1

Mental models @ work

Implications for teaching sustainability
John Adams
Saybrook Graduate School, USA

1.1 Background: what we say and what we do

Human activity during the second half of the twentieth century produced huge
challenges that are only now becoming evident to significant numbers of people.
The engines driving gains in wealth, technology and the production of goods are
using up ever-increasing amounts of non-renewable resources and generating
unprecedented amounts of waste. New diseases more complex than any encoun-
tered before have appeared and have spread globally. Unprecedented numbers of
people are left out of the positive advances of ‘Western science’ and are living in
abject poverty—creating a skewed distribution of a few ‘haves’ and a majority of
‘have nots’. The population of the planet has tripled in the past 50 years, and more
than half of the people who have ever lived are alive today.
A higher proportion of the population is involved in warfare (civil and ethnic
wars are just as deadly as the global kind) now than at any other time in history. As
a result of population pressures, growing aspirations and local warfare, unprece-
dented numbers of people are migrating to the less densely populated countries of
the world. Grain and fish production both peaked in the 1980s and have been level
or declining ever since. Meat consumption has become a symbol of affluence, and
its production makes huge demands on grain harvests and water supplies. Arable
lands are turning into deserts, and aquifers are becoming salty as we try to feed the
global population.
Since the 1990s, significant attention has been devoted to what it will take to
address conditions such as these and to bequeath a high-quality and equitable
future to succeeding generations. Ecologists, economists, population experts, busi-
 x. chapter title author 19

ness leaders, academics, psychologists and spiritual leaders have all weighed in
with their suggestions. Most predict a less than rosy future if we do not make
significant changes quickly; some say it is already too late.
Now we have entered a new century, and so far there is no indication that any of
these challenges has abated. In fact, some of the trends (e.g. emission of green-
house gases) are growing even faster than was predicted at the beginning of the
1990s. The various global environmental challenges we are facing are well
documented and widely reported by the media. More and more people are express-
ing alarm and are agreeing that ‘something should be done’.
As is often the case, however, what people espouse and what they actually do are
frequently quite different (for a more comprehensive development of espoused
and behaved values, see Argyris and Schön 1978). Widespread changes in con-
sumption patterns and resource usage have not happened. In this chapter I argue
that people have to become aware of and question widely shared collective
thinking patterns, or mental models, before they can act in new ways.

1.2 Why attention to prevailing mental models is

essential
Whatever outcomes we realise in describing and implementing sustainable prac-
tices, it is clear that the future quality of life will be dictated by human behaviour,
which is driven by human thought. We have no choice about whether we will play
a role in creating the future. Our only choice is whether to create the future
consciously or unconsciously!
The relevance of generating awareness and choice about mental models in
teaching sustainability can be summarised by the following three quotes. The first
is from Marilyn Ferguson <please give details of the source of the quote>:
If I continue to believe as I have always believed, I will continue to act
as I have always acted. If I continue to act as I have always acted, I will
continue to get what I have always gotten.

This statement supports the notion that how we think strongly influences how we
act, and our actions, in turn, influences the results we get. Trying to get different
results (e.g. more sustainable management practices) while continuing to think in
the ‘same old ways’ is not likely to lead to much change. Our mental models tend
to be self-reinforcing and self-fulfilling.
The second statement is from Albert Einstein <details of source?>:
You cannot expect to be able to solve a complex problem using the
same manner of thinking that created the problem.

Einstein’s famous statement reminds us that if we do not adopt new mental models
we will at best only be able to put short-term Band Aids on symptoms arising from
unsustainable human activities.
20 Teaching Business Sustainability: Volume I

Ferguson tells us that our thinking influences the results we get, and Einstein
reminds us that a different consciousness will be needed, but the real challenge to
teaching sustainability is represented by an observation from R.D Laing <please
provide details of source>, who suggested:
The range of what we think and do is limited by what we fail to
notice. And because we fail to notice that we fail to notice, there is
little we can do to change; until we notice how failing to notice
shapes our thoughts and deeds.

