permis- and in the course of the advance of about the first 10 rings,
sible deviations of the segments produced from the nominal there are often deviations from the nominal position of the
geometry. segment. Things to be watched out for include, among
other things, the ovalization of the ring, the floating of the
Deviations from the nominal geometry can only be accepted invert segments and the emergence of offsets between the
if they do not result in damage due to unrecognized influ- individual segments.
ences and the water tightness of the ring is not restricted.
The installation tolerances depend on the future use of the
Reasons for the strict tolerance requirements are: tunnel (required clearance gauge) and the segment design,
Geometric sensitivity to inaccuracies and distortions of and must be specified by the designer individually for each
individual segments project in consultation with the client.
High load factors from earth, water and grouting pres- For the joint offset no more than 10 mm should be allowed.
sure on the segment ring The permissible ovalization of the ring depends much on
Jacking forces during tunnelling the diameter and the number of individual segments per
The load transfer takes place only in limited areas (par- ring, but should be less than 0.5 % of the internal diameter
tial surface load) in each case.
Damage cannot always be detected (for example, on
outer side of ring) The total of all tolerance values, including access tolerance,
Repairing damaged segments is costly and time-con- must be limited to the extent that the required clearance
suming gauge is always adhered to.
3.4.2 Measurements for the determination of 3.4.4 Exceeding the manufacturing tolerances
tolerance compliance If the planned loading is small, additional loading as a result
To determine compliance with manufacturing tolerances, of deviations is fundamentally more likely to be absorbed
in addition to the necessary measurements on individual without damage than by an already high degree of utiliza-
segments, measurements on the complete segmental ring tion of the segment. The same applies with regard to seal
are also useful. The measurement frequency and the type tightness: A sealing profile deliberately compressed more
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
page 14 of 46
than necessary can still be tight against the surrounding wa- Possible hinge rotations after installation and the effect of
ter pressure if it is less compressed as a result of deviations. loading must be realistically assessed and taken into ac-
count in the calculation.
If segments have already been produced outside the toler-
ance requirements, they can be used if the compatibility can
Instead of a linear diffusion of tension in both directions
be demonstrated. Possible measures when permissible tol-
x and d, a non-linear tension block can be assumed the re-
erances have been exceeded are described below:
sultant of the block must match the resultant of the tension
triangles in both directions.
a) Exceeding the segment width tolerance
Verification:
If the ring mirror surface does not result in a correct plane
because the segment width tolerance has been exceeded, (1) L = tan x; x = L / tan
the segments can be used e. g. in areas with low projected (2) L = N l / (E x d)
tunnelling forces. For this, a static verification must be per-
formed. (3) L = [N l tan / (E d)]1/2 (1) in (2)
(4) sLK = 2 N / (x d)
b) Exceeding the angle of longitudinal joint conicity/ (5) sL = sL d / dK b / bK
longitudinal joint distortion
If the load transferring surfaces in the longitudinal joint are (6) sLK gF < sRdu (see Chapter 5.6.1)
opened as a result of exceeding the tolerance value of the
longitudinal joint distortion angle, the existing ring normal
force pressurizes the load transferring surface until equilib-
rium is established. The ring normal force is then transferred
over a smaller area, which is therefore subjected to higher
loads. Again, it is advisable to install the incorrect segments
in areas of lower loading. The split tensile reinforcement
must be dimensioned to the higher tension.
e) Neighborhood relations
One way to compensate exceeded tolerances is to sort the
segments in such a way that exceeded tolerances of adjacent
Figure 3: Planned contact zone in the longitudinal joint segments cancel each other out.
Deformations in partially pressurized longitudinal joints: This requires considerable effort to sort the segments in the
segment store and for transport into the TBM. This option
b Segment width
greatly restricts the ability to combine different segments
bk Width of the contact surface and must therefore be approved by the client.
d Segment thickness If the executing company can demonstrate a secure supply
chain, however, this combination option is possible. A data
dk Thickness of the contact surface
recording system for the stored segments is absolutely nec-
l Segment length essary for this.
Opening angle of the incorrect longitudinal joint be-
fore application of the load 3.5 Notes for the design
N Ring normal force
3.5.1 Concrete cover
E Concrete modulus of elasticity (modulus of elasticity
actually measured after 28 days) On the surfaces a minimum concrete cover of cmin = 40 mm
must be maintained, on the end faces and in local areas
x Width of the deformed longitudinal joint
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
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(for example bolt channels) the minimum concrete cover is 3.5.3 Minimum reinforcement
cmin,red = 20mm. A grid reinforcement of d = 10 mm, a = 150 mm is gener-
The tolerance allowance of the concrete cover c is deter- ally recommended as the minimum reinforcement for the
mined according to the production conditions and the quali- segments.
ty control. As a guide, c=5mm can be assumed. In Section 5 the ZTV-ING for road tunnels [3] additionally
Increasing the concrete cover may be required for reasons of requires a minimum reinforcement of d= 10 mm, a = 100
durability (exposure classes according to DIN EN 1992-1-2 mm on all segment surfaces.
[8]). Because of the associated structural disadvantages (in- In Ril 853.4005 [1], surface reinforcement of at least 0.15 %
cluding reduced statically effective height, poorer enclosure per direction on all surfaces is required for railway tunnels.
of the split tensile forces), increased concrete cover should For segment thicknesses of 35 cm this corresponds to the
be carefully weighed up by the draft author and alternative requirement described in the first paragraph.
measures examined.
3.5.2 Reinforcing spacing
Typical reinforcing grids are in the range of between 100
mm and 150 mm. Larger bar spacings are possible, but have
a negative effect on the calculated crack widths. After the
reinforcing cage has been lifted into the mould, it must be
possible to locally reach through the upper layers of steel to
fix built-in parts in the mould. Clear openings in the rein-
forcing cage of at least 90 mm 120 mm must be provided
for this purpose.
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
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4 Sealing of the segment joints during profile extrusion. The elastic properties of the seal-
ing profiles are mainly based on the deformation of the ribs
4.1 Fundamentals remaining between the cavities, with simultaneous reduc-
tion in the cavity volume. Once the cavities are completely
The following statements apply to one-pass linings, in compressed, the stiffness of the profile increases abruptly
which the sealing function is handled solely by the segment and there are high spreading forces. This state is outside the
shell. With two-pass linings the sealing function is handled regular area of application and must not occur in the struc-
completely by the inner shell or by a geomembrane, result- ture because of the associated segment damage.
ing in different or even no demands on the sealing tightness
of the outer shell. Sealing profiles that are already inserted into the formwork
and concreted into the segment with foot anchors have al-
The sealing tightness of tunnel linings made of precast re- ready been used for individual projects but have yet to prove
inforced concrete parts is determined almost exclusively by themselves in construction practice. This may be a way to
the sealing tightness of the joints. The standard solution for simplify the attachment of sealing strips and improve seal-
sealing the segment rings are EPDM (Ethylene propylene ing.
diene monomer) sealing profiles (gaskets) arranged circum-
ferentially on the end faces. When mounting the segments,
the sealing profiles of adjacent segments are pressed against 4.3 Mode of action of the segment seal
each other in pairs and at the same time on their contact sur- In the finished segment tube the following leaks in the joint
faces with the concrete. Appropriate design of the segment sealing system are possible:
end faces in conjunction with a sealing profile designed for
Contact surface between sealing groove and gasket
the particular task should ensure that after completion of the
Contact surface between opposite sealing profiles
segment shell all joints are completely sealed without gaps.
