Elegance in Flight PDF

Albert C.
Piccirillo
Albert C. Piccirillo
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Piccirillo, Albert C.
Elegance in flight : a comprehensive history of the F-16XL experimental
prototype and its role in NASA flight research / Albert C. Piccirillo.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. F-16 (Jet fighter plane) 2. Fighter planes--United States. 3. Airplanes,
Military--United States--Prototypes. 4. United States. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration--Research. I. Title.
UG1242.F5P53 2015
623.7464--dc23
2014039182
Copyright 2014 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

The opinions expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the official positions of the United States Government or of
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
This publication is available as a free download at

http://www.nasa.gov/ebooks
National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, DC
Table of Contents
Author Dedication v
Foreword vii
Chapter 1: Experimental Prototyping and Supersonic Combat........................... 1
Chapter 2: From SCAMP to F-16XL: A Collaborative Development................... 23
Chapter 3: Flight Demonstration Program Planning.......................................... 55
Chapter 4: Design and Construction Details.......................................................69
Chapter 5: First Flight and Initial Testing............................................................95
Chapter 6: The Integrated Flight-Test Organization, Objectives, and Program..107
Chapter 7: The Dual-Role Fighter Competition................................................149
Chapter 8: NASA Supersonic Laminar Flow Research....................................179
Chapter 9: Detailed Aspects of the F-16XL SLFC Research Effort...................193
Chapter 10: Other NASA F-16XL Flight Research Efforts................................235
Chapter 11: Final Research Options and Retirement......................................281
Chapter 12: Summary and Observations.........................................................287
Appendix A: F-16XL First Flight Certificate......................................................299
Appendix B: F-16XL Weapon Separation Log..................................................300
Appendix C: F-16XL Flight-Test Activity Through October 1, 1985..................303
Appendix D: F-16XL Flight-Test Objectives Accomplished..............................306
Appendix E: F-16XL Flight-Test Logs...............................................................309

Appendix F: F-16XL VIP Flights........................................................................358
iii
Elegance in Flight
Appendix G: NASA Technology Readiness Levels............................................362
Appendix H: F-16XL Flight Research: NASA SLFC Program and Overall.........365
Appendix I: Pilot Rating of F-16XL-1 DFCS Handling Qualities........................375
Appendix J: Acronyms, Abbreviations, Nomenclature, and Symbols..............384
Acknowledgments 394
Bibliography 396
About the Author 431
Index 433
iv
Dedication
To the memory of my mother,

Eva Potter Piccirillo,
For her unwavering love and support.
v
The first F-16XL cruising over the Texas countryside on its first test flight, piloted by General
Dynamics test pilot James A. McKinney. (Lockheed Martin)
vi
Foreword
One of the most elegant American fighters ever built took to the skies over
Fort Worth, TX, on July 3, 1982. Based on the combination of a stretched
F-16 fuselage and a highly tailored cranked-arrow wing, the F-16XL began
as an initiative of the General Dynamics Corporation (GD). GD recognized
that the standard F-16 increasingly was being committed by the Air Force to
a multirole mission that the aircraft had never been intended for. Originally
designed as a lightweight air combat fighter, the aircraft was more and more
often being tasked to perform ground attack missions. The F-16 was far from
optimal for that role. Weight and drag penalties, imposed by air-to-ground
ordnance and related targeting sensors, severely reduced its speed and range
capabilities. The aircraft was also seriously limited in the number of weapons
that it could carry compared to a larger aircraft. Initially known as Supersonic
Cruise and Maneuver Prototype (SCAMP), the GD initiative was also intended
to address emerging Air Force interest in supersonic combat capability. By
independently developing an experimental prototype that would inexpensively
validate the concept of transonic/supersonic cruise and maneuverability along
with improved air-to-ground capabilities, GD hoped to interest the Air Force
in supporting development and production of what was essentially a new air-
craft, but one that shared much in common with the basic F-16.
GD was well aware of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) supersonic transport and fighter research efforts based on the use of
cranked-arrow wing planforms. During both the YF-16 Lightweight Fighter
technology demonstrator program and the follow-on F-16 full-scale develop-
ment programs, GD and NASA had established a highly productive working
relationship. That arrangement had proven immensely effective in quickly and
effectively resolving a number of very difficult technical issues related to the
F-16. Based on those successes, GD established an arrangement with NASA for
SCAMP research that was so effective that it can truly be stated that the F-16XL
prototype configurations were in many significant ways the direct result of
the joint research effort with NASA. At the same time, the company was able
to obtain Air Force support and partial funding for a flight demonstration
program. Early on, this evolved into a competitive evaluation with the aircraft
vii
Elegance in Flight
that the senior leadership within the Air Force really wantedan air-to-ground
version of the F-15 Eagle air superiority fighter known as the F-15E. General
Dynamics attempted to convince the Air Force that a production variant of the
F-16XL was complementary to the standard F-16 and did not need to be in
competition with the larger F-15. However, Congress directed that only one of
these aircraft was to be funded for production as what the Air Force termed its
Dual-Role Fighter (DRF). Additional complicating factors were the ongoing
and covert development and production of the F-117 stealth attack aircraft and
the emerging Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, first funded in fiscal
year 1983. The ATF was focused on developing a supersonic cruisecapable air
superiority fighter with both high maneuverability and all-aspect stealth. Both
the F-117 and the ATF enjoyed extremely high priorities within the Air Force.
The Air Force flight-test evaluation of the F-16XL was conducted during
the 19821983 timeframe. It was based on a Combined Test Force (CTF)
approach that was similar to what had been used very successfully during
the YF-16 evaluation. Under this concept, a combination of developmental-
and operational-utility-type testing was conducted by a flight-test team that
included both military and contractor participation in nearly all aspects of the
test effort. The F-16XL flight-test program at Edwards Air Force Base, CA,
progressed at a very rapid pace, with 369 flights accomplished by the end of
Phase I testing on May 15, 1983. During the evaluation, the F-16XL had dem-
onstrated many outstanding capabilities. Its range, payload, and supersonic
performance were superior to those of the standard F-16, but it was unable to
cruise supersonically without the use of afterburner. Also, takeoff and landing
distances were longer than desired, and although the aircraft exhibited out-
standing spin resistance and recovery characteristics, there were a large number
of flight control issues that remained to be resolved at the conclusion of testing.
Additionally, the relatively low thrust-to-weight ratio combined with the high
induced drag produced by the low aspect ratio highly swept wing resulted in
rapid loss of airspeed during sustained subsonic highacceleration of gravity (g)
maneuvering flight. Flight-test evaluation results for both competing aircraft
and other sources of information, including the outcomes of computerized
war games, were used in the Air Force DRF source selection. The F-15E was
selected for production in January 1984. Based on competing programmatic
and budgetary choices, the Air Force rationally had elected to fund the F-15E,
the F-117, and the ATF, finally terminating the F-16XL development in mid-
1985. Funding was provided for limited continuing flight testing, much of it
oriented to evaluation of the General Electric F110 turbofan engine, which
lasted until October 1985. By that time, both F-16XL prototypes had accu-
mulated a total of nearly 800 sorties between them.
viii
Foreword
During the 1990s, NASA was pursuing a complex High-Speed Research

(HSR) program that involved many facets. One of these was the potential
application of a supersonic laminar flow control (SLFC) capability to a highly
swept, cranked-arrow wing. The concept was to come up with a flight dem-
onstration that would reduce the technical risk of using SLFC technology in
the design, development, and production of a High-Speed Civil Transport
(HSCT). The F-16XL, with its cranked-arrow wing planform that closely
resembled candidates for the HSCT, provided a unique opportunity as an
SLFC test bed. Thus, NASA arranged for the two aircraft to be transferred from
storage at the General Dynamics facility in Fort Worth, TX, to the Dryden
Flight Research Center. The F-16XLs would be used for a series of HSR-related
test projects during the 1990s, with the SLFC research being the most challeng-
ing and high-visibility. The F-16XL-2 was highly modified for the purposes of
SLFC research, during which it demonstrated that the concept was technically
feasible. However, there were technical and practical operational issues related
to operational use of laminar flow technology on a large civil airliner. For
example, manufacturing the active suction wing panels, which incorporated
millions of laser-drilled holes, was considered impractical and economically
infeasible by the aircraft industry. The NASA F-16XL program ended even
prior to the demise of the entire HSCT program in 1999. Follow-on NASA
experiments with the F-16XLs produced a very large volume of technical data
and reports that were very effectively used to further the state of the art in
computer modeling of aerodynamic, acoustic, and sonic boom phenomenol-
ogy. In particular, the F-16XL Cranked-Arrow Wing Aerodynamics Program
(CAWAP) was a major contributor to understanding the vortex flows over
highly swept wings. CAWAP and the SLFC project made major contributions
to the development and validation of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
capabilities and related design tools and methodologies across the aerospace
community, both in the United States and internationally.
The intent of this book is to discuss comprehensively both the F-16XL
development and its flight testing. In many ways, the development of the
F-16XL is as much a NASA story as it is an Air Force and General Dynamics/
Lockheed Martin story. The author has chosen to address the F-16XL story
in the light of the technical, programmatic, budgetary, and political consider-
ations that shaped its development and subsequent use as a research aircraft.
Thus, the book is essentially a comprehensive case study covering all aspects
of the F-16XL saga from its early conceptual designincluding wind tunnel
and ground testing, computer simulations, and program advocacythrough
construction of the two prototypes and their use in both the Air Force flight
demonstration effort and NASA aeronautical research.
ix
General Dynamics YF-16 prototype over the Mojave during the Lightweight Fighter (LWF)
competitive fly-off. (USAF)
x
CHAPTER 1
Experimental Prototyping
and Supersonic Combat
On January 13, 1975 Air Force Secretary John McLucas

announced the YF-16 as the winner of the LWF competition,
justifying Harry Hillakers belief in a small, high performance jet
that flies circles around bigger is better fighters then in vogue.
A revolutionary design, the F-16 combines internal avionics, Fly-
By-Wire, low cost and provisions for growth.
Inscription in the Legacy Hall of Building 200,

Lockheed Martin, Fort Worth, TX.
Both the standard F-16 and its F-16XL derivative trace their lineage to the experi-
mental prototyping program of the 1970s. The Department of Defense (DoD)
had implemented an Advanced Prototype Development Program in early 1971 in
direct response to the release of a Presidential Blue Ribbon Defense Panel report
in July 1970. That special commission had been chartered by President Richard
M. Nixon to examine the DoD weapons system acquisition process in response to
strong congressional and public criticism of several major defense weapon system
programs.1 The Blue Ribbon Panel report was highly critical of the defense acquisi-
tion process, which had a history of moving major weapons systems into full-scale
development without any prior validation of their capability to achieve specified
operational requirements. The panel strongly recommended competitive proto-
typing as a key element of its package of proposed defense acquisition reforms.
Prototyping and the Onset of the

Lightweight Fighter Program
Even prior to release of the Blue Ribbon Panel report, Deputy Secretary of
Defense David Packard had issued a memo on weapons system acquisition in
1
Elegance in Flight
which he announced that the DoD would be moving to a Fly-Before-Buy

approach. The Advanced Prototype Development Program was formally imple-
mented by the DoD in early 1971. In May of that year, the secretary of the U.S.
Air Force (USAF) proposed that the USAF develop a plan that would identify
new candidates for prototyping. These candidates would focus on initiatives
that were important to meeting future Air Force operational needs.2
The DoD strongly supported the Air Force initiative and urged that one
or two candidates be selected to start development in 1972. An Air Force
Prototyping Study Group was formed, and it recommended several candidates
for prototyping. These included two efforts that were highly significant in light
of subsequent aircraft developments. One proposed prototyping effort was
for a low-radar-cross-section (RCS) technology demonstrator aircraft. This
evolved into a highly classified special project that would become known as
Have Blue. It developed a small experimental prototype aircraft that used a
concept of faceted airframe shaping to achieve a very low RCS. The Have Blue
demonstrator (covertly developed by a Lockheed Skunk Works team) flew for
the first time in December 1977 and proved that a true low-RCS stealth aircraft
was feasible. Have Blue led to the successful F-117A program.
Another of the rapid prototyping programs that had been recommended
by the Air Force was a Lightweight Fighter (LWF). It was officially approved to
begin in 1972 by a DoD Program Decision Memorandum released on August
25, 1971. Two days later, the Air Force established the Prototype Program
Office within the Aeronautical Systems Division (ASD) at Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base (AFB), OH.3 Out of this program would spring two LWF pro-
totypesthe single-engine, single-fin General Dynamics YF-16 and the twin-
engine, twin-fin Northrop YF-17. Both were extraordinary aircraft, and both
led to widely produced production derivativesthe General Dynamics (later
Lockheed Martin) F-16 and the McDonnell-Douglas (later Boeing) F/A-18.
The Air Force Prototyping Study Group had recommended that streamlined
management processes be implemented to facilitate successful prototype pro-
grams. A new DoD directive (DoDD 5000.1) formalized the new approach.
It stated that the advanced technology effort includes prototyping, preferably
using small, efficient design teams and a minimum of documentation. The
objective is to obtain significant advances in technology at minimum cost.4
This new DoD approach to prototyping was intended to provide the benefits
of risk reduction and increased confidence in new technologies without the
necessity of having to commit to a specific weapon system design. In August
1971, the new prototyping approach was presented to industry by senior DoD
and Service acquisition officials. They highlighted that future DoD prototype
programs were to meet the following guidelines. (As will be seen later, these
guidelines were closely followed in structuring and executing the F-16XL effort
2
Experimental Prototyping and Supersonic Combat
as well as the associated Air Force Dual-Role Fighter [DRF] competition that
would result in the selection of the McDonnell-Douglas F-15E for follow-on
full-scale development and production.)
Prototypes were to be experimental systems. They were to precede
detail engineering development of any new weapon system.
Prototypes were intended to support future military needs.
Prototypes were to be focused on reducing risk to future develop-
ment programs. In this context, they were to address not only
technical risk but also cost and schedule risk, as well as uncertainties
in operational requirements.
Prototype programs were expected to include some degree of tech-
nology uncertainty and risk, but they should also have a reasonable
chance of success.
Prototypes were to have low relative cost compared to potential
follow-on development and production programs.
Prototypes were intended to help achieve lower-cost alternative
solutions.
Finally, experimental prototypes were not intended to form the sole
basis for system procurement decisions.
From Lightweight Fighter to F-16

As mentioned earlier, a Lightweight Fighter program was one of the recom-
mendations of the Air Force Prototyping Study Group. An LWF Request for
Proposals (RFP) was released to industry in early January 1972 with responses
due in mid-February. The purpose of the LWF program was to determine
the feasibility of developing a small, lightweight, low-cost fighter; to establish
what such an aircraft can do; and to evaluate its possible operational utility.
The Prototyping Study Group had defined a set of general objectives for an
LWF that are very interesting in light of the results of the subsequent F-16
and F-16XL development programs. The LWF aircraft was to have a gross
weight at takeoff of less than 20,000 pounds; possess superior performance
and maneuvering in the transonic, high-g flight regime; and be capable of
operating in a 225 nautical mile (nm) radius on internal fuel and out to a 700
nm radius with external fuel. It was to be capable of Mach 11.2 speeds at sea
level and Mach 2.0 at altitude. Armament and avionics were to be limited to
those elements that were absolutely mission-essential for within visual range
(WVR) air combat. In addition, the LWF was to have excellent visibility and
handling qualities with an emphasis on close-in air combat capabilities. Nine
companies responded to the LWF RFP, with the Air Force selecting the propos-
als submitted by General Dynamics and Northrop. These would be built as the
GD YF-16 and the Northrop YF-17, with two prototypes of each design being
3
Elegance in Flight
constructed for a 1-year flight-test program. Each contractor would pick the
starting date for its respective 1-year flight-test program. The separate flight-
test programs were to be two independent evaluations of the performance and
combat potential offered by the advanced technology and design innovations
that were implemented in each of the alternative LWF designs. Each LWF
design would be evaluated by a Joint Test Team (JTT) consisting of contrac-
tor, Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC), Tactical Air Command (TAC),
and Air Force Test and Evaluation Center (AFTEC) representatives. From
the programs inception, it was intended that NASA technical expertise and
facilities would be used by the aircraft development contractors to facilitate the
implementation of advanced aeronautical technologies into their LWF designs.
Since the LWF concept was so oriented to close-in maneuvering combat capa-
bility, the results of NASA research into so-called vortex lift was a technology
area of high interest to the industry design teams.
On left: General Dynamics YF-16 prototype over the Mojave during the Lightweight Fighter (LWF)
competitive fly-off. On right: The Northrop YF-17, which, despite losing the LWF competition,
evolved into the subsequent F/A-18 naval strike fighter. (Both images USAF)
General Dynamics had begun to develop the aerodynamic configuration of

what eventually became the YF-16 as far back as 1968. They had been testing
wide forebody strakes for increased lift and were exploiting the results of NASA
research in this area, as was Northrop with their YF-17 design, which also
incorporated forebody strakes. NASA aerodynamicists had pointed out that
at high angles of attack (AoA), flow separation from sharply swept wings and
forebody strakes was inevitable and rather than attempting to avoid separated
flow, it was better to control and exploit it. NASA wind tunnel testing had
showed that sharp-edged forebody strakes produced a more stable flow pattern
that generated lift, improved directional stability, and shed vortices over the
wings, which delayed wing stall by continually mixing boundary-layer air with
free-stream air. These qualities became known as controlled vortex lift and were
highly important to both the F-16 and the F-16XL designs. NASA Langleys
4
Edward C. Polhamus had been a leader in vortex lift research, and his reports
and technical publications were widely disseminated throughout the aircraft
industry in the late 1960s continuing into the 1980s.5
By mid-1973, General Dynamics had finalized the YF-16 design. The first
experimental prototype rolled out on December 13 of that year at the GD Fort
Worth, TX, facility. On January 20, 1974, the prototype had an unscheduled
first flight that occurred during a high-speed taxi test. As it raced down the
runway, it began a lateral pilot-induced oscillation (PIO) at a rate of one roll
cycle every 1.4 seconds (due to excessively high gain scheduling in the flight
control system [FCS] when weight came off the wheels). The rolling motion
caused the left wingtip and right horizontal tail to contact the ground, and
the plane veered off the runway centerline. Test pilot Phil Oestricher wisely
elected to take off rather than remain on the ground. Thus, before the startled
eyes of onlookers, he added power and the little YF-16 thundered into the air,
climbing into the Mojave sky. Afterward, Oestricher reflected,
At that point, I had little choice of actions, since the airplane was
beginning to drift to the left side of the runway. I powered it up
and just sort of let go and the airplane just flew off the runway very
smoothly once I quit irritating it. I stayed in the landing pattern and
came around and made a relatively uneventful landing. We hadnt
intended to fly in a noticeable way that day, but we did. Incidentally,
I was impressed with the way the marketing/public relations people
got around our UNOFFICIAL first flight. They just called it flight
zero, and that made the next one number one!6
The inadvertent flight lasted 6 minutes. Oestricher had masterfully averted

potential disaster, and afterward, technicians swiftly adjusted the FCS gains.
The first officially scheduled flight took place in February. Within a few
days, the aircraft was conducting high-g maneuvers at supersonic speeds.
By March 1974, Mach 2.0 had been reached. The flight-test program pro-
gressed at an impressive pace and was completed by January 31, 1975, with
a total of 439 flight hours accomplished on 347 test sorties using the two
experimental prototypes.
The YF-16 proved to be outstandingly successful as both an experimental
prototype and a technology demonstrator. The combination of technologies
and innovations incorporated in its innovative design produced a significant
advance in fighter performance. (In addition to its advanced aerodynamic fea-
tures, these included a quadruple-redundant fly-by-wire [FBW] flight control
system; a high visibility, high-g cockpit with a reclined ejection seat; a sidestick
controller; and a high thrust-to-weight afterburning turbofan engine.) The
5
Elegance in Flight
YF-16 flight-test effort

reduced the risk of suc-
cessfully incorporating
this set of advanced tech-
nologies into production
from the earlier high-risk
rating to an assessment of
low risk for a Full-Scale
Development (FSD) pro-
gram. Three main factors
Two General Dynamics (now Lockheed Martin) F-16A Fighting contributed to this out-
Falcons. Fighter pilots swiftly dubbed the little jet the Viper, standing achievement: the
by which name it is now more popularly known. (USAF) success of the Joint Test
Team concept; careful
planning of the flight-test program; and the quality of design, engineering, and
construction of the YF-16, which exhibited high reliability in addition to its high
performance. A fourth factor that is worthy of note was the exceptional quality
of the technical support that had been provided to the Air Force and General
Dynamics by NASA throughout the YF-16 and F-16 conceptual and detail design
efforts. This support included a variety of wind tunnel and spin tunnel testing, drop
model tests, and simulator tests in support of flight control system development.
NASA provided especially important contributions to the final F-16 design by
helping to resolve flutter issues associated with the carriage of external weapons.7
The YF-16 was selected as the winner of the Air Combat Fighter (ACF)
competition, in which it competed with the Northrop YF-17, in January 1975.
The subsequent Full-Scale Development effort proceeded at an extremely rapid
rate. The first of eight preproduction F-16s flew in December 1976, followed
by the first production F-16A in August 1978. The production F-16 featured
many changes from the YF-16 prototype. These included increases in fuselage
length and wing and tail sizes, internal structural revisions, and avionics and
flight control system changes needed to enhance mission capabilities.
The F-16A became operational with the USAF and several European air
forces during the 19791980 timeframe. To date, over 4,500 F-16s have been
produced, and the aircraft is operational with the air forces of over 25 nations.
The F-16 has undergone an amazing series of upgrades and modifications in
the years since its first flight in January 1974. These have kept the latest ver-
sions of the F-16 remarkably competitive with more recent foreign fighter
designs that have generally adopted most of the innovations first pioneered by
the YF-16, and it has fought in numerous wars over the Balkans, the Middle
East, and Southwest Asia, proving to be both a redoubtable air-to-air and air-
to-surface fighter.8
6
F-16 Derivative Investigations

Almost immediately after General Dynamics had been declared the winner of
the ACF program, David Lewis, chairman of the board of directors and chief
executive officer, directed the Fort Worth Division to evaluate F-16 upgrades and
derivatives to help guarantee its future success. Harry J. Hillaker, who had served
as the YF-16 deputy chief engineer and then as the F-16 director of marketing,
was selected to lead GD efforts involving concept formulation and preliminary
design of new F-16 derivatives. This effort eventually evolved into the F-16XL
via the Supersonic Cruise and Maneuver Prototype (SCAMP) project. The XL
suffix that was used to informally identify the F-16XL came from Hillakers
pastime as an avid golfer. At the time, the newly introduced Top Flite XL golf
ball was advertised for its aerodynamic refinements that provided maximum
range performance. Hillaker proposed physical and aerodynamic refinements to
increase the range and aerodynamic performance of the F-16. Under his lead,
F-16 upgrades, improvements, and derivative design studies were conducted.
These were oriented to extending range and payload, expanding basic missions,
and developing advanced versions or derivative configurations of the aircraft.
Importantly, these were intended to enhance both air-to-air and air-to-ground
capabilities while retaining the maximum possible commonality with the basic
F-16 design.9
During most of 1976, a GD team examined operational capabilities and
characteristics of fighters in the Air Force inventory as well as those then being
introduced into service. The assessment focused on the limitations of these air-
craft in likely future combat scenarios. An important aspect of the assessment was
evaluation of improvements in system characteristics and capabilities that would
have a critical effect on successful mission outcomes. Improvements examined
included enhanced weapons carriage, increased fuel capacity, better range and
payload, greater maneuvering performance, reduced takeoff and landing dis-
tances, and survivability considerations. In their preliminary assessments, GD
included several F-16 derivative designs. These used different wing configura-
tions that were designed to mate with the F-16 fuselage. The F-16 fuselages were
lengthened as necessary for proper integration with each wing configuration.
For comparative purposes, the existing F-16A was used as a reference. Wing
planforms evaluated in these studies included what GD referred to as an equal
weight composite (EWC) wing, a forward-swept wing (FSW), a cranked-arrow
wing, and a design that featured a standard 60-degree delta wing with a forward
fuselage-mounted canard.10 The EWC wing configuration used a redesigned
and somewhat larger version of the existing F-16 wing with the increased size
achieved by use of lightweight composite materials. It retained the 40-degree
leading-edge wing-sweep angle of the standard F-16 wing. Although geometri-
cally similar to the F-16s trapezoidal wing, the EWC wing had an increased
7
Elegance in Flight
wingspan and a larger aspect ratio and

wing area, and it contained a 7-percent-
larger internal volume.11
The physical characteristics of the
candidate wing planforms are shown
in Table 1. The table also includes the
characteristics of the conceptual air-
craft design with the forward-mounted
canard surface used in conjunction with
General Dynamics investigated various wing a standard 60-degree delta wing. In the
planforms integrated with appropriately table, unit weights and volumes are ref-
modified F-16 fuselages. (Lockheed Martin)
erenced to those of the standard F-16,
which was used as the comparison base-
line. For example, the EWC design has the same unit weight and a 7-percent
increase in internal wing volume compared to the standard F-16 wing. The
forward-swept wing, despite its much greater wing area, had an internal volume
that was essentially the same as that of the F-16. The cranked-arrow composite
wing had the best volumetric efficiency of the four candidates. It was 15 percent
lighter and had an internal volume 2.16 times greater than the standard F-16
wing. The next best candidate, from the perspective of volumetric efficiency, was
the 60-degree delta-wing/canard combination.12
Table 1
Characteristics of various candidate wing planforms evaluated
by General Dynamics during early conceptual design efforts
Wing Aspect Area Sweep Angle Unit Weight Unit Volume
Planform Ratio (sq. ft.) (degrees)
Baseline F-16 3.0 300 40 1.00 1.00
Equal Wt. 3.28 338 40 1.00 1.07