This third quote places the others within the reality that we are generally unaware
of the mental models we use. So, an early priority in any sustainability education
programme must be to raise awareness of the mental models being used and then
to encourage responsible and conscious choice for adopting more appropriate
mental models If our attempts to teach sustainability in academic and corporate
classrooms are to lead to significant action, we must help learners to understand
and address their own default mental models and then show them how to diag-
nose and nurture versatility in the thinking of those they seek to influence.
A further implication for teaching sustainability is that the agent of change
moving towards increased sustainability, whether she or he is an employee or a
consultant, needs to be able to vary her or his mental models to exert successful
influence. For example, if her or his opening message comes from mental models
similar to as those of the receiver, then less defensiveness is generated. Once discus-
sion is under way, the agent of change can gradually shift her or his mental models
and those of the person being influenced towards outlooks more appropriate to
generating sustainable practices.
Mental models are with us from the very beginning. Owing to continual,
normal repetitions and reinforcements, each of us gradually develops persistent
ways of thinking that are assumed tacitly to be accurate reflections of reality and
that operate, for the most part, unconsciously. Let us turn our attention now to
some of the most prevailing collectively held mental models.

1.3 Prevailing mental models in North American

organisations
Over the past several years, I have regularly asked people in my graduate courses
and in private corporate workshops to brainstorm about their experiences of the
commonly held mental models in their organisations, asking them to use
adjectives to describe the widespread norms and outlooks. After collecting dozens
of these lists and thousands of descriptive adjectives and then sorting the items
into themes I have found that most of the items fall near the left extreme of the six
dimensions portrayed in Figure 1.1. Please note, I do not think that these six
dimensions provide a complete description of the consciousness needed for a truly
sustainable future, but they certainly give us a running start.
 x. chapter title author 21

Short-term Time orientation

urgency; quick fix; Long-term
treat symptoms

Reactive Focus of responsiveness

externalise blame Creative
and authority

Local Focus of attention

‘me first’; ‘us versus Global
them; competitive

Separation Prevailing logic

either–or; right– Systems
wrong; good–bad

Blaming Problem consideration

‘who’s at fault?’; Learning
‘don’t get caught’

Doing or having Life orientation

materialism; greed; Being
burnout

Figure 1.1 Six key dimensions of a sustainable consciousness

Unanimously across every one of my classes and workshops, people have located
the present default mental models in business at or near the left-hand side of these
dimensions, with a rather narrow ‘zone of comfort’ around each. When asked
what sort of scenario we will create in 20 years if these defaults continue
unchanged, the responses are always gloomy—and decidedly unsustainable.
When asked if these default mental models are driving the major ecological
challenges and economic disparities that exist around the world, there is a
unanimous ‘Yes!’ Although we already know what is needed, the autopilot nature
of our prevailing default mental models is very persistent.
What would happen if we were able to shift the defaults significantly to the
right, and generate wider ‘zones of comfort’? Would we not be better able to create
the kind of future we really want? For that matter, would we not also be able to
bring our own lives into better balance today if we made these changes?
The challenge is that our mental models have a way of protecting themselves
from change and usually operate like an autopilot. As far as we know, we are the
only species on Earth that has the capacity to think about how we think. Most of
the time, however, we do not engage this capacity. We reinforce our outlooks by
repeating the same thoughts day after day. To take responsibility, we must move
from autopilot to choice. In this respect, we have done a reasonably good job of
preparing for the future technologically, but we have a long way to go
psychologically and emotionally.
22 Teaching Business Sustainability: Volume I