Joint between different sealing frames on segment cor-
The complete absence of gaps is the obvious prerequisite
ners.
for any sealing measure. Because the sealing performance
of the EPDM profiles, which are not bonded to the concrete As a result of the compression of the sealing profile during
and not welded to each other, is based solely on contact ring building, both the continuity of the seal must be pro-
pressure, it is imperative that sufficient contact pressure to duced and contact stress achieved at all potential subsurface
handle the expected water pressure is consistently present watercourses, which ensures that the projected water pres-
on all parts of the entire segment circumference. This ap- sure can be withstood. This target is not only for the ideal
plies both to the two concrete grooves as well as the joint case of absolutely correct quality and geometry, but also for
between the sealing profiles. all expected deviations in the production of components and
in assembly. In particular these are:
All key components of the seal design must be coordinated
in such a way that the sealing task at hand is performed in Dimensional tolerances of the segments including seal-
compliance with the defined installation tolerances. ing groove
Groove base: freedom from cracks, voids and porosity,
no concrete nests
4.2 Choice of the sealing profile
Ring building tolerances and ring deformations
Wherever possible, proven sealing profiles from the vari- Dimensional tolerances of the sealing profile and frame
ous manufacturers are used. In this way the cost of devel- Weight or rigidity tolerances of the sealing profile
opment, testing and approval can be saved, and at the same Deviating mechanical behavior of the frame corners
time there is cost and planning certainty right from the start. Height difference due to longitudinal offsetting of adja-
The development of sealing profiles is the task of the man- cent sealing frame corners
ufacturer. Generally, however, a multiple iteration process Unplanned expansions and compressions as well as de-
is gone through here with the involvement of the other pro- tachment from the sealing groove during ring building
ject participants, construction company, planner, client with Eccentric contact of the sealing profiles (lateral offset)
their experts, test engineer, test institutes and material test- Incomplete compression of the sealing profiles.
ing centers. Of these possible deviations, in accordance with the STUVA
Shaping and vulcanization of the sealing profiles made of recommendation [62] or TL/TP-DP (Technical terms of de-
EPDM synthetic rubber takes place during extrusion. The livery and technical test specifications for sealing profiles)
rectilinearly produced profiles are cut to size and in a further [42] only the latter two are systematically reproduced in the
vulcanization process corner mouldings are added to form leak test. Otherwise, compliance with the tolerances is as-
the sealing frame. The approval of the sealing profile for the sumed. The possible influence of all remaining deviations
particular project is based on the successful completion of and the influence of the relaxation of the sealing profile are
the required tests. ultimately covered by the fact that the test pressure is set
higher than the actual water pressure to be withstood.
After the planned compression, sealing profiles should
still have a remaining voidage, even in the corners of the
frame, of about 10%. This proportion is distributed across
numerous elongated, separate chambers that are created
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
page 18 of 46
4.4 Typical tests of sealing profiles 4.6 Concrete spalling adjacent to the
Regarding the requirements for the sealing frame and the sealing groove
sealing profile, in Section 3 under 8.2.2 the ZTV-ING, Part When designing the segment it must be ensured that an ade-
5 [3] applicable to road tunnels refers to the Technical quate distance is planned from the outer edge of the sealing
terms of delivery and technical test specifications for seal- groove to the outer edge of the segment (40 to 50 mm, de-
ing profiles (TL/TP DP) of the German Federal Highway pending on the restoring force).
Research Institute (BASt) [42]. The Ril 853 [1] governing
railway tunnels follows this provision in module 4005 under In the mathematical proof of protection against spalling of
(13). Consequently all data on requirements and tests can be the concrete adjacent to the sealing groove, usually the ten-
found uniformly in the TL/TP DP. See here for details. sion arising in the sealing profile with the minimum groove
base distance is taken as the load on the groove edge. This
In the following a number of special aspects of the most generally provides adequate protection.
important tests are discussed:
A laboratory test called for in the TL/TP DP, on the oth-
The distance between the deepest points of two opposite er hand, regularly leads to failure. This is due partly to the
sealing grooves is referred to as the minimum groove base test apparatus, partly to extremely unfavorable test condi-
distance when the associated segments are frictionally tions. To cover the sum of different possible tolerance level
pressed against each other until concrete contact or until crossings the sealing profile is compressed even more than
maximum compression of the intermediate layer. In this po- in testing the force-displacement behavior. Such tests are
sition, the greatest compression and therefore the greatest unrealistic and should be ignored in the suitability test of
restoring force of the sealing profile are achieved. the sealing profile.
The force-displacement behavior of a sealing profile is test- With reference to the TL/TP DP, in Ril 853 the Deutsche
ed on two 200 mm long pieces in equally long steel groove Bahn (German Railways) has already specifically excluded
shapes the same as the concrete groove of the segment. The the spalling test.
test extends from the initial deformation to the minimum
groove base distance of the real segment, if relevant also to
the steel surface contact of the groove shape. The tests are 4.7 Dimensional and weight tolerances of
usually carried out in a materials testing laboratory, com- the sealing profile
pletely independent of the leak tests. The different equip- Compliance with the standard manufacturing tolerances for
ment and the groove base distances used as a reference must the geometry of the extruded profiles is often not enough to
be considered when evaluating the results. ensure consistent component behavior. Fluctuations in the
degree of filling i.e. the void fraction are critical, as they re-
Leak tests can be performed on steel or concrete specimens.
sult in considerable variations of the deformation behavior
Working with concrete specimens is time consuming and
and thus of the restoring forces. Weighing the sealing profile
prone to failure, so that practically only tests on steel speci-
has been found to be an effective way to check this. This
mens are still carried out. The geometric situation is simu-
should be done both in production during regular quality
lated on a T-joint in the laboratory, whereby, as on the ring
checks, as well as when carrying out leakage and force-dis-
joint, a straight piece of sealing profile is pressed against the
placement tests.
end of a longitudinal joint.
In several series of tests, each with a specific offset distance,
the water tightness for different groove base distances is
4.8 Long-term behavior of the sealing
tested by gradually increasing water pressure. Ultimately profile
decisive is the result of the test constellation meeting the set To ensure the water tightness achieved during construction
requirements. These requirements are bindingly regulated, is maintained in the long term, two conditions must be met:
but can be defined related to the project.
Material stability of the sealing profile
An adequate seal is best achieved when the sealing profiles Maintaining the minimum required compression.
are compressed without an offset on the minimum possible
The tests to be performed are listed in the TL/TP DP. How-
groove base distance. This case is, however, unrealistic and
ever, explanations are missing here on the value of the indi-
is generally not tested.
vidual tests in the long-term prognosis. Ultimately the tests
must allow an extrapolation to the end of the intended ser-
4.5 Bolting vice life of e. g. 100 years. There is still a need for research
When using compression joint strips, usually temporary and regulation in this respect. It has become standard prac-
bolting or dowelling of the ring and longitudinal joints is tice to verify water tightness in an accelerated test for a level
necessary, from the installation of the segments to the hard- of water pressure increased by a factor of 2.0.
ening of the annular gap mortar (see Chapter 3.2.3). The
bolting / dowelling must mutually brace adjacent segments
against the restoring force of the sealing profile.
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
page 19 of 46
Dilatancy angle c
Rock mechanical
parameters
Water pressure pw
The strength of the grouting mortar should be only slight- Rarely occurring traffic loads include for example im-
ly higher than that of the surrounding soil to prevent sub- pacts from vehicles on the site surface away from trans-
stantial normal force components being removed from the port routes
annular gap mortar in the final state. This would mean that
Transient actions during construction include:
the mathematically determined normal force included in di-
mensioning is not reached in the segment. Temporarily acting loads of tunnelling machines (for
example jacking pressures set to the maximum for the
Although the favorable effect of the lateral pressure of the
advance impacting the lining), construction equipment,
annular gap grouting is present in principle, it is not gener-
scaffolding, construction materials and construction com-
ally considered in calculation.
ponents
Grouting pressure during grouting (annular gap grout-
5.3 Action and action combinations ing)
Dimensioning concept Actions from compressed air, where they act unfavora-
bly.