Composite
Forward 4.15 800 15 1.21 1.02
Swept
Cranked 1.62 646 70/50 0.85 2.16
Arrow
60-deg. Delta 1.87 414 60 0.92 1.61
Canard
8
Relative to one another, the various wing planforms showed advantages

and disadvantages. At subsonic speeds, both the equal weight composite and
the forward-swept wing had improved lift-to-drag (L/D) ratios at moderate-
and high-lift conditions compared to the other designs. This enabled better
takeoff and landing performance and sustained maneuvering capabilities. But
while the L/D ratios of the cranked-arrow, canard-delta, and baseline F-16
were essentially equal at subsonic speeds, at supersonic speeds, the so-called
cranked-arrow planform showed pronounced advantages that encouraged
its adaptation.
While the conventional delta originated in German and American work,
the cranked arrow had its origins in Sweden, home to a small but vibrant
aircraft industry. In the late 1940s, Saab began development of a supersonic
delta-wing jet fighter, the J 35 Draken (Dragon). The design requirements
demanded a high climb rate, supersonic speed, excellent maneuverability and
good handling qualities at both high and low speeds, and the ability to operate
from a dispersed network of highway strips with minimal maintenance. Various
wing configurations were explored, with designers favoring a delta with a very
long root chord running almost to the nose of the aircraft. But instead of a
classic triangular shape, it had a sharply swept inner wing section that broke
at midspan, with the wing-sweep angle reducing markedly so that the span of
the delta increased significantly. This distinctive planform was swiftly dubbed
a double delta.
First flown by Saab test pilot Bengt Olow in 1954, the J 35 proved to be a
great success in Flygvapnet (the Swedish Air Force) service despite its having a
deep stall issue and a tendency to encounter PIOs when its stability augmenta-
tion system was not engaged. The Mach 2.0capable J 35 had excellent per-
formance and very good instantaneous turn rates but, as with all delta-winged
aircraft, airspeed and energy bled off rapidly during tight sustained turns,
something encountered by the later F-16XL as well. The Draken became one
of the most distinctive and successful of the early supersonic jet fighters, serving
in the Swedish, Danish, Finnish, and Austrian air forces and, after its retirement
from combat service, as a test-pilot and flight-test-engineer trainer with the
National Test Pilot School at Mojave Air and Space Port, CA. (The National
Test Pilot School, a remarkable and unique civilian educational institution
staffed by veteran leaders in flight-test operations, practice, and methodology,
trains test pilots and flight-test engineers from around the world using a variety
of other fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft.) Not surprisingly, during early thinking
for the XL, General Dynamics engineers studied and discussed the Draken,
recognizing its general similarity in design and relevance to their studies.13
At supersonic speeds, and especially as Mach number increased beyond 1.2,
the cranked-arrow wing offered improved lift to drag characteristics at both
9
Elegance in Flight
cruise and moderate angles of attack

compared to the others. At supersonic
speeds and at higher lift conditions,
the cranked-arrow wing was equal to
the other candidates in the improve-
ments it offered compared to the
baseline F-16. Drag with the cranked-
arrow wing during wings-level accel-
eration in 1-g flight was comparable
to that of the baseline F-16, the equal
weight composite, and the canard-
delta, and it was significantly better
than that of the forward-swept wing.
At Mach 2.0, only the canard-delta
and cranked-arrow planforms showed
the potential to provide increased
L/D. Both of these planforms were
A two-place Saab Sk 35C Draken trainer of
comparable in terms of cruise effi-
the National Test Pilot School cruising over ciency at all speeds from Mach 0.9 to
the Sierra Nevada range on a training flight Mach 2.0. The canard-delta and the
from Mojave Air and Space Port, Mojave, cranked arrow were equal to the base-
CA. Its cranked-arrow double-delta wing is line F-16 at Mach 0.9, and their L/D
readily apparent; the configuration anticipated
ratios were better across the entire
by over a quarter century the cranked-arrow
planform of the General Dynamics F-16XL. supersonic speed range.
(National Test Pilot School photograph, cour- GD studies also indicated that the
tesy Gregory V. Lewis and Russ Stewart) spanwise location of the wing crank
had a significant effect on subsonic
and transonic lift-to-drag ratios. The cranked-arrow wing could be optimized
to retain a subsonic efficiency (as measured by L/D) that was closely com-
parable to that of the F-16. An additional advantage was its very significant
design and integration advantages. These included a greatly increased wing area
that provided much more volume for additional fuel and an increased wing
chord that allowed for efficient conformal weapons carriage. However, studies
and analyses of the competing wing planforms conclusively showed that the
cranked-arrow wing traded off sustained maneuver capability for decreased
drag during 1-g acceleration, better L/D at supersonic speed, and improved
cruise efficiency. This reduction in sustained subsonic maneuvering capabil-
ity when compared to the basic F-16 proved to be a very significant factor in
the later Air Force flight-test program and would eventually influence the Air
Forces decision not to select a variant of the F-16XL for full-scale development
and production.14
10
General Dynamics had

been one of the companies
responding to a Request for
Proposals jointly issued by the
Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) and
the Air Force Flight Dynamics
Laboratory in 1977. The RFP
called for industry to respond
with their design concepts for
an experimental aircraft with a
forward-swept wing. The GD A wind tunnel test model of a modified F-16 fuselage
FSW design was tested in the fitted with a forward-swept wing mounted in the NASA
Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel in 1980. (NASA)
Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel at
the NASA Langley Research
Center (LaRC) in 1980. However, Grummans FSW technology demonstra-
tor concept was selected instead in December 1981. Designated the X-29A,
Grumman built two demonstrators that were flight-tested by the Air Force
and NASA from December 1984 through late 1991. Several NASA pilots who
participated in the X-29 flight research effortincluding William H. Dana,
Dana D. Purifoy, and James W. Smolkawould also fly the F-16XL.15
Supersonic Cruise Studies: First Steps

on the Path to the F-16XL
Also during the mid-to-late 1970s, the U.S. Air Force was expressing increasing
interest in the possibilities offered by advanced fighters. This was being driven
by the improving lethality of modern integrated air defense systems along with
the prospective fielding of new Soviet fighters and advanced surface-to-air mis-
sile (SAM) systems. In particular, efficient supersonic performance over signifi-
cant operational ranges was now considered a highly desirable feature. Other
attributes important to success in modern air combat (to include high maneu-
verability and good payload, along with advanced sensors and weapons) were
also receiving increasing emphasis. The Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory
issued many contracts to the aircraft industry, including General Dynamics,
for studies of advanced fighter designs and related technologies needed to deal
with emerging military requirements and potential enemy threats. Results from
these studies were presented to the Air Force and NASA in the form of detailed
reports and presentations at specialist technology conferences. These included
the 1976 Technology for Supersonic Cruise Military Aircraft conference and a
11
Elegance in Flight
follow-on conference in 1977 titled Operational Utility of Supersonic Cruise.

Both conferences were held at Wright-Patterson AFB, home of the USAF
Aeronautical Systems Division. In these and other similar venues, a strong
consensus affirmed that supersonic cruise performance was not only achievable
but that such a capability would greatly enhance military mission success.16
Supersonic Cruise Integrated Fighter Concept Investigation

The NASA Langley Research Center had been heavily involved in most aspects
of the abortive U.S. Supersonic Transport (SST) program of the 1960s (which
had been cancelled in 1971). In conjunction with the SST program, cranked-
arrow wing designs had been heavily studied during NASAs Supersonic
Commercial Air Transport (SCAT) effort. The ultimate embodiment of SCAT
research was SCAT-15F, with its huge cranked-arrow wing, tested in the NASA
LaRC High-Speed 7- by 10-foot Wind Tunnel in mid-1969.
After the U.S. SST program had been cancelled, Langleys supersonic research
efforts were refocused under the Supersonic Cruise Research (SCR) program.17
A number of research areas important to achieving economical supersonic
flight were assessed in the SCR effort. Among these were major investigations
intended to optimize highly swept wing configurations for efficient supersonic
performance and to advance knowledge in the area of vortex flow technol-
ogy. These vortex flow technology investigations were intended to enhance
aerodynamic performance of highly swept wings at the higher lift conditions
associated with transonic maneuvering and on final approach to landingboth
areas of serious concern. Langley had also initiated a focused research program
known as the Supersonic Cruise Integrated Fighter (SCIF) program. Its over-
all goal was to foster the use of supercruise technologies in military fighter
aircraft. The SCIF effort, led by Langleys Roy V. Harris, Jr., was oriented to
studying the feasibility of
supersonic cruise aircraft
fighter concepts. Under
the SCIF effort, NASA
Langleys resources and
aerodynamic and flight
dynamic test capabilities
were focused on investiga-
tions that used a variety
of fighter aircraft con-
figurations. Developed
in-house at Langley, these
A SCAT-15F model during Langley testing in June 1969. designs were highly ori-
(NASA) ented toward supercruise
12
capability. At the same time, Langley also coordinated its research activities
with industry teams involved in similar supersonic cruise studies. In coopera-
tion with the Air Force and various industry focus groups, the Langley research
staff designed and tested supersonic cruise fighter concepts across the Mach
number ranges that were available using Langleys wind tunnels. Six different
SCIF design concepts were developed. These provided coverage of anticipated
military requirements for supercruise. Concepts ranged from a design that
cruised at Mach 1.4 while also having good maneuverability to a Mach 2.6
design that strongly emphasized supersonic cruise performance.
The SCIF configurations were based on highly swept cranked-arrow wing
planforms. They featured wing twist and camber approaches that were tailored
to minimize supersonic drag. The outer wing panels on the SCIF wings had
reduced sweep, a feature that increased wingspan, improved subsonic and
transonic aerodynamic efficiency, and provided improved aircraft handling
qualities. At higher angles of attack, these highly swept wing planforms cre-
ated powerful vortices over the wing leading edges. These vortices produced
so-called vortex lift while also reducing drag. Vortex lift provided possibilities
for improved maneuverability. It was the subject of many investigations at
NASA Langley over a period of many years. Following supersonic wind tunnel
testing, two of the SCIF designs, designated SCIF-4 and SCIF-5, were selected
for extensive testing over a wide Mach number range. These wind tunnel tests
generated extensive data for use in follow-on supersonic design and perfor-
mance studies. SCIF-4 was oriented to the air superiority mission and had a
cruise Mach number of 1.8. The other design (SCIF-5) had a higher fineness
ratio with primary emphasis placed on achieving a very high supersonic cruise
speed of Mach 2.6. Both SCIF designs were based on tailless cranked-arrow
wing planforms that featured highly swept inboard wing segments to meet
supersonic cruise requirements.18
In 1977, Langley research engineer Barrett L. Shrout reported on the results
of the NASA Langley investigation of the supersonic cruise point design known
as SCIF-4. This represented a supersonic fighter optimized for sustained cruise
at a Mach number of 1.8. Its cranked-arrow wing configuration featured twin
vertical tailfins mounted at the intersection of the inner and outer wing seg-
ments. A SCIF-4 force model was tested across the Mach number range from
0.6 to 2.16 using NASA Langleys 8-foot transonic pressure tunnel and the
Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. A large, captive free-flight model demonstrated
flight to higher angles of attack in Langleys 30- by 60-foot Full-Scale Tunnel.
The SCIF-4 configuration had limited maneuvering capabilities at higher
angles of attack. Shrout noted that this concept was aerodynamically very
similar to that of a supersonic transport. It was based on the technical knowl-
edge and design methodology that had evolved from the SST program and was
13
Elegance in Flight
supplemented by subse-
quent NASA supersonic
research efforts. In fact,
the knowledge base and
analytical methodologies
that derived from the ear-
lier supersonic transport
effort heavily influenced
the entire SCIF effort.19
That same year,
Langleys O.A. Morris
reported on a wind tunnel A wind tunnel force model of the NASA SCIF-4 supersonic
investigation of subsonic cruise fighter configuration being prepared for testing at NASA
and supersonic aerody- Langley in 1977. (NASA)
namics that included
longitudinal and lateral stability. This wind tunnel investigation used a model
of the SCIF-5 fighter design concept. It featured a highly swept cranked-arrow
wing designed for a cruise Mach number of 2.6. Leading-edge sweep angle was
74 degrees on the inboard wing segments and 65 degrees on the outer wing
panels. SCIF-5 incorporated sophisticated wing twist and camber, features that
were intended to minimize supersonic drag due to lift. Twin vertical tailfins
were located outboard on the wing. During the SCIF-5 investigation, the
configuration was modified with larger outboard vertical tailfins. Small nose-
mounted strakes were also tested with this model.20 Results from the SCIF
program and related NASA efforts were presented at the supersonic cruise
conferences held at Wright-Patterson AFB in 1976 and 1977. Published in a
number of Air Force and NASA Technical Memoranda, the results were widely
distributed across the aircraft industry, the military services, and academia.21
NASA/GD Supercruise Cooperative Efforts

Efficient supercruise performance was seen by most experts in NASA and
the aerospace industry as being a primary driver in future fighter designs.
It was generally believed that very highly swept wing platforms would be
needed to achieve efficient supercruise performance. These supersonic cruise
wing planforms were visualized as being similar to those used on the Anglo-
French Concorde, the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144, and the cancelled U.S. SST
program. However, subtle modifications and adaptations of supersonic cruise
wing designs to meet fighter maneuverability requirements would be needed
if a fighter with both supercruise capability and high transonic/supersonic
maneuverability was to be viable. Coming up with these technological adapta-
tions was a strong motivation for aircraft industry interaction with the NASA
14
Langley staff. Industry was looking to benefit from Langleys expertise, design
methods, and experience with highly swept wing designs gained during efforts
oriented to a civil supersonic transport such as the SCAT effort as well as the
SCIF effort.22 Subsequent to the SCIF program, Langley joined with several
industry partners in cooperative, nonproprietary studies of supercruise configu-
rations that were intended to be applicable to future advanced fighter designs.23
General Dynamics had initiated supercruise fighter conceptual design efforts in
1976. That year, the first conceptual supercruise fighter layout was completed
under the supervision of GD aeronautical engineer Gordon F. Gibson, who
had also done the layout work on the YF-16 Lightweight Fighter. During dis-
cussions with NASA, GD highlighted the fact that the modular construction
approach successfully used in the YF-16 Lightweight Fighter prototype and the
production F-16 aircraft could be adapted quickly and inexpensively to create
a supercruise fighter technology demonstrator. This technology demonstra-
tor aircraft would use an F-16 fuselage mated with a highly swept supersonic
wing. This was intended to be derived from a cooperative research effort with
NASA. This new wing concept would be optimized for both good transonic/
supersonic cruise capability and good transonic/supersonic maneuvering per-
formance. General Dynamics was confident that a supersonic cruise fighter
demonstrator aircraft would attract interest and support from the Air Force.
However, a strong corporate commitment along with a significant financial
investment would be needed.24
One of the earliest meetings to promote a cooperative supersonic wing
design effort between General Dynamics and NASA occurred in March 1977.
Discussions focused on a joint project involving advanced supersonic wings
to be designed in conjunction with NASA. Testing was to be accomplished in
the supersonic Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel and the transonic Langley
High-Speed 7- by 10-Foot Wind Tunnel. In order to be considered, candi-
date wing concepts had to be capable of being integrated with the basic F-16
fuselage. The goal was to create an advanced version of the F-16 with longer
range, heavier payload, generally enhanced performance, and the potential
for supersonic cruise capability. As part of the cooperative effort, General
Dynamics would assign several engineers to temporary duty at the Langley
Research Center. Their initial efforts would focus on supercruise wing design
methodology. Project leader for supersonic design efforts at NASA Langley
at the time was David S. Miller. GD engineering personnel were periodically
collocated with the Langley research staff, where NASAs Charles M. Jackson
served as overall manager of the collaborative effort. General Dynamicss Roy T.
Schemensky, in cooperation with Miller and Langley researchers John E. Lamar
and C. Subba Reddy, coauthored a number of professional papers and techni-
cal reports. These were published over the next several years, and they detailed
15
Elegance in Flight
technical aspects and results from the NASA/GD collaboration.25 Wind tunnel
testing and analytical studies continued to validate earlier assumptions that
many of the conflicting demands of efficient supersonic cruise and transonic
maneuver could be met with a properly designed and tailored wing.
Based on these highly promising results, General Dynamics initiated a
company-funded development intended to produce a derivative of the F-16
with supersonic cruise and maneuver capabilities and made this a high prior-
ity within the corporation. A cooperative agreement with NASA covering
mutual efforts that could lead to development of a new flight demonstrator
aircraft was developed and approved. GD soon began to refer to this flight
demonstrator aircraft as the Supersonic Cruise and Maneuver Prototype. By
1978, wind tunnel testing of new wing designs integrated with a modified F-16
fuselage was indicating a supersonic performance improvement of about 30
percent compared with the basic F-16. At subsonic speeds, performance was
generally similar to that of the standard F-16. Encouraged by these positive
results, General Dynamics committed to development of the SCAMP con-
cept. It used a highly swept cranked (double delta) wing planform to achieve
enhanced supersonic cruise efficiency and transonic maneuvering capabilities.
Refinement of the SCAMP concept would eventually lead to the development
of the F-16XL design. Several cooperative research projects with NASA would
use the SCAMP/F-16XL configuration in follow-on studies covering a wide
range of important topics. These included supersonic conformal store carriage
concepts, low-speed stability and control of highly swept wing configurations,
and determination of spin characteristics.26 In the longer term, the F-16XL
prototypes would be transferred from the Air Force to NASA, and they would
be used for a number of research efforts related to high-speed research into
technology risk reduction for a prospective high-speed civil transport. Foremost
among these was the Supersonic Laminar Flow Control project. The range of
NASA F-16XL research efforts will be discussed in depth later in this book.
16
Endnotes
1. See, for instance, Robert J. Art, The TFX Decision: McNamara and
the Military (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1968);
Robert F. Coulam, Illusions of Choice: The F-111 and the Problem of
Weapons Acquisition Reform (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1977). The highly controversial Tactical Fighter Experimental
(TFX) program eventually led to the development and production
of the General Dynamics F-111. Intended to become the basis of a
standard multipurpose fighter for joint service use by both the Air
Force and the Navy, the very large, heavy aircraft ended up being
used solely for the long-range strike mission by the Air Force after
the Navy withdrew from the program.
2. Richard P. Hallion, A Troubling Past: Air Force Fighter Acquisition
since 1945, presented at the Triangle Universities Security Seminar
on Changing Technologies and New Weapons Systems, Durham, NC,
February 23, 1990, and published in Airpower Journal 4, no. 4
(winter 1990).
3. David C. Aronstein and Albert C. Piccirillo, Have Blue and the
F-117A: Evolution of the Stealth Fighter (Reston, VA: American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics [AIAA], 1997); David C.
Aronstein and Albert C. Piccirillo, The Lightweight Fighter Program:
A Successful Approach to Fighter Technology Transition (Reston,
Virginia: AIAA, 1996). The latter reference was based heavily on
a report of the same title that the authors prepared for the Joint
Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) Program Office in March 1995.
4. David C. Aronstein and Albert C. Piccirillo, The F-16 Lightweight
Fighter: A Case Study in Technology Transition, in Technology and
the Air Force: A Retrospective Assessment, ed. Jacob Neufeld et al.
(Washington, DC: Air Force History and Museums Program, 1997).
5. J.K. Buckner, D.B. Benepe, and P.W. Hill, Aerodynamic Design
Evolution of the YF-16, AIAA Paper 74-935 (1974); Edward C.
Polhamus, A Concept of the Vortex Lift of Sharp-Edge Delta Wings
Based On A Leading-Edge-Suction Analogy, NASA Technical Note
(TN) D-3767 (December 1966); Edward C. Polhamus, Vortex Lift
Research: Early Contributions and Some Current Challenges, in
Vortex Flow AerodynamicsVolume I, Proceedings of Conference held
October 810, 1986 at Langley Research Center, NASA Conference
Publication (CP) 2416, Paper No. 1 (1986), pp. 130.
6. Quoted in Lou Drendel, F-16 Fighting Falcon in ActionAircraft
No. 53 (Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1982), p. 31.
17
Elegance in Flight
7. Joseph R. Chambers, Partners in Freedom: Contributions of the

Langley Research Center to U.S. Military Aircraft of the 1990s,
Monographs in Aerospace History Number 19 (Washington, DC:
NASA Special Publication (SP) 2000-4519, 2000).
8. Aronstein, Piccirillo, The Lightweight Fighter Program; Michael
Ennis, The Plane the Pentagon Couldnt Stop, Texas Monthly (June
1981): pp. 132151.
9. Hillaker had worked at the Convair division of General Dynamics
and then at the Fort Worth Division of GD since 1942. During
that time, he was involved in the development of every operational
aircraft that emerged from the Fort Worth facility. These included
the World War II B-24 Liberator bomber (produced in greater
quantity than any U.S. combat aircraft), the 10-engine Strategic
Air Command (SAC) B-36 intercontinental bomber, SACs Mach
2.0-capable B-58 Hustler, and the controversial swing-wing F-111.
For information on these Convair/GD aircraft, see John Wegg,
General Dynamics Aircraft and Their Predecessors (Annapolis, MD:
Naval Institute Press, 1990); Eric Hehs, Harry Hillaker: Father of
the F-16, Code One Magazine (April 15, 1991).
10. Harry J. Hillaker, F-16XL presentation to the Lone Star Aero Club,
Arlington, TX, September 3, 1998.
11. The average distance from a wings leading edge to its trailing edge
is known as the chord, denoted by the symbol c. The distance from
one wingtip to the other is the wingspan, given the symbol b. The
shape of the wing, when viewed from above, is called its planform.
For most wing planforms, the chord length varies along the span.
The wing area, S, is bounded by the leading and trailing edges and
the wingtips. Aspect ratio (AR) is a measure of how long and slender
a wing is from tip to tip, or simply the ratio of its wingspan to aver-
age chord. The AR of a wing is most easily calculated as the square
of its wingspan divided by its wing area. In simple mathematical
terms, AR=b2/S. High aspect ratio wings have long wingspans while
low aspect ratio wings have short spans (like the F-16 fighter) and/or
long chords (like the Space Shuttle and the F-16XL). An important
component of overall drag is induced drag, which varies inversely to
the aspect ratio of the wing. Thus, a high aspect ratio wing has lower
induced drag than a low aspect ratio wing. Because the long-range
efficiency of an airliner or a bomber depends on the ratio of the lift
to the drag (or the L/D), these aircraft are designed with high aspect
ratio wings. Conversely, high-speed aircraft and highly maneuver-
able fighters have lower aspect ratio wings. NASA Glenn Research
18
Center, Beginners Guide to Aerodynamics (hereafter BGA), Wing

Geometry Definitions, at http://www.grc.nasa.gov.
12. Major Patrick K. Talty, USAF, F-16XL Demonstrates New
Capabilities in its Flight Test Program at Edwards AFB, California,
Air Command and Staff College, USAF Air University, Report
Number 86-2490, April 1986; Patrick K. Talty and Donald J.
Caughlin, F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities in Flight Test at
Edwards Air Force Base, Journal of Aircraft 25, no. 3 (March 1988):
206215.
13. A total of 644 J 35s were built in six primary variants at the Saab
Linkping factory. Surplus exDanish Air Force two-place Sk 35
Draken were subsequently employed in support of both flight-test
and dissimilar air combat training programs conducted by U.S.
military services. As many as six surplus Sk 35s were operated by
the National Test Pilot School (NTPS) in Mojave, CA, and some
were still flying as recently as the fall of 2012. They were used for
both test pilot training and in support of systems test and evalu-
ation efforts conducted by U.S. Government agencies as well as
aerospace contractors. The NTPS Sk 35s were sometimes leased by
military test pilot schools for use in their training syllabi. A particu-
larly interesting aspect of their use in the NTPS syllabus was for
high-angle-of-attack, deep stall, and spin recovery training. Roger
Bacon, Straight and Level, Flight International (July 31, 1982): p.
269; Hans G. Andersson, Saab Aircraft Since 1937 (Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), pp. 125136; Walter J. Boyne,
Airpower Classics: J 35 Draken, Air Force Magazine (December
2011): 68; Robert Wetherall, e-mail communication with author,
December 25. 2012; Wetherall noted, We studied and discussed
what we could about the aircraft [the Saab J 35] during the XL
development, so it is relevant if only from that point.
14. Talty, F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities.
15. Jay Miller, The X-Planes: X-1 to X-45 (London, UK: Ian Allen
Publishing, Ltd., 2005).
16. David S. Miller and Roy T. Schemensky, Design Study Results of
a Supersonic Cruise Fighter Wing, presented at the AIAA 17th
Aerospace Sciences Meeting, New Orleans, LA, January 1517,
1979, AIAA Paper 79-0062 (January 1979); David C. Aronstein,
Michael J. Hirschberg, and Albert C. Piccirillo, Advanced Tactical
Fighter to F-22 Raptor: Origins of the 21st Century Air Dominance
Fighter (Reston, VA: AIAA, 1998).
19
Elegance in Flight
17. Erik M. Conway, High Speed Dreams: NASA and the Technopolitics
of Supersonic Transportation, 19451999 (Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2005).
18. E.C. Polhamus, Applying Slender Wing Benefits to Military
Aircraft, presented at the AIAA/AHA Aircraft Design, Systems
and Technology Meeting, Fort Worth, TX, October 1719, 1983,
AIAA Paper 83-2566 in Journal of Aircraft 21, no. 8 (August 1984):
545559.
19. B.L. Shrout, Aerodynamic Characteristics at Mach Numbers from
0.6 to 2.16 of a Supersonic Cruise Fighter Configuration with a
Design Mach Number of 1.8, NASA Technical Memorandum
(TM) X-3559 (September 1977).
20. O.A. Morris, Subsonic and Supersonic Aerodynamic Characteristics
of a Supersonic Cruise Fighter with a Twisted and Cambered Wing
with 74 Sweep, NASA TM X-3530 (August 1977).
21. USAF, Technology for Supersonic Cruise Military AircraftDesign
Conference Proceedings, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory,
Wright-Patterson AFB, 1976.
22. John E. Lamar, Roy T. Schemensky, and C. Subba Reddy,
Development of a Vortex-Lift-Design Method and Application to
a Slender Maneuver-Wing Configuration, presented at the AIAA
18th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Pasadena, CA, January 1416,
1980, AIAA Paper 80-0327 (January 1980).
23. The SCAT-15F design served as the initial baseline for the NASA
High-Speed Civil Transport (HSCT) research effort that would start
in the late 1980s. Joseph R. Chambers, Innovation in Flight: Research
of the NASA Langley Research Center on Revolutionary Advanced
Concepts for Aeronautics, Monograph in Aerospace History Number
39 (Washington, DC: NASA SP-2005-4539, 2005); Chambers,
Partners in Freedom.
24. In fact, the Air Force interest in a fighter with supercruise perfor-
mance would coalesce into the entirely new Advanced Tactical
Fighter (ATF) program by the early 1980s. This bold concept
attempted to balance a variety of highly conflicting design charac-
teristics in a totally new air superiority fighter design. ATF was to
be capable of supercruise without use of afterburning at high Mach
numbers over long ranges, was to possess exceptional maneuverabil-
ity, and was to carry a large payload of ordnance. Most significantly,
ATF was to be designed from the beginning to achieve exception-
ally demanding all-aspect radar stealth requirements. The ATF
program would eventually lead to development and fielding of the
20
Lockheed F-22A Raptor; see Aronstein, Hirschberg, and Piccirillo,

Advanced Tactical Fighter to F-22 Raptor.
25. For example: Lamar et al., Development of a Vortex-Lift-Design
Method; Miller and Schemensky, Design Study Results of a
Supersonic Cruise Fighter Wing.
26. Chambers, Partners in Freedom.
21
Test model of an interim SCAMP concept mounted in the NASA Langley Unitary Plan Wind
Tunnel in 1978. (NASA)
22
CHAPTER 2
From SCAMP to F-16XL:

A Collaborative Development
By 19761977, General Dynamics Harry Hillaker, often referred to as the