In the workplace, we often find that plans are created but not followed. We are
constantly faced with examples of low integrity and questionable ethics in the
arenas of business, finance, government and even childcare. When it comes to the
environment, relatively few—although their numbers are growing—organisations
voluntarily restrict themselves with regard to toxic emissions and solid waste
disposal and, where regulations exist, minimum compliance—or finding loop-
holes—unfortunately still prevails.
At the individual level, it seems too few people feel personally responsible for
their lot in life. The act of taking personal responsibility for other than personal
economic gain, although increasing, is still not widespread. Not enough of us
recognise how small and endangered the Earth has become, and even fewer of us
realise the many things we can do locally to address, even in a small way, some of
the larger challenges.
Are people by nature self-destructive? Do people generally not care if they
degrade the environment until vast tracts become uninhabitable? Are people
unconcerned about the legacy they appear to be leaving for their grandchildren?
Do people really think that their lifestyle habits will not have any consequences?
Do wealthy Westerners really feel that it is appropriate for four billion fellow
humans to live on less than US$2 per day? For most people, the answer is ‘No!’ to
each of these questions, and yet the problems continue to grow.
I think the reason for this contradiction lies in our way of thinking. But mental
models are not immutable. With conscious choice they can become more appro-
priately flexible. Versatility in consciousness is a key concept that needs to be
introduced into the educational process at all levels if we are to address rising
worldwide sustainability issues effectively. I believe that versatility in conscious-
ness is essential for ongoing individual learning and that the only sustainable
consciousness is a continual learning consciousness.
Any ‘reprogramming’ of the autopilot will require the same processes that estab-
lished the present mental models in the first place—repetitions of messages and
experiences. The reiterations of new ideas and intentions must be carried out
consciously. Often, to get beyond the status quo maintenance efforts of the old
autopilot it is necessary to create structures or mechanisms that require new
repetitions be carried out.
It is easiest to change one default message at a time. Wholesale changes of one’s
consciousness, a complete personal transformation, is possible and sometimes
happens, but step-by-step change is likely to be a lot easier for most people to
assimilate.

1.4 Implementing the six dimensions of a

sustainable consciousness
On each of the dimensions of sustainable consciousness introduced in Figure 1.1
education and ongoing socialisation reinforce default mental models near the
extreme left-hand side of the continuum. I propose that the kind of thinking that
 x. chapter title author 23

fosters continual learning and inquiry, sustainable consciousness, is that which

operates easily and appropriately all the way across each dimension.
Pressure and stress can compress or narrow one’s zones of comfort and push the
default further towards the left-hand side of the continuum. For example, some-
one who seems always to be in a hurry may become panic-stricken and over-
whelmed by mounting deadlines and feel an absence of enough time. Someone
who is mildly prejudiced against certain groups may become more closed-minded
and more radically hateful.
Conversely, appreciative processes such as Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider
and Whitney 1999), Future Search (Weisbord and Janov 1995), Dialogue (Senge
1990), Open Space (Owen 1992), and The World Café (Bown 2002) can help
broaden one’s zones of comfort by providing new insights and unexpected
vantage points in a safe environment. A series of questions is provided at the end
of this chapter, in Box 1.1<confirm>, that is intended to help people focus on
building versatility.
Table 1.1 provides examples of how to reinforce or bring attention to the left-
hand side of each dimension. Table 1.2 provides examples of how to reinforce or
bring attention to the right-hand side of each dimension. These two tables also
indicate the positive aspects of each focus and the liability that accrues from too
much of each focus.

Focus Reinforcing Questions for Positive value of Consequences

messages refocus refocusing of overusing
refocus

Short-term Don’t fix it if it What needs You can: You may:

ain’t broke attention now? ● Establish ● Lose the big
Just do it What are your priorities picture
immediate ● Act with ● Overlook the
priorities? efficiency long-term
consequences
● Merely put
bandages on
the symptoms

Reactive Do as you’re What is the You can You may:

told established achieve: ● Become stuck
If it feels good, policy, ● Consistency in a rut
do it procedure or
● Responsive- ● Be unable to
practice?
Life’s a bitch ness flow with
and then you What has been change
● Loyalty
die done before in
this kind of
situation?

Table 1.1 Working with the left-hand side (‘left-end’) focuses (see Fig. 1.1)
(continued over)

<Confirm or amend final two columns, to give a consistent format within each of these columns>
24 Teaching Business Sustainability: Volume I

Focus Reinforcing Questions for Positive value of Consequences

messages refocus refocusing of overusing
refocus
Local Look out for What makes You can: You may:
‘number one’ you different or ● Enhance your ● Lose
You’ve got to unique? survival perspective
expect that What is special ● Achieve a ● Tend towards
from a _____ ! about this better level of ethnocentrism
situation? protection ● Lose diversity
● Maintain your
position

Separation The best way to What are the You may: You may:
understand it is relevant facts in ● Achieve ● Create
to take it apart. this situation? convergence fragmentation
A place for What do you get ● Enhance ● Achieve low
everything, and when you specialisation synergy
everything in its ‘crunch the
● Increase ● Get lost in
place numbers?’
rationality minutiae