The European standards DIN EN 1990 [4], DIN EN 1991
[6], DIN EN 1992 [8] and DIN EN 1997 [11] quoted in this Temporarily acting action from changes to the site surface
Chapter always apply in conjunction with the associated (for example, excavations or embankments) and from adja-
National Annexes [5], [7], [9] and [12]. cent cavities (for example tunnelling performed later) can
generally be counted among the rarely occurring actions un-
The dimensioning of the segmental lining should be based
less they are to be classified as permanent actions because
on DIN EN 1997-1 in conjunction with DIN 1054 [17] as
of the duration and frequency of the conditions.
the overarching standard. The design concept shown in de-
tail below is essentially the procedure in Guideline 853 for
railway tunnels. 5.3.4 Accidental actions
Temperature actions in the case of fire
5.3.1 Permanent actions Earthquake/seismic actions
Accidental actions from tunnel installations (for exam-
Actions from the rock
ple, failure of the catenary in railway tunnels)
Water pressure
Flooding of the tunnel in case of flooding via the portals
Dead weight of the segmental lining and all other incor-
Impact loads (generally applies only to components that
porated components
are transverse to the direction of travel)
Actions from tunnel installations
Actions from prestressing measures
5.3.5 General notes on verifications of load-
Loads continuously impacting on the site surface and
impacts from adjacent cavities
bearing capacity
Actions from possible subrosion and suffosion occur- For the segmental lining the verifications must be carried
rences (for example karst, sinkholes) out in the limit states UPL, STR and GEO-2 according to
The jacking forces from tunnel boring machines DIN 1054 [17]. With the exception of special cases (for
(TBMs) acting on the lining during normal tunnelling example leaning tunnel in unstable slopes), verifications in
operations the limit state GEO-3 (slope or embankment failure) are not
Actions from shrinkage and creep (see DIN EN 1991-1- relevant for tunnels. For verifications in the limit state STR
6 and 1992-1-1) can be neglected in the segmental ring and GEO-2, additionally DIN EN 1990 can be applied with
(segments are largely cured before installation) regard to actions from traffic and temperature (see below).
For the resistances here the material parameters and par-
5.3.2 Regularly occurring variable actions tial safety factors specified in DIN EN 1992-1-1 apply. The
Characteristic actions according to DIN-EN 1991-2 for segmental lining is designed for the design situations BS-P,
traffic in the tunnel and traffic routes over the tunnel BS-T and BS-A according to DIN 1054.
Although temperature changes are generally considered
to be regularly occurring variable actions, they are, a) Verifications in the limit states UPL according to
however, to be regarded as a special case, since they DIN 1054
only generate constraint forces. For tunnels, verification of sufficient buoyancy safety (limit
Aerodynamic actions caused by the traffic in the tunnel state UPL) is primarily of interest.
can generally be neglected in a configuration with pre-
cast reinforced concrete segments, but for tunnel instal- Here Ak is the hydrostatic buoyancy, G,dst the partial safety
lations they must be taken into account. factor for unfavorable permanent actions in LS 1A, Qk the
characteristic value of possible unfavorable variable verti-
5.3.3 Rarely occurring actions cally upward directed actions, Q,dst the partial safety factor
for unfavorable variable actions in LS 1A, Gk,stb the lower
Rarely occurring traffic loads and transient actions during
characteristic value of favorable permanent actions and G,stb
construction.
the partial safety factor for favorable permanent actions in
LS 1A.
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
page 22 of 46
For the verification of buoyancy safety, for tunnel tubes not according to DIN EN 1990) the following action combina-
lying completely in the groundwater, for the final state the tion is recommended:
highest expected water pressure during the period of use of
the tunnel should be planned for and for the construction 1) 2) 3) 4)
state the highest expected water pressure during construc-
tion. For a subsequent replacement of the roadway of traf-
j 1
G, j
G k , j + Ad +
Q ,1
Q +
1,1 k ,1
i
Q ,i
2,i
Q
k ,i
fic tunnels the partial safety factors for the design situation
BS-A may be used for the verification without roadway.
1) Permanent actions according to DIN 1054
b) Verifications in the limit states STR and GEO-2 2) Design value of an accidental action (for example, fire,
according to DIN 1054 impact).
3) Dominant variable action (leading action): For traffic
Experience has shown that a consideration of the tempera- and temperature Q = 1.0 applies. For traffic, the com-
ture changes within the concept of DIN 1054 is problematic. bination factors according to DIN EN 1990 apply. For
According to DIN 1054, for verification in the limit states temperature 1 = 0.6 applies. For other geotechnical
STR and GEO-2 a partial safety factor of Q = 1.5 should variable actions, the factors according to DIN 1054 ap-
be assumed for the design situation BS-P, which compared ply.
with the previous global safety concept would lead to sig- 4) Accompanying variable actions (accompanying ac-
nificantly less favorable results. Therefore, in the context of tions): For traffic and temperature Q = 1.0 applies. For
the action combination outlined below (see below), special traffic, the combination factors according to DIN EN
provisions are recommended for the coefficients of the tem- 1990 apply. For temperature 2 = 0.5 applies. For other
perature changes. geotechnical variable actions, the factors according to
DIN 1054 apply.
It is also suggested not to consider the coefficients for the
actions from traffic according to DIN 1054, but according In the event of fire, special load combinations apply.
to DIN EN 1990.
1992-2 in conjunction with the accompanying National An- 5.4.1 Truss model
nex. In general, the crack widths are to be limited to wk For a calculation using the truss model the tunnel lining is
0.2 mm. mapped as a bedded continuous member.
For traffic structures the requirements of ZTV-ING [3] or To take into account the torsional rigidity in the longitudinal
Ril 853 [1] apply. joint and to detect the resulting moment transfer, non-line-
The determination of the internal forces can also be per- ar torsion springs are arranged in the computational model
formed with non-linear material behavior. This also applies at these locations The associated non-linear spring char-
to the load-bearing capacity and serviceability verifications. acteristics reproduce the moment in the longitudinal joint
as a function of the existing torsion and the effective ring
normal force. The determination of these spring character-
5.4 Determination of internal forces istics is usually after the calculation model of Leonhardt/
Calculation method Reimann [31]. This calculation model originally developed
The structural behavior of the tunnel lining subjected to for concrete joints of bridges has also proven itself for lin-
bending is mainly determined by the supporting effect of ing segments, as has been demonstrated in corresponding
the surrounding soil. Only in special cases with unusual experiments.
loads or extremely low bearing capacity soils must the tun-
Depending on the planned structural behavior and shape
nel lining made up of individual segments bear load as a rig-
of the ring joint, the statically effective coupling of rings
id ring. In these cases the coupling of the rings to each other
one behind the other in the ring joint is reproduced using
in the ring joint is of crucial importance for the load transfer.
non-linear coupling elements. The spring characteristics for
The calculation for the tunnel lining can be done using both these coupling elements should take into account the slip in
the truss model and the continuum model. the joint and the flexibility of the existing joint filler. They
are determined with the help of tests. Depending on the
When calculating as a bedded continuous member the sup-
stage of construction, in addition to the coupling from inter-
porting effect of the subsoil is usually only simulated using
locking adjacent rings, coupling effects from friction due to
bedding tongues acting normally on the members. For rea-
the advance jacking forces must be taken into consideration.
sons of numerical stability, a small tangential bedding can
be assumed. When considering adjacent rings under the assumption
of the above-mentioned couplings in the ring joints, the
The following assumptions apply to the bedding:
deformations of the individual rings are similar, whereby
Assumption of a linear elastic radial bedding with a the bridging of the concrete joints by the adjacent segments
beam gap all around the cross section. Planning a beam leads to a stiffening of the system and an accompanying in-
bedding is not permissible. For tunnels in soft ground crease in the bending moments.
with little overburden, generally in the 90 area around
In spite of the coupling, because of the slip in the coupling
the crown no bedding is ever planned [53]
elements i.e. the tongue and groove, there is a certain mo-
Choice of the bedding modulus kR as a function of the
bility in the ring joint as radial shear deformation, which
curvature of the system line of the segment shell (sys-
allows torsion in the longitudinal joint.
tem radius RSys):
kR = ES / RSys A possible static model for a modeling of two coupled seg-
Tangential bedding and tangential loads are usually not mental rings is shown in Figure 6. For the calculation of the
planned due to the shear flexibility of the fresh grouting rings, depending on the program system, the rings can be
mortar. In special cases, such as with unbalanced load, it
can be useful, especially for load cases added later (for
example, one-sided wreckage load, construction and ex-
cavation) to consider a tangential bedding. It must then
be limited by means of the max. potential friction.