Father of the F-16, was strongly advocating the development of what GD
initially termed the Supersonic Combat and Maneuvering Prototype program.1
The concept envisioned a flight demonstrator aircraft that used a modified F-16
fuselage fitted with a highly refined cranked-arrow delta wing.2 The initiative
very quickly was renamed the Supersonic Cruise and Maneuver Prototype (still
SCAMP but with the emphasis on cruise capability) to take advantage of the
rapidly emerging Air Force interest in supercruise fighter capability. The ratio-
nale behind the SCAMP concept was based on several characteristics important
to air combat outcomes. Supersonic cruise capability would provide a faster
reaction time along with a lower exposure time to enemy air defenses. This
would lead to improved combat outcomes and better survivability. Improved
maneuverability, as evidenced by the ability to rapidly gain or lose energy,
coupled with high turn rates and tight turn radii would allow opponents to
be rapidly defeated in close-in air combat.
This rationale echoed nearly word for word the concepts fostered by the
informal but influential fighter mafia. This small but well-connected group
of military officers and civilians operating from within the Department of
Defense had been instrumental in lobbying for an alternative to what they
saw as the overly large and complex F-15. Their efforts had seen fruition in the
Lightweight Fighter program that evolved into the F-16 production program
via the General Dynamics YF-16 LWF prototypes.3 Using statements that
could have come directly from USAF Col. John Boyd (widely acknowledged as
the unofficial leader of the fighter mafia), Harry Hillaker boldly proclaimed
that SCAMP would go even further than the basic F-16 in enhancing air
combat by incorporating fast transient concepts that would provide a faster,
more fluid tempo that would act inside enemy space and time capability,
enabling its pilots to generate a rapidly changing air combat environment
and be as non-predictable as possible.4
23
Elegance in Flight
Conceptualizing SCAMP
From the start, SCAMP had been visualized by General Dynamics as an F-16
derivative that would utilize a newly designed delta wing tailored to improve
supersonic efficiency and retain good maneuvering performance. In designing
this wing, GD intended to capitalize on the latest techniques emerging from
NASA aeronautical research efforts. The design would focus on improving
both supersonic flight performance and aerodynamic efficiency compared to
the standard F-16. In this context, the NASA LangleyGD cooperative effort
would be heavily oriented toward the development of a transonic/supersonic
fighter wing design using an extensive wind tunnel test program. The coopera-
tive program would develop and expand the existing design and technology
base to significantly improve the benefits of wing camber as applied to a highly
swept delta-wing planform. An important consideration was risk reduction.
The new aerodynamic technologies and capabilities needed to be successfully
integrated into a technology demonstrator or prototype fighter design. In
order to reach these goals, a wide variety of wind tunnel models and NASA
test facilities would be used during the cooperative development effort and
follow-on detail design work. To this end, some of these subscale models (the
so-called matrix models) were designed to be capable of rapid modification.
This allowed the rapid investigation of a wide variety of aerodynamic refine-
ments. These included different wing-camber and wing-twist concepts as well
as detail design changes to the basic aircraft configuration. The matrix model
concept turned out to be very useful
in efficiently testing the full matrix of
design test points and configurations
during the wind tunnel test effort at
NASA Langley.5
The cooperative test concept
called for the potential benefits of
transonic vortex wing camber to be
evaluated using four wing configu-
rations. These different configura-
tions would be used to explore the
The matrix model could be rapidly modified
effectiveness of various wing-camber
using a variety of removable leading edges,
wingtips, and trailing edges to efficiently approaches in providing properly
assess their effects on aerodynamic character- tailored leading-edge vortices. These
istics. (Lockheed Martin) tailored vortices would improve lift
as well as provide some thrust in the
direction of flight. Achieving favorably tailored vortex lift would reduce the
drag penalties associated with maneuvering at higher angles of attack. Two of
24
From SCAMP to F-16XL: A Collaborative Development
the test wings would have cranked-arrow leading-edge planforms with sweep
angles of 76.6 and 66.6 degrees. One of these cranked-arrow wings would
use a fixed vortex camber while the other was fitted with leading- and trail-
ing-edge movable flaps. The other two wings used in the investigation were
delta shapes that were used in transonic vortex camber assessments. Both of
these delta wings had leading-edge sweep angles of 71.6 degrees. One of the
delta wings would be designed with leading-edge vortex camber while the
other was a basic noncambered delta wing used as a baseline for comparison
purposes. Eventually, five other wing concepts would be used to investigate
various approaches to improve supersonic drag performance, both at cruise
conditions and in maneuvering flight. A major constraint was that all of these
wing planforms needed to be capable of being mated with a lengthened F-16
fuselage. During the cooperative design and test effort, various fore and aft
fuselage-plug concepts would be considered to increase the fuselage length
and fineness ratio.6
Another aspect of the SCAMP studies was an investigation of various con-
formal weapons carriage concepts that were intended to reduce aerodynamic
drag and improve mission performance. Although not a totally new concept,
conformal carriage increasingly was being seen as a way to reduce the drag
penalties associated with external weapons carriage.7 Conformal carriage of
both air-to-ground and air-to-air munitions was to be addressed with a focus on
efficient aerodynamic integration of external stores oriented toward enhancing
both volume and cross-sectional area distribution. A number of other areas for
future NASA-GD cooperative work were identified in September 1977. These
included assessing various leading-edge crank angles and different leading-
edge-flap concepts to further enhance vortex lift/thrust and evaluations of the
benefits of various canard concepts to further increase lift. Canard concepts
that were identified at the time included fixed, movable, and fully retractable
possibilities. Other areas that were seen as possibilities for cooperation with
NASA were research into the effects of strake and wing-camber integration,
variations in fuselage camber, and lower fuselage surface and internal volume
distribution studies. Another possibility investigated by GD involved incor-
poration of variable geometry anhedral (e.g., angled-down) wingtips into the
SCAMP configuration ( la the North American XB-70A Valkyrie Mach 3
bomber of the early 1960s).8 The use of variable geometry anhedral wingtips
on supersonic fighter designs had also been investigated by NASA Langley
during the earlier SCIF design and wind tunnel test efforts.
GD laid out a very aggressive validation plan for the proposed SCAMP
collaborative effort with NASA Langley. This preliminary SCAMP Validation
Plan of early 1977 included a provision for a cooperative NASA-GD team
approach to model design and fabrication.9 Low- and high-speed wind tunnel
25
Elegance in Flight
tests were oriented toward investigating the effects of various wing-camber

approaches using a number of different delta-wing planform shapes. This por-
tion of the effort was to be completed in February 1978 with the results used
to refine the SCAMP configuration. This refined configuration would then
form the basis for computer simulations. These simulations were to include
computer modeling of an integrated fire and flight control system (IFFCS)
incorporated into the SCAMP concept. GDs subcontractor, Ling-Temco-
Vought (LTV), would support the air-to-air aspects of this modeling effort
with Martin Marietta providing air-to-ground simulation expertise. The NASA
Langley pilot-in-the-loop Differential Maneuvering Simulator (DMS) facility
would be used during this portion of the collaborative effort. Effects of fast
transient maneuvers and the use of various advanced weapons delivery solu-
tions, including IFFCS approaches, would be investigated using the DMS.10
The results, as well as those derived from the vortex lift and camber studies,
stability and control assessments, and conformal carriage investigations, would
then be used to further refine the SCAMP design.
The goal was delivery of a well-defined aircraft configuration along with a
detailed technical description of its aerodynamic parameters and stability char-
acteristics by late 1978. Also noteworthy was the investigation of a variable-
geometry inlet (VGI) design. Wind tunnel testing of a 1/15-scale model fitted
with a VGI was planned with results to be factored into the SCAMP conceptual
design. GD would go on to prepare a fully functional, full-scale VGI (including
actuators and control hardware) for the F-16XL design. A VGI was included
in the flight demonstration proposal to the Air Force as a possible option for
incorporation into the full-scale F-16XL flight demonstrators. However, the
additional cost and weight (estimated at 224 pounds) associated with the
variable-geometry inlet did not
offset its performance benefits
and it was not included in the
final design.11
As it transpired, the coop-
erative effort that eventually
culminated in the F-16XL
continued well into 1982.
During the joint SCAMP-F-
16XL effort, NASA Langleys
High Speed Aerodynamic
Division was the focal point
This early 1977 GD chart lays out the collaborative effort from 1976 through 1979 with
with NASA. Joint efforts actually continued even after the Dynamic Stability Branch
first flight of the F-16XL, in July 1982. (Lockheed Martin) coming onboard in early 1978
26
and being increasingly active into 1982 as the first flight dates of the actual
F-16XL aircraft approached. Even after that date, NASA representatives par-
ticipated in activities related to monitoring and advising the Air Force F-16XL
flight-test program. As an example, Marilyn E. Ogburn of Langleys Dynamic
Stability Branch served as a NASA observer during the Air Force Flight Test
Center evaluation of the F-16XL at Edwards Air Force Base.12
SCAMP Configuration Evolution

General Dynamics began the SCAMP effort by evaluating the performance
potential of cranked-arrow wings. These derived from concepts that had been
evaluated earlier during the NASA Langley Supersonic Cruise Aerodynamics
Research (SCAR) effort. Analytical and experimental data from the SCAR
work was considered for potential application to a modified F-16 to provide
supersonic cruise capability as well as improvements in the areas of subsonic
performance, maneuverability, and aircraft handling qualities. GD proposed
to, with NASA assistance, conduct wing optimization studies that would con-
sider various aspects of wing design that could be important to improving
F-16 performance. These included determination of the effects of noncranked
and cranked leading edges, assessments of various leading-edge sweep combi-
nations, variations in wing
aspect ratio and wing area,
and determination of the
resultant internal wing fuel
volumes. Issues associated
with adequate aircraft con-
trol, including methods to
provide effective pitch and
roll control on very highly
swept wings, were to be
evaluated. An important
concern was dealing with
rapidly varying trim require-
ments resulting from the aft
movement of the center of
lift as speed increased from
subsonic to supersonic.
This SCAMP concept featured an all-moving vertical tail
By late 1977, the com- and full-span leading-edge flaps on both the inboard and
bined NASA-GD effort led outboard wing segments of its highly swept cranked-
to a configuration based on arrow wing. (Lockheed Martin)
27
Elegance in Flight
an F-16 stretched fuselage mated with a cranked-arrow wing. Two 20-inch

plugs, one aft of the cockpit and one just forward of the lower vertical fin,
increased fuselage length by 40 inches. The new extended fuselage was 51.8
feet long. The highly swept cranked-arrow wing had a span of 30 feet 10 inches
and an aspect ratio of 1.38. Total wing area was 600 square feet, double the
area of the standard F-16 wing. Leading-edge sweep angles were 76.6 degrees
(inboard) and 66.6 degrees (outboard). To provide good maneuverability and
handling qualities, full-span leading-edge flaps, capable of being deflected up
to 60 degrees, were mounted on both inboard and outboard wing segments.
Trailing-edge flaps were mounted on the aft inboard wing segments with addi-
tional flap power provided by outboard elevons (essentially, combination eleva-
tors and ailerons). These served as elevators for pitch control and ailerons for
roll control. Other characteristics of this design concept were an all-moving
vertical tail and a variable-geometry single-ramp engine inlet. This would be
used to control the airflow entering the engine out to speeds of Mach 2.2
(the standard F-16 used a fixed-geometry inlet). This design concept was also
intended to be used to evaluate additional performance enhancements that
might be possible by incorporating a two-dimensional thrust-vectoring nozzle.
A modified version of this arrow-wing concept was tested in the NASA Langley
Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. This 1/15-scale model had leading-edge wing-sweep
angles of 71 degrees on the inboard wing segments and 57 degrees on the
outboard segments.
By 1978, the NASA-GD collaboration had resulted in a refined cranked-
arrow-wing configuration with the fuselage now lengthened by 52 inches.
Leading-edge sweep angles were revised to 70 degrees on the inboard section
and 50 degrees on the outboard (cranked) section of the wing. The wing
crank was relocated from
its earlier 63 percent out-
board position (measured
from the aircraft center-
line) to 70 percent out-
board. The trailing edge
of the wing now featured
a uniform sweep angle of
8.6 degrees. This was
somewhat reduced from
that of the earlier SCAR-
derived arrow-wing plan-
form discussed above.
This new wing proved to Test model of an interim SCAMP concept mounted in the
be a better choice than NASA Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel in 1978. (NASA)
28
the earlier arrow-wing configuration. The smaller aft movement of its mean
aerodynamic center (MAC) as the Mach number changed from subsonic to
supersonic minimized flight control issues.13 This aft shift in mean aerodynamic
center was reduced to a much more manageable 10.5 percent. This compared
to a rearward shift in MAC of as much as 26 percent during transition from
subsonic to supersonic flight for the standard F-16. This was due largely to
the reduced leading-edge sweep angle on the cranked outboard portions of the
wing. The revised wing also provided major improvements in low-speed roll
control as well as significant supersonic rolling capabilities. GD claimed this
newer wing design would provide a 9-g instantaneous maneuvering capability
at Mach 2.0 at an altitude of 50,000 feet using the maximum available up-
elevon deflection angle of 20 degrees.14
As initially conceived,
this configuration began
with hand-drawn illus-
trations, typical of those
commonly seen in con-
ceptual design efforts in
the aircraft industry in
the era before computer-
based graphics and com-
puter-aided design. This
SCAMP configuration
incorporated an aeroelas-
tically tailored composite
Although bearing a general resemblance, this SCAMP design
wing fitted with full-span concept, circa September 1977, was still somewhat removed
leading-edge flaps and from the eventual F-16XL configuration in a number of
a VGI. Other features significant respects. (Lockheed Martin)
included an all-movable
vertical tail (that would have provided relaxed static directional stability) as
well as all-movable wingtips for both pitch trim and roll control.15
The existing horizontal tail surfaces from the production F-16A were stud-
ied for possible use as both an all-movable tailfin and as all-moveable wingtips.
The all-movable vertical tailfin and all-movable wingtips would be dropped
from the final SCAMPF-16XL configuration. This reportedly resulted after
negative feedback during discussions between GD engineering and Air Force
engineers from the Aeronautical Systems Division who perceived these items
as creating unnecessarily high technical risk.16 This negative position was rein-
forced by subsequent NASA wind tunnel testing in the 30- by 60-foot Full-
Scale Tunnel with a matrix model fitted with these features. This revealed that
the all-movable wingtip control surfaces did not provide adequate aircraft
29
Elegance in Flight
Key members of the GD SCAMP development team with a matrix model circa late 1977. From
the left: Harry J. Hillaker, program manager; Andrew Lewis, aerodynamics; Kenny Barnes, stabil-
ity and control lead; and Jim Gordon, lead program engineer. (Lockheed Martin)
control during low-speed, high-angle-of-attack maneuvering. Another impor-

tant negative consideration was that all-movable wingtips prevented the use
of wingtip-mounted AIM-9 Sidewinder infrared guided air-to-air missiles, as
used on the standard F-16. The all-moving vertical fin was eliminated due to
reduced effectiveness at higher angles of attack due to its low height as well as
the risk of stall at high deflections in sideslip conditions.
Key members of the General Dynamics SCAMP design team at this time
(1977) were Harry J. Hillaker, program manager; Roger Marquardt, chief
aerodynamicist; Kenneth H. Barnes, stability and control lead; and James
A. Gordon, SCAMP lead engineer. Kenny Barnes was a very key player on
the GD SCAMP team, effectively leading efforts focused on modifying the
F-16 fly-by-wire flight control system to adapt to the requirements of the
radically different SCAMPF-16XL configuration. These cooperative efforts
would eventually provide effective flight control at much higher angles of attack
than were ever possible with the basic F-16 configuration. During the SCAMP
cooperative effort, Andrew Lewis and the General Dynamics aerodynamics
group worked closely and effectively with NASA Langley researchers in evolv-
ing major aspects of the SCAMP aerodynamic configuration and its associated
wing planform. These included selection of the eventual airfoil, the wing twist,
and the highly sophisticated camber that reduced transonic and supersonic
30
drag while providing enhanced

lift. The final wing camber and
twist combination used on
the F-16XL aircraft prototypes
showed superior performance
compared to the standard F-16.
Drag was reduced during 1-g
flight and in maneuvering flight
at both high subsonic (Mach
0.9) and supersonic (Mach 1.6) SCAMP matrix model seen during 1978 tests in the
flight conditions.17 NASA Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. (NASA)
NASA Wind Tunnel Testing

Extensive wind tunnel testing was accomplished on a SCAMP model with an
8.6-degree trailing-edge sweep angle. But during testing in the Langley Unitary
Plan Wind Tunnel during early 1978, this configuration exhibited a serious
increase in nose-up pitching moment as angle of attack was increased. Pitching
moment characteristics were determined to be nonlinear with increasing angle
of attacka sudden pitch-up was the result. Such an increased nose-up pitch-
ing moment with increasing angle of attack is a highly undesirable aerodynamic
characteristic indicative of longitudinal instability. Such pitch axis instability
can easily result in the nose suddenly pitching up during slow-speed or maneu-
vering flight with a high potential for total loss of aircraft control.
A NASA Langley team led by Joseph L. Johnson, Jr., of the Dynamic Stability
Branch identified low-speed stability and control issues with the SCAMP con-
figuration. They worked closely with GD engineers on wing-planform revisions
that led to a much more stable configuration. This intense work was accom-
plished in the Langley Full-Scale Tunnel and tunnels at General Dynamics.
The forward wing shape was truncated and smoothly blended into the forward
fuselage. Other modifications resulting from NASA wing camber/twist/reflex
tradeoff studies were incorporated into the design. The wing trailing edge was
also changed to improve pitch stability. This modification involved a rearward
extension of the aft inner wing segments. Overall wing area increased from 600
to 643 square feet. The new aft inner trailing-edge wing segment was swept
forward at an 8-degree angle. The rounded and blended forward wing and the
extended trailing edge created the wing planform that would become familiar
on the F-16XL aircraft. This configuration featured elevons mounted on the
inner trailing edge of the wing and ailerons on the outboard wing segments.
Finally, the full-span leading-edge flaps on the inner wing segments, previously
31
Elegance in Flight
under consideration, were deleted, as were the movable wingtips. Leading-edge

maneuvering flaps were fitted on the outboard wing segments of the cranked-
arrow wing. These enhanced airflow over the ailerons and provided resistance
to yaw divergence at higher angles of attack. As eventually implemented, the
leading-edge flaps would be automatically scheduled by the F-16XL flight
control system in response to actual flight conditions.18
In summation, the cooperative NASA LangleyGeneral Dynamics research
effort led to significant modifications in the final SCAMP configuration. This
was especially the case in the important area of aircraft stability and control.
Pitch and yaw instability had been encountered during wind tunnel testing of
earlier SCAMP configurations and became an area of special emphasis. This
led to the apex of the wing, at the point where it merged into the forward
fuselage, being reshaped to incorporate an S-curve blend. This S-shaped apex
would subsequently become a distinctive feature of the F-16XLs cranked-arrow
wing. In addition, prominent fairings were incorporated at the trailing edge
of the wing. Positioned at the intersection of the inner and outer wing seg-
ments, these fairings housed the hydraulic actuators that activated the ailerons.
They also provided volume for aft-facing electronic sensors and chaff and flare
dispenserscapabilities that would have been incorporated into a production
version of the aircraft. In conjunction with what NASA termed air dams,
the wing fairings helped to control spanwise airflow over the outer portions
of the cranked-arrow wing at higher angles of attack, significantly improv-
ing lateral stability and enhancing controllability.19 The penultimate SCAMP
configuration incorporated the S-curved wing apex, the aft wing trailing-edge
extension, the wing fairings,
and the outer wing dams
or fences, but it did not yet
include the larger vertical
fin and the large drag chute
fairing that would be fea-
tured in the final SCAMP/
F-16XL configuration.
NASA Langley research
engineer Sue B. Grafton
A near-final SCAMPF-16XL configuration mounted in
the LaRC Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. The vertical tailfin was
produced an excellent pro-
returned to the original F-16 production tail for improved fessional report summariz-
lateral stability at higher angles of attack. (NASA) ing the significant results
of the wind tunnel testing
accomplished at Langley to resolve the low-speed, high AoA issues associated
with earlier SCAMP configurations.20 In the report, she noted that earlier
NASA research efforts had determined that highly swept arrow wings typically
32
experienced pitch-up tendencies along with both directional and roll instabil-
ity at higher angles of attack. These tendencies were determined to be caused
by leading-edge vortex breakdown over the wing that resulted in severe lateral
and directional instabilities. The Langley wind tunnel investigation of SCAMP
stability used a 0.15-scale wind tunnel model of the configuration that was
intensively tested in the Langley 30- by 60-foot Full-Scale Tunnel. This rather
large model, constructed mainly of wood and molded fiberglass, incorporated a
flow-through inlet duct and had a length of 7.34 feet, a wingspan of 4.86 feet,
an aspect ratio of 1.75, and a wing area of 13.5 square feet. Using the 15-per-
cent scale model, aerodynamic forces were measured and the resultant pitching
moments on the aircraft were determined for a baseline SCAMP configuration
as well as for several alternative configurations. The baseline configuration had
been modified to incorporate a notched-wing apex, an extended-wing trailing
edge, wing fences, and combinations of all of these fixes. The wind tunnel test
program covered the angle of attack range from 4 degrees to +41 degrees,
with sideslip angles as high as 13.5 degrees being investigated. Smoke-flow
investigations were used to assist in documenting wing vortex flow behavior
and to establish the relationship between vortex flow breakdown as a function
of angle of attack and angle of sideslip. Results for all tested configurations
were comprehensively documented in the form of detailed graphs and tables
that provided aerodynamic coefficients and stability factors related to pitch,
yaw, and roll for each tested configuration as a function of variations in angle
of attack and angle of sideslip.21
The successful F-16XL design evolution was heavily dependent on experi-
mental aerodynamic research efforts conducted in Langley wind tunnel facili-
ties. As it unfolded, the NASA-GD cooperative test program demonstrated that
the earlier SCAMP configurations exhibited high levels of maximum lift but
also displayed unstable longitudinal and lateral-directional stability character-
istics at moderate to high angles of attack. Longitudinal- and lateral-directional
stability characteristics were significantly improved by the combination of the
aforementioned wing-apex notch, the wing trailing-edge extension, and the
addition of wing fences. However, these features were also noted by Langley
researchers as causing some reduction in achievable maximum lift coefficient,
a factor that pales in relation to the fact that without these critical aerodynamic
fixes, any practical fighter derived from the earlier SCAMP concepts would
have been unacceptable to test pilots from an aircraft handling qualities per-
spective. In addition, the use of fly-by-wire flight controls also made XL feasible
where the pure SCAMP configurations with conventional controls would not
have been. The lateral-directional control from the outboard leading-edge flaps
and the rudder-aileron interconnect from the basic F-16 flight control logic
also helped make the aircraft controllable.22
33
Elegance in Flight
By mid-1980, SCAMP had converged on the aerodynamic layout that would

soon materialize in the actual F-16XL design. This progression in aerodynamic
and geometric configuration depicts the design evolution that occurred during
the cooperative test program. The Greek symbol denotes the geometrical loca-
tion of the wing crank measured outboard from the fuselage centerline of the
aircraft. For example, =0.63 indicates that the wing crank is located 63 percent
of the distance from the aircraft centerline to the wingtip. During the F-16XL
design evolution, the location of the wing crank moved from its initial 63-percent
position to one that was 70 percent of the distance to the wingtip. Although
the inner wings leading-edge sweep angle remained little changed (going from
71 degrees to 70 degrees), the sweep angle of the outboard wing sections were
decreased from 57 degrees to 50 degrees to provide better lateral control. As
discussed earlier, to improve pitch stability, the trailing-edge sweep angle on the
inner section of the wing was revised from the earlier 8.6-degree aft sweep to
a forward (negative) sweep angle of 8 degrees. This, along with the S-shaped
curvature implemented on the forward portion of the wing, gave the F-16XL
its final distinctive wing planform.
General Dynamics had spent $15.9 million of corporate funding on the
SCAMP effort by the time that the jointly developed SCAMPF-16XL con-
figuration was selected in late 1980. Up until that time, somewhat over 1,397
During the course of the cooperative program, the early SCAMP concept evolved to the cranked-
arrow-wing configuration eventually adapted for the F-16XL. (Lockheed Martin)
34
hours of wind tunnel testing had been accomplished. This included 611 hours
of low-speed testing, 419 hours at transonic speeds, and 367 hours at super-
sonic conditions. On December 1, 1980, GD corporate management approved
initiation of the next phase of the F-16XL effort. This would focus on detail
design and construction of two flight-test prototypes. During this phase, General
Dynamics would expend $41.7 million of corporate Independent Research and
Development (IRAD) funding with an additional $7.8 million provided by their
vendors and suppliers. Additional wind tunnel tests, focused on detailed aero-
dynamic refinements and technical issues important to the flight-test program,
would continue well into 1982. GD continued to use NASA Langley facilities on
an as-required contract basis and also used facilities located at the NASA Ames
Research Laboratory at Moffett Field near San Francisco, CA. Other wind tunnel
testing related to the F-16XL was accomplished in cooperation with Calspan
Corporation (previously Cornell Aeronautical Laboratories) and at GDs Convair
Division in San Diego, CA.23
Follow-On Flutter, Spin, Drop Model,

and Weapons Carriage Tests
During follow-on phases of the F-16XL wind tunnel test effort, a number of
specialized F-16XL test models were designed, built, and tested. These models
were used to explore important aerodynamic issues that needed to be resolved
before detailed aircraft design and flight-testing could begin. In 1981, a 0.18-
scale wind tunnel free-flight model of the F-16XL, equipped with fully func-
tional flight control surfaces and important elements of the full-scale control
system, was built and flown at angles of attack up to and greater than 50 degrees
in the Langley Full-Scale Tunnel. The captive free-flight model was remotely
On left: NASA Langleys Sue Grafton is shown with the 0.18-scale captive free-flight wind tunnel
model used to validate F-16XL aerodynamic and flight control modifications. On right: the 0.18-
scale F-16XL model is seen during free-flight testing in the NASA Langley Full-Scale Tunnel.
(Both images NASA)
35
Elegance in Flight
flown from pilot stations located in the wind tunnel control room. Powered by
high-pressure compressed air, it was used to explore aircraft controllability and
handling qualities at high angles of attack. This model also played a vital role
in the determination of the aircrafts maneuvering boundary and supported
refinements to the final flight control configuration.
Flutter Model Tests

