Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

ANATOMY-------tome means to cut in Greek

PHYSIOLOGY
I functions of anatomical structures, both individual and cooperative
Anatomical terminology from ancient Greek and
Branches of anatomy
Gross anatomy
Microscopic anatomy
Cytology study of the cell
Histology study of tissues
Developmental anatomy
Embryology
Comparative anatomy
Hierarchy of structural organization from simplest to most complex
Scale uses metric system
Gross Anatomy
Structures large enough that one can see with the unaided eye
Surface Anatomy - study of superficial markings
Regional Anatomy - The study of specific areas of the body (e.g. head, trunk)
Systemic Anatomy - Study of the 11* specific organ systems
Levels of Organization
Chemical Level: - atoms (e.g. carbon) combine to form molecules (e.g. glucose)
Cellular level:
o Smallest living units in organisms
o Cells contain organelles, each with a function
Tissue group of cells similar in structure and function
Organ 2 or more tissue types performing specific function
Organ system group of organs acting together to perform specific function
Human organism
11 Organ systems
Integumentary* Lymphatic
Nervous* Urinary
Skeletal* Respiratory
Endocrine Reproductive
Muscular* Digestive
Cardiovascular
Levels of Structural Organization
Organ Systems of the Body
Integumentary system
o Forms the external body covering
o Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails
o Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D
Skeletal system
o Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments [with the joints they make up]
o Protects and supports body organs
o Provides the framework for muscles
o Site of blood cell formation
o Stores minerals
Muscular system
o Composed of muscles and tendons
o Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression
o Maintains posture
o Produces heat
Nervous system
o Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves
o Is the fast-acting control system of the body
o Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands
Cardiovascular system
o Composed of the heart and blood vessels
o The heart pumps blood
 o The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body
Lymphatic system
o Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels
o Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood
o Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
o Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
Respiratory system
o Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
o Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
Digestive system
o Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and liver
o Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood
o Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces
Urinary system
o Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
o Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
o Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood
Male reproductive system
o Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens
o Main function is the production of offspring
o Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
o Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract
Female reproductive system
o Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
o Main function is the production of offspring
o Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
o Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn
Homeostasis
Homeostasis: ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world
All body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment, respond to external and internal changes
to function within a normal range (body temperature, fluid balance)
The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium
Failure to function within a normal range results in disease

LABORATORY
THE HUMAN BODY : AN ORIENTATION
Anatomical Position
Hands at sides, palms forward
o Gross Anatomy
The anatomical position
o Directional Terms
Superior and Inferior toward and away from the head, respectively
Anterior and Posterior toward the front and back of the body
 Medial and Lateral toward the midline, away from the midline
Proximal and Distal closer to and farther from the origin of the body part (or from the torso)
Superficial and Deep toward and away from the body surface
Cranial and Caudal toward the head and toward the tail
Body Planes
Sagittal parallel to long axis, divides the body into right and left parts
o midsagittal or medial sagittal plane that lies on the midline
Frontal or coronal also parallel to long axis, divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse or horizontal (cross section) perpendicular to long axis, divides the body into superior
and inferior parts
Body Cavities
Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions
o Cranial cavity within the skull; encases the brain
o Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral column; encases the spinal cord
Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions
o Thoracic
2 lateral pleural cavities
Central mediastinum containing pericardial cavity
o Abdominopelvic
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
o Serous cavities are slit-like spaces lined by serous membranes (serosa):
Parietal serosa forms the outer wall of the cavity
Visceral serosa covers the visceral organ
o Other smaller cavities: in head, between joints
9 abdominal regions; 4 quadrants
Histology
o Microscopic examination of the fine structure of organs, tissues and cells
o Tissues are prepared by fixation (preserved) and then cut into thin sections
o Gross anatomy
Pathology: structural changes caused by disease
Clinical anatomy
Medical imaging
X-ray imaging
Advanced radiological studies
o Computed tomography (CT)
o Dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR)
o Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)
PET scans (positron emission tomography)
Sonography (ultrasound imaging)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