Geometric deformations, for example through installation
tolerances, must be taken into account in the calculation, or
if necessary assumed to be lying on the unfavorable side.
In the calculation with a 2D continuum model the tunnel
lining is also shown as a truss in a 3D continuum model
correspondingly as a shell. The behavior of the subsoil can
be determined more accurately using a continuum model
and corresponding constitutive laws. For this purpose it is
necessary to realistically mirror all structural elements (tun-
nel shell, interaction of the segments, annular gap grouting,
soil) in order to realistically register the effects resulting
from them and their interaction with each other. Figure 5: Different deformation of individual
segments (greatly exaggerated)
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
page 24 of 46
8 N
=
9 (1 2m ) a E
2
0.4
0.35
Leonhardt/
0.3 0.28 Reimann
/ (N a)
M/(N*b)
0.25
0.2 Approximation
=M
for truss
m=
0.15
m
0.1
0.05
0 3.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E / N ==8/9
' = ' =a *b*E/N / (1 - 2 m)2
8/9*(1-2m)2
must therefore be verified that the splitting tensile can be Another option, as an alternative to the previous paragraph,
absorbed by the concrete without reinforcement. According is to plan partial surface pressures on the longitudinal joints
to [51] Figure 3.6 the following applies: beyond the ratio up to max. 3fcd if the
two transverse strains in the load introduction area accord-
s0 = P / (b dS) ing to Figure 12 remain limited to max. 0.1/c. Math-
ematically a uniform, linear-elastic material behavior and
gives the stress ratio sy / s0 and from that sy a Poissons ratio =0.2 for concrete should be planned for
[64].
5.6 Individual verifications of the segment It must be verified:
joints 0,1
The following applies to the split tensile force: Load case abnormal stress: 1,5 (for example, tun-
nel fully overflowed with minimum ring normal force)
FSd = 0,25 NEd (1 d1 / ds)
The split tensile forces are determined for the maximum e) Verification of partial surface pressure in the ring joint
normal force Nmax and associated eccentricity e and for the As a result of the jacking forces from TBM tunnelling the
maximum eccentricity emax and associated normal force N ring joints must be verified. For the verification of the partial
from the calculation of the non-linear moment-torsion rela- surface pressure and the determination of the split tensile an
tionship in the longitudinal joints. eccentricity e of the jack shoe must be taken into account.
Required split tensile reinforcement:
Partial surface pressure according to DIN EN 1992-1-1:
req. aS = FSd / (fyk gS) [cm/m]
1 < sRd (sRd acc. to Chapter 5.6.1)
6
The split tensile verification is done according to DIN EN
1992-1-1 (see Chapter 5.6.1b)).
c) Structurally possible joint torsion in the longitudinal f) Load transfer of the coupling forces
joint
If coupling forces are generated in the ring joint with a
In addition to the structural verifications of the longitudinal tongue and groove construction, cam and pocket or dowel
joint the possible joint torsion must be checked. connections, these must be verified. An approach for verifi-
With the aid of the calculated joint torsion (for example cation is given in [53]. If necessary, the absorbable coupling
from a continuous member calculation), the structural com- forces can be determined from tests.
patibility of the torsion with the joint geometry, an adequate
sealing effect when opening the groove on the outside, and 5.6.2 Verification of connections
when opening on the inside the increase in the restoring In the assembly state during ring building, temporary bolt-
forces in the sealing profile and thus concrete pressing, ing in the longitudinal joints fulfills the function of coun-
splitting tensile and shear stress can be verified. teracting the restoring forces of the sealing profile until the
surrounding soil or the annular gap grouting prevent joint
opening.
The compression of the sealing profiles in the ring joint is
carried out primarily by the thrust cylinders, whose preload
force exceeds that of the bolts many times over. Here the
bolts are intended to prevent opening of the joints during
ring building during the removal of individual jacks.
Neither the bolts in the longitudinal joints nor in the ring
joints are needed after the installation of additional rings.
They are removed and can be used again (see Chapter 4.5).
Permanent bolting is only installed at the start and finish
area and if necessary in the region of crosscuts to perma-
Figure 11: Detail from joint with replacement nently accommodate the restoring forces of the sealing pro-
prism for verification of seal groove file.
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
page 29 of 46
Figure 12: Schematic diagram of load dispersion across the segment thickness at raised
partial surface pressure with definition of the mathematical distribution areas
The sealing profile encloses a segment along its circumfer- put drive components need to be mounted. In this way it is
ence. The restoring force per joint Pi can be specified with possible to make the joints flat without toothing or dow-
elling. In the key segment longitudinal joints, because of
Pi = p LJoint the greater circumferential length on the outer side and the
assembly, a radial design results in an increase in the re-
The load bearing capacity of bolts and dowels should be quired installation path in the direction of the advance. As
sized to 2.0 times the restoring force Pi of the sealing frame. a remedy, the joint is usually made somewhat steeper, in
Here only bolt load share acting in the direction of the seal the direction of the parallels to the segment axis. A verti-
may be projected. cal joint (longitudinal joints parallel to the segment axis)
should always be avoided, because external actions push the
It must also be noted that the preload force Fv of the bolts key segment to the inside and a parallel arrangement of the
is greater than the restoring force Pi for the profile and less joints cannot prevent sliding inwards.
than the bolt yield stress Fs, so that the bolts do not plasti-
cize. With the form deviating from the radial direction an out-
put drive component works as planned in the longitudinal
joints. This can have the effect that the joint is not capa-
5.6.3 Verification of the longitudinal joint on ble of safely transferring away the rock and water pressure
the key segment acting on the stone from outside. The longitudinal joint of
The longitudinal joints of standard lining segments are the key segment can therefore be designed with tongue and
formed radially. This ensures that the ring normal force is groove toothing or with a guiding rod. The load transfer of
always perpendicular to the longitudinal joints and no out-
the toothing must be verified in the same way as with the crease. For use in segments a slenderness L/D of about 50
ring joint. to 80 should therefore be maintained.
In order to improve the composite behavior of the fibers in
5.7 Peculiarities in the use of steel fibers the concrete matrix, they are typically provided with end
anchoring elements in the form of hooks, upward bends or
5.7.1 General surfaced heads. Structuring of the fiber surface can also fa-
Concrete is known to have high compressive strength, while vorably improve the composite behavior.
the tensile strength is much lower, and because of its great The fiber properties must be matched to the base concrete
dispersion, to be on the safe side, is not projected mathemat- with the aim of achieving the greatest possible level of
ically in stability analyses. post-cracking ductility. For this purpose, sufficient pull-out
The mixing of steel fibers into a base concrete creates a resistance is necessary on the one hand, on the other hand-
construction material with certain material properties, in tearing of the fibers must be avoided by means of appropri-
particular in the tensile area: steel fiber reinforced concrete. ate tensile strength of the wire.
Ideally the fibers are evenly distributed spatially and ori- In order to achieve any effect of the fibers at all in the con-
ented in all spatial directions, i.e. without preference for a crete, a fiber content of at least 25kg/m should be main-
specific direction. tained. In practice, fiber contents of 30-50 kg/m have pre-
Steel fibers can give the base concrete greater ductility and vailed. Higher fiber contents (80 kg/m or more) are possible
significantly improve post-cracking behavior. Tunnel lining with the appropriate concrete technology and with careful
segments made of steel fiber reinforced concrete are more processing, but are not considered here as a special case.
robust than conventionally reinforced segments, particular- To improve fire behavior, steel fibers can be used in combi-
ly with regard to corner and edge spalling from manufac- nation with polypropylene (PP) fibers.
turing and installation conditions. The fibers are distribut-
Because when steel fibers are used concrete, covers are not
ed right up to the peripheral area and structurally reinforce
maintained and the steel fibers are also close to the surface,
the edge zones, in contrast to a conventionally reinforced
use in adverse exposure conditions (e. g. road tunnels with
segment, where the edge zone (concrete cover) is generally
salt spreading) is usually not possible or problematic.
unreinforced.