The F-16XL flutter envelope was successfully cleared in the NASA Langley
16-Foot Transonic Dynamic Tunnel using a large 0.25-scale model of the
F-16XL. The Transonic Dynamic Tunnel had previously been used to clear the
flutter envelope of the standard F-16, also using a 0.25-scale test model. To
produce flutter test results that were representative of the full-scale aircraft, the
flutter model had to replicate not only the geometry of the full-scale aircraft but
its mass and structural elasticity characteristics. This was essential because flut-
ter is a synchronized vibration that occurs in flexible aircraft structures moving
through the atmosphere. Flutter occurs when rhythmic motions within the vari-
ous elements of the airframe structure coincide and amplify one another. As the
structural vibrations increase in magnitude and the airframe distorts, the sur-
rounding airflow acts to further amplify the structural distortions. Flutter can
lead the airframe to bend and twist in a divergent manner, potentially leading
to structural failure.24
Since the free-flight dynamic characteristics of the actual aircraft are a criti-
cal aspect of flutter, the model tests in the wind tunnel needed to simulate
the aircraft in free flight. NASA Langley research staff members had previously
devised a cable-mounting system for flutter testing that securely suspended the
model in the center of the wind tunnel. The suspension system was designed
to allow enough flexibility to simulate the real aircraft as it responded to aero-
elastic stresses. The F-16XL wind tunnel flutter model was fitted with remotely
controlled pitch and roll controls that were operated by a pilot operator who
was a member of the NASA Langley wind tunnel test staff. He used a miniature
control stick to keep the model positioned in the center of the wind tunnel as
measurements were taken. F-16XL flutter model testing was conducted under
the supervision of NASA Langley research engineer Charles L. Ruhlin. Processed
data from the NASA Langley wind tunnel flutter tests was analyzed and pub-
lished in a report prepared by General Dynamics engineer J.A. Ellis. These data
were used in conjunction with the results from ground vibration tests with the
full-scale F-16XL aircraft to ensure that structural vibration modes and frequency
responses were identified prior to the start of the flight-test program.25
36
Spin Tests
Data from spin tunnel and drop model tests conducted at NASA Langley
were used to further refine the F-16XL flight control system software and vali-
date automatic antispin features and the characteristics of the spin recovery
parachute design and installation. The inherent value of these NASA efforts
was evident in the exceptional resistance of the F-16XL to inadvertent loss
of control during high-AoA maneuveringcapabilities that would be con-
clusively demonstrated during the subsequent Air Force flight-test program.
Spin Tunnel Testing: In conjunction with the ongoing cooperative program
with General Dynamics, the Langley Vertical Spin Tunnel was used to deter-
mine the spin characteristics of the definitive F-16XL design. For these tests,
NASA research engineers Raymond D. Whipple and William L. White used
a 1/25-scale model that was ballasted to obtain dynamic similarity of motions
with the characteristics of the full-scale F-16XL aircraft design. The spin
models mass, center of gravity (cg), and moment of inertia characteristics
were fully representative of those of the full-scale aircraft. The spin tunnel
test model was 2.1 feet long. It was fitted with a mechanism that actuated
the flight control surfaces on remote radio command from an operator in the
control room during spin recovery attempts. The control surface deflection
angles used in these recovery attempts were fully representative of the flight
control surface capabilities that were intended to be available on the actual
aircraft. In addition to spin testing with the clean aircraft configuration (no
external stores), the test model was configured with various external stores
combinations in a series of comprehensive spin tunnel tests that began at
NASA Langley in 1981 and continued into 1983.
Detailed subscale models of munitions and external fuel tanks were used
to evaluate the large variety, quantities, and combinations of munitions and
external fuel tanks that would be carried on the actual aircraft for their effects
on spin entry and recovery characteristics. Both symmetric and asymmetric
stores combinations were evaluated during the test program. The tests with
asymmetric loads were especially important in understanding the ability of
the F-16XLs flight control system to cope with the forces and moments on
the aircraft during potential out-of-control situations. The external stores
loads that were evaluated during the NASA spin tunnel test effort are shown
in Table 2. Details related to the F-16XLs weapons and stores carriage and
management systems and the associated NASA and Air Force wind tunnel
and flight-test efforts, which were exceptionally comprehensive, are discussed
in a number of follow-on sections of this document.
37
Elegance in Flight
Table 2.
A variety of F-16XL external stores loadings (both symmetric
and asymmetric) were evaluated during spin tunnel
testing at NASA Langley from 1981 to 1983. NASA
Load Description WT Symmetry
Launchers
1 Clean AircraftMid cg (x/c = 0.460) Off Symmetric
(x/c = the location of the aircrafts cg on the
wing chord line)
2 4 AMRAAM (2 pylon, 2 wingtip) On Symmetric
2a 1 AMRAAM (pylon mounted) On Asymmetric
2b 1 AMRAAM (wingtip mounted) On Asymmetric
2c 2 AMRAAM (1 wingtip, 1 pylon on same side) On Asymmetric
3 6 AGM-65 missiles (3 on each wing, single On Symmetric

pylons)
3a 5 AGM-65 missiles (3 on one wing, 2 on the On Asymmetric
other)
3b 1 AGM-65 missile on outboard pylon) On Asymmetric
4 6 AGM-65 missiles (on 2 TER racks) On Symmetric
4a 3 AGM-65 missiles (on 1 TER rack) On Asymmetric
5 10 SUU-65 stores on 10 single pylons On Symmetric
5a 9 SUU-65 stores (outboard rear pylon empty) On Asymmetric
6 Clean AircraftForward cg (x/c = 0.430) Off Symmetric
7 Clean AircraftAft cg (x/c = 0.491) Off Symmetric
8 2,370-gallon drop tanks On Symmetric
8a 1,370-gallon drop tank On Asymmetric
38
During the NASA Langley spin test program, the center of gravity of the
F-16XL model was varied between its allowable forward and aft locations to
determine the effect of cg location on spin recovery. The allowable cg range
as a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord for the F-16XL aircraft was
determined to lie between 46 percent (forward cg) to slightly over 49 percent
(aft cg). Different spin recovery flight control approaches were evaluated for
their relative effectiveness during both erect and inverted spins. Spin test results
showed that an automatic spin prevention system, integrated into the F-16XL
flight control system, could eliminate the development of erect spins. Without
an automatic spin prevention system, two flat erect spin modesone fast and
steady, one slower and oscillatorywere shown to be possible. In addition,
testing showed that the potential existed for a moderately steep, relatively slow
inverted spin mode. Recovery from this inverted spin mode was easily achieved
by neutralization of the flight control surfaces.
The NASA spin tests determined the appropriate piloting techniques
for acceptable recoveries from the different spin modes of the aircraft. The
F-16XLs spin prevention system, as integrated into its fly-by-wire flight control
system, was refined as a result of the spin tunnel testing. The ability of this
spin prevention system to automatically prevent spins from fully developing
was completely validated through a rigorous combination of test techniques.
These included the spin tunnel tests, NASA Langley drop model testing, and
follow-on Air Force flight testing with the full-scale aircraft. Additionally, a
considerable effort was made in the development of the antispin system using
the Langley Differential Maneuvering Simulator.26 The NASA drop model tests
are described in the following section while the Air Force flight-test effort is
described in detail in a separate chapter.
The emergency spin recovery parachute installation, designed for use on
the F-16XL during high-AoA maneuvering, was evaluated in conjunction with
tests of the spin recovery system. The aerodynamic effects of the so-called
Quadra Pod spin recovery chute
installation on the F-16XLs flight
characteristics were determined
using the 0.18-scale captive free-
flight model. During these tests,
sizing requirements for the anti-
spin parachute were investigated
using a variety of miniature spin
recovery parachutes with different
towline lengths. The spin chutes F-16XL model fitted with the Quadra Pod spin
were deployed by remote com- recovery parachute installation during wind tunnel
mand from a Quadra Pod spin testing at NASA Langley in May 1982. (NASA)
39
Elegance in Flight
chute installation mounted on the 1/25-scale spin model during tests in the
Langley 20-foot Vertical Spin Tunnel. Testing showed that for the full-scale
F-16XL, a 34.2-foot-diameter parachute with a drag coefficient of 0.50 on a
100-foot towline, deployed in conjunction with spin recovery rudder and aile-
ron control deflections, produced the best results on the full-scale F-16XL. This
spin chutetowline combination was designed to provide emergency recovery
from all potential spin modes, even with very large lateral weight asymme-
tries. Based on the NASA recommendation, this spin chute configuration was
adopted for the flight demonstration program, but it never had to be used to
recover the aircraft from an inadvertent out-of-control or spin situation.
In addition to the tests described above, other potential flight control sur-
face deflection combinations and optional/alternative design approaches were
evaluated in the NASA Langley spin tunnel using the appropriately modified
F-16XL spin model. These included all-moving wingtips, an all-moving verti-
cal tail, and inboard-mounted leading-edge vortex flaps. These flight control
approaches had been included as possible options in the early SCAMP concep-
tual layout, and they were evaluated by NASA Langley at GDs request. NASA
testing showed that these alternative control surface approaches had limited to
negligible effects on F-16XL spin recovery characteristics.27
High-Angle-of-Attack Drop Model Tests

A large, radio-controlled 0.18-scale drop model of the single-seat F-16XL
was used in remotely controlled high-AoA investigations conducted by NASA
Langley. The configuration of this model was similar to that of the 18-percent
captive free-flight wind tunnel model used in earlier Langley testing. It was
constructed mainly of composite
materials in order to better repre-
sent the actual flight characteris-
tics of the full-scale aircraft, with
appropriate beefing up to with-
stand landing impact loads. The
drop model tests were conducted
at NASA Langleys Plum Tree
Island satellite test facility, located
about 5 miles from the Langley
AFB runway complex. The 0.18-
scale model was released from a
A radio-controlled 0.18-scale drop model is pre- specially configured launch rack
pared for release from a NASA Bell HU-1 helicopter mounted on the right-hand side
at the Plum Tree Island test facility in 1983. (NASA) of a NASA-operated Bell UH-1
40
helicopter. The NASA Langley lead researcher for the drop model test effort
was Mark A. Croom.28
After checkout and release, the drop model was maneuvered to high-AoA
flight conditions to test its aerodynamic response to a variety of potential out-
of-control situations. A high-resolution video camera was used to track the
model after release. Telemetry uplink and downlink capabilities were provided
via a flight operations computer located in the control center. Graphic displays,
including images of the model in flight and its location within the geographic
confines of the test range, were presented at the remote pilot control station at
the Plum Tree Island test complex. A video image of the view from the model
was presented to the pilot along with digital displays that included parameters
of interest such as angle of attack, sideslip angle, altitude, yaw rate, and normal
acceleration level. A ground-based flight control computer located at the Plum
Tree Island test complex was capable of being reprogrammed with revised
flight control laws between
test missions. Proposed
control system refinements
could be programmed into
the ground-based computer
using the drop model as
a validation tool. An all-
terrain vehicle was used
to retrieve the drop model
from the soft marshy terrain The 0.18-scale drop model being recovered after a
on Plum Tree Island follow- successful drop model test at the Plum Tree Island test
ing its parachute landing.29 facility in Virginia. (NASA)
Weapons Carriage and Separation Tests

General Dynamics conducted an F-16XL weapons carriage study in conjunc-
tion with the USAF Armament Division at Eglin AFB, FL. Results from the
study supported the development of the conformal weapons carriage system
that was successfully used on the F-16XL. Additional wind tunnel testing was
dedicated to examining both air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons in vari-
ous combinations using low-drag conformal carriage concepts that emerged
from the study. F-16XL conformal weapons carriage wind tunnel tests were
conducted at NASA Langley in the Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel with detailed
weapons separation tests accomplished at the Air Forces Arnold Engineering
Development Center (AEDC) in Tullahoma, TN. During weapons carriage
testing at NASA Langley, the 4-foot wind tunnel was used to investigate
supersonic F-16XL conformal carriage weapons integration issues. These tests
41
Elegance in Flight
determined the F-16XLs

aerodynamic drag character-
istics with various conformal
weapons carriage configu-
rations over the supersonic
speed range from Mach 1.6
to Mach 2.16. The F-16XL
wind tunnel model carried
various combinations of
external wing tanks and con-
formally carried munitions
during wind tunnel testing at
F-16XL wind tunnel test model fitted with six CBU-58
NASA Langley.30 sub-munitions dispensers, two 370-gallon fuel tanks,
Wind tunnel testing at the and two wingtip-mounted AIM-9L missiles in the
AEDC addressed the aero- Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel in 1982. (NASA)
dynamic characteristics of a
number of air-to-air missiles and air-to-ground weapons during release and
separation from the F-16XL. These separation tests were conducted over the
speed range from moderate subsonic to high supersonic. A team of engineers
representing the Air Force and General Dynamics played key roles in the
F-16XL weapons separation test effort. These included AEDCs Alex Money,
Bob Bigi from the F-16 Systems Program Office, Bruce Frantz from GD, and
R.A. Paulk of Calspan Engineering Services. A 1/15-scale model of the F-16XL
along with an array of 1/15-scale models of air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons;
external stores, such as drop tanks and sensor pods; and weapons launchers and
pylonswere specially fabricated for the weapons separation tests at AEDC.
The subscale stores models were both geometrically and dynamically scaled
to represent their full-scale counterparts and included the AGM-65 Maverick
air-to-ground guided missile (AGM), the AIM-9L Sidewinder and AIM-120
advanced medium-range air-to-air missiles (AMRAAM), the 370-gallon exter-
nal fuel tank, CBU-58/B and SUU-65 sub-munitions dispensers, and Mk-82
500-pound and Mk-84 2,000-pound bombs in both conventional unguided
free-fall and laser-guided configurations.31
Subscale weapons and stores separation tests were conducted in Aerodynamic
Wind Tunnel (4T), located in the Propulsion Wind Tunnel (PWT) facility at
AEDC, from May 21 through June 8, 1982.32 Separation trajectories were
obtained at a variety of Mach numbers, angles of attack, simulated altitudes,
and simulated load factors. During the subscale-model separation tests, aero-
dynamic loads on the stores were obtained using the captive trajectory sup-
port system. This technique involved attaching the subscale weapon or store
model to a stinger that then was moved through the aerodynamic flow field
42
surrounding the F-16XL model as aerodynamic force data were collected.

Postrelease trajectory data were collected using both captive trajectory and
dynamic drop techniques. During dynamic drop testing, the scale weapons
and external stores models were photographed with two high-speed cameras
(400 frames per second) as they were released from the F-16XL model using
scaled ejection forces produced by springs. The cameras were installed such
that their sight lines intersected orthogonally at the wind tunnel centerline.
Special screens installed in the wind tunnel for this purpose were used to catch
the models for subsequent reuse. Data from the motion picture cameras were
reduced using a film reader that projected each frame onto a screen. Positions
of the stores reference points, relative to the same point on each frame of
data film, were measured along two orthogonal axes by manually positioning
horizontal and vertical crosshairs located on the surface of the screen. Digital
output from the film reader was input into a computer that then calculated
full-trajectory positions and attitudes. Following the separation tests, force,
moment, and trajectory data for each weapon evaluated at AEDC were pro-
vided to General Dynamics for use in refining the design and developing the
weapons carriage and release system and the stores management system.33
NASA Vortex Flap Research and the F-16XL

Highly swept wings produce strong vortices over their upper-wing surfaces at
higher-AoA flight conditions, such as those associated with takeoff, landing, or
aggressive maneuvering. These vortices can result in greater lift for takeoff and
maneuvering, better control of the aerodynamic center of lift, and improved
airflow over a wide range of angle of attack and Mach number. Unfortunately,
the vortex flows created by flow separation from the wing leading edge result
in a large drag increase for a highly swept wing. The leading-edge vortex flap is
specially designed to control the airflow over highly swept wing leading edges.
Properly designed vortex flaps can enable the aircraft designer to reorient part
of the vortex force vector in the forward direction instead of directly normal to
the wing-chord plane without compromising other aerodynamic characteristics
such as stability and control.34
Although not adopted on the final F-16XL configuration, the potential
application of full-span leading-edge vortex flaps on the highly swept wing
inboard segments of supercruise fighters like SCAMP was a major area of
investigation during NASA Langley research efforts. If additional reductions in
transonic drag were attainable by the proper formation of leading-edge vortices
to improve low-speed and transonic maneuvering capabilities, increased lift-to-
drag ratios were possible. Edward C. Polhamus led the Langley vortex research
43
Elegance in Flight
program with his research group concentrated in the Transonic Aerodynamics

Division, led by Percy J. Bobbitt. This team had previously made many sig-
nificant contributions in the area of vortex lift during earlier NASA-industry
research programs as well as in direct support of important military aircraft
programs. These included the Air Forces F-16 and the Navy F/A-18. The F-16
and the F/A-18 had evolved from the Air Forces LWF program of the 1970s,
a program that highlighted the importance of tailored vortex lift to improve
fighter maneuverability and also indirectly led to the F-16XL. John E. Lamar
and James F. Campbell, along with other members of the NASA Langley vortex
lift research team, would be heavily involved in the cooperative SCAMP effort
with General Dynamics as well as later research efforts involving NASAs use
of the F-16XL to better understand and predict the aerodynamics of cranked-
arrow wings at higher angles of attack.35 Follow-on NASA F-16XL efforts ori-
ented toward vortical airflow research are discussed in detail in a later chapter.
During wind tunnel tests in the Langley 7- by 10-foot High-Speed Tunnel
and associated analysis efforts, the NASA-GD team focused on achieving a
4-g transonic turning maneuver using a cranked-arrow wing planform with a
highly swept leading edge similar to that used on the SCAMP configuration.
Langleys John Lamar, in collaboration with GD engineers, conducted wind
tunnel and computational analyses in an attempt to optimize SCAMP wing
camber and shape to best meet the conflicting demands of supersonic efficiency
and acceptable transonic maneuverability. Langleys earlier experience with
vortex flow research suggested that emerging vortex control concepts could be
effectively applied to the SCAMP configuration. One of these concepts was
the vortex flap. This concept involves using specially designed leading-edge
flaps to modify undesirable leading-edge flow separation behavior. Vortex flaps
could enable highly swept wings to recover lost leading-edge thrust without
compromising other aerodynamic characteristics, such as stability and con-
trol. With the vortex flap concept, the vortex force vector can be reoriented
in the forward direction instead of directly normal to the wing-chord plane.
In exploratory testing, certain combinations of deflected full-span leading-
edge and trailing-edge flaps on a zero-camber wing produced almost the same
drag improvements at transonic speeds as the highly refined cambered wing
implemented on SCAMP.
NASA wind tunnel test results with vortex flaps showed great promise.
Well-designed leading-edge vortex flaps provided nearly the same supersonic
efficiency as a highly tailored wing designed purely for supersonic flight during
NASA Langley wind tunnel testing. Lift-to-drag ratio during subsonic cruise
using the vortex flap concept was nearly as good as that of the standard F-16
and better than that of the supersonic wing design. L/D ratio during transonic
maneuvering flight was midway between that of the standard F-16 and the
44
wing tailored for supersonic flight. Issues associated with vortex flap design,
fabrication, and testing generated many in-house and NASA contractor stud-
ies. These focused on refining and validating vortex flap design methodologies
as well as investigating innovative applications of vortex control with deflected
flaps. NASA vortex flap research would lead to the publication of a large
number of professional papers and technical reports that were widely dissemi-
nated throughout the aerospace industry and the aircraft design community.36
Neal T. Frink led a NASA Langley team assessing the effects of varying
wing leading-edge sweep angles and the geometric characteristics of various
leading-edge vortex flap approaches. The overall effectiveness of vortex flaps
was evaluated in an extensive series of wind tunnel tests that resulted in per-
formance information for highly swept delta wings with constant-chord lead-
ing-edge vortex flaps. This formed the basis for development of an analytical
approach to the vortex flap design process. As a result, forces and moments
on highly swept wings equipped with vortex flaps, as well as detailed pres-
sures for different vortex flap configurations, could be predicted. Frinks work
resulted in the development of a leading-edge vortex flap design procedure
in 1982.37 Separately, Dhanvada M. Rao determined that reducing inboard
flap length actually improved the efficiency of leading-edge vortex flaps on
very highly swept wings. Tailoring the shape of the flap in the spanwise direc-
tion also improved vortex flap efficiency and favorable vortex formation over
wing leading edges. Rao and a separate independent team led by W. Elliott
Schoonover, Jr., of NASA Langley and W.E. Ohlson of Boeing determined that
increasing the geometrical area of the vortex flap delayed the movement of the
vortex inboard with some reduction in overall drag. The use of differentially
deflected vortex flaps to improve aircraft roll control was also evaluated with
some promise.38
During 1981, NASA Langley researchers Long P. Yip and Daniel G. Murri
investigated the effects of vortex flaps on the low-speed stability and control
characteristics of generic arrow-wing configurations in the 12-foot Low-Speed
Tunnel at Langley. Test results showed improvements in both lateral stability
and lift-to-drag ratio; however, an unacceptable nose-up pitching moment was
produced by the flaps. Geometric modifications to the vortex flap configura-
tion, including adjusting spanwise flap length and leading-edge geometry,
were evaluated in the wind tunnel. A vortex flap concept that incorporated a
deflected tab on its leading edge was shown to moderate the nose-up pitching
moment. The tabbed leading-edge vortex flap was installed on a 0.18-scale cap-
tive free-flight wind tunnel model of a later SCAMP configuration, which had
been transformed into the F-16XL configuration. Captive free-flight tests with
this model were conducted in the Langley 30- by 60-Foot (Full-Scale) Tunnel
in 1982. The tabbed vortex flap was also evaluated on a 1/25-scale model of the
45
Elegance in Flight
F-16XL in the NASA Langley spin tunnel. The vortex flap did not produce
adverse effects on aircraft spin recovery characteristics.
NASA vortex flap research with the F-16XL would eventually continue well
into the 1990s, especially driven by the High-Speed Research program with
its focus on technical risk reduction for the High-Speed Civil Transport. This
program is described in Chapter Test results reported by General Dynamics
Dennis B. Finley and Langley researcher W. Elliot Schoonover in 1986; the
results indicated that F-16XL maneuvering performance could be enhanced
with vortex flaps with no adverse effects on configuration aerodynamics.39
Later, during the NASA flight research effort with the F-16XL, there was a plan
to install and test leading-edge vortex flaps to support risk reduction activities
associated with the High-Speed Civil Transport. However, that effort was ter-
minated before the vortex flap modification to F-16XL-1 was accomplished,
despite the fact that the necessary tooling had already been delivered to Dryden.
The F-16XLs Wind Tunnel Test Summary

Approximately 3,550 hours of wind tunnel testing were accomplished by the
time the first F-16XL took to the air on July 3, 1982. During the entire
wind tunnel test program, a total of 149 configuration variables were evalu-
ated. These included 11 wing planforms, 12 vertical tails, 15 leading-edge
flaps, 40 vortex fences, 7 wingtips, 7 spoilers, 6 different fuselage stretches,
13 forebody strake designs, 21 camber variations, 3 different airfoils, and 14
canard arrangements.40
The F-16XL, with its long-chord cranked-arrow wing extending virtually
to the radome, allowed few possibilities for proper geometric positioning of
movable canard surfaces without a major redesign of the forward fuselage. In
addition to various canard approaches, GD also reportedly briefly considered
the possibility of incorporating a horizontal tail on the aircraft. The potential
use of canards, a horizontal tail, or vortex flaps were driven by the desire
to improve takeoff and landing performance and sustained maneuverability.
Takeoff and landing speeds of delta-wing aircraft are typically high and their
controllability is somewhat limited during approach to landing, which has to
be flown at a steep pitch attitude to achieve the higher angles of attack neces-
sary for adequate lift. Also, delta-winged fighters have high levels of induced
drag (sometimes called drag due to lift) at higher angles of attack and during
sustained maneuvering due to the aerodynamic influence of their low-aspect-
ratio wings. This high induced drag causes a rapid loss of available energy (both
potential and kinetic energy as characterized by altitude and airspeed), putting
46
pure deltas somewhat at a disadvantage in hard maneuvering combat against

fighters with more conventional wing-tail configurations.41
Separately, geometrically and dynamically scaled models of six different
weapons, four external stores, and three guided missiles were evaluated in
joint GDAir Force F-16XL weapons separation tests conducted at AEDC
wind tunnels in Tullahoma, TN. By the end of the Air Force F-16XL program
in 1985, over 4,000 wind tunnel test hours had been logged in a variety of
test facilities. Dealing with and assimilating the mass of data generated by the
diverse wind tunnel test program was a huge challenge to the GD design team.
A contemporary cartoon
by GD graphics artist F.
Brubaker illustrates the
dilemma of the concep-
tual design engineer as he
attempts to converge on
the best and final aircraft
configuration. The cartoon
graphically depicts why
conceptual aircraft design
is sometimes referred to as
Many F-16XL variations were evaluated during the rub-
the rubber airplane phase ber airplane conceptual design phase, as shown in this
of the engineering develop- drawing by General Dynamics graphic artist F. Brubaker.
ment process. (Lockheed Martin)
47
Elegance in Flight
Endnotes
1. Hehs, Harry Hillaker: Father of the F-16.
2. Harry J. Hillaker, SCAMP: Supersonic Combat and Maneuvering
Prototype Program Presentation, General Dynamics Corporation,
Fort Worth Division, September 1977.
3. Aronstein and Piccirillo, The Lightweight Fighter Program.
4. Harry J. Hillaker, F-16XL Flight Test Program Overview, pre-
sented at the Second AHS, IES, SETP, SFTE, and DGLR Flight
Testing Conference, Las Vegas, NV, November 1618, 1983, AIAA
Paper 83-2730 (November 1, 1983).
5. Robert Wetherall, F-16XL First Flight Anniversary Celebration:
The GD Years, presentation at the F-16XL First Flight 25th
Anniversary Celebration, July 3, 2007.
6. Ibid.
7. The McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II and the later F-15 Eagle
carried four conformally mounted AIM-7 Sparrow radar-guided air-
to-air missiles in semisubmerged cavities under the fuselage; Charles
Epstein, Taking the Drag Out of Bombs, Flight International
(August 21, 1982) pp. 418420.
8. Hillaker, SCAMP.
9. Ibid.
10. The DMS had originally been developed by NASA to simulate two
spacecraft or aircraft maneuvering together.
11. Hillaker, SCAMP.
12. Chambers, Partners in Freedom.
13. The location on the wing where the aerodynamic pitching moment
remains constant is known as the aerodynamic center (ac). Using
the aerodynamic center as the location where the aerodynamic
lifting force is applied eliminates the problem of the movement of
the center of pressure with angle of attack during design analyses.
For a wing with a positive-cambered airfoil, the pitching moment
on the wing results in a counterclockwise (pitch up) rotation of the
wing. For wings with nonrectangular planforms (like the F-16 and
the F-16XL), the location of the mean aerodynamic center (MAC)
depends on the planform shape of the wing. Source: NASA Glenn,
BGA.
14. As the aerodynamic center of lift on the wing shifts aft during the
transition from subsonic to supersonic flight, the aircrafts pitch con-
trol surfaces must compensate for the increase in nose-down pitch-
ing moment on the aircraft. The resultant control surface deflection
48
results in increased supersonic trim drag. Harry J. Hillaker, F-16XL