Blaming It’s not my fault! What are your You can You may:
All right, who’s reasons for increase ● Create a
to blame here? your actions? judgement, law win–lose
What’s wrong and rule polarisation
with this enforcement
● Tend towards
picture? risk aversion

Doing or having What’s in it for What is the You may You may:
me? most cost- increase: ● Gain an
Faster, effective thing ● Financial attachment. to
cheaper, better! to do? performance possessions
What’s the ● Material ● Lose human
bottom line? comforts sensitivity
● Burn out

Table 1.1 (continued)

 x. chapter title author 25

Focus Reinforcing Questions for Positive value of Consequences

messages refocus refocusing of overusing
refocus

Long-term Create a vision What do you You can You may:

Plan ahead anticipate? increase: ● Lose timely
Where are we ● Level<or responsive-
headed? accuracy> of ness
Where do we anticipation ● Ignore
want to go? ● Accuracy of pressing
prediction realities
● Possibilities
● Contingencies
Creative Take Is there a You may: You may:
responsibility different or ● Increase ● Overlook
for yourself better innovation proven
You can be approach? processes
● Uncover new
anything you What would you ideas ● Reinvent the
want to be do about this wheel
● Open up new
situation if you
directions
had a magic
wand?

Global Look at the big What’s best for You may You may be
picture. the organisation increase your prone to:
Let’s think as a whole? ability to: ● Idealism
about the How can you ● Take a ● Loss of
consequences make a comprehen- initiative or
of this decision difference in the sive view drive
world? ● Achieve ● Inattention to
inclusiveness detail
● Value diversity

Systems Solving one Who are the key You will achieve You may tend
problem almost stakeholders? an approach to:
always creates If we take this that is: ● Equate
others action, what ● Divergent models to
The whole is consequences ● Holistic
reality
more than the can we predict? ● Get lost in the
● Able to
sum of its parts clouds of
incorporate
key inter- complexity or
relationship theory

Table 1.2 Working with the right-hand side (‘right-end’) focuses (see Fig. 1.1)
(continued over)

<Confirm or amend final two columns, to give a consistent format within each of these columns>
26 Teaching Business Sustainability: Volume I

Focus Reinforcing Questions for Positive value of Consequences

messages refocus refocusing of overusing
refocus

Learning Let one who is What can you You will be: You may be:
without sin cast learn from this ● Increase ease ● Taken
the first stone experience? of exploration advantage of
Here’s another How might you ● Seek growth ● Self-
learning and benefit from and learning sacrificing
growth letting go of
● Prone to loss
opportunity that grudge?
of discipline

Being You’ll never What really You can: You may:

walk alone matters in your ● Increase self- ● Become
Trust the life? realisation ungrounded
process What does your ● Achieve a ● Lose touch
As ye sow, so ‘higher self’ say ‘greater good’ with the
shall ye reap about this? point of view ‘mainstream’

Table 1.2 (continued)

Course time can be spent on working with these two tables to raise awareness of
prevailing mental models and to enhance the choice of more sustainable alter-
natives. Individuals can also work with these two tables (especially with Table 1.2,
which is likely to be less familiar) as part of their personal planning or self-directed
personal development work, to increase their versatility of thinking. For example,
suppose you find that you have a strong attachment to reactive and short-term
thinking (e.g. too much ‘firefighting’ and focusing on immediate pressures) and
conclude that this focus is not serving you well. To build versatility, you can
practice asking the questions and looking for opportunities to reframe situations
that will bring your awareness to the creative and long-term ends of these
dimensions (e.g. ‘What kind of outlook would I create for myself if I had a magic
wand?’). With regular practice in shifting awareness back and forth along any of
the dimensions, your repertoire for dealing with life will increase dramatically.
Likewise, corporate groups can use these tables as templates for planning and
decision-making. In my experience, when businesses find that they must undergo
significant transformations to survive in their rapidly changing marketplaces, they
usually approach this task in a ‘get it over with as quick as we can, with as little
effort as possible’ mentality that reflects ‘left-end’ thinking. As a result, more than
80% of large-scale organisational transformational efforts fail, as the effort to
change devolves into implementing a few initiatives that do not affect the overall
situation at all.
To be successful, ‘right-end’ thinking is necessary to address the intricacies of
cross-person and interorganisational dynamics and the extensive interdepen-
dences that pervade contemporary organisations. I believe that the mental models
(and subsequent behaviour) of corporate leaders and employees are among the
most critical success—or failure—factors in transformational change. Therefore,
 x. chapter title author 27