Depending on the bending stress of the tube, segments can
5.7.2 Mode of action of the fibers
be designed and produced as pure steel fiber reinforced con-
crete segments or also in combination with conventional With the above-mentioned fiber contents of about 30 to
reinforcement (see Figure 14). 50 kg/m the behavior of the concrete under compression
(pressure area) is changed only slightly. Stiffness (modulus
When used for segments as so-called macro fibers, the fib- of elasticity) and compressive strength remain virtually un-
ers typically have lengths of about 40 to 60mm. The ratio changed; in rock fall areas (pressure) the energy capability
of the fiber length L to the fiber diameter D (substitute diam- increases.
eter with a rectangular fiber cross section) is defined as slen-
derness. The greater the fiber slenderness, the more individ- With tensile stresses a difference must be made between the
ual fibers are distributed in the concrete with the same fiber state before and after cracks arise. With the onset of tensile
content, and thus the better the effectiveness of the fibers in stress steel fiber reinforced concrete with macro fibers in-
post-cracking. With increasing fiber slenderness, however, itially behaves like concrete without fibers and the tensile
the risk of concrete segregation and so-called balling in- strength is practically not affected by the addition of the
fibers before the first crack occur-
rence. While a plain concrete has
NEd NEd only a very low post-cracking en-
e' el el e'
dk dk
ergy capability in tests the corre-
0.1ds d1 d1 sponding stress-crack opening re-
ek ek
lationship (-w relationship) shows
a comparatively short, steeply
0.4ds FSd,r FSd,r
FSd FSd dropping branch through the ad-
ds dition of steel fibers a decisive im-
d provement can be achieved here:
Through the choice of the type and
ds=2e' ds=2e'
dosage rate of the fibers, a substan-
tially increased post-cracking ener-
FSd,2 FSd,2 gy capability with corresponding
post-cracking tensile strengths can
d d be achieved.
d1 = dk-2(el - ek) d1 = dk-2(el + ek)
Figure13: Segment joint with load eccentricity and split tensile stress
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
page 31 of 46
Figure 14: Conventional segment reinforcement (left); segment with steel fibers (right)
Other properties are improved by the addition of steel fib- fiber reinforced concrete and steel fiber reinforced concrete
ers, such as resistance to shock loads (transport and instal- in combination with reinforced concrete (i.e. conventional-
lation conditions of the segment) and mechanical wear; the ly reinforced concrete) is available. The Guideline version
latter can be significant in the design of water tunnels with adapted to the requirements of EN 1992-1-1 is expected to
corresponding transport of solids. be officially adopted by the building authorities in Germany
in early 2014 [37][32].
Ideally the fibers should be uniformly dispersed in the con-
crete matrix. The fibers are thus so scattered that continuous The Guideline follows an approach determined by mate-
electrical contact of the fibers between each other does not rial behavior: the post-cracking material behavior of steel
occur. The change in electrical resistance compared to plain fiber reinforced concrete is ascertained using small-scale
concrete is thus barely noticeable. experiments from which characteristic values and basic pa-
rameters are determined. From the fundamental values the
5.7.3 Experience with steel fiber reinforced so-called performance classes L1 and L2 are defined. The
calculatory and design parameters for defined stress-strain
concrete segments
curves are also determined from the fundamental values.
In the meantime, several tunnel projects with steel fiber These stress-strain curves for steel fiber reinforced con-
reinforced concrete lining segments have been completed. crete are incorporated into the usual calculation and design
With no claim to completeness, these include: of reinforced concrete structures according to DIN 1045-1
Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), London, United and EN 1992-1-1 for the purposes of improving the flexur-
Kingdom al, shear and punching shear load capacities or crack width
Heathrow baggage tunnel, London, United Kingdom limitation.
District heating tunnel, Copenhagen, Denmark As a result of his static calculation the design engineer de-
Jubilee Line, London, United Kingdom termines the required construction material properties by
Docklands Light Rail, United Kingdom specifying the performance classes L with L1 (post-crack-
Subway Lot 34, Essen, Germany ing bending tensile strength for small deformations) and L2
Metro M9, Barcelona, Spain (design and construction (post-cracking bending tensile strength for larger deforma-
with steel bars, client requirement: addition of 30 kg tions) or in combination with conventional reinforcement of
steel fibers per m of concrete structurally) the steel fiber reinforced concrete.
Metro Line 4 and 5, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Hofoldinger tunnel (water tunnel) in Munich The Guideline Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete is primarily
Temporary railway station segments, subway Wehrhahn geared to the needs of the standard building and industrial
line Dusseldorf construction sector. The design of the full cross-section of
the tunnel lining segment for longitudinal force with bend-
5.7.4 Basis of calculation ing/shear should be performed based on the Guideline for
Steel fiber reinforced concrete has been the subject of inten- Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete. It represents the current
sive research and development work for many years. With state of the art in Germany.
the release of the DAfStB Guideline Steel Fiber Reinforced For segment-specific questions, special investigations (ap-
Concrete [37][32], the gap to DIN 1045-1 or EN 1992-1-1 provals in each individual case) may also be necessary.
was filled and a consistent set of rules for the design of steel
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5.7.5 Determining properties of the concrete in In order to limit the bending and slab stress on the indi-
tests vidual segments, the ratio of the developed length in the
circumferential direction to the segment width should not
The classification of steel fiber reinforced concrete in the
be too large.
performance categories L1 and L2 is based on the results of
a 4-point bending test of beam-shaped specimens according Slab stresses from thrust cylinder loads act only for a short
to [37], Part 2, Annex O Test to determine performance time and thus represent a transient action during construc-
categories. The definition of the concrete composition in- tion. Any cracks that may occur here are generally com-
cluding fiber type and quantity is the responsibility of the pletely overpressured in the final state by the ring normal
manufacturer of steel fiber reinforced concrete. force as a result of annular ring grouting pressure and/or
water pressure. In order to enable the closing of these cracks
Steel fibers according to DIN EN 14889-1 Fibers for Con-
from slab stresses as far as possible, the mathematically
crete Part 1: Steel Fibers [22] are to be used. Usually steel
calculated crack width must be limited. The limiting of the
fibers from cold drawn wire are used in segment production.
crack width can be verified with the help of the Guideline
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete.
5.7.6 Calculation notes
Major advantages of fiber reinforcement are the mathemat-
Segments of steel fiber reinforced concrete are best suited ical limitation of crack widths and the increased rearrange-
for tunnels with low stress, especially low bending stress, ment potential of the ring by the development of mathemat-
and greater thickness of the tunnel lining segments. The de- ical, plastic joints.
sign is carried out for longitudinal force with bending and
shear in accordance with the Guideline Steel Fiber Rein-
forced Concrete. For the calculation of internal forces, usu-
ally non-linear methods or theory of plasticity methods are
needed to enable rearrangements in the system.
In addition to the verification of the longitudinal joints in the
final state, often the stress caused by thrust cylinder loads
that result inhigh split tensile stresses in the thickness di-
rection of the segments and slab stresses (cf. Chapter 5.5.1)
proves to be key. Here there is often an additional input of
conventional reinforcement (reinforcement combination).
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6 Structural fire protection properties. Harmful cracks in the concrete can therefore
not be transferred to them and not recognized in the regular
6.1 Introduction structure inspections that are to be carried out. Mounting
elements for signage, tunnel control systems, etc., penetrate
The requirement, nature and extent of structural fire protec- the plaster finish. In these areas, special designs are neces-
tion for a tunnel lining is always to be considered in associ- sary for fire protection and for load transfer.
ation with the operational protection measures (e. g. traffic
management and control, possibilities to drive into safe- To ensure the protective effect of fire protection plasters,
ty/evacuation zones, escape routes design, fire detection, sufficient adhesion to the structure by means of spray plas-
smoke removal, ventilation, cooperation with emergency ter, adhesive or plaster base must be ensured.
services) in accordance with the relevant regulations and Plaster coverings have a service life of 25 to a maximum
determined accordingly. of 35 years. With an assumed useful life of the tunnel of
In the relevant regulations, ensuring adequate stability and 100 years the plaster covering must be replaced two or three
if necessary also serviceability (water tightness, limita- times.
tion of permanent deformations) during and after a fire are
named as the key protection goals of structural fire protec- 6.4.2 Fire protection panels
tion in tunnels.