Presentation to the Lone Star Aero Club, Arlington, TX, September
3, 1998.
15. Ibid.
16. Robert Wetherall, interview with the author, August 13, 2012.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.; Chambers, Partners in Freedom.
19. Similar devices, more commonly referred to as wing fences, had
been used on many earlier swept- and delta-wing jet aircraft devel-
oped in a number of countries including the United States, France,
the United Kingdom, Sweden, and the Soviet Union. Examples
include the MiG-15 Fagot, MiG-17 Fresco, MiG-19 Farmer, MiG-
21 Fishbed, MiG-23 Flogger, Sukhoi Su-7 Fitter, Douglas D-558-2
Skyrocket, Convair XF-92A Dart, Republic RF-84F Thunderflash,
Convair F-102A Delta Dagger, Grumman F9F-6 Cougar, Grumman
F11F-1 Tiger, de Havilland Venom FB 1, de Havilland Sea Vixen
FAW 1, and Saab J 29 Tunnen and J 32 Lansen. These earlier wing-
fence applications were intended to cure tip stall and resulting pitch-
up tendencies. As noted in the text, the air dams, as implemented
on the F-16XL, were to ensure lateral stability. Correspondence with
Joseph R. Chambers, November 27, 2012.
20. Sue B. Grafton, Low-Speed Wind-Tunnel Study of the High-
Angle-of-Attack Stability and Control Characteristics of a Cranked-
Arrow-Wing Fighter Configuration, NASA TM 85776 (May
1984).
21. The technical material contained in the Grafton report was widely
disseminated throughout the U.S. and international aerospace
industries. It was also used for teaching purposes in formal aerospace
engineering courses and related research projects; see for example
W.H. Mason, Some High Alpha Aerodynamics (lecture, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 2010;
Alexander M. Benoliel, Aerodynamic Pitch-Up of Cranked Arrow
Wings: Estimation, Trim, and Configuration Design (masters
thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg,
VA, May 1994).
22. Grafton, Low-Speed Wind-Tunnel Study; Wetherall, F-16XL
First Flight Anniversary Celebration.
23. Wetherall, F-16XL First Flight Anniversary Celebration.
24. A recent example of structural failure related to flutter occurred
during the 2011 Reno Air Races when the highly modified P-51
Mustang Galloping Ghost lost its elevator trim tab at a speed
49
Elegance in Flight
estimated as 40 miles per hour (mph) higher than the aircraft was
ever tested. The resulting crash killed the pilot and 10 spectators on
the ground and injured 64 others, 16 seriously. The final National
Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) accident report determined
that the probable cause of this accident was the reduced stiffness
of the elevator trim tab system that allowed aerodynamic flutter
to occur at racing speeds. The reduced stiffness was the result of
deteriorated locknut inserts that allowed the trim tab attachment
screws to become loose and to initiate fatigue cracking in one screw
sometime before the accident flight. Aerodynamic flutter of the trim
tabs resulted in a failure of the left trim tab link assembly, eleva-
tor movement, high flight loads, and a loss of control. NTSB,
NTSB Accident Brief: Pilot/Race 177, The Galloping Ghost, North
American P-51D N79111, Reno, Nevada, September 16, 2001,
NTSB/AAB-12/01, PB2012-916203 (August 27, 2012).
25. Peter Garrison, The Hammer: For Every Airplane, Theres a Region
of the Flight Envelope into Which it Dare not Fly, Air & Space
Magazine (March 2001); Chambers, Partners in Freedom; Wilmer H.
Reed III, Aeroelasticity Matters: Some Reflections on Two Decades
of Testing in the NASA Langley Transonic Dynamics Tunnel,
NASA TM 83210 (September 1981); J.A. Ellis, Flutter Analysis of
F-16XL Air-to-Air Configurations, General Dynamics Corporation
Report 400PR062 (June 28, 1982); R.S. Adams and J.C. Elrod,
F-16XL Ground Vibration Test No. 1 (Air-to-Air), General
Dynamics Corporation Report 400PR066 (July 9, 1982); R.S.
Adams and J.C. Elrod, F-16XL Ground Vibration Test No. 2 (Air-
to-Ground), General Dynamics Corporation Report 400PR083
(December 20, 1982).
26. Marilyn E. Ogburn, T. Luat, and Phillip W. Brown, Simulation
Study of a Cranked-Arrow Wing Fighter Configuration at High
Angles of Attack, NASA TM 85800 (November 1984).
27. R.D. Whipple and W.L. White, Spin-Tunnel Investigation of a
1/25th Scale Model of the General Dynamics F-16XL Airplane,
NASA TM 85660 (October 1, 1984).
28. Joseph R. Chambers, Modeling Flight: The Role of Dynamically
Scaled Free-Flight Models in Support of NASAs Aerospace Programs
(Washington, DC: NASA SP-2009-575, 2009).
29. Ibid.
30. GD, F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report.
31. The 800-pound CBU-58 cluster bomb unit (CBU) consisted of the
standard Air Force SUU-30 submunitions dispenser loaded with
50
650 spherical bomblets. The clamshell-like SUU-30 was 7 feet 9

inches long and 16 inches in diameter. Four fins were attached at a
90-degree angle to the aft end of the dispenser and were canted at an
angle of 1.25 degrees to impart spin-stabilized flight after release. An
arming wire-lanyard initiated the fuse arming and delay cycle after
release. After fuse functioning, the forward end of the dispenser was
unlocked. Ram air action forced the two halves apart, releasing the
submunitions, and allowing the individual bomblets to spin-arm
and self-dispense. Fluted fins on the outer surface of each spherical
bomblet caused them to disperse over a very wide area. The some-
what similar SUU-65 Tactical Munitions Dispenser (TMD) was
7 feet 2 inches long and 16 inches in diameter. After release, three
panels were released from the TMD, allowing submunitions of vari-
ous types to be dispensed.
32. Calspan provided major engineering support to AEDC, and they
were also responsible for operating the AEDC Aerodynamic Wind
Tunnel (4T) during the F-16XL weapons separation test conducted
by AEDCs director of aerospace flight dynamics. Wind tunnel 4T
was a closed-loop, continuous-flow, variable-density tunnel. Mach
number could be varied over the range from 0.2 to 1.3 and set at
discrete Mach numbers of 1.6 and 1.96. Its test section was 4 feet
square and 12.5 feet long.
33. R.A. Paulk, A Wind Tunnel Test to Determine the Separation
Characteristics of Several Stores from the F-16XL Aircraft at Mach
Numbers from 0.5 to 1.96, Arnold Engineering Development
Center Report AEDC-TSR-82-P20 (July 1982).
34. J.E. Lamar and J.F. Campbell, Vortex FlapsAdvanced Control
Devices for Supercruise Fighters, Aerospace America (January 1984):
9599.
35. Edward C. Polhamus, Vortex Lift Research: Early Contributions
and Some Current Challenges, in Vortex Flow Aerodynamics
Volume I, Proceedings of Conference held October 810, 1986 at
Langley Research Center, NASA CP-2416, Paper No. 1 (1986), pp.
130; C.W. Smith, J.F. Campbell, and J.K. Huffman, Experimental
Results of a Leading-Edge Vortex Flap on a Highly Swept Cranked
Wing, Tactical Aircraft Research and Technology, NASA CP-2162
(1980), pp. 563580; Chambers, Innovation in Flight.
36. J.E. Lamar, Subsonic Vortex Flow Design Study for Slender
Wings, presented at the AIAA 16th Aerospace Sciences Meeting,
Huntsville, AL, January 1618, 1978, AIAA Paper 78-154 (January
1978); John E. Lamar, Roy T. Schemensky, and C. Subba Reddy,
51
Elegance in Flight
Development of a Vortex-Lift-Design Method and Application

to a Slender Maneuver-Wing Configuration, presented at the
AIAA 18th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Pasadena, CA, January
1416, 1980, AIAA Paper 80-0327 (January 1980); J.E. Lamar,
R.T. Schemensky, and C.S. Reddy, Development of a Vortex Lift
Design Procedure and Application to a Slender-Maneuver-Wing
Configuration, Journal of Aircraft 18, no. 4 (April 1981): 259266;
David S. Miller and Roy T. Schemensky, Design Study Results of
a Supersonic Cruise Fighter Wing, presented at the AIAA 17th
Aerospace Sciences Meeting, New Orleans, LA, January 1517,
1979, AIAA Paper 79-0062 (January 1979).
37. James F. Campbell and Russell F. Osborn, Leading-Edge Vortex
Research: Some Nonplanar Concepts and Current Challenges,
NASA CP-2108 (November 1979), pp. 3163; H.W. Carlson, and
D.S. Miller, The Influence of Leading-Edge Thrust on Twisted and
Cambered Wing Design for Supersonic Cruise, presented at the
AIAA Aircraft Systems and Technology Conference, August 1113,
1981, Dayton, OH, AIAA Paper 81-1656 (August 1981); N.T.
Frink, A Concept for Designing Vortex Flap Geometries, NASA
TP-2233 (December 1983).
38. D.M. Rao, Leading-Edge Vortex Flaps for Enhanced Subsonic
Aerodynamics of Slender Wings, Proceedings of the 7th Congress of
the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences, ICAS Paper
80-13.5 (1980); D.M. Rao, Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Study of
Longitudinal Stability and Usable-Lift Improvement of a Cranked
Wing, NASA CR-178204 (1987); D.M. Rao, Vortical Flow
Management for Improved Configuration AerodynamicsRecent
Experiences, Proceedings of the AGARD Symposium on Aerodynamics
of Vortical Type Flows in Three Dimensions, Rotterdam, The
Netherlands, April 2528, 1983, AGARD CP-342 (1983).
39. Dennis B. Finley and W. Elliott Schoonover, Jr., Design and Wind
Tunnel Evaluation of Vortex Flaps for the F-16XL, in Vortex Flow
AerodynamicsVolume II, NASA CP-2417, Paper No. 13 (1986),
pp. 249276.
40. Hillaker, F-16XL Presentation to the Lone Star Aero Club.
41. For these reasons, the very successful Soviet MiG-21 and the equally
successful U.S. Navy Douglas A-4, both originally designed in the
1950s, featured tailed-delta approaches that provided them with
superior sustained maneuvering capabilities. In the years since these
entered service, virtually all high-performance fighters with delta-
type wings have also used either conventional tails or canards. See
52
Richard P. Hallion, Sweep and Swing: Reshaping the Wing for the
Jet and Rocket Age, in NASAs Contributions to Aeronautics Vol.
1, ed. Richard P. Hallion (Washington: NASA SP-2010-570-Vol
1, 2010); Ray Whitford, Design for Air Combat (London: Janes
Publishing Company, Ltd., 1987).
53
The F-16XL-2 during radar signature testing conducted by General Dynamics. (Lockheed Martin)
54
CHAPTER 3
Flight Demonstration
Program Planning
Early in 1980, General Dynamics held initial discussions with the Air Force
F-16 System Program Office (SPO) related to their intent to submit an unso-
licited proposal for what they termed a SCAMP flight demonstration program.
If acceptable to the Air Force, this proposal was intended to lead to the design,
manufacture, and flight test of two F-16XL flight demonstrator aircraft. The
flight-test program that GD proposed was based on the three major elements
listed below. Successful execution of the proposed program would require the
full cooperation of the Air Force along with a commitment of both resources
and funding.1
1. As a GD Corporate initiative, the company would design, manu-
facture, and provide safety of flight certificates for two F-16XL
demonstrator aircraft.
2. The Air Force would provide two F-16 aircraft and the associ-
ated Government-furnished equipment (GFE) necessary for GD
to manufacture two prototypes. GD would use Independent
Research and Development funding to design and manufacture
the two prototypes.2
3. Finally, the Government (U.S. Air Force) would fund the F-16XL
flight-test program and any additional wind tunnel time required
to certify the aircraft for flight testing (such as flutter and weap-
ons separation testing).
The General Dynamics F-16XL Proposal

On February 22, 1980, GD submitted their F-16XL proposal directly to
Lt. Gen. Lawrence A. Skantze, the commander of the Aeronautical Systems
Division at Wright-Paterson AFB, OH. Skantze assigned the F-16 SPO the
responsibility for evaluating the GD proposal for the F-16XL flight-test pro-
gram. GD had proposed to use a management approach similar to what they
55
Elegance in Flight
and the Air Force used during the YF-16 Lightweight Fighter prototype effort.3
This included collocation of the entire development team, the formal prepara-
tion of minimum essential documentation only, full and open program partici-
pation by major subcontractors, and cost and schedule tracking by individual
work breakdown structure (WBS) element; and in order to speed development
and control cost, the F-16XL design would be based on a firm configuration
definition and specific capability goals. Air Force participation was to begin
as soon as possible, starting with coordinating the lease of selected F-16 assets
needed for the program, and it would include continuous F-16 SPO coordina-
tion with the GD F-16XL program manager as the program unfolded. Both
the design and flight-test effort were intended to facilitate a smooth transition
to an F-16XL-derived production programif that option was selected by the
Air Force. However, many technical, cost, and schedule issues associated with
the F-16XL design were still being addressed throughout 1980. These included
concerns over excessive wingtip flexibility, leading-edge flap and aileron actua-
tion provisions, final vertical tail size and shape, environmental cooling system
(ECS) capacity, external wing fuel tank location, electrical generation capacity,
and the producibility of the composite wing skin design.4
In its evaluation of the preliminary F-16XL proposal, the Air Force F-16
System Program Office concluded that the aircraft was feasible and the pro-
posed cost of the flight-test effort proposed by GD was realistic. The SPO also
noted that the proposed schedule was challenging but feasible. Proposed costs
for both the F-16XL Full Scale Development effort and the production pro-
gram were considered to be somewhat optimistic. However, on May 1, 1980,
the F-16 SPO informed GD that the Air Force did not have a requirement for
the F-16XL at that time. They recommended that GD examine the possibil-
ity of initiating an F-16XL flight demonstration using company Independent
Research and Development funding with the possibility of some assistance
being provided from the Air Force. Such assistance was noted as potentially
including various items of GFE and flight-test support.5
General Dynamics undertook an extensive program of briefings on their
proposed F-16XL flight demonstration effort in an attempt to gain Air Force
support for the program. Meetings and briefings were arranged, and detailed
presentations on the flight-test concept were given at all levels of the Air Force
covering both systems development agencies and operational commands,
including the Air Staff. However, GD was unsuccessful in obtaining Air Force
funding to start the effort in 1981 or in convincing the Air Force to incorporate
the F-16XL into the fiscal year (FY) 1982 Program Objective Memorandum
(POM).6 After the Air Force had submitted their FY 1982 POM to the Office
of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) for review, GD and their supporters within
the Air Force were able to convince the Undersecretary of Defense for Research
56
Flight Demonstration Program Planning
and Engineering (USDR&E) within the OSD to direct the Air Force to initiate
a new Combat Aircraft Prototype (CAP) program. This was to be focused on
design, construction, and flight test of the F-16XL. The Air Force objected to
the USDR&E direction on the basis that commercial competition was required
in order to initiate such an effort and also because OSD should not specifically
direct what the Air Force should test to best accomplish its mission. In discus-
sions with OSD, the Air Force noted that the F-15E was also a candidate for
a flight-test demonstration along with the F-16XL. In a breakthrough for the
program, the Air Force did agree to add necessary funding for a competitive
prototype program that would involve both the F-16XL and the F-15E. This
competitive prototyping effort would begin in FY 1982 and continue through
1983 and 1984. The Air Force budget request was then modified to provide
funding for an F-16XL flight demonstration effort with $22.5 million provided
in FY 1982, $25 million in 1983, and $10.2 million in 1984. These numbers
closely corresponded to the General Dynamics estimate of funding required
to execute the F-16XL flight demonstration program.7
On August 27, 1980, General Dynamics submitted its proposal for a USAF-
sponsored development and flight-test program to the Air Force F-16 Systems
Program Office (usually simply referred to as the F-16 SPO).8 In keeping with
the streamlined program approach that GD advocated, the proposal was very
concise, being only 40 pages long. GD referred to the flight demonstrator aircraft
as SCAMP in their proposal. The actual company designation was Model
400, but the aircraft rapidly became known by the designation created by Harry
Hillakerthe F-16XL. GD stated that they intended to initiate the development
effort on October 1, 1980, using internal company IRAD funds. This approach
would continue through September 30, 1981, at which time Air Force fund-
ing would be used for the balance of the prototyping and flight demonstration
program. Air Force support for the GD approach was soon forthcoming. In a
October 15, 1980, letter to General Dynamics, Lt. Gen. Lawrence A. Skantze,
commander of the USAF Aeronautical Systems Division, stated, I support your
plan to conduct the F-16XL program using IRAD.9 He also committed the
Air Force to providing necessary material support for the project as laid out by
GD in their proposal: We can respond favorably to your request to provide
GFE [Government Furnished Equipment] requirements. These GFE items
were listed as two F-16 aircraft (A-3 and A-5), three F100-PW-200 engines,
and one two-place forward fuselage, equipments and assets available under the
F-16 contract at no cost on a non-interference basis. The two F-16A aircraft
identified in the Skantze letter would be built as the F-16XL-1 (the single-seat
prototype) and F-16XL-2 (the two-seat flight demonstrator).10
Shortly after GD submitted their proposal to the Air Force, articles describ-
ing the anticipated capabilities of the F-16XL began to appear in the aviation
57
Elegance in Flight
press, reportedly based on interviews with company representatives. Numerous

claims, including one that stated that the F-16XL maximum sustained cruise
speed was Mach 2.2as compared to Mach 0.93 for the F-16Awere circu-
lated in print. Others stated that air-to-air mission radius would be increased
125 percent and supersonic radius of action doubled. In the air-to-ground role,
mission radius was reportedly increased by 120 percent. Sea level penetration
speed was indicated as being 90 knots higher than the F-16A while carrying
2.5 times the weapons payload. Takeoff and landing distances were reported as
being decreased by about 33 percent. Takeoff distance in the air-to-air configu-
ration was claimed to be 1,640 feet versus 2,425 feet for the F-16A. Landing
distance was claimed to be as low as 1,180 feet with the use of the F-16XLs
drag chute, as compared to the landing roll of 2,480 feet for the standard
F-16A, which did not have a drag chute.11 As often is the case during the early
stages of a nascent aircraft program, some of these early flight performance
estimations subsequently did not match actual flight-test results. In particu-
lar, supercruise, takeoff and landing performance, and subsonic maneuvering
capability all fell short.
The F-16XL Gets Under Way

On December 1, 1980, the chairman and chief executive officer of the General
Dynamics Corporation, David S. Lewis, gave the go-ahead to build the air-
craft, reportedly committing over $53 million of GD funding to the effort.
Referring to the F-16XL as a bright star, Lewis said, We arent about to sit on
our laurels and risk the F-16 becoming obsolescent.12 From then on, progress
was very rapid, with the first engineering design release occurring only 17 days
later on December 18, 1980. Such an impressive achievement was in large
part due to the fact that GD had already begun F-16XL detail design work in
anticipation of favorable Air Force and corporate decisions to proceed.13 In
line with the streamlined program management approach that GD had used
on the YF-16 effort, key members of the XL design team were colocated in a
single closed area referred to as the green room to facilitate communications
and coordination across all engineering and management disciplines. The team
was not constrained by nonessential requirements and specifications and had
the design freedom to concentrate on achieving performance objectives; as
Harry Hillaker later said of the F-16XL, Every piece on this aircraft earned
its way on.14
In December 1980, Harry Hillaker met with NASA executives at the
Agencys headquarters in Washington, DC, to review the status of the evolv-
ing F-16XL effort. During the meeting, the NASA officials affirmed that the
58
Agency was committed to participation in the F-16XL program and might

even be interested in sponsoring construction of a third aircraft fitted with a
wing that was fully optimized for supersonic cruise. Hillaker was asked if GD
had identified a specific role for NASA in the prototype flight demonstration
program. The GD engineer responded by noting that a vectorable, two-dimen-
sional thrust-reversing nozzle and leading-edge vortex flaps were worthwhile
areas for NASA investigation and that these technologies could be incorpo-
rated into subsequent phases of the F-16XL flight demonstrator program.15
The meeting concluded with a NASA Headquarters commitment to support
F-16XL requirements for NASA wind tunnels as long as these wind tunnel
requirements were agreeable with the NASA research Centers to be involved.16
On January 7, 1981, General Dynamics Program Director D. Randall
Randy Kent wrote to Brig. Gen. George L. Monahan, the F-16 SPO direc-
tor, to coordinate details of the development effort. In his letter, Kent noted
that the corporation had formally initiated the F-16XL program in December
1980. The GD management team had been selected, project personnel had
been collocated to the mezzanine area of Hangar 8 overlooking where the
aircraft would be built, and the release of engineering drawings had already
started.17 Program milestones and performance indicators that would lead to a
first flight in July 1982 had been established.18 The approved F-16XL program
schedule called for 240 flights to be completed with the two demonstrator air-
craft by May 15, 1983, during the Air Forcefunded flight-test portion of the
program. Engineering, design, and fabrication efforts initially were focused on
producing the tooling and designing the components needed to manufacture
the two prototypes. This aspect of the effort was complete in December 1981,
by which time 1,400 design and manufacturing drawings had been produced.
Almost exactly 1 year after the first detailed design drawings were released, a
small first chips ceremony attended by key GD program officials was held
at the Fort Worth factory. This January 21, 1981, event marked the start of
component fabrication, an activity that would continue until late in January
1982. Key members of the General Dynamics F-16XL team at the end of 1980
included Randy Kent, F-16XL vice president and program director; Harry J.
Hillaker, deputy program director; Clarence E. Hart, chief engineer; James A.
Gordon, aerodynamics lead; Charles F. Crabtree, propulsion lead; Kenneth
H. Barnes, flight control system lead; and G.H. Hayward, airframe design.19
In April 1981, Chief Engineer Clarence Hart forwarded an interesting
GD internal memorandum to all members of the F-16XL engineering team.
He noted that the program was proceeding in a very satisfactory manner with
the aircraft configuration yielding encouraging results in wind tunnel tests.
However, Hart highlighted the one major problem that demanded the atten-
tion of the entire team. The problem was excessive weight, an issue that is
59
Elegance in Flight
The F-16XL flight demonstrator design, fabrication, assembly, and flight-test program schedule,
as depicted on a GD chart circa 1980. (Lockheed Martin)
commonplace with most high performance fighter aircraft at this stage of

their development cycle, both before and since the F-16XL. Hart noted that
The wing is currently estimated to be 547 lb. over proposal weight.

Additionally weight increases in flight controls, electrical and fuel
system have added another 287 lb. If this condition is not cor-
rected, our weapons loading could be reduced by two 500 lb.
bombs and our acceleration time from 0.9 to 1.6 Mach would be
increased significantly. We must take steps to correct this problem.
I am asking each of you to give this problem your serious consider-

ation and send me your ideas concerning possible weight savings.
Do not limit your thoughts to just your area of responsibility and
do not hesitate to propose an idea for weight savings because it is
unusual or unorthodox. We need your help in solving this most
difficult problem.20
By mid-1981, the wings weight problem was under control and manu-
facturing efforts were well underway on both aircraft. As manufactured, the
empty weight of F-16XL-1 would end up at 19,690 pounds as compared to
60
15,586 pounds for the basic F-16A, a difference of about 4,100 pounds. The
two-seat F-16XL-2 would have an empty weight of 21,157 pounds. This extra
weight combined with the same engine thrust meant that the F-16XL had a
lower thrust-to-weight (T/W) ratio compared to that of the F-16. Thrust-to-
weight ratio, along with wing loading and high lift-to-drag ratio, are impor-
tant components that define the overall energy maneuverability capability of
any fighter. (The relatively low thrust-to-weight ratio of the F-16XL and its
effects on takeoff distance and sustained maneuvering capability would later be
highlighted by the Air Force as a significant factor in determining the eventual
outcome of the dual-role fighter source selection, which chose the McDonnell-
Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle.)21
In the F-16XL manufacturing process, the single-seat XL-1 was somewhat
in the lead, its fuselage having been installed in the assembly tooling fixture
in May. The two-seat aircraft, the F-16XL-2, was in its assembly fixture by
the end of July 1981.22 Both aircraft would retain their original F-16A serial
numbers when they returned to flight status as F-16XLs equipped with F-16
Block 10 avionics. Their airframes were designed for a minimum service life
of 8,000 hours based on a structural design that provided 9-g capability at an
aircraft weight of 35,000 pounds with full internal fuel and 6.5-g capability
at the maximum aircraft takeoff gross weight of 48,000 pounds. Both pro-
totypes were intended to carry four AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles in semi-
submerged mountings under the aircraft plus two wingtip-mounted AIM-9
Sidewinders. In reality, dummy AIM-120s, fabricated from wood and sheet
metal, were scabbed onto the undersurfaces of the F-16XL flight demonstrators
as the AIM-120 missile was yet to be integrated onto the standard F-16, and
incorporation of the semisubmerged missile housing with its associated ejector
launcher would have required a separate development and integration effort.
A large variety of air-to-ground weapons and drop tanks could be carried on
as many as 16 wing stations.
As the General Dynamics F-16XL effort ramped up at Fort Worth, a wide
variety of specialized personnel would be assigned to the project. At the peak,
these included a total of 540 people. Of these, 13 were staff and managers,
205 were from the various engineering disciplines, 260 were directly involved
in production/manufacturing, 20 were dedicated to material/supply, 10 were
focused on preparation for test and evaluation, 20 were dedicated to quality
assurance, and 12 were Production Planning and Control (PPC) types. Air
Force personnel assigned to the F-16XL effort at Fort Worth and Edwards
AFB brought the total project staffing level up to about the 600 people. During
the course of the F-16XL design and fabrication effort, over 1,000,000 work
hours would be expended. The manufacturing effort to build the two flight
demonstrators ran on a two-shift basis and ended up costing GD $41.7 million
61
Elegance in Flight
between late 1980 and June 1982. This was in addition to the $15.9 million
expended by GD during the cooperative NASA-GD configuration definition
effort between 1976 and 1980. GD vendors and suppliers helped fund the
flight demonstrator design and fabrication effort to the tune of an additional
$7.8 million. Thus, the contractor cost of the F-16XL effort up to the July
1982 first flight was $65.4 million.23
F-16XL Performance Pluses and Minuses

In articles in military journals, in professional society papers and presentations,
and during interviews with the aviation press, General Dynamics strongly
advocated the improved capabilities incorporated into the F-16XL. In particu-
lar, they emphasized that the cranked-arrow design chosen for their aircraft
would lead to significant improvements in range and payload compared to the
standard F-16 while also addressing other aspects of fighter mission success.
The cranked-arrow wing was said to retain the advantages of the conventional
delta wing for high-speed flight while overcoming its disadvantages. These
advantages partially resulted from the cranked-arrow wings less highly swept
outboard wing panels, which provided excellent low-speed characteristics while
minimizing the trim drag penalties of a more conventional tailless delta design.
Although the wing area of the F-16XL was more than double that of the
standard F-16, GD showed that the overall drag on the aircraft was actually
reduced. Despite the fact that the F-16XLs skin friction drag was larger than
the standard F-16 (due to its much greater surface area), the other compo-
nents of total drag (supersonic wave drag, interference drag, and trim drag)
were actually lower. This resulted from the F-16XLs streamlined aerodynamic
configuration and the geometrical arrangement and semiconformal carriage
of its external stores. Thus, while the larger F-16XL in a clean configuration
had an overall drag that was slightly lower than that of a standard F-16 at high
subsonic speeds, its drag was 40 percent lower when comparing each type
carrying bombs and missiles. Although, because of weight gain (as previously
discussed), the thrust-to-weight ratio of the F-16XL was lower than that of
the F-16, its excess thrust was actually greater due to the F-16XLs lower total
drag, especially at higher subsonic and supersonic speeds.24
But in actuality, this only held true for 1-g (straight and level) flight, and
it partially accounted for the improved range and payload capabilities of the
F-16XL. For example, on an air-to-surface mission, the F-16XL could carry
twice the payload of the F-16 up to 40 percent farther without having to carry
eternal tanks. With equal payloads and carrying external tanks, the XL mission
radius was nearly double that of the F-16. A fully loaded F-16XL had a speed
62
advantage of up to 80 knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS) in military power at

sea level over the F-16 with a similar payload.25 However, during high-AoA
sustained subsonic maneuvering, the F-16XL (like delta configurations gener-
ally) had a much higher induced drag penalty. This was a natural result of the
aerodynamics of its very-low-aspect-ratio cranked-arrow wing. During the
latter Air Force flight-test program, this higher induced drag would prove to
cause a rapid loss of excess energy. This, in turn, was manifested by a rapid loss
of airspeed and altitude during sustained subsonic high-g turns as compared
to the standard F-16. In the real world of fighter-versus-fighter combat, this
constituted a major performance deficit, given potential opponents such as
the powerful and highly agile Soviet Mikoyan MiG-29 Fulcrum and Sukhoi
Su-27 Flanker.26
In their briefings and marketing literature, General Dynamics emphasized
that the F-16XL had two additional advantages that would contribute to
increased overall effectiveness and survivability in combat situations. These
were its improved instantaneous maneuvering capability and its reduced radar
cross section, as compared to the standard F-16.
In an attempt to offset the reduced performance capabilities of the F-16XL
during sustained hard-maneuvering combat, GD highlighted its excellent
instantaneous turning performance. This, they claimed, would enable an
F-16XL pilot to quickly change direction and get his missiles off before an
enemy was able to react and adjust his tactics. In this regard, the F-16XL with its
much lower wing loading did have a distinct instantaneous turning advantage,
for it was able to reach 5 gs in less than 1 second and 9 gs in about 2 seconds.
Both times were less than half those of the standard F-16A. Also, then-recent
advances in infrared guided missile target seekers provided the capability to
engage enemy aircraft from all aspect angles, rather than just the aft quartering
region where infrared energy was strongest. This reduced the dependence on sus-
tained high-g maneuvering to
gain an effective firing posi-
tion on an enemy aircraft in
fighter-versus-fighter combat.
This was certainly true for the
AIM-9L version of the classic
Sidewinder infrared-guided
missile then being carried
on USAF F-15s and F-16s.
The United States had rap-
idly supplied the AIM-9L
to the British during the The F-16XL-2 during radar signature testing conducted
spring 1982 Falkland Islands by General Dynamics. (Lockheed Martin)
63
Elegance in Flight
conflict with Argentina. The all-aspect target engagement capabilities of the