NOVEMBER 28, 2014 LECTURE: CELLS

Organelle-----Small structures that are metabolic machinery of the cell
Cell-------the structural and functional unit of all living things
What functions do all cells have in common?
Metabolize, digest nutrients and dispose of wastes, grow and reproduce, move and respond to a stimulus
Plasma Membrane----external boundary of cell; regulates flow of materials into and out of the cell; site of cell signaling
Lysosomes-----contains digestive enzymes of many varieties; "suicide sac" of the cell
Mitochondria---scattered throughout the cell; major site of ATP synthesis
Microvilli----slender extensions of the plasma membrane that increase its surface area
Inclusion----stored glycogen granules, crystals, pigments, and so on
Golgi Apparatus----membranous system consisting of flattened sacs and vesicles; packages proteins for export
Nucleus----control center of the cell; necessary for cell division and cell life
Centrioles----two rod-shaped bodies near the nucleus; direct formation of the mitotic spindle
 Nucleolous----dense, darkly staining nuclear body; packaging site for ribosomes
Microfilaments----contractile elements of the cytoskeleton
Endoplasmic Reticulum---membranous system; involved in intracellular transport of proteins and synthesis of
membrane lipids
Ribosomes---attached to membrane systems or scattered in the cytoplasmic; synthesize proteins
Chromatin----threadlike structures in the nucleus; contain genetic material (DNA)
Peroxisomes----site of free radical detoxication
Mitosis phases in order----(Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis)
Importance of Mitotic Cell Division----(to make a greater amount of cells for repair and growth while maintaining the
same genetic makeup)
Mitosis is the division of the _______(Nucleus)
Cytokinesis is the division of the _______(Cytoplasm)
The major structural difference between chromatin and chromosomes is that the latter are _______ (coiled)
Chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers by undivided structures called _______(centrosomes)
If a cell undergoes mitosis but not cytokinesis, the product is a _______(multinucleated cell)
The structure that acts as a scaffolding for chromosomal attachment and movement is called the _______ (spindle)
Two cell populations in the body that do not routinely undergo cell division are _______ and _______------(skeletal and
cardiac)
The physical advantage of the chromatin coiling and condensing to form short chromosomes at the onset of mitosis are
that...-----short, compact bodies are easier to manipulate during mitosis than long, thin chromatic threads
Cytoplasm (cytosol)-----major site of most activities carried out by the cell (consists of the cell contents between
the nucleus and the plasma membrane) (Cytosol - fluid cytoplasmic material)
Cytokenesis----division of the cytoplasm
INTERFACE
the period of a cell's life when it carries out its normal metabolic activities and grow
Mitosis ------nuclear division
The period of cell life when the cell is not involved in division is _______
DNA synthesis occurs during _______
Centrioles replicate during _______
PROPHASE
Chromatin coils and condenses, forming chromosomes during _______
The mitotic spindle forms during _______
The nuclear fragments during _______
Chromosomes first appear to be duplex structures during _______
Chromosomal centrosomes are attached to the kinetochore fibers during ______
METAPHASE
Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell during ______
Cleavage furrow forms during _______
The nuclear envelope(s) is absent during _______ and _______
ANAPHASE
Chromosomes are V-shaped during _______
TELOPHASE
The nuclear envelope re-forms during _______
Chromosomes stop moving toward the poles during ______
Terminology
Cysti- sac, bladder.
Cyto- cell. Cytology is the study of cells.
Dactyl- digits. Polydactylism is the presence of more fingers than is normal.
Derma- skin. Dermatologists are skin specialists. (see cut-)
Dura- tough, hard. Dura mater is the tough covering around the brain and spinal cord.
Entero- intestine. Enteritis is inflammation of the intestines.
Erythro- red. Erythrocytes are red blood cells.
Galacto- milk.Galactose-Milk Sugur; Galactosemia is the lack of ability to digest one of milk's sugars.
Gastro- stomach, belly. Gastric juices are produced in the stomach.
Glosso- tongue. Hypoglossal means "below the tongue".
Glyco- sugar. Glycosuria is sugar in the urine.
Hema- blood. Hemaglobin is a large molecule of the red blood cell.
Hepato- liver. The hepatic vein drains blood away from the liver.
Hyster- uterus. Hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus.
Ileo- ileum. Part of the small intestine.
Ilio- ilium. Part of the hip bone.
Lachry- tears. Lacrimal glands secrete tears.
Leuko- white. Leukocytes are white cells of the blood. (see alba-)
Lingua- tongue. Sublingual glands are beneath the tongue. (see glosso-)
Lipo- fat. Liposuction is the removal of fat by suction tube.
Lith- stone. Shock wave lithotripsy is a treatment for breaking up kidney stones.
Lumbo- lower back. Lumbar vertebrae are located in the lower back.
Macul- spot, blotch. The macula lutea is a spot on the retina of an eyeball.
Mamm- breast. Mammogram is a picture of a breast, usually a female breast.
Mast- breast. Aren't we showing our obsession with breasts?
Meningo- membrane. Meninges are the coverings of the brain and spinal cord.
Metro- uterus. Endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus. (see hystero-)
Morpho- shape. Endomorphs are people whose physical shape extends to the limits of human dimension.
Myelo- spinal cord. Poliomyelitis is inflammation of the grey matter of the spinal cord.
Myo- muscle. Myo-cardiac infarction is a problem with the heart muscle.
Necro- death. Necrosis is death of cell tissue.
Nephro- kidney. Nephrons are the functional units of a kidney.
Neuro- nerve. Neurons are individual nerve cells.
Oculo- eye. An oculist supplies eyeglasses.
Odont- tooth. Othodontics refers to repair of teeth.
Onco- tumour. Oncology is not doctors wearing pagers; it is the study of cancerous tumours.
Ophthalm- eye. Ophthalmology is the study of eye and its diseases
Oro- mouth. The oral cavity is the other name for the mouth.
Orchido- testicle. Orchidectomy is removal of a testicle.
Osse-, Osteo- bone. Osteoporosis is porosity of bone.
Oto- ear. Otosclerosis is the formation of bone in the ear.Otomycosis-fungal infection in ear
Patho- disease. Pathogens are agents which cause disease.
Peps- digestion. Pepsin is an enzyme found in the digestive system.
Phago- eat. Phagocytes are cells (cyto-) which eat foreign material.
Philo- love, to have an affinity for. Hydrophilic molecules are attracted to water (hydro-)
Phleb- vein. Phlebitis is inflammation of the veins.
Phren- diaphragm. Phrenic refers to a diaphragm.
Pneumo- lung. Pneumonia is a disease of the lungs.
Pulmo- lung. Are lungs related to breasts?
Pyo- pus. Pyruria is pus in the urine.
Ren- kidney. Renal artery supplies blood to the kidney.
Rhin- nose. Rhinoplasty is a nose job
Scler- hard. Atherosclerosis is hardening of the arteries. (see dura-)
Stasis- stand still. Homeostasis is the process of maintaining constant conditions within the body.
Thromb- clot, lump. Thrombosis refers to a clot in the heart or blood vessel.
Trich- hair. Trichosis is a disease of the hair.
Vas- vessel, duct. Vas deferens is the vessel which carries sperm from the epididymus.
Viscer- organ. Visceral refers to organs.
Zoo- animal. Zoology refers to the study of animals.