With a panel covering, the mounting is part of the protective
system, as it must not lose its functionality during the fire,
6.2 Actions in order to prevent the panels falling off. Fire tests are nec-
Measurements in fire tests in tunnels and the subsequent essary to verify the insulating effect of the panel covering
evaluation of real tunnel fires show that tunnel fires differ and the load bearing capacity of the mounting. Specially
from fires in buildings both by the height of the maximum adapted panel coverings must be provided for in the vicinity
temperatures reached and on the other hand by the extreme- of tunnel installations.
ly rapid temperature rise at the beginning of the full fire. Similar to the fire protection plasters, the life of panel cov-
For the description of the thermal actions, usually temper- erings is 25 to a maximum of 35 years, so the covering must
ature-time curves are defined for the fire gas mixture. Fig- be replaced two or three times within the lifetime of the
ure15 shows the temperature-time curves of relevant regu- tunnel. Particular attention should be paid to the attachment
lations. of the fire protection boards from the viewpoint of corrosion
resistance. Fire protection panels hide the underlying con-
crete areas from inspection or structural examination. Their
6.3 Ways of ensuring structural fire protection use is therefore to be viewed critically.
The various ways of ensuring structural fire protection ac-
cording to the current state of the art are discussed in detail
6.4.3 Concrete with high fire resistance
in [1], [58] and [59]. In the following the most important
points from these are summarized. Specifically the follow- Recently adequate structural fire protection has been veri-
ing measures are involved: fied in various traffic tunnels by leading fire tests on repre-
sentative sections of the tunnel lining. In general the con-
By cladding with fire protection panels or fire protection crete was upgraded in fire protection terms by the addition
plasters, which act as an additional heat insulation layer, of polypropylene fibers (PP fibers) to minimize spalling in
the inner reinforcement layer can be prevented from case of fire. In this case mono- or multifilament PP fibers
being heated substantially over 300C. Compliance with should be used with a round cross-section and a smooth sur-
this criterion ensures the stability of the tunnel construc- face. The fiber length should be within a range of 2 mm to
tion during the fire and that major permanent deforma- 12 mm and the diameter in a range of 12 m to 35 m.
tions after the fire are avoided.
Through the use of concrete with high fire resistance As of March 30, 2012 it was specified in the notes to ZTV-
(for example, by the addition of PP fibers) the concrete ING, Part 5 Section 1 and 2 (closed and open construction)
cover can act as a thermal insulation for reinforcement that for increased structural fire protection for new road tun-
with correspondingly low spalling. Verification must nels, execution of the inner shell with polypropylene fiber
be carried out by means of large-scale fire tests on a reinforced concrete (PP fiber reinforced concrete) should
representative section of the tunnel lining, through always be projected. 2 kg of PP fibers per m of concrete
mathematical proof of stability, taking into account the should be added. The fibers should have a length of 6 mm
expected spalling in case of fire, or a combination of the and a diameter of 0.016 to 0.020 mm. Because there is a
two. reference to Section 1 in ZTV-ING, Part 5, Section 3 (Mech-
anized shield tunnelling method) in the Chapter Structural
6.4 Fire protective claddings and fire tests Fire Protection, the above information should be taken into
account.
6.4.1 Fire protection plasters In the fire chamber the specimens are subjected to the pro-
Because of their fiber content, fire protection plasters are jected temperature-time curve (see Section 6.2). According
relatively soft and elastic and have limited crack-bridging to current knowledge, segments with the dimensions and
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the concrete composition as in the subsequent tunnel are In special cases, in the event of fire the water tightness of the
used as specimens. In addition, the predicted state of stress tunnel must be guaranteed if otherwise serious damage can
in the segment is approximately set by means of horizontal occur and the restoration of the serviceability of the struc-
and radial presses. With small specimens and those without ture is associated with considerable costs and time involved
stress, significantly less spalling can occur in the tests than (for example in underwater tunnels). When fire protection
can be expected in reality. coverings are used, water tightness with the segment
thicknesses usual in road construction ( 30 cm) is defi-
If spalling remains low in the test under the real conditions
nitely maintained. But the maintaining of water tightness
described above and the reinforcement is not unacceptably
can also be verified with fire tests or mathematical methods.
overheated, this can generally be viewed as a criterion for
Spalling must then be limited by a suitable concrete com-
adequate structural fire protection.
position so that the maximum temperature is not harmful in
Otherwise the tests in accordance with DIN EN 1363 Part 1 the area of the reinforcement. Project-specific requirements
and Part 2 [20], [1] and [58] are performed. must be specified in this case Because of the narrow joint
gaps the temperature increase is generally not critical for the
A structure inspection or structure examination is perfectly
sealing profile on the outer side.
possible with this type of design.
1350
Fire room temperatures q- - q 0[K]
986 1029
Brandraumtemperaturen
822 a 925
761
658
556 c
482 b
Time
Zeit[min]
[Min]
Figure 15: Temperature-time curves of relevant regulations (a: ETK, b: ZTV-ING, c: EBA, d: RWS)
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
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7 Durability With the usual concrete strengths for tunnel lining segments
the depassivation front of carbonation (pH values of <9)
7.1 Requirements usually remains within the normal concrete cover values
over the useful life. In contrast, under unfavorable condi-
The durability of the tunnel structure assumes its planned tions penetration depths of chloride-containing waters with
load bearing capacity and serviceability with reasonable chloride ion concentration relevant to reinforcement corro-
repair expenses over its entire useful life. Service lives of sion can also be markedly higher than traditional concrete
100 years or more are common Inspection and repair op- cover values, which needs to be considered in the segment
tions are usually available only to a small extent. This is design.
especially true for the ground contact surfaces, seals and
side surfaces no longer accessible after installation. The fol-
lowing requirements must always be met: 7.3 Recommendations to improve durability
Load bearing capacity of the ring and its individual The following marginal conditions are recommended in
components terms of improved durability tunnel lining segments made
Water tightness against water under pressure of reinforced concrete or steel fiber reinforced concrete:
Avoidance of spalling, which can limit serviceability (e. Use of a normal strength concrete at the upper limit of
g. road safety), but can also be relevant to load bearing the strength spectrum (usual: C40/50). As the lower
capacity barrier this must provide adequate strength properties
Avoidance of excessive degradations such as corrosion compared to the planned stress, but at the same time as
and aging damage in the materials concrete, reinforcing the upper barrier have sufficient deformation or energy
steel (structural steel or fiber materials) or sealing and capacity. In the event of unplanned marginal pressures
mounting components during installation or transport, high-strength concretes
The following two sections cover only the classical segmen- tend more towards brittle edges and corner spalling.
tal lining with segments as precast reinforced concrete parts Subsequently repaired damaged areas from spalling or
or precast parts made of steel fiber reinforced concrete. With too wide cracks are often weak points in terms of dura-
regard to the specific characteristics of structural steel seg- bility.