AIM-9L were widely acknowledged as a major factor in Britain successfully
regaining control over the Falklands.27
The F-16XLs radar signature (usually termed its RCS) was somewhat lower
than that of the standard F-16 when measured head on without air-to-ground
ordnance, drop tanks, and Low Altitude Navigation Targeting Infra-Red Night
(LANTIRN) navigation and targeting pods. RCS was reported as being 50
percent lower than that of the standard F-16 during testing conducted by
GD.28 Since the detection range of an enemy radar varies with the forth root
of its targets radar cross section, halving the radar signature of the target air-
craft reduces its detectability (detection range) to enemy radars by about 16
percent.29 However, frontal signature reduction would have been negligible
when the aircraft was loaded with the external stores mentioned above for the
air-to-ground mission.
64
Endnotes
1. D.R. Kent, vice president and program director, F-16XL program,
General Dynamics Fort Worth Division, letter to Brig. Gen. G.L.
Monahan, ASD, Aeronautical Systems Division, January 7, 1981.
2. Under U.S. Federal Acquisition Regulations (FARs), IRAD efforts
must fall within one of the following four categories: Basic Research,
Applied Research, Development, or Systems/Concept Formulation
Studies. Allowable IRAD costs are limited to those projects deter-
mined to be of potential interest to the DoD based on their contri-
butions to the criteria listed below.
Enable superior performance of future U.S. weapon system
and components.
Reduce acquisition costs and life-cycle costs of military systems.
Strengthen the defense industrial and technology base of the
United States.
Enhance the industrial competitiveness of the United States.
Promote the development of technologies identified as critical.
Increase the development and promotion of efficient and effective
applications of dual-use technologies.
Provide efficient and effective technologies for achieving environ-
mental benefits.
In various ways, the F-16XL initiative clearly met all of these criteria.
3. Harry J. Hillaker, F-16XL Flight Test Program Overview;
Aronstein and Piccirillo, The Lightweight Fighter Program: A
Successful Approach to Fighter Technology Transition.
4. K.R. Hinman, F-16E Point Paper, General Dynamics
Corporation, July 27, 1981.
5. Kent, letter.
6. The Program Objective Memorandum is the primary document
used by the military services within the Department of Defense to
submit their programming proposals. The POM includes an analysis
of missions, objectives, alternative methods to accomplish objec-
tives, and allocation of resources. It presents planned activities and
the personnel and budget obligation authority required over a 5-year
period to build, operate, and maintain the proposed program.
7. Harry J. Hillaker, F-16XL Presentation to the Lone Star Aero
Club, Arlington, TX, September 3, 1998.
9. Lt. Gen. Lawrence A. Skantze, USAF, Headquarters Aeronautical
Systems Division (AFSC), letter to Richard E. Adams, vice president
65
Elegance in Flight
and general manager, General Dynamics Corporation, October 15,

1980; Hinman, F-16E Point Paper.
10. Skantze, Letter to Richard E. Adams.
11. Mark J. Bulban, Mach 2.2 F-16 Development Underway, Aviation
Week & Space Technology (July 21,1980): pp. 2022.
12. David P. Garino, General Dynamics to Spend $53 Million on Two
Versions of its F16 Fighter Plane, The Wall Street Journal, December
8, 1980.
13. Author not identified, General Dynamics Developing F-16XL
Hardware, Aviation Week & Space Technology (April 6, 1981): 57.
14. F. Clifton Berry, Jr., The Revolutionary Evolution of the F-16XL,
Air Force Magazine 66, no. 11 (November 1983); Wetherall interview.
15. Both of these technology areas would later be investigated by NASA
using suitably modified F-16XL subscale wind tunnel models, but they
never became part of the full-scale flight-test program with the aircraft.
16. H.J. Hillaker, vice president and deputy program manager, F-16XL,
memo to D.R. Kent, December 15, 1980.
17. The initial release of F-16XL engineering drawings occurred on
December 18, 1980, only 17 days after program go-ahead. These
drawings were released quickly because they were relatively straight-
forward changes to the existing engine installation in the F-16.
Robert Wetherall, correspondence with author, July 14, 2012.
18. Kent, letter to Monahan.
19. Wetherall, F-16XL First Flight Anniversary Celebration; D.R.
Kent, F-16XL Program Organization, General Dynamics Fort
Worth Division, F-16XL Program Directive Memorandum No.
2, November 25, 1980; C.E. Hart, F-16XL Fighter Engineering
Organization Assignment of Responsibilities, General Dynamics
Fort Worth Division, Project Engineering Memorandum (PEM)
No. 19-1.1, November 20, 1980, Revision A, December 30, 1980.
20. C.E. Hart, chief engineer, F-16XL program, Memo to F-16XL
Engineering Personnel: F-16XL Weight Saving, General Dynamics,
Fort Worth Division, F-16XL-ENG-48, April 10, 1981.
21. A source of some frustration to GD was the fact that the Air
Force would not allow us to use the GE F110 engine in our pro-
posal even though the No. 2 XL, the 2-place version, was powered
by a F110 engine and provided better performance than the P&W
F100 engine. Robert Wetherall correspondence with the author,
December 20, 2012.
23. Ibid.
66
24. Hillaker,F-16XL Presentation to the Lone Star Aero Club;

General Dynamics F-16XLC/D MULTIROLE FIGHTER;
General Dynamics Corporation Marketing Brochure, Fort Worth
Division (undated, circa 1983).
25. Hillaker, General Dynamics F-16XLC/D MULTIROLE
FIGHTER.
27. During the relatively brief Falklands conflict, Royal Navy British
Aerospace Sea Harrier FRS 1 fighters launched AIM-9L Sidewinder
missiles during 23 air-to-air engagements with Argentine aircraft.
The AIM-9L accounted for 19 confirmed kills for an overall success
rate of 82 percent. See Jeffrey Ethell and Alfred Price, Air War South
Atlantic (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1983).
28. Wetherall, F-16XL First Flight Anniversary Celebration; C.A.
Robinson, Jr., USAF Studies Fighters for Dual-Role, All-Weather
Operations, Aviation Week & Space Technology (January 3, 1983) p. 39.
29. Eugene F. Knott, John F. Schaeffer, and Michael T. Tulley, Radar
Cross Section: Its Prediction Measurement and Reduction (Norwood,
MA: ARTECH House, Inc., 1985), p. 35.
67
The physical and geometric properties of the F-6XL aircraft are illustrated in this NASA drawing. The
effects of conical camber and twist on the wing are evident in the front view of the aircraft. (NASA)
68
CHAPTER 4
Design and
Construction Details
By the early 1980s, General Dynamics released detailed illustrations and descrip-
tions of the F-16XL configuration. They noted that the cranked-arrow-wing
design had both aerodynamic and configuration benefits and significant poten-
tial for increased combat range. The cranked F-16XL arrow wing had an area
that was 115 percent larger than that of the standard F-16A wing. The resulting
larger internal wing volume enabled much more fuel to be carried5,000
pounds as compared to about 1,150 pounds in the standard F-16 wing. The
two fuselage plugs resulted in a new fuselage that was 56 inches longer than
that of the standard F-16. This enabled the F-16XL to carry over 7,600 pounds
of fuel inside its fuselage compared to slightly over 5,800 pounds carried in the
standard F-16s fuselage.1 Wing camber and twist were optimized to minimize
drag during high-speed cruise and level acceleration. Supersonic wave drag was
A General Dynamics perspective on the range of benefits that was possible by integrating the
cranked-arrow wing in the F-16XL design. (Lockheed Martin)
69
Elegance in Flight
reportedly reduced by 17 percent, and any low-speed pitch-up tendency was

eliminated. In press releases and interviews with the aerospace media, GD stated
that the extensive wind tunnel test program with NASA had shown that the
F-16XLs cranked-arrow wing, with its sophisticated tailored twist and camber
features, did not display the high induced drag at high lift and the adverse tail-
trim characteristics that were
usually associated with tailless
delta-wing aircraft.
NASA continued to
provide extensive support to
General Dynamics during
engineering development
and subsequent refinement
of the F-16XL design, lead-
ing up to its first flight in July
1982. This support included
wind tunnel model develop-
ment and testing, wing design
methodology and analytical
procedures, performance pre-
dictions based on wind tunnel
test results, and inputs into the
design of the tailored flight
control system. The latter item
was based in part on success-
ful pilot-in-the-loop testing in
the Differential Maneuvering
Simulator at NASA Langley.
All of these efforts proved to The single-seat F-16XL is illustrated with four semi-
be very important as the GD submerged AIM-120 AMRAAM radar-guided missiles
engineering team converged and two wingtip-mounted AIM-9L infrared-guided
on the final F-16XL detailed Sidewinder missiles. (Air Force)
design and moved forward
with construction of the prototype flight demonstrator aircraft.2 Data from
Langley research efforts on automatic spin prevention were factored into the
detail hardware design of the F-16XLs leading-edge flaps (LEFs) and the pro-
gramming of the software used in its computerized fly-by-wire flight control
system. These flight control system features provided a significant contri-
bution to the aircrafts carefree handling qualities. The F-16XLs very high
resistance to inadvertent loss of control or spin development would be con-
vincingly demonstrated during the subsequent Air Force flight-test program.
70
Design and Construction Details
Wing Geometry and Structural Design

The F-16XL zero-dihedral cranked-arrow wing had an overall span of 32
feet 5 inches. When the wingtip-mounted AIM-9 missiles and their launchers
were installed, wingspan was increased to 34 feet 3 inches. Wing area was a
little over 663 square feet compared to 300 square feet for the F-16s trapezoidal
wing. The aspect ratio of the wing was a very low 1.6 as compared to the F-16
aspect ratio of 3.0. Leading-edge sweep angles were 70 degrees on the inboard
segments of the wing and 50 degrees on the outboard segments. The long-chord
wing had a thickness-to-chord ratio of 4.5 percent. The mean aerodynamic
chord of the cranked-arrow wing was 24.7 feet.3
A modified National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) 64A
airfoil was used on the inboard portion of the cranked-arrow wing. This por-
tion of the wing had its camber conically tailored from the root outward. This
feature was designed to reduce drag at transonic and supersonic speeds and
improve the acceleration characteristics of the aircraft. The outer wing panels
used a modified biconvex airfoil. The angle of incidence of the wing was 0.65
degrees over the inboard wing segment and then varied as the wingtip was
approached, reaching a negative incidence of 4.1 degrees at the tip.4 This coni-
cal camber resulted in a distinctive twisted effect when the wing was viewed
from the front. This can be seen in the three-view drawing of the aircraft.
Elevons were mounted on the aft inner wing segments. Ailerons and leading-
edge flaps were installed on the outboard wing panels. Hydraulically operated
aileron actuators were located in large pods on the aft portion of the wings between
the ailerons and the elevons. These pods were also intended to house electronic
warfare equipment including chaff and flare dispensers. The hydraulically oper-
ated elevon actuators were contained inside the wing structure close to the root
on each side. The leading-edge-flap rotary actuatorselectrically commanded but
hydraulically operatedwere mounted on the forward spars of the outer wing
panels.5 Further details concerning the F-16XLs elevon, flap, and aileron design
and their functional modes of operation are contained in the flight control section.
Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM) systems were extensively used in both the design and manufacture
of the F-16XL. The use of computer-based structural analysis, design, and
manufacturing systems in aerospace applications was greatly influenced by
a major NASA initiative known as the NASA Structural Analysis System (or
NASTRAN for short). NASTRAN had been developed under NASA Langley
Research Center management leadership. NASTRAN led to the development
and use of many commercially developed CAD/CAM systems, with various
tailored capabilities, that were subsequently used in the aerospace industry and
many other design and manufacturing industries.6
71
Elegance in Flight
General Dynamics purchased a CAD/CAM system that had been devel-

oped by Lockheed called CADAM. It used an IBM mainframe computer that
served interconnected CADAM terminals. During engineering design of the
F-16XL, it was quickly found that these terminals had to be carefully prioritized
and scheduled because there were not enough of them to go around for every
member of the engineering team to have full-time access. In fact, the fuselage
parts were drawn mostly on paper for this reason. The CADAM system played
a major role in the design, manufacture, and smooth integration of the complex
cranked-arrow wing into the prototypes. The two segments of the F-16XLs
cranked-arrow wing were designed with new wing attachment fittings. These
fittings mated with the stretched fuselage at the existing F-16 wing attachment
points and at additional attachment points located on the aft fuselage exten-
sion. The greater physical depth of this wing over the standard F-16 wing led to
the need to invert the wing attachment fittings by introducing an angle into
the inboard portion of the wing skins.7 Later, during stability and control flight
tests involving very high roll rate maneuvers, structural loads instrumentation
indicated that the stress in the wing-fuselage shear tie at Fuselage Station (FS)
463.1 could exceed the flight-test limit.8 This led to the design and installation
of a reinforced shear tie in both aircraft.
The robust internal structure of the F-16XL wing was designed to handle
the stresses associated with aerodynamic loads including loads created during
operation of the independently actuated elevons, ailerons, and leading-edge
flaps. Loads on the wing hard points
produced when external stores were
carried and forcefully ejected from
the aircraft also had to be accommo-
dated in the wing structural design.
Not long after the July 1982 first
flight of the F-16XL-1, data from
the inflight structural loads instru-
mentation system led structural
engineers to conclude that the aft
wing spar could fail at 86 percent
of its design load limit. To deal with
The robust internal structure of the F-16XLs
cranked-arrow wing viewed looking out- this issue, GD engineers developed
board from the wing root toward the wingtip. a structural fix that resulted in the
(Lockheed Martin) replacement of a 22-inch-long sec-
tion of the aluminum rear spar with
a strengthened part made of high-strength steel. The new steel part also incor-
porated a flange with increased depth for even further strength. The wing on
F-16XL-1 was modified with the new component at Fort Worth. Inflight stress
72
measurements validated the adequacy of the aft wing spar structural fix. The
strengthened aft wing spar modification was incorporated into the wing on
F-16XL-2 prior to its first flight at Fort Worth in October 1982.
Specially tailored upper and lower composite wing skins were developed for
use on the F-16XL. These composite skins were mechanically attached to the
aluminum understructure of each wing using special fasteners. The composite
wing skins covered most of the surface area of each wing segment. The skin
design was based on the use of aeroelastically tailored graphite-bismaleimide
laminates (composed of T300 fiber with a V378-A matrix) that were intended
to save structural weight. The F-16 had used a graphite-epoxy composite mate-
rial (T300 fiber/3501-6 matrix), but GD moved to the polyimide-based family
(of which bismaleimide is a subset) for their superior high-temperature prop-
erties. The skins were tailored
to deform favorably under load
while meeting the strength
requirements of a minimum
weight, damage-tolerant struc-
ture. They ranged in thickness
from 0.25 to 0.75 inches. By
the time of the F-16XL devel-
opment, graphite-polyimide
composites were being increas-
ingly used in aerospace appli-
cations, including on the Space
Shuttle. The development and Composite wing skins increased structural strength,
widespread use of graphite- saved weight, reduced manufacturing cost, and
polyimide composite struc- improved durability. (Lockheed Martin)
tures in the aerospace industry
had been heavily influenced by NASA-sponsored research conducted with
many companies including General Dynamics. In addition, GD had more
than a decade of development experience with composite materials, sponsored
in large part by the USAF Materials Laboratory at Wright-Patterson AFB.
The graphite-bismaleimide composite material had excellent mechanical
strength, being able to handle stresses of up to 50,000 pounds per square inch
(psi), as well as good heat-resistance properties. For the F-16XL application,
the composite wing skins were built up of laminated layers of graphite-bisma-
leimide material in which its thickness consisted of anywhere from 30 to 166
plies. The individual layers used to build up the laminates had been laid-up
over a mold by hand as automatic tape-laying equipment was still in develop-
ment. The specific number of plies used in an individual laminated layer was
dependent on the highest computed local structural load and stress levels likely
73
Elegance in Flight
Graphite-bismaleimide laminates were used in various combinations and orientations to build up

the composite wing skins. (Lockheed Martin)
to be encountered across the F-16XLs aerodynamic flight envelope. During

assembly of the skins, the laminates were carefully laid down in a precisely
planned geometric orientation intended to optimize the distribution of stresses
across the wing skins to reduce structural weight. The process had to be done
in a time-critical way, as the bismaleimide resin in the graphite tape would
slowly begin to cure as it warmed up after removal from refrigerated storage.
Following the room temperature lay-down process, the skins were placed on
a mold that replicated the required curvature of the outer wing surfaces. The
skins were then cured under high pressures and high temperatures in a special
autoclave. This resulted in the formation of permanently hardened graphite-
bismaleimide composite wing skins with the proper compound curvature.
Following final manufacturing details, such as insuring an exact fit and drilling
the fastener mounting holes, the skins were ready for installation onto the basic
metallic wing substructure.9
The graphite-bismaleimide composite wing skins not only saved weight (a
savings GD claimed was 595 pounds), but they also reduced manufacturing
74
and production costs. This was due to the fact that the composite materials used
to build up the wing skins were more adaptable to being formed into the com-
pound curvature surfaces that were features of the F-16XL arrow-wing design.
The compound curvature of the wing skin surface was due to its complex
combination of wing camber and twist. Composite wing skins did not require
machine milling or chemical etching as metallic skins did. Other benefits were
increased stiffness and better rigidity compared to metallic counterparts and
an anticipated 2.5 times improvement in durability in operational service.10
Vertical Fin and Rudder

The two distinctive ventral fins located under the aft fuselage on the standard
F-16 were deleted on the F-16XL. The ventral fins would not have had suf-
ficient ground clearance during takeoff or on landing. This was due to two
factors: the lengthened F-16XL aft fuselage and the GD decision to use stan-
dard F-16 landing gear and wheel well locations. The dorsal fin measured 101
inches from its base to the tip. The F-16XLs height measured to the tip of its
fin was 11 inches greater than that of the standard F-16. Fin aspect ratio was
about 1.3, leading-edge sweep angle was 44.5 degrees, and surface area was
54.8 square feet. A biconvex airfoil, varying in thickness-to-chord ratio from
5.3 percent at the root to 3 percent at the tip, was used. Increased rudder hinge
moment capability was required to deal with the higher stresses resulting from
the changed aerodynamics of the F-16XL. The rudder was also strengthened
to provide a 50-percent increase in its capability to handle the higher hinge
moments. The rudder had a surface area of 14.3 square feet. Maximum deflec-
tion was 30 degrees in either direction.11
Later, during the Air Force flight-test program, the F-16XL-2 was ferried back
to Fort Worth from Edwards AFB, on January 28, 1985, for several planned
structural modifications. In conjunction with this effort, a Large Normal Shock
Inlet (LNSI), discussed under the propulsion section, replaced the standard inlet.
A structural inspection of the entire airframe was conducted during the struc-
tural modification effort. During this comprehensive inspection, cracks were
discovered at the base of the fin rear spar. The corrective engineering modification
developed by GD engineers required the removal of the entire vertical tail. This
was necessary to enable a bathtub-shaped fitting doubler to be added to the rear
fin spar. The fin modification was completed on F-16XL-2 at Fort Worth before
it was flown back to Edwards in June 1985. The fin doubler modification was
installed on F-16XL-1 at Edwards AFB by a GD onsite modification team.12
A drag chute system was housed in a prominent dorsal fairing mounted at
the base of the tailfin. At the time of the F-16XL development, standard F-16s
75
Elegance in Flight
did not have a drag chute installation. The exception was the F-16 configura-
tion for the Royal Norwegian Air Force. Norwegian pilots had to operate from
remote strips, many of which were short and endangered by ice and snow,
where drag chutes literally could make the difference between life and death.
On the larger, heavier F-16XL with its increased landing speeds, the drag chute
provided several operational advantages. It allowed the aircraft to land safely
with heavy payloads or to operate from runways that had been shortened by
enemy action. The drag chute also enabled F-16XL operations at higher gross
weights from the shorter runways that existed on many North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) airfields. With the drag chute, an aborted takeoff could
be accomplished safely on a standard 8,000-foot-long NATO airfield at a maxi-
mum takeoff gross weight (TOGW) of 48,000 pounds with a wet runway at
warm-day conditions. The F-16XL drag chute was based on the pattern used
on the Norwegian F-16; however, it was manufactured with an even larger
canopy area for use on the F-16XL.13
Fuselage
The F-16XL fuselage was a lengthened and modified version of the standard
F-16 fuselage. In response to a request from GD, the Air Force had allocated
two F-16 fuselages for the F-16XL program. The first fuselage came from
F-16A serial number 75-0749. This was the fifth Full-Scale Development
aircraft, and it had accumulated 401.5 hours of flying time in support of the
FSD program. Powered by a Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 turbofan engine
with 24,000 pounds of sea level static thrust (SLST), its primary role had
been climatic and environmental
testing, much of which had been
conducted in the huge McKinley
Climatic Laboratory at Eglin
AFB, in northwest Florida.14 The
fuselage was delivered to the GD
Fort Worth factory for conversion
into the single-seat F-16XL on
May 4, 1981, arriving on a large
commercial flatbed truck that had
been chartered from the Leonard
The damaged fuselage of the third Full-Scale
Brothers Trucking Company of
Development F-16A (75-0747) following its emer-
gency landing and nose gear collapse on Rogers Miami, FL.15
Dry Lake, October 5, 1980. (NASA photograph via The second fuselage assigned
Tom Grindle) to the F-16XL program came
76
from the third F-16 Full-Scale

Development aircraft (serial
number 75-0747). It had a
rather interesting background.
Originally built as a single-seat
F-16, it was powered by a General
Electric F110-GE-100 turbofan
engine that produced 29,000
pounds of sea level static thrust.
This aircraft had primarily been
The fuselage from F-16A 75-0747 was allocated
used to test the F-16s avionics and to General Dynamics by the Air Force for conver-
environmental control system and sion into the single-seat F-16XL. It is seen on
for vibration and acoustics testing. arrival at the Fort Worth plant on May 4, 1981.
On October 5, 1980, after accu- (Lockheed Martin)
mulating 1,212.2 hours of flying
time, it was severely damaged in an accident at Edwards AFB during an airshow
associated with the Edwards Open House. The nose landing gear tire had blown
on takeoff.16 The pilot wisely chose to land on Runway 18, etched out on the
hard dry lakebed on Rogers Dry Lake. As the pilot lowered the nose to the
ground after landing, the forward landing gear snapped off and the fuselage
dropped to the ground. The radome, the leading edge of the equipment bay,
and the inlet were dragged across the lakebed. Major damage to the fuselage
resulted, and the engine was ruined by sand ingestion. In August 1981, the
damaged fuselage was delivered to the Fort Worth factory by an Air Force
Lockheed C-5A transport. During the subsequent conversion process at GD,
the damaged fuselage would be rebuilt using a newly manufactured two-seat
forward fuselage. The original Air
Force serial number was retained
after the fuselage was lengthened,
converted from the original sin-
gle-seat into a two-seat configura-
tion, and then integrated with the
cranked-arrow wing to become
F-16XL-2.17
The modified fuselages of both
the single-seat and the two-seat
F-16XL aircraft incorporated a
30-inch forward extension added
The fuselage from the single-seat F-16A 75-0747
at fuselage station 189. This for- was delivered to GD Fort Worth in August
ward fuselage plug provided 11.6 1981, for conversion to the two-seat F-16XL-2.
cubic feet of additional internal (Lockheed Martin)
77
Elegance in Flight
fuselage volume, and it moved the cockpit forward. It did not, however,
increase the length of the engine intake, only the upper fuselage. The forward
fuselage extension housed specialized flight-test instrumentation on the two
F-16XL flight demonstrators, while on production aircraft it was intended that
this extension would house additional mission avionics. A second 26-inch Z
plug fuselage extension was added at midfuselage. The upper part of the Z ran
aft for 26 inches from FS 373.8, increasing internal fuel. The lower leg of the Z
started at FS 343.12 (the landing gear bulkhead) and likewise ran aft, increasing
the intake length.18 Other changes to the F-16XL fuselage included removal
of the F-16 leading-edge-flap drive used on the standard F-16 (this enabled
additional fuel to be carried) and modifications to both the engine inlet diverter
and the ram inlet for the environmental cooling system. These modifications
were required to match the forward fuselage stretch. Recontoured forebody
strakes matched the new wing shape and allowed its smooth aerodynamic
integration into the stretched forward fuselage. Finally, the aft fuselage was
canted upward by an angle of 3.16 degrees. The upward cant was necessary to
prevent the lengthened aft fuselage from dragging on the runway during take-
off and landing since GD had decided not to lengthen or relocate the landing
gear despite the lengthened aft fuselage. This decision eased detail design and
kept aircraft gross weight down but resulted in other problems, which will
be discussed later. Other aft fuselage modifications were necessary to enable
dummy AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles to be carried.19
Three-view drawing of the two-seat F-16XL. (NASA)
78
As initially delivered, the two F-16XL prototypes retained the standard

F-16A landing gear. This limited the aircraft to a maximum takeoff gross weight
of 37,500 pounds. Later on in the flight-test program, both aircraft were modi-
fied to incorporate an increased capacity landing gear that was being developed
for production F-16s. This modification required strengthening the main landing
gear wheel-well bulkheads and adding new wheel well doors to accommodate the
somewhat wider tires. With the strengthened landing gear, the F-16XL maxi-
mum takeoff gross weight was increased to 48,000 pounds, compared to the
37,500-pound limitation with the standard F-16A landing gear originally fitted.
Flight Control System