Table 1.2 is suggested as a tool to assist in the planning of large-scale organisational

change.
Also, any organisation interested in a dual (or triple) bottom-line concept will
find Tables 1.1 and 1.2 helpful. To establish a high-quality environment internally
and a sustainable approach externally, ‘right-end’ thinking is necessary.

1.4.1 Time orientation

● Short-term thinking focuses on immediate deadlines, immediate priori-
ties and a sense of urgency.
● Long-term thinking focuses on long-term consequences and establishing
long term goals.

1.4.2 Focus of responsiveness

● When a person is focused on the reactive end of this dimension, he or she
is primarily focused on external stimuli, either adhering to or rebelling
against the prevailing rules and authority.
● When a person is focused on the creative end of this dimension, he or she
is primarily focused on taking initiatives and will choose to be guided by
his or her own inner ideas of how to proceed.

1.4.3 Focus of attention

● The local end of this dimension suggests thinking that is focused on one’s
self or immediate group.
● The global end of this dimension suggests broad, ecumenical thinking.

1.4.4 Prevailing logic

● The separation, or either/or, end of this dimension emphasises speciali-
sation, and thinking is predominantly in the rational–analytic mode.
● The systems, or both/and, end of this dimension suggests ever-increasing
generalisation, and thinking is focused on understanding how the
interaction of the parts contributes to the operating results of the whole.

1.4.5 Problem consideration

● At the blaming end of this dimension, one expresses the need for self-
protection, and one operates in ways to convince others that one is not to
blame when problems or errors become evident.
28 Teaching Business Sustainability: Volume I

● At the learning end of this dimension, one expresses the need for learn-
ing, and one operates in ways to ensure learning.

1.4.6 Life orientation

● On the doing/having end of this dimension, the quest is to engage in
activities that will lead to acquiring tangible goods as the primary vehicle
to realising satisfaction and fulfillment.
● On the being end of this dimension, the quest is for the acquisition of
insight and understanding of what life is all about spiritually.

1.5 Implications and conclusions

As already mentioned, most people have default settings towards the left-hand
sides of these dimensions, and their zones of comfort are narrow. There is
obviously no single position on any of these dimensions that is always going to be
the best or most effective position. The challenge that we face, both individually
and in our workplaces, is the need to become more aware of the consequences of
nearly always behaving unconsciously from our default settings. When most of us
read a book about goal-setting, or participate in a seminar on systems thinking, or
attend a lecture on water quality, we immediately think ‘Wow! That’s really
important!’ But within a few hours, if we are still thinking about these ideas, most
of us are likely to be thinking ‘Somebody ought to do something about that’, as our
temporarily expanded awareness snaps back to its default setting—our autopilot
mental model.
With greater awareness of what our default positions are, we can make conscious
choices about how to think. The issue is not about having or not having the
‘correct’ default settings but about being aware of them and choosing other ways
of responding that may be more appropriate to the situation. Each end of each
dimension has pluses and liabilities, as outlined in Tables 1.1 and 1.2.
One of the best ways to promote versatility is regularly to ask ourselves questions
that will take our thinking to the more distant parts of each continuum. I believe
that questions such as those in Box 1.1 need to be embedded in our educational
processes from the earliest years.
Courses in increasing mental model versatility could be built around the six
dimensions illustrated in Figure 1.1<confirm>. They could be included in virtually
any adult education or worksite training programme, and, when these questions
are explored, they will enhance the effectiveness of the course material and
promote mental model versatility.
We have the means to create just about any future we desire. We also have the
means to bring an end to life on Earth. We know what is contributing to the
interacting web of global challenges and we have the means to deal with these
challenges. But, to address the global situation that is emerging today, more and
 x. chapter title author 29