ments in installation, corrosion protection, transitions, etc. A dense concrete structure with low porosity is desira-
reference is made to additional literature ([2], [21], [43]). ble particularly in the areas of concrete cover. This must
be ensured by:
the concrete technology (low w/c values, tiered grad-
7.2 Aging mechanisms ing curves, etc.)
Reinforced concrete segments are exposed to ongoing aging suitable production in the factory, usually with
from processes attacking concrete and steel (see [60], [61]). closed steel formwork (compaction, adequate curing,
The individual mechanisms occur mostly in combination protected storage). The curing of the outer side of
and may reinforce each other. They include: the segment is of special importance because here,
as a result of the concreting process and top closing
Carbonation of the outer sides in ground contact or the
shuttering flaps, air pockets can gather (absorbent
airside surfaces
forming systems at the tops or manual treatment and
Sulfate attack due to sulfate-containing water or subsoil
removal of segregated surface concrete)
with dissolving or driving effect
Adhering to stripping times
Chloride attack from de-icing salts (for example, in
transport, storage and installation that avoid damage
portal vicinity), saline water environment, possibly the
(avoidance of cracking and subsequent repairs)
effects of fire and corrosion of reinforcing steel trig-
gered by it As a rule concrete cover should not be less than min c =
Mechanically abrasive wear stress of the inner surfaces 40 mm on the outside and inside. A tolerance allowance
and edges, including unplanned events (e. g. also from of 5 mm geared to the production of finished parts with
tunnel cleaning) higher quality standards must be considered, which
Degradation from thermal stress in climatic changes, must be particularly adhered to for the outer shell that
such as frost-thaw cycles in portal vicinity lies on top at the production site. In the case of strong
Contact corrosion of reinforcing steel with stainless chloride or sulfate attack, in some cases increased con-
steel components of durable longitudinal bolting is usu- crete cover is necessary [60]. At the end faces (ring
ally not significant and longitudinal joints) locally reduced concrete cover
values to min. c = 20 mm are acceptable if loads are to
Unplanned cracking and spalling under compulsion effects be absorbed near the surface, so that there is no cracking
or mechanical loads have a negative effect on the processes and spalling at the seals.
of aging and should be avoided in favor of a closed con- Use of a securely fixed reinforcement cage fixed with
crete structure with low porosity. Such defects can occur at wire mesh or local spot welding in compliance with
corners, edges, the ring joints toothing (cam/pocket tongue/ the spacing requirements of the concrete cover and
groove) or the longitudinal joints. mounting parts. Industrialized prefabrication of partial
elements from list mats and computer-aided manufac-
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
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turing make sense. Avoidance of unnecessary transpor- The corrosion of the steel fibers on the concrete surface can
tation. potentially be an aesthetic problem, but is otherwise accept-
Avoidance of unplanned mechanical loads (overloading, able.
local damage) and unplanned exposures (e. g. chloride-
According to the application limits of the Guideline Steel
or sulfate-containing backwater or leakage water) by
Fiber Reinforced Concrete, in an aggressive environment
continuous structure inspections and maintenance dur-
(exposure classes XS2, XD2, XS3 and XD3) an engi-
ing operation.
neer-driven durability design for the lifetime of the segment
Limiting of mathematical crack widths (ZTV-ING Part
must be created.
5 Section 3 No. 8.2.1 (5): For segments generally 0.2
mm, for pressurized groundwater on the wetted side For road tunnels, however, the great penetration depth of
0.15 mm). chloride measured results in a significant durability prob-
Inclusion of additional installation parts and anchorage lem.
connectors (anchoring of pipes, fittings, electrification,
etc.) in the planning for durability.
In Germany inner shells are rarely still used as a secondary The inner shell can usually only be made after the end
lining. Even with a two-pass lining the segment ring must of tunnelling of each tube. This requires a longer con-
be able to absorb all loads. Only the verification regarding struction period and results in additional costs.
water pressure can be dispensed with (for example with If the segment shell must absorb the loads of rock and
segments without sealing) in the event of potential drainage water pressure alone for a long time, after installation
impact during construction. the inner shell only gets the loads from dead weight and
fixtures. Since usually only a small normal force is pres-
Advantages of two-pass lining: ent in the shell, larger shrinkage cracks can occur.
When using a foil seal a completely water-tight tunnel is With subsequently occurring loads, for example from
achieved. excavation or construction, the distribution of the loads
The segment ring can be planned as a simplified eco- on the outer and inner shell cannot be clearly defined.
nomical ring (for example no design for subsequent The exact location of leaks is difficult to determine after
excavation and construction), which often also does not installation of the inner shell.
need to be water-tight. Verification of whether a shear connection exists be-
The mountings in the tunnel (anchor rails, dowels, steel tween the outer and inner shell or also the verification
plates) can be made more cheaply. The planning of the that no shear connection exists is difficult to carry out. If
exact mounting points can be done later (just before a shear connection between the inner and outer shell is
installation of the inner shell). mathematically needed, so far no satisfactory structural
Fire protection is ensured by the inner shell. After a fire solution is known to create the shear connection.
the inner shell can be replaced.
The crosscuts, ventilation and rescue tunnels and shafts,
and the transition to the portals can be made more eas-
ily.
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9 Special designs (crosscuts, steel sitions should be within the segment tunnel if possible. It
is advantageous if the height of the crosscut axis coincides
segments, transition to open approximately with the height of the tunnel axis of the seg-
ment tunnel.
construction)
Fundamentally it is possible to plan special segmental rings
9.1 Crosscuts with steel segments in the crosscut area, or to install nor-
mal segment rings (possibly with increased reinforcement
9.1.1 Introduction and additional boltings/dowellings) from which the crosscut
opening is removed or cut out.
Crosscuts in tunnel tubes with segmental lining serve as
escape tunnels between two tubes or as emergency exits, If special segmental rings are planned, it is advantageous
a connection to stairways, or as service rooms. The cross- to plan the arrangement of crosscuts in the area of paral-
cuts are usually made using shotcrete, less commonly with lel rings of uniform width. With tapered rings the location
pipe jacking. The formation of the crosscuts itself has few and order of the rings must first be determined or limited.
peculiarities. In contrast, the transitions between segmental The key segment should be on the side opposite the crosscut
lining and crosscut are problematic in structural and static opening. To reduce the number of special segments, a mir-
terms, which will be exclusively discussed in the following. ror-image arrangement of the segments in the crosscut area
A similar problem also often occurs with shaft connections, is desirable in both tunnel tubes It should be noted that this
niches, emergency and breakdown bays and pump sumps. means that in both tubes in the area of the special segments
the possibility of TBM course correction is lost or limited.
9.1.2 Placement of the crosscut opening Should freezing of the ground from out of the segmental
The optimum formation of a crosscut opening greatly de- tunnel occur, the static verifications should take into ac-
pends on the existing marginal conditions (cross-section of count the arrangement and location of the ice lances when
the main tunnel and cross-cut, geometry of the segmental forming the crosscut and the segments as well as any ice
lining and location of longitudinal joints, production and pressures acting on the segmental tunnel.
lining of the crosscut, required passageway opening, pipe-
lines and cables, rock type, water pressure, sealing concept 9.1.3 Support of the segments
for the crosscut, number of crosscuts, construction sched- The segment rings are permanently interrupted in the area
ule, requirements for corrosion and fire protection, etc.). of the crosscut opening. In the final state the normal forces
The upper and lower edges of the crosscuts and their tran-
are generally transferred away via an in situ concrete frame At the latest before lining the filling segments in the later
or a frame made of steel or cast iron segments. Because an crosscut opening, the individual steel segments are joined
in situ concrete frame can only be produced after the break- together with high tension bolted connections to form a rig-
out of the crosscut opening, this solution additionally re- id frame. This requires corresponding mounting holes.
quires temporary support of the segments during construc-
tion. This can be done with steel rings, profile girder trestles 9.1.5 Bolting or dowelling in the ring joints
or frames transverse to the tunnel axis (hedgehog). It is
also possible to plan bolting or dowelling of the segments in When special segments are arranged the segments can be
the ring joints with the help of special connecting structures frictionally bolted or dowelled in the ring joints above and
in the concrete segments. below the crosscut opening. As a result of the coupling the
normal forces of the interrupted segment rings can be trans-
If segment frames or dowelling or bolting are used as mitted to the adjacent rings.
support during and after construction, the bedding of the
load-bearing rings in the side wall must be ensured at all Such structures can be designed both solely for the con-
stages of construction. struction stage and for the final state. If they are merely for
load transfer during construction, in the final state the ring
If the entire junction area is iced or solidified with DSV or forces of the segment must be absorbed by an in situ con-
injections, then the temporary support can potentially be re- crete collar within the opening (bracket). If the connections
placed by this ground stabilization or the load to be support- are projected for the final state, special requirements must
ed can be reduced to the dead weight of the segments and a be made regarding fire protection and corrosion protection.
loosening pressure.