The F-16XLs primary flight control system was a four-channel, analog-com-
puter-based fly-by-wire flight control system. It was similar to the FBW flight
control system used in the standard F-16, but it was modified to function with
the XLs unique flight control surfaces.20 Changes were also made to the air data
system that determined the various parameters needed by the flight control
system, such as static and dynamic air pressures and angles of attack and yaw. The
flight control computers were modified to incorporate new control laws neces-
sitated by the radically different aerodynamic configuration. The air data sensor
installation was modified from that used on the standard F-16. A third conical
angle-of-attack transmitter was added on the left side of the forward fuselage with
an L-shaped probe on the right side providing the third source of total and static
air pressure needed by the four independent flight control computers.
The cockpits installed in both F-16XL prototypes were configured with the
same flight controls, displays, avionics, and sensors used in early production
F-16A and F-16B aircraft. However, a significant new feature was installed in
the F-16XL; this was the microprocessor-based self-test function for the flight
control system. Following engine start, a button push activated the self-test
function that evaluated the functionality of the entire fly-by-wire flight control
system. This resulted in the complete flight control system, from controller
inputs to rate sensors to actual servoactuator operations, being automatically
checkeda process that took about 90 seconds. During the self-testing process,
the pilot could detect the chatter of the flight control surface movements over
the nose of the idling engine as the system went through its preprogrammed
series of very-high-frequency control surface actuations.21
On the F-16XL, aircraft pitch attitude was controlled by symmetric deflec-
tion of the two elevons mounted on the trailing edges of each inner wing
segment. Elevon area was about 44 square feet. The elevons were capable of
deflection over the angular range between 30 degrees up and 30 degrees
79
Elegance in Flight
down. Additional pitch control was provided by symmetrically deflecting the

outboard ailerons. The ailerons had a total surface area of 29.45 square feet.
Each aileron was capable of movement through an arc that ranged from 20
degrees up to 30 degrees down. Roll was controlled by asymmetric deflection
of the ailerons assisted by elevon deflection. The roll axis of the flight control
system was based on roll rate command and used roll rate feedback. The
maximum available roll rate was 308 degrees per second. The actual allow-
able roll rate was scheduled as a function of aircraft angle of attack to prevent
overstressing the aircraft or encountering potential out of control situations.
The rudder provided yaw control. It was interconnected to the ailerons via
the FBW flight control system. This ensured smooth aileron-rudder coordi-
nation during rolling maneuvers, especially at higher angles of attack. The
yaw axis of the flight control system used rudder position commands based
on yaw rate and lateral acceleration feedback along with inputs from the
aileron-rudder interconnect.22
Secondary flight control surfaces included the leading-edge flaps, installed
on the outer wing panels, and standard F-16 speed brakes (though recon-
toured on their outer mold-line for use on the XL) were mounted one on each
side of the aft fuselage adjacent to the engine exhaust nozzle. Total surface area
of the leading-edge flaps was about 18.2 square feet. The LEFs were capable
of being deflected through an arc ranging from 6.4 degrees up to 36.5 degrees
down. The leading-edge flaps were automatically scheduled by the flight con-
trol system to optimize maneuvering performance and assist the elevons in
providing adequate pitch control at higher speeds and dynamic pressures.
The leading-edge flaps were automatically deflected upward at higher Mach
numbers to minimize aerodynamic drag. In addition, asymmetric leading-
edge-flap deflection was used to assist the rudder and ailerons in ensuring
lateral-directional stability
at higher angles of attack.
Aircraft spin recovery was
automatically assisted by
the FBW flight control
system, which differen-
tially deflected the leading-
edge flaps when the angle
of attack was greater than
35 degrees. The differen-
tial deflection capability
A combination of flight control surfaces provided pitch, of the LEFs ranged up to
roll, and yaw control across the entire F-16XL flight an angle of 40 degrees.
envelope. (NASA) Two clamshell-type speed
80
brakes were located on each side of the engine nozzle. They functioned simul-
taneously when actuated by the pilot and opened symmetrically, with each
segment deflecting 60 degrees.23
During flight operations, the pilot commanded normal load factor (air-
craft g-level) throughout most of the flight envelope using the standard F-16
sidestick controller. The pitch axis of the FCS was essentially a g-command
system that utilized g-level, AoA, and pitch rate as feedback. During the
powered landing approach configura-
tion, with landing gear and flaps down,
and at angles of attack above 19 degrees
in the cruise configuration, the FBW
flight control system automatically pro-
vided blended g-level (load factor) and
AoA commands to ensure speed stability.
An AoA limiter was incorporated in the
F-16XL flight control system to mini-
mize opportunities for out-of-control
situations during maneuvering flight.
This limiter was similar to that used The F-16XL used the force-displacement
in the standard F-16A, but the allow- sidestick controller adopted from the
able AoA envelope was expanded to standard F-16. (NASA)
29 degrees at low speeds (up from the
25-degree limit in the basic F-16). At speeds above Mach 0.9, the allowable
AoA was restricted to a maximum of 26 degrees. The allowable angle of attack
when the landing gear was extended was automatically limited to 16 degrees.
In the event of a departure from controlled flight, the leading-edge flaps
were automatically used to augment the rudder in limiting high yaw rates from
developing at angles of attack between 35 and 50 degrees. If a stabilized deep
stall condition was encountered, the flight control system featured a manual
pitch override (MPO) capability. MPO allowed the pilot to bypass the AoA
limiter, providing him or her with full pitch command authority to initiate a
pitch-rocking maneuver and break the deep stall. Pitch-rocking was success-
fully used on the F-16 to break deep stalls, and it also was fitted with an MPO
capability.24 NASA Langley had played a significant role in the development of
the F-16 deep stall recovery system. The flight control systems installed in the
two F-16XL prototypes were fitted with an automatic pitch override system
intended to break any deep stall that might be encountered. This automated
system provided pitch-rocking commands to the flight control system in the
event of a stabilized deep stall.25 F-16XL flight control system functionality
and effectiveness were evaluated during extensive wind tunnel, spin tunnel,
and drop model test efforts at NASA Langley.
81
Elegance in Flight
The physical and geometric properties of the F-6XL aircraft are illustrated in this NASA drawing. The
effects of conical camber and twist on the wing are evident in the front view of the aircraft. (NASA)
Avionics
Both F-16XL flight demonstrator aircraft were equipped with standard F-16A
avionics suites. If the F-16XL had been selected for full-scale development as
the USAF dual-role fighter, GD planned on incorporating the avionics suite
developed under the F-16C/D Multi-Stage Improvement Program (MSIP)
into production aircraft. These aircraft would have been equipped with an
improved APG-66 fire control radar; the AN/ALR-74 threat warning system;
the LANTIRN auto navigation, terrain avoidance, and targeting system; an
airborne self-protection jammer; the ALE-40 chaff/flare dispensing system;
both an inertial navigation system (INS) and a global positioning system
(GPS); and MIL-STD-1760 data interface capability with advanced weapons,
including the AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air guided missile. In addition, an
Identification, Friend or Foe (IFF) subsystem with air-to-air IFF capability
would have been provided as would provision for HAVE QUICK secure ultra-
high frequency (UHF) communications capability. When fully implemented,
the MSIP would have provided night, under-the-weather, navigation, and
82
air-to-ground weapon delivery and beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air mis-

sile engagement capabilities. The front cockpit would have retained the features
and capabilities of the F-16C. The LANTIRN wide-angle, improved-video
Head-Up Display (HUD) incorporated a forward-looking infrared (FLIR)
navigation video display at night. Two 4-inch high-resolution multifunction
displays (MFDs) would have been available for both sensor and weapon-video
and interactive control of the weapon system. An optional 5-inch color MFD
was available for integration into the center console. This display was to provide
moving presentations with overlaid navigation information, color-coded elec-
tronic flight instruments, and other color-coded aircraft pilot-selectable infor-
mation. Integrated upfront Communications, Navigation, and Identification
(CNI) controls were to be provided along with a dedicated threat warning
system. The rear cockpit in the dual-role fighter version of the F-16XL was to
have the controls and displays, including a color-moving map, to accomplish
a full range of day/night/all-weather missions.26
Engine and Inlet

The single-seat F-16XL was fitted with a Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 after-
burning turbofan engine, the same engine used in the basic F-16A. This engine
had a SLST of 14,370 pounds at 100 percent revolutions per minute (rpm) in
dry (nonafterburner) power and 23,770 pounds in full afterburner. The Pratt
& Whitney F100-PW-200 engine was installed in F-16XL-1 for the entire
duration of the flight-test program. The two-seat F-16XL was initially fitted
with a General Electric F101 Derivative Fighter Engine (DFE) that produced
nearly 29,000 pounds of static thrust at sea level in full afterburner. Later in the
Air Force test program (in mid-1984), F-16XL-2 was returned to Fort Worth
for installation of a General Electric F110-GE-100 Slimline engine. The par-
ticular engine installed in F-16XL-2 was a prototype version of the production
F110 engine configured with hardware designed for the production engines
performance envelope. As installed in the F-16XL, this prototype engine was
essentially equivalent to the production F110-GE-100 engine. It produced
28,000 pounds of afterburning thrust at full rpm at SLST conditions. At mili-
tary thrust conditions (100-percent throttle setting without afterburner), the
F110-GE-100 engine provided 17,530 pounds of thrust at SLST conditions.
The General Electric F110-GE-100 engine, developed under the Air Force
Alternate Fighter Engine (AFE) program, had a diameter of 46.5 inches
(this was the same diameter as that of the less powerful Pratt & Whitney
F100 engine). The F110 engine used the same engine core as the earlier GE
F101 engine developed for the B-1 bomber.27 The F110-GE-100 produced
83
Elegance in Flight
something over 4,000 pounds more thrust in afterburning power at sea level
than the F100-PW-200 engine. Thus, for optimum performance, the F110
engine required a larger inlet capture area for increased airflow.28 This resulted
in a revised inlet design and development effort that led to what GD referred
to as the Large Normal Shock Inlet. The LNSI had slightly different geometric
proportions than the standard F-16 inlet. Its larger capture area of 778 square
inches compared to the 714-square-inch capture area of the inlet that was
used with the Pratt & Whitney F100 engine. The larger capture area success-
fully accommodated the greater airflow needs of the more powerful General
Electric F110 engine. This inlet subsequently went into production on C-
and D-model F-16s equipped
with the GE engine. The larger
inlet was installed in F-16XL-2 at
the GD factory in Fort Worth in
conjunction with other structural
modifications and maintenance
actions. The LNSI installation
was completed by late June 1985,
in time for the aircraft to partici-
pate in the final phase of the Air
The Large Normal Shock Inlet compared to the Force flight-test evaluation at
smaller normal shock inlet. (Lockheed Martin) Edwards AFB.29
Fuel and Hydraulic Systems

The F-16XL fuel tank system consisted of six fuselage fuel compartments and
four wing compartments. The single-seat F-16XL carried 11,273 pounds of
fuel internally, while the two-seat aircraft had a slightly lower capacity (10,258
pounds). Internal fuel fraction, an important measure of mission capability in
a fighter aircraft, was 0.32 as compared to 0.28 for the basic F-16A.30 In this
context, fuel fraction is the ratio of internal fuel to takeoff gross weight with
both aircraft in the same basic mission configuration. For this comparison,
both aircraft carried six MK-82 bombs and two AIM-9L missiles without any
external fuel tanks. Electrical and hydraulic boost pumps were used to support
fuel transfer with a hydraulically driven fuel flow proportioner and an electrical
fuel trimmer system automatically controlling aircraft center-of-gravity loca-
tion and proper tank feeding sequence. As with the standard F-16, hydraulic
power was provided by separate 3,000-psi primary and secondary systems that
supplied the flight control surfaces and the landing gear and brakes. However,
on the F-16XL, increased-capacity hydraulic pumps and greater hydraulic
84
fluid reservoir and accumulator volumes were provided to supply the increased
hydraulic power needs of the flight control surfaces on the larger and heavier
aircraft. To prevent excessive hydraulic flow demand when the landing gear
was lowered, the electronic flight control system automatically commanded
the elevons to the 5-degree trailing-edge-down position.31
Weapons Carriage and Stores Management System

The F-16XLs cranked-arrow wing, with its very long chord, allowed weapons to
be carried in a semiconformal manner. A low-profile, tandem, staggered arrange-
ment of the weapons under the lower wing surfaces improved the fore and aft
weight distribution relative to the aircraft center of gravity, reducing trim effects
during multiple weapon releases. Semiconformal carriage also provided signifi-
cant drag reduction, resulting in increased speed capability when compared to
the standard F-16 with an equivalent external payload. Twelve Mk-82s individu-
ally carried in LODE-14 vertical ejector bomb racks had the same drag as six
Mk-82s mounted on the two triple ejector racks (TERs) carried on the F-16A.
When equal numbers of bombs were carried on both the F-16XL and the F-16A,
carriage drag was 60 percent lower at Mach 0.9 and total drag was reduced by
36 percent. A significant contribution to this overall drag reduction was the fact
that external wing tanks were not routinely required on the F-16XL due to its
larger internal fuel volume.
Similarly, four AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles carried in semisubmerged fash-
ion on ejector-launchers under the F-16XL fuselage produced a carriage drag
reduction of 70 percent when compared to the drag produced by the same number
of AMRAAMs mounted on conventional underwing pylons. Conformal weap-
ons carriage also saved weight. The two multiple ejector racks (MERs) and the
associated pylons needed to carry 12 Mk-82 bombs on the F-16A weighed 1,039
pounds compared to 516 pounds for the LODE-14 ejector racks used for semi-
conformal, low-profile carriage of the same number of bombs on the F-16XL.32
Other conformal carriage advantages included reduced aerodynamic interfer-
ence during near-simultaneous weapons releases, since the individual conformal
stores stations were horizontally separated, and improved individual weapon
delivery accuracy. The latter resulted from both the reduction in aerodynamic
interference between individual bombs during multiple releases and the fact
that all bombs were ejected vertically rather than with the lateral forces that were
imparted on ejection from TER ejectors. Additionally, the structural loads on the
wing hard points were reduced with the elimination of MER and TER carriage
of heavy clusters of bombs. The better distribution of weapons allowed higher
aircraft roll rates and maneuvering limits than were possible with conventional
85
Elegance in Flight
MER or TER carriage of ordnance. With heavy external weapons loads, the
F-16XL was authorized for maneuvering up to 7.33 gs compared with 5.58 gs
in the F-16A. When external fuel tanks were carried, maneuvering was limited
to less than 5.86 gs. The F-16XL maneuvering envelope was cleared to the full
9-g capability with a full load of air-to-air missiles and a full internal fuel load
(aircraft gross weight of 36,000 pounds).33
A large number of strengthened hard points at various locations enabled
bombs, missiles, external fuel tanks and sensor pods to be carried. There
were 5 2,000-pound underwing hard points, 16 1,000-pound hard points, 2
LANTIRN stations for the separate navigation and targeting pods associated
with that system, 4 AMRAAM stations, and wingtip missile launcher mount-
ings for 2 AIM-9L Sidewinder missiles. Additionally, there was a tandem pylon
system for carrying two Mk-84s, which could be attached to stations 5A, 5C, and
5F (and the corresponding 13A,
13C, and 13F). These were
XL-unique, Thomas Grindle
recalled, and once mounted
became a single unit and placed
both weapons close to the wing,
much like the LODE-14 pylons,
and in tandem to reduce drag.34
The integrated electronic
stores management system
A complex hard-point arrangement was developed for in the F-16XL was modified
the F-16XL to enable external stores to be mounted from that used in the F-16 to
in dense conformal arrangements. (Lockheed Martin) accommodate the added store
locations. Release and jettison
capability was provided at 10 underwing store stations on each wing. In addi-
tion, provisions were incorporated for carriage and fuel transfer from up to
four 370-gallon wing-mounted fuel tanks as well as a 300-gallon centerline
drop tank. For long-range ferry purposes, two 600-gallon fuel tanks could be
mounted on special heavyweight pylons under the wings. However, each of
the inboard heavy/wet fuel tank pylons was mounted at essentially the same
butt-line distance (as measured from the centerline of the fuselage) as two of
the underwing weapons pylons. These weapons pylons had to be removed
in order to mount the inboard heavy/wet fuel tank pylon under each wing.
This meant that if the special pylons for the two 600-gallon fuel tanks were
carried, four air-to-ground munitions could not be loaded onto the aircraft.
Furthermore, if this heavy/wet wing station was used for external fuel, the fuel
tank physically blocked an additional wing station, preventing the loading of
86
a store on that station. Practically, this meant that if external fuel tanks were
mounted on the inboard heavyweight pylon, the maximum number of air-to-
ground weapons that could be carried under each wing was five instead of the
normal eight. If underwing fuel tanks were not used, the F-16XL could carry
up to 16 500-pound class weapons under the wings. Two more 500-pound
weapons could be carried on a special fuselage centerline adaptor. Alternatively,
the 300-gallon fuel tank could be mounted under the fuselage centerline in
place of the centerline weapons adaptor.35
Two sensor stations located under the engine inlet were used to carry the
pods associated with the LANTIRN system. These were mounted on ordnance
stations 8 and 10. The two LANTIRN stations were not enabled until the LNSI
was later installed on the F-16XL as the attachment points and wiring for the
LANTIRN system was not originally on the two FSD F-16 fuselages used to
create the prototypes. Interface and control provisions were incorporated for
AGM-65 Maverick air-to-ground missiles and AIM-9 Sidewinder infrared
guided air-to-air missiles. Electrical and fire control provisions as well as the
recessed missile launchers for the four AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles, intended
to be carried on a production version of the F-16XL, were not installed in
the prototypes as this weapon had yet to be integrated into the basic F-16
aircraft. The F-16XL would have also been capable of carrying and deliver-
ing B61 nuclear weapons. Up to five of these weapons potentially could be
carried. In reality, for various practical reasons associated with the control of
nuclear weapons, the actual operational load would likely have been one or
two B61s. For peacetime training missions, the 715-pound BDU-38 practice
bomb, available in either free-fall or parachute-retarded versions, was used
to simulate the employment options available with the B61 nuclear weapon.
These consisted of either a surface burst or an air burst option. The BDU-38
had the same weight, physical, and aerodynamic characteristics as the actual
B61 bomb. The 20-millimeter (mm), hydraulically driven, electrically fired,
six-barreled M61A1 rotary cannon, mounted in the left side of the F-16 fuse-
lage, was retained in the same location on the F-16XL along with the large
drum magazine that had a capacity of 510 rounds of ammunition.36
Flight-Test Instrumentation
Both F-16XL aircraft had relatively large volumes of internal space available
below and behind the cockpit to house flight-test instrumentation-related equip-
ment, with F-16XL-1 having approximately 9.5 cubic feet while F-16XL-2 had
roughly 10 cubic feet that could be used. The Air Forcedeveloped Airborne Test
Instrumentation System (ATIS) was installed in both test aircraft. ATIS had been
87
Elegance in Flight
developed by the Air Force Flight Test Center and was provided to GD for use
during the F-16XL evaluation. Other instrumentation was designed and incor-
porated into each aircraft based on the specific data-collection tasks assigned
to that aircraft. The ATIS was combined with General Dynamicsdeveloped
hardware and provided telemetry and recording capability for both frequency
modulation (FM) and pulse code modulation (PCM) data. The PCM por-
tion of the ATIS system had the capability of recording parameters where fre-
quency characteristics ranged from static to about 200 Hertz (Hz). It was the
main source of data measurement used during F-16XL flight testing. The FM
subsystem could measure up to 20 high-response parameters. It was used for
measurements of phenomena such as vibrations or for obtaining acoustic data
at frequencies in excess of 200 Hz, where PCM capabilities were inadequate.
Each aircraft was equipped with a 14-track magnetic tape recorder with up to
90 minutes of recording time. The recording system capacity was 200 PCM
and 20 FM multiplexed data items. Data telemetry capabilities were provided
by a system developed by GD that included transmitters and power supply.
It was able to transmit all PCM and up to 15 FM multiplexed channels. For
the operational evaluation phase, a video recorder was also available to record
Head-Up Display and radar/electro-optical scope images. The instrumentation
system could record a relatively large number of flight-test parameters. These
are listed by flight-test objective and individual aircraft in Table 3.37
Test instrumentation parameters were tailored to the data requirements and
individual test objectives assigned to each aircraft. F-16XL-2 was primarily
Table 3.
F-16XL test instrumentation capability by
test aircraft (number of parameters)
Flight Test Area F-16XL-1 F-16XL-2
Stability and Control 42 23
Flutter 28
Structural Loads 27
Performance 38 38
Propulsion 12 20
Weapons Separation 12
Operational Utility Evaluation Video Recorder Video Recorder
88
Sensors for determining structural loads on the airframe were positioned at different locations on
F-16XL-1 and F-16XL-2 as shown in these GD drawings. (Lockheed Martin)
assigned duties involving structural loads and propulsion testing while F-16XL-1
focused on stability and control (including at high AoA), flutter testing, and
flight control system evaluations. Both aircraft were to participate in aircraft
performance and stores separation testing as well as the Operational Utility
Evaluation (OUE) that would be conducted by the Air Force Operational
Test and Evaluation Center (AFOTEC). In addition, F-16XL-2 carried six
high-speed film cameras. Mounted externally under the wings, the cameras
were focused on the external weapons and stores. Separation characteristics
following weapons release from the aircraft would be filmed for subsequent
89
Elegance in Flight
postflight analysis. Sensors to record different structural loads were mounted at

various locations on each airframe. Each aircraft was used to record structural
loads in various parts of the airframe; for instance, F-16XL-1 recorded main
landing gear vertical loads while XL-2 determined the loads at the left and
right wing break locations. Later in the flight-test program, individual aircraft
instrumentation would be revised relative to the first phases of the flight-test
effort to account for specific test objectives that were assigned to each aircraft.38
90
Endnotes
1. Author not identified, SCAMP Cuts Drag, Increases Fuel Load,
Aviation Week & Space Technology (August 18, 1980): p. 96.
2. The dual-dome Differential Maneuvering Simulator provided a
means of simulating two fighter aircraft or spacecraft maneuvering
with respect to each other. Each 40-foot-diameter dome contained
a generic cockpit with glass instrumentation, programmable control
inceptors, a 360-degree field-of-view visual system, a target image
generator system, and a high-resolution area-of-interest visual system.
3. The chord on most wing planforms varies at different positions along
the span, growing narrower toward the wingtips. For this reason, a
characteristic reference figure that can be compared among various
wing shapes is used. This is known as the mean aerodynamic chord, or
mac (sometimes the notation MAC is also used). With the F-16XL,
the overall cranked-arrow wing planform is composed of two differ-
ent planforms on the inner and outer segments of the wing, thus its
MAC is a composite of both segments. NASA Glenn Research Center,
Beginners Guide to Aerodynamics, http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/
k-12/airplane/bga.html, accessed May 17, 2012.
4. The angle of incidence is the angle formed by the wing chord line and
the aircraft longitudinal axis. The wing chord line extends from the
leading edge of the wing to the trailing edge of the wing. The lon-
gitudinal axis is an imaginary line that extends from the nose of the
aircraft to the tail. NASA Glenn Research Center, Beginners Guide
to Aerodynamics, http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/bga.
html, accessed May 19, 2012.
5. General Dynamics Corporation, Preliminary Design Drawing:
Internal Arrangement, Dual Role Fighter Aircraft, General Dynamics
Corporation, Fort Worth Division, F-16 DRF Proposal, April 22, 1983.
6. David C. Aronstein, NASA and Computational Structural Analysis,
Case 8 in Hallion, NASAs Contributions to Aeronautics, vol. 1.
7. Robert Wetherall, correspondence dated December 20, 2012.
8. Fuselage stations are numbered according to their position relative to
the length of the fuselage, measured from the nose. Thus, FS 463.1
was located 463.1 inches along the fuselage as measured from a refer-
ence point located forward of the nose of the aircraft. The aircraft
station coordinate system is based on an XYZ coordinate system origi-
nally developed for nautical engineering purposes and commonly used
in ship and boat design. The X-axis of this system (usually referred to
as the fuselage station, or FS) is positive pointing aft from a reference
91
Elegance in Flight
point located forward of the nose of the aircraft. The Y-axis (the
so-called butt-line distance) is measured from the centerline of the
fuselage (zero butt line) with the positive direction measured outboard
on the right wing. The Z-axis is positive pointing upward from a refer-
ence line located approximately along the centerline of the fuselage
when seen from the side. Distances measured from the waterline (WL)
are known as WL distance.
9. Janes editorial staff, Janes All The Worlds Aircraft, F-16XL entries in
various annual volumes (London: Janes Information Group, Inc.,
198182, 198283, 198384, 198586, 199596).
10. Hillaker, presentation to the Lone Star Aero Club.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.; Talty, F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities.
14. Conceived during WWII and completed in 1947, McKinley Climatic
Laboratory provides facilities for all-weather testing of aircraft,
weapons, and support equipment. The laboratory can accommodate
the largest bombers and transports. Nearly every weather condition
can be created, with temperatures ranging from 70 to +180 degrees
Fahrenheit. Every aircraft in the current DoD inventory has been
tested inside the McKinley Climatic Laboratory.
15. GD, Flight Test ProgramFinal Report.
16. Hillaker, F-16XL Flight Test Program Overview.
18. Thomas J. Grindle, NASA DFRC, correspondence with author,
January 1, 2013.
19. Dummy AMRAAM missiles were carried on the four AMRAAM
missile stations during the F-16XL flight-test program. The two in
the front bays were ballasted, but the aft ones were made of wood and
fitted with metallic nosecones and fins.
20. Aronstein and Piccirillo, The Lightweight Fighter Program.
21. Robert R. Ropelewski, F-16XL Shows Advances in Range, Ride and
Flying Qualities, Aviation Week & Space Technology (September 26,
1983): pp. 6271; GD, F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report.
23. James O. Young, History of the Air Force Flight Test Center, 1 January
198231 December 1982, Vol. I (Edwards AFB, CA: Air Force Flight
Test Center, 1983).
24. Aronstein and Piccirillo, Lightweight Fighter; Chambers, Partners in
Freedom. Interestingly, the Swedish Saab J 35, with its cranked-arrow
wing planform, was also susceptible to a serious deep stall condition,
92
and its pilots were specially trained in both stall avoidance and recov-
ery techniques; see Walter J. Boyne, Airpower Classics: J35 Draken,
Air Force Magazine 94, no. 12 (December 2011).
25. Talty, F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities; Sheryl Scott Tierney,
Inflight Excitation of the F-16XL, presented at the Third AHS, CASI,
DGLR, IES, ISA, ITEA, SETP, and SFTE Flight Testing Conference,
Las Vegas, NV, April 24, 1986, AIAA Paper 86-9782 (1986).
Air Force Magazine 66, no. 11 (November 1983); Low Altitude
Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night, or LANTIRN, is a
combined system that uses two externally mounted pods carried
under the F-16s engine inlet. One pod is used for navigational pur-
poses while the other is employed for targeting air-to-ground weap-
ons. LANTIRN significantly increased combat effectiveness, allowing
flight at low altitudes, at night, and under-the-weather, and it enabled
ground targets to be attacked with a variety of precision-guided
weapons; GD, General Dynamics F-16XLC/D MULTIROLE
FIGHTER, General Dynamics Corporation, Fort Worth Division
(undated, circa 1983).
27. Janes editorial staff, Janes Aero Engines, Issue 30 (Alexandria, VA:
Janes Information Group, Inc., 2011).
28. Later, during the NASA supersonic laminar flow control flight-test
program, a GE F110-GE-129 engine capable of producing 29,500
pounds SLST in full afterburner was installed in F-16XL-2. The fully
developed F110 engine eventually produced over 32,000 pounds
SLST in the F110-GE-132 version.
29. GD, F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report; Talty, F-16XL
Demonstrates New Capabilities.
30. Ibid.
31. GD, F-16XL Final Flight Test Report.
32. Ibid. The Low Aerodynamic Drag Ejector (LODE-14) bomb rack was
fitted with shackles spaced 14 inches apart, enabling standard U.S.
Mark 80- series general purpose bombs to be carried.
33. Talty, F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities; GD, F-16XL Flight
Test ProgramFinal Report.
34. Grindle correspondence.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. Hillaker, F-16XL Flight Test Program Overview; GD, F-16XL
Flight Test ProgramFinal Report.
38. Hillaker, F-16XL Flight Test Program Overview.
93
F-16XL-1 photographed at the rollout ceremony at the GD Fort Worth factory on July 2, 1982.
(Lockheed Martin)
94
CHAPTER 5
First Flight and