I have found that questions such as the following have been very useful to introduce to
students learning about sustainability for either discussion or individual contemplation.
Addressing these questions in a focused way seems to foster a greater commitment to
building more versatility into thinking patterns.
● How can we involve children more as stakeholders for the future in our work?
● What are the ‘right’ things to do to foster a sustainable consciousness?
● How can we shift from ‘Us versus them’ to ‘We’re all in this together?’
● What are our responses to the Iroquois challenge to consider the implications of
our decisions for the next seven generations?
● If we created this system in which economic growth is essential, could we not also
create a system in which long-term quality of life is essential?
● How can we discover our interconnectedness across organisations, communities
and nations?
● What would it take for my place of work to make the environment a key priority in
its annual planning cycle?
● Is 70% of the global population ‘hopelessly poor’, or are 6% ‘hopelessly rich?’
● How do we build the courage to express our views and feelings in places where
people do not want to hear them?
● How can I help people become aware that they are able to become aware?
● What practices can I adopt to promote consciousness versatility?
● In what ways is my present lifestyle symptomatic of the challenges to
sustainability?
● Why am I working so hard these days—in order to do what?
● How can I move from having all the answers to staying in the question?

Box 1.1 Some questions for contemplation and discussion

better versatility in our mental models is essential (see Box 1.2)<confirm, or

provide a suitable ciation>. A good way to promote this flexibility is to get into the
habit of regularly asking ourselves, and each other, questions that take our
consciousness out of autopilot and into choice before deciding how to proceed.

References
Argyris, C., and D. Schön (1978) Organisational Learning (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley).
Brown, J. (2002) The World Café (Williston, VT: Pegasus Communications).
Cooperrider, D., and D. Whitney (1999) Appreciative Inquiry (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler).
Owen, H. (1992) Open Space Technology (Potomac, MD: Abbot Publishing).
Senge, P. (1990) The Fifth Discipline (New York: Doubleday/Currency).
Weisbord, M., and S. Janov (1995) Future Search (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler).
30 Teaching Business Sustainability: Volume I

Changing habits, group norms or larger-system cultures is very challenging. Moving

from ‘autopilot’ to ‘choice’, whether on an individual or a collective level, requires first
becoming conscious of the present mental model and then choosing the appropriate
way to think about the situation being addressed.
Several years ago, I conducted an investigation <reference?> into what it takes to
accomplish sustainable habit changes and found 12 factors that were regularly present
when an individual or a group succeeds in moving from autopilot to choice.
For supporting individual habit change there is a need for:
● Understanding and acceptance of the need for change
● A belief that the change is both possible and desirable
● A heartfelt commitment to succeeding
● A clear goal, vision or outcome, plus a practical first step or two
● Mechanisms or structures that require regular repetitions of the newly adopted
habit
● Unconditional support
● A willingness to be patient and to trust the process
● Alignment with values and a sense of personal purpose

For supporting group or organisational pattern change we need to add to this list:
● Clear accountability, with visible, vocal, consistent and persistent sponsors and
stakeholders
● Explicit boundary management, clarifying the role of ‘others’ to ensure success
● A critical mass of people in alignment
● Rewards for the new pattern and withdrawal of rewards from old patterns

Box 1.2 <please supply a caption>

Further reading
Adams, J. (2000) Thinking Today as if Tomorrow Mattered: The Rise of a Sustainable Conscious-
ness (San Francisco: Eartheart Enterprises).
Harman, W. (1998) Global Mind Change (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler).
Henderson, H. (1999) Beyond Globalisation: Shaping a Sustainable Global Economy (Bloomfield,
CT: Kumarian Press).
Needleman, J. (1998) Time and Soul: Where Has All The Time Gone? . . . And How To Get It Back
(New York: Currency/Doubleday).
Ray, P., and S.R. Anderson. (2000) The Culture Creatives: How 50 Million People are Changing the
World (New York: Harmony Books).
Schwartz, P. (1991) The Art of the Long View (New York: Doubleday/Currency).

John Adams is Director of the Organisational Systems PhD programme at Saybrook Graduate
School, USA, and is on the Graduate College Faculty in Organisation and Management
Studies at the Union Institute and University. He is also Executive Director of Eartheart
Enterprises, an international consulting practice specialising in sustainability, work–life
balance and large-scale change implementation.
jadams@saybrook.edu