Since the load transfer in the ring joints between the adja-
In the calculation it must be taken into consideration that the cent rings results in a high local stress, usually special pre-
load impact and bedding are no longer present at the open- cautions are taken for the load introduction into the concrete
ing, and possibly beyond, which disrupts the load bearing segments and the reinforcement designed accordingly. The
system of the segment ring. load on these special segments usually requires a high rein-
forcement content.
9.1.4 Steel segment frames Depending on the geotechnical and geometric marginal
Special segments made of steel must have the ring width of conditions, in addition to the forces in the tangential direc-
standard segments, if necessary smaller segments must be tion (normal forces in the ring direction), forces in the radial
supplemented with additional special elements to make up direction (transverse forces in the direction of the segment
the full ring width. Bolting of the ring and longitudinal joint thickness) also occur at the coupling points in the ring joint.
must correspond to the concrete segments. The longitudinal The latter often determines the size of the load bearing ca-
joints must also be matched to the concrete segments. In pacity, and thus the possibility of using such a construction.
an extension of the TBM jacks the steel segments must be
stiffened accordingly. Because of the tailskin seal the outer 9.1.6 Steel structures
diameter of the special segments must correspond to that of
the standard rings, the inner diameter can be made the same
Steel frame around opening
or greater.
Steel frames around a crosscut opening are placed either in-
In the choice of the inner diameter the requirements re- side the main tunnel cross-section or in the central area of
garding corrosion and fire protection must be clarified in the segment shell.
advance. For corrosion protection coatings, an increase in
the metal sheet thickness or a concrete casing are common- The placement within the cross-section determines the in-
ly used. For fire protection, special plasters, fire protection troduction of force via brackets or similar from the segmen-
panels or concrete casing come into question. In order not to tal lining into the support structure. In addition, the structure
restrict the clearance gauge, when concrete casing and fire must be installed frictionally (potentially preloading of the
protection panels are used the inner diameter of the special struts), the deflection of the bars must be taken into account
segments is usually increased. and the bedding be ensured in the case of curved struts. If
the main tube consists of tapered rings, the tunnel describes
Usually special segments also have circumferential elas- a spatial curve. This must be considered in the design of the
tomer profiles as a seal. Therefore a seal groove must be frame and the bracket.
formed corresponding to the concrete segments. Internal
corner cantilevers are not possible. It is also important that
the sealing profile is not damaged when lining the filling
Steel rings
segments. Steel rings within the clearance gauge of the segment tunnel
for the temporary support of a segmental tube are only suit-
The steel segment frames are also used during construction able for small loads because they are very soft and require
for supporting the segmental tube. This requires sufficient adequate bedding. Structurally, the rings must be positively
lateral bedding of the rings. The required bedding width de- connected to the segment (mortar cushions, wedges, etc.).
pends on the load, the cross-section of the main tunnel, the
width of the transition frame and the surrounding geology.
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9.2.2 Formation final outline is formed only after welding, by milling. The
Steel segments welded from rolled sheet metal usually con- segments are aligned in such a way that as little material as
sist of an outer shell plate, which forms the watertight shell possible is milled. The holes for the bolts are also drilled in
of the tunnel lining. On the inside web plates are arranged in this step. This ensures that the segments fit together exactly.
the circumferential direction and in the longitudinal direc- When choosing the plate thicknesses the amount for mill-
tion of the tunnel, so that a kind of cassette segment is creat- ing must be taken into account and also a certain tolerance
ed. Together with the shell plate the web plates arranged cir- must be considered. It must be ensured that after milling the
cumferentially absorb the ring forces consisting of normal statically set minimum thickness of the plates is maintained.
force, moment and shear force. The web plates arranged in
the longitudinal direction of the tunnel are used for the pas-
9.2.4 Installation
sage of the normal forces in the longitudinal direction of the
tunnel, for example, jacking forces from the TBM. The installation of steel segments is a lot more complicated
than the installation of reinforced concrete segments. This is
Both in the longitudinal joints and in the ring joints, the due to the low tolerances for bolting, which force very exact
steel segments are joined by means of bolts. Depending on ring building. The installation of the numerous bolt connec-
the number and the preloading of the bolts the connections tions is very time consuming. All bolts must be tightened to
can be made rigid and shear resistant. their required preload. This lowers tunnelling performance
In a segment ring either only single reinforced concrete seg- considerably. Usually special adapter plates are required for
ments can be replaced by steel segments (see Chapter 9.1.4) the installation of the steel segments with the erector.
or the entire ring can be formed from steel segments. Because of the way the individual segments are produced,
The seal between the steel segments is analogous to rein- offsets can occur on the inner side between adjacent seg-
forced concrete segments, with a sealing frame located in ments, although the bolt connections fit together exactly and
a seal groove. thus the sealing profile is ideally matched.
Figure 17: Flange construction at the transition to in situ concrete, e. g. Katzenberg Tunnel
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
page 42 of 46
a special transition structure is required. This is usually 9.3.3 Permanent seal constructions
accomplished by means of sealing joint strips. Fundamen-
tally it must be differentiated whether the seal construction Constructions in which a joint strip is embedded directly
should be accessible and replaceable from the outside, or into the situ concrete are more suitable. On the segment
whether it should be integrated into the in situ concrete lining side the seal construction should be flanged onto the
structure and no longer accessible. sealing frames of the adjacent segment ring. The free end
of the joint strip generally ties into the in situ concrete con-
struction made of impermeable concrete. Alternatively, the
9.3.2 Replaceable seal constructions joint strip can also be connected with an external sealing
Externally accessible and replaceable seal constructions can foil.
be accomplished only with the help of a clamp construction
and an omega joint strip. For this purpose, complex loose- To accommodate any possible shifts between in situ con-
fixed flange constructions are required. Appropriate fixed crete construction and segmental lining, the joints between
flanges must be arranged both on the segment lining side the segmental lining and in situ concrete structure should
and on the in situ concrete structure side for this. With the be formed as an expansion joint. Appropriate compressible
help of a loose flange a joint strip is attached at both ends. materials and joint strips that can absorb the movements
For corrosion protection, the flange structures usually have should be used for this purpose.
to be made of stainless steel.
Special fire safety precautions are not generally required
Because such constructions are technically very complex because the joint strip is adequately protected by the in situ
and usually no deformations are expected between connec- concrete.
tion block and segmental tunnel, they are usually dispensed
with. As with any joint construction, appropriate grouting hoses
For fire safety reasons, the joint strip must usually be pro- should be put in place for any potentially required resealing
tected against the effects of fire with the help of appropriate later.
fire safety equipment (fire protection mats).
DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
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[38] Deutscher Beton-Verein: Merkblatt Bemessungs- [52] Maidl, B., Herrenknecht, M., Maidl U., Wehrmeyer,
grundlagen fr Stahlfaserbeton im Tunnelbau, Fas- G.: Kap.6, Tunnelauskleidung, aus Maschineller
sung September 1992, redaktionell berarbeitet 1996 Tunnelbau im Schildvortrieb, Berlin: Ernst und
[39] Deutscher Beton-Verein: Sachstandsbericht Stahl- Sohn, 2. Auflage, 2011
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DAUB Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013)
page 45 of 46
Concrete repair
Cracks
Recommendations for the design, production and installation of segmental rings (10.2013) DAUB
page 46 of 46
Occupational Safety
Noise
Concrete contact
Dust
Handling hazardous materials
Handling equipment
A.3 Tunnelling
The construction operation requirements of the segments
from delivery on the site until installation in the tunnel are
defined in the QM plan of the shield manual.
All design, static and construction operation issues for tun-
nelling must already be considered during technical pro-
cessing. These include, for example:
Interim storage on site
Transport to the installation location
Interaction segment lining and shield drive
Ring building
Annulus grouting
Repair of damage