Initial Testing
Preparations for First Flight

In April 1982, F-16XL-1 was removed from its assembly fixture and towed
to an area of the Fort Worth factory where static testing was accomplished.
Internal subsystems and equipment, to include flight-test instrumentation,
were installed. Intensive systems testing and final preparations for flight testing
now began. The flight control system was thoroughly checked out, the fuel
system was checked and calibrated, and a program consisting of comprehensive
structure coupling, aeroservoelastic, and ground vibration tests was accom-
plished. Finally, engine, electronics, avionics systems, and test instruments
were determined to be in proper order. A series of safety of flight and flight
readiness reviewsattended by the Air Force, GD, its subcontractors, and
NASA representativesculminated with the aircraft being declared ready for
flight in late June. The next step before the first flight was the formal rollout
ceremony, scheduled for 11 a.m. on July 2, 1982.
On left: The first F-16XL, 75-0749, is seen in April 1982 after its removal from its assembly fix-
ture. The composite wing skins and wing-fuselage mounting bolt locations are evident. On right:
The F-16XL-1 is seen being prepared for static structural proof testing in the spring of 1982.
(Both images Lockheed Martin)
95
Elegance in Flight
Rollout Ceremony
The eagerly awaited F-16XL rollout ceremony began exactly on time, at 11 a.m.
on July 2, 1982, at General Dynamics Fort Worth facility.1 The large function
was well attended by political dignitaries, senior corporate and Government
officials, and high-ranking military officers. Chairman of the Board and Chief
Executive Officer David S. Lewis and GD President Oliver C. Boileau cohosted
the event. Congressional attendees included such defense and aerospace stal-
warts as Senators Barry Goldwater of Arizona, John G. Tower of Texas, and
Howard W. Cannon of New Mexico, along with Representatives Jim Wright
and Martin Frost, both of Texas.2
For the Air Force, Chief of Staff Gen. Charles Gabriel, along with senior
officers and representatives from key Air Force agencies and organizations
involved in various aspects of research, development, acquisition, and manage-
ment, were present. These included Dr. Alton G. Keel, assistant secretary of
the Air Force for Research, Development, and Acquisition; Lt. Gen. Lawrence
A. Skantze, commander of the Aeronautical Systems Division; Lt. Gen. Kelly
Burke, deputy chief of staff for Research, Development, and Acquisition; Lt.
Gen. Thomas H. McMullen, vice commander of the Tactical Air Command;
and Brig. Gen. George L. Monahan, of the F-16 Systems Program Office.
In recognition of NASAs significant contributions to the F-16XL, NASA
Administrator James M. Beggs represented NASA scientists and engineers who
rendered invaluable assistance in development and refinement of the cranked-
arrow wing and other important F-16XL design and flight safety features over
a period of several years.3
During the ceremony, GD Chairman Lewis commented that the F-16XL
combines the best technology of the 1980s with a proven design that enabled
us to make only a minimum number of changes.4 Herbert F. Rogers, vice
president and general manager of the General Dynamics Fort Worth Division,
added, while the F-16XL looks drastically different, it really is not. The major
differences are that the wings and tails have been removed and replaced by
the cranked arrow wing, and two fuselage plugs totaling 56 inches have been
added. Rogers went on to note that General Dynamics was urging the Air
Force to consider procurement of an F-16 variant based on the F-16XL design.
The F-16XL represents a truly dramatic increase in fighter capability, and
because it shares a substantial commonality with the F-16, it could easily be
phased into production with the F-16.5
In his comments, Skantze observed, The F-16 is rapidly becoming the
backbone of Tactical Air Command. It is being produced in a superb fashion,
on schedule and at cost. It has well acquitted itself as a combat aircraft, the
latter a passing reference to its success in Israeli hands during combat against
the Syrian air force that was unfolding even then over Lebanons Bekaa Valley.
96
First Flight and Intial Testing
He called the rollout a very exciting event. It is a great tribute to the man-
agement of General Dynamics and a far greater tribute to the work force and
designer team of this great aircraft.6
In his prepared remarks, Tower also noted the success of the F-16 pro-
gram, and he added, I am proud of what General Dynamics has done,
and it has been consistent with the
Department of Defenses goal of
improving existing systems, rather
than developing new systems.7
Towers remarks may also have
been a pointed commentary on the
fact that the Air Force had com-
mitted to embark on a totally new
air superiority fighter to be devel-
oped under the Advanced Tactical
Fighter program. Featuring true A Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor of the USAF
supercruise performance (that is, Air Combat Commands 27th Tactical Fighter
the ability to cruise at supersonic Squadron, 1st Fighter Wing, over Okinawa. (USAF)
speeds without using afterburner),
sensor fusion, thrust-vectoring, and advanced extremely high stealth capa-
bilities, the ATF evolved to create the superlative Lockheed Martin F-22A
Raptor, the worlds most advanced air dominance fighter.
Just prior to the highlight of the ceremonythe debut of the F-16XL
two armed F-16s taxied out in front of the assembled audience. One was
loaded for an air-to-air mission with four AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles and a
300-gallon centerline fuel tank. The other was in an air-to-ground mission
configuration with six 500-pound Mk-82 bombs, two 370-gallon under-
wing drop tanks, an electronic countermeasures pod, and two AIM-9 mis-
siles mounted on the wingtips. The F-16XL then taxied out and parked
between the two F-16s. To graphically demonstrate its multimission capa-
bilities, GD had configured the F-16XL to fly either an air-to-air or an air-
to-ground mission on the same sortie without having to carry external fuel
tanks. To emphasize its dual-role mission capabilities, the aircraft was loaded
with AIM-9L missiles on wingtip launchers with four dummy AIM-120
AMRAAM missiles conformally carried at the location where actual mis-
siles would have been attached in semisubmerged mountings. Additionally,
16 Mk-82 general-purpose bombs were mounted on individual low-drag
bomb racks under the wings. Fort Worth General Manager Herb Rogers
concluded the rollout ceremony by telling the audience that the first flight
of the F-16XL was imminent, noting, Just nineteen months ago, this was
a paper airplane. Now it is a reality.8
97
Elegance in Flight
On left: F-16XL-1 photographed at the rollout ceremony at the GD Fort Worth factory on July
2, 1982. On right: Aft view of F-16XL-1 as photographed at the Fort Worth rollout ceremony on
July 2, 1982. (Both images Lockheed Martin)
Harry Hillaker (front row, standing hands on hips) and members of the F-16XL design and
flight-test team with the first F-16XL, at General Dynamics Fort Worth plant. (Lockheed Martin
photograph via Robert Wetherall)
First Flight: July 3, 1982

Less than 24 hours after conclusion of the rollout ceremony, F-16XL-1 (75-
0749), piloted by General Dynamics F-16XL Project Pilot James A. Spider
McKinney, started up and taxied to the Carswell AFB main runway, adjacent to
the GD factory.9 For the first flight, only full internal fuselage fuel (6,700 pounds)
was carried. Two AIM-9L missiles were mounted on the wingtips (store stations 1
and 17) and four dummy AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles were carried on stations
6, 7, 11, and 12. At 10:47 a.m. local time on a sunny Texas day, after success-
fully completing functional checks of the aircraft subsystems and the special test
instrumentation system, McKinney executed a maximum power afterburner
takeoff. During the 65-minute first flight, the aircraft reached a maximum Mach
98
The first flight of the F-16XL-1. This flight photograph was subsequently autographed by GD test
pilot James McKinney. (Lockheed Martin)
number of 0.9 at 30,000 feet, a maximum load factor of 3 gs, and an angle of
attack of 20 degrees. McKinney was reported as saying that the aircraft had a solid
ride and performed as predicted, but its flight characteristics were very different
from those of the standard F-16.10
During the postflight debriefing and subsequent exuberant celebration festivi-
ties, an enthusiastic McKinney said that the F-16XL met or exceeded all expec-
tations on the first flight with excellent aircraft handling qualities and systems
operations. He reported that the aircraft had a solid feel and was comfortable to fly
after only a few minutes. Shortly after the 65-minute first flight, Jim McKinney
forwarded the following memo to the F-16XL development team (somewhat,
but understandably, understating any issues that had been encountered).
We had an outstanding first flight of the F-16XL on Saturday, 3

July 1982. The aircraft flew like a dream and met or exceeded our
goals for the first flight. The systems on the aircraft performed
flawlessly and the handling qualities were superb. The F-16XL
reflects a tremendous effort by everyone and especially during the
past few weeks as everything started coming together. I wanted to
congratulate and thank you for your efforts during this program.
The aircraft you have developed and built is a new generation of
fighter aircraft and is at the forefront of aviation today. I am hon-
ored to be associated with you and am confident we can succeed
in the challenges ahead.11
99
Elegance in Flight
General Dynamics Vice President and F-16XL Program Director D. Randal

Randy Kent quickly issued an attractive first flight certificate to all members
of the F-16XL development and flight-test team. It complemented the entire
development team with these inspiring words:
These are dates Im sure we will all long remember. They represent
the culmination of an extraordinary achievement by all of you who
participated in the birth of this beautiful aircraft.
When we started the project in November 1980, we knew that

to fly 19 months later represented a most ambitious and difficult
undertaking. But, because of your dedication and personal sacrifices
and those of your family, the challenge was metindeed, we beat
the schedule! I am sure you shared with me the thrill and sense of
pride when F-16XL-1 took to the air on Saturday morning, 3 July.
As a result of your skill and efforts, we can now offer our country
an important new defense weaponthe F-16XL Fighting Falcon.12
First Flight Pilot Report

Jim McKinneys first flight pilot report, quoted verbatim below, provides excel-
lent insight into the initial flight of what would eventually become a significant
second career for the F-16XL as a NASA supersonic research test bed.
Objectives:
This was the first flight of the F-16XL. The flight was devoted to
functional verification of the aerodynamic design, the checkout
of existing/modified/new F-16 systems, and checkout of aircraft
instrumentation.
Ground Operations:
All ground operations are straightforward and easily accomplished

with minimal pilot workload. Pilot involvement in FLCS [flight
control system] is minimal and requires only turning on and then
off the test to accomplish a thorough checkout.
Aircraft handling during ground operations was smooth and easy to

control. During the taxi test, improper nose strut servicing resulted
in excessive nose bounce when taxiing over seams in the concrete
100
ramp. Proper servicing between the taxi test and first flight signifi-
cantly reduced this tendency.
Takeoff:
Aircraft acceleration during the max A/B [afterburner] takeoff was

brisk. Aircraft rotation was initiated at approximately 150 KCAS
(predicted takeoff 165 KCAS). The pitch attitude changed quickly
in response to the slight amount of aft stick applied, indicating a
pitch sensitivity with weight on the landing gear (gains will be
changed for flight 2). While pitch attitude was definitely control-
lable, judicious pitch inputs were required to avoid excessive atti-
tude changes. As a result, a less than optimum takeoff attitude was
established and resulted in a 170-175 KCAS liftoff.
Once airborne, the initial pitch sensitivity disappeared and smooth

and precise aircraft control was easily achieved. A landing gear down
climb to 15,000 ft. was performed during which time this pilot
gently started to get the feel of this new aircraft. Handling was
pleasant and confidence in the FLCS was quickly gained.
Enroute:
A mild and brief PA [pitch axis] handling qualities evaluation was

conducted prior to raising the landing gear and verified the posi-
tive impressions experienced during the climb. The landing gear
was cycled twice; the JFS [jet fuel starter] started and shut down,
ECS [environmental control system] and instrumentation checked
prior to departing overhead Carswell [Air Force Base] for the high
altitude checks.
A mil [military] power climb to 30,000 feet was initiated at 350

KCAS. Climb rates were good and precise airspeed control was
easily achieved. Once at 30,000 ft., stability and control blocks
were performed at 0.8M [Mach] and 0.9M. Aircraft response
was smooth and quick, and showed excellent handling qualities.
During stick rolls, handling was pleasant; however, an obvious
side slip was evident after approximately 180 deg. of roll (post-flight
examination of TM [telemetry] traces shows that roll is a bit over-
coordinated in the current control implementation. This will be
corrected later in the flight test program.). At roll termination, the
101
Elegance in Flight
sideslip immediately went to zero without an obvious overshoot.

During a slow down to 20 alpha [degrees of angle of attack], a
light high frequency low amplitude airframe buffet was noted. The
aircraft was very solid in all axes during the deceleration to 20 alpha
which occurred at 110 KCAS. A mil power sustained turn was
completed at 0.9M/30K [Mach 0.9 at an altitude of 30,000 feet]
with results that corresponded exactly to the predictions.
An idle power descent from 30K to 10K was performed to allow

for a brief photo session prior to conducting a PA maneuver block.
Aircraft feel in PA was solid and the aircraft could be quickly and eas-
ily trimmed at the desired AOA. During 45 deg. bank-to-bank rolls,
a sideslip buildup was evident, but was not uncomfortable. Aircraft
reactions to raising and lowering the landing gear were minimal. The
final two times the gear was cycled prior to landing, the leading edge
flap servo light illuminated and reset on the first attempt.
Landing:
A straight-in approach to landing was performed to a full stop land-

ing. The aircraft was trimmed to 12-13 deg. AOA (155 KCAS) for
the approach and provided a solid platform to perform the land-
ing. At one mile from landing some turbulence was experienced
and AOA decreased intentionally to approximately 11 deg. (165
KCAS approx.) for the final phase. A constant pitch attitude with
no flare landing was performed which resulted in a smooth but
faster than optimum touchdown. Concern for the pitch sensitivity
noted on takeoff rotation prevented any significant aerodynamic
braking attempt. Once the nose wheel was lowered to the runway,
aircraft deceleration without wheel braking was not appreciable
and the drag chute was deployed to keep from overheating the
brakes. Deceleration from the drag chute was excellent. Aircraft
directional control with the drag chute deployed (no crosswind)
was no problem.13
Pitch Oscillation Gallop Issue

A longitudinal oscillation in the pitch axis had been briefly observed by Jim
McKinney on the first flight of F-16XL-1. Its impact on aircraft flying qualities
would result in an interim fix in the form of a notch-type filter that was inserted
in the pitch path of the flight control computer. The notch filter reduced avail-
able pitch gain by 25 percent. A prolonged investigation by the Air Force and
102
GD into the engineering root cause of the pitch oscillation continued well into
1985. This eventually revealed a disagreement between the analytical model of
the flight control system and the actual flight control system hardware installed
in the aircraft. Flight testing conducted by the Combined Test Force at Edwards
AFB determined that a 2.5 Hz pitch oscillation existed in the aircraft longitudinal
axis. This oscillation was encountered in the 0.9 to 0.95 Mach number range at
all altitudes during 1-g flight. The amplitude or severity of the pitch oscillation
increased as altitude decreased (and air density increased). The amplitude of the
pitch oscillation was dependent on the specified FCS gain in the longitudinal
axis. The gain turned out to be 180 degrees out of phase in the frequency range
where the longitudinal oscillation existed. Pilots came to refer to this oscilla-
tion as pitch gallop, or lope. It was considered a general nuisance in 1-g
flight. However, as g-level was increased during simulated combat maneuvers,
the severity of the oscillation also increased to the degree that it was impossible
to adequately track a maneuvering target with the lead computing optical gun
sight. The pitch oscillation issue led to a dedicated CTF flight-test evaluation
of the F-16XLs FCS. An inflight excitation test procedure was developed that
obtained actual aircraft frequency responses using actual aircraft hardware and
aerodynamics at any condition within the flight envelope. As this interesting
aspect of the Air Force F-16XL flight evaluation was not completed until much
later in the test program (in 1985, well after the Dual-Role Fighter source selec-
tion was complete), it will be discussed in more technical detail in a later section.14
Transference of Flight Testing from Texas to Edwards

Insofar as continuing flight testing at Fort Worth was concerned, the daily status/
pilot flight report for July 6, 1982, noted that future flights at Fort Worth would
be spaced to reflect SPO limitations on the number of flights to be conducted at
Fort Worth and their duration awaiting a decision on the readiness of the CTF at
Edwards AFB to receive the aircraft.15 GD publicly announced shortly after the
first flight that F-16XL-1 was to be ferried to Edwards by the end of July to begin
an extensive 250-flight, 9-month evaluation by Air Force and GD test pilots.16
F-16XL-1 would fly three more times at Fort Worth to expand the flight envelope
in preparation for ferrying to Edwards AFB. On July 9, on its second flight, the
aircraft exceeded Mach 1. On July 18, 1982, F-16XL-1 flew twice. Following
a 1.3-hour local test flight, it was flown on a 2.3-hour cross-country flight and
delivered to the F-16XL Combined Test Force at Edwards. Delivery to the Air
Force was several weeks ahead of the earlier scheduled delivery date in mid-August.
Two days later, on July 20, 1982, Lt. Col. Marty H. Bushnell, director of the
F-16XL Combined Test Force, became the first Air Force pilot to fly the aircraft.
103
Elegance in Flight
Endnotes
1. This was less than 2 weeks later than the planned rollout date of June
22 contained in the F-16XL No. 1 Ground, Flight Test and Delivery
schedule, Revision A-1, of April 1, 1982. As it unfolded, first flight
would take place 3 days earlier than the scheduled July 6 date.
2. GD, F-16XL Rollout and First Flight, Division Log, Bulletin 1098,
General Dynamics Corporation, Fort Worth Division, July 22,
1982.
3. Evolutionary F-16XL Makes Its First Flight One Day After Its
Rollout at Fort Worth, General Dynamics World 12, no. 7 (July 7,
1982).
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. A former Navy test pilot and 1967 U.S. Naval Academy graduate,
Jim McKinney served two combat tours flying F-4 Phantoms from
aircraft carriers during the Vietnam War. After leaving GD, he was
a vice president with FEDEX and then president of his own moving
company. McKinney died suddenly on January 4, 2011, while play-
ing golf in Atlanta, GA.
10. Author not identified, First Flight for F-16XL, Flight International
(July 17, 1982): p. 118.
11. Jim McKinney, Memorandum to F-16XL Development Team,
Subject: F-16XL First Flight, General Dynamics Corporation, Fort
Worth Division, July 6, 1982.
12. D.R. Kent, vice president and program director, F-16XL Program,
F-16XL Fighting Falcon First Flight Certificate, General
Dynamics Corporation, Fort Worth Division, July 3, 1982. The cer-
tificate was signed by Kent and is reproduced in its original format
in Appendix A.
13. Jim McKinney, F-16XL Flight No. 1 Pilot Report, General
Dynamics Corporation, Fort Worth Division, July 3, 1982.
14. Tierney, Inflight Excitation of the F-16XL.
15. J.D. Korstian, F-16XL-1 Daily Status/Pilot Flight Report, General
Dynamics Corporation, Fort Worth Division, July 6, 1982.
16. As stated in F-16XL Rollout and First Flight, Division Log,
Bulletin 1098, General Dynamics Corporation, Fort Worth
Division, July 22, 1982. However, F-16XL No. 1 Ground, Flight
104
Test and Delivery schedule, Revision A-1, April 1, 1982 showed

XL-1 delivery to Edwards AFB scheduled for August 14.
105
Each F-16XL had an individualized, multitone grey camouflage scheme. (National Museum of
the USAF)
106
CHAPTER 6
The Integrated Flight-Test

Organization, Objectives,
and Program
The F-16E Combined Test Force

The F-16E Combined Test Force was established at the Air Force Flight Test
Center at Edwards Air Force Base in July 1981, well in advance of the first
flight of the F-16XL aircraft in July 1982.1 Lt. Col. Marty H. Bushnell was the
first CTF director (a position which he would hold until November 1, 1983,
when Lt. Col. Edwin Ed A. Thomas, who had been his deputy, became the
CTF director). The F-16E flight demonstration program was accomplished
as an integrated effort by the Air Force and General Dynamics. A dedicated
team made up of pilots and maintenance personnel from the Air Force Flight
Test Center, the Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center, the Air
Force Tactical Air Command, and General Dynamics was formed and located
within the existing F-16E Combined Test Force at the AFFTC. Most of the
flying would be accomplished by six project pilots: two each from the AFFTC,
AFOTEC, and General Dynamics. The key players on the dedicated CTF team
by assigned organization were:
AFFTC:
Lt. Col. Marty H. Bushnell, F-16XL CTF director
Lt. Col. Edwin A. Thomas, F-16XL CTF deputy director
AFOTEC:
Lt. Col. P.C. Burnett
Maj. John Cary
TAC:
Lt. Col. Joe Bill Dryden, liaison pilot
107
Elegance in Flight
General Dynamics:
G.K. Smith, manager, test and evaluation
James McKinney, project pilot
Alex Wolfe, project pilot
Flight Test Phases and Objectives

The flight-test effort was divided into three phases, with basic test objectives
varying according to individual phase. These test phases were known as Phase
I, Development Flight Test; Phase II, Development (Extended) Flight Test;
and Phase III, PreFull-Scale Engineering Development (FSED) Flight Test.2
F-16XL flight testing eventually extended from the July 3, 1982, first flight of
F-16XL-1 to October 1, 1985, when the two-seat F-16XL-2 was delivered to
GD in Fort Worth following termination of the Air Forcefunded program.
The Air Force portion of the flight-test effort was funded at $15.3 million dol-
lars in fiscal year 1982 with $11.0 million more authorized in fiscal year 1983.
F-16XL Phase I, Development Flight Test

Phase I was originally scheduled to extend over a 10 month period starting in
July of 1982 with the two prototypes programmed for a total of 270 test flights
(157 for XL-1 and 113 for XL-2). Of these 270 missions, 36 were specifically
dedicated to an AFOTEC evaluation of the F-16XLs operational potential for
the Dual-Role Fighter mission with an emphasis on its air-to-ground capa-
bilities. During this phase of flight testing, the CTF was comprised of test
pilots and engineers from General Dynamics and the AFFTC with additional
members from the AFOTEC, TAC, and ASD. Phase I testing would evaluate
key design and basic airworthiness features of the aircraft with a focus on dem-
onstrating performance and maneuver capabilities as compared to the basic
F-16. As Phase I unfolded, program goals were modified to provide detailed
data for the USAF Aeronautical Systems Division Derivative Fighter Steering
Group (DFSG). The DFSG used data from Phase I testing to support selection
of a derivative fighter design for further development as a Dual-Role Fighter.
Derivatives of the McDonnell-Douglas F-15 (specifically, the F-15E Strike
Eagle) and the F-16E were contenders in the DRF source selection.
The Phase I test program included both Development Test and Evaluation
(DT&E) missions and an Operational Utility Evaluation. A wide variety of
weapons and stores would be demonstrated and adequate weapon employment
envelopes defined for use in the OUE. The OUE would assess the F-16XLs
potential combat utility, suitability, and effectiveness, and it would be con-
ducted by AFOTEC. OUE missions were dedicated to operational utility and
108
The Integrated Flight-Test Organization, Objectives, and Program
suitability testing using the facilities and resources of Tactical Air Commands
Nellis AFB near Las Vegas, NV. During the OUE, the F-16XLs would be
flown in both air-to-air and air-to-ground configurations against Air Force
McDonnell-Douglas F-4s flown by operational squadrons, Northrop F-5s
from the dedicated Air Force aggressor squadron, and standard F-16s. The
Derivative Fighter Evaluation program had planned for 270 flights to be com-
pleted by May 15, 1983, using the two F-16XL aircraft, of which 36 were to
be allocated to the OUE. In fact, within the time and funding provided, a total
of 369 test flights were accomplished during Phase I, which was actually not
completed until June 15, 1983. This included 90 OUE flights.3
Phase II, Development (Extended) Flight Test

Phase II, Development (Extended) Flight Test followed the completion of
Phase I testing that had also supported the Dual-Role Fighter source selection
evaluation process. AFOTEC did not participate in Phase II testing. The Air
Force DRF source selection decision, announced in January 1984, had resulted
in the F-15E being selected for Full-Scale Engineering Development, leading to
its eventual production. F-16XL Phase II consisted of additional development
testing to expand the demonstrated capabilities of the F-16XL using remaining
authorized, but unexpended, flight-test funding. The test plan for the Phase II,
Development (Extended) Flight Test effort called for an additional 72 flights.
These would evaluate performance and flying qualities with additional weapons
and store loadings. Phase II, Development (Extended) Flight Test efforts were
conducted from June 15, 1983, to February 1, 1985.4
Phase III, Pre-FSED Flight Test

Phase III, Pre-FSED Flight Test was structured to continue development of
the F-16XL. The intent of Phase III was to reduce risk for a possible Full-Scale
Engineering Development effort that would lead to a production version of the
single-seat F-16XL. This aircraft would have been designated F-16F. Phase III
was intended to continue flight control system development, weapons separa-
tion testing, and flight clearance of additional stores/weapon combinations and
load configurations. Another objective of this test phase involved a flight-test
evaluation of the General Electric F110 engine installed in F-16XL-2. During
this phase of testing, XL-2 was also modified with the installation of a so-
called Large Normal Shock Inlet. The LNSI provided increased mass airflow.
This would enable the General Electric F110-GE-100 engine in F-16XL-2 to
provide its maximum thrust and full acceleration capabilities. Phase III flight
testing began on February 1, 1985, and continued until October 1, 1985. On
that day, F-16XL-2 was ferried to the General Dynamics factory in Fort Worth
and placed in flyable storage along with F-16XL-1.5
109
Elegance in Flight
Edwards AFB Flight-Testing Highlights

On July 18, 1982, Jim McKinney ferried F-16XL-1 from Fort Worth to
Edwards AFB on a flight that lasted 2.3 hours. Less than 3 days later, the CTF
commander, Lt. Col. Marty Bushnell, flew the aircraft on its first test mission
with the CTF. Performance, stability and control, and flight envelope expan-
sion began immediately. Two external payload configurations were initially
used in the combined test program. These were the air-to-air configuration,
with 6 missiles, and an air-to-ground configuration carrying 12 Mk-82 bombs
along with the 6 air-to-air missiles. A maximum Mach number of 1.95 was
achieved on flight number 19 on July 28, 1982. This was the highest Mach
number ever attained by the Pratt & Whitney F100-powered F-16XL-1 during
the course of the entire Air Force test program. Later the same day, the maxi-
mum 9-g capability of the aircraft was reached during structural loads testing
with F-16XL-1 in the air-to-air configuration.
Speed Brake Actuator Failure

On August 3, 1982, during Ed Thomass initial checkout flight, a speed brake
actuator failed. This was F-16XL-1 flight number 22. The failure happened
when the speed brakes were deployed at Mach 1.6 at 30,000 feet. The left-hand
speed brake actuator experienced a structural failure, resulting in the loss of the
speed brake systems hydraulic supply. Following the incident, Thomas made
an uneventful emergency landing on the lakebed runway at Edwards AFB.
Subsequent investigation determined that the speed brake design criteria used
by GD was based on an assumption that the air loads on both the upper and
lower speed brake surfaces were the same when the speed brakes were extended.
However, this assumption failed to take into account the aerodynamic effects
created by the aft AIM-120 missiles, which were mounted immediately ahead
of the lower speed brake surfaces. At higher airspeeds and dynamic pressures,
the load asymmetry between the upper and lower surfaces of each speed brake
exceeded the structural design capability of the actuators leading to the fail-
ure. Corrective action involved incorporation of an electric override into the
pilots speed brake switch that precluded speed brake operation at indicated
airspeeds above 525 KCAS. With this relatively simple change to the speed
brake opening logic, speed brake actuator loads were kept at acceptable levels
with minimal impact to the subsequent flight-test program.
Testing Accelerates
During August 1982, the first aerial refueling from a USAF KC-135 tanker was
accomplished. In late August 1982, the CTF reported, Initial qualitative com-
parisons with T-38s, F-4s, and the F-16A indicate that the XL is very stable and
110
comfortable at low altitude and indeed may be less susceptible to turbulence

upset.6 In this context, the normally adverse effects of lower wing loading on ride
quality appeared to be offset by the ability of the F-16XLs low-aspect-ratio, highly
swept cranked-arrow wing to compensate for the effects of gusts and turbulence.
Twelve Mk-82 500-pound bombs were successfully released at minimum inter-
vals on August 24. Release conditions were 1-g level flight at an altitude of 13,000
feet and a speed of Mach 0.75. The bombs were ripple-released at 15 millisecond
intervals.7 A single Mk-82 bomb was released from a lateral bomb toss maneuver
on flight number 72, flown on October 22. Basic F-16 weapons delivery software
was used on the realistic tactical weapons delivery profile. Flight conditions at
bomb release were airspeed 540 KCAS at an altitude of 500 feet above ground
level during a 4-g turn. The bomb hit within 70 feet of its intended target, well
inside the Air Force accuracy criteria of 140 feet for unguided bomb deliveries.
On left: The F-16XL-1 flying a test mission on August 18, 1982, with 12 500-pound Mk-82
bombs, 4 fuselage-mounted AIM-120 AMRAAMs, and 2 wingtip-mounted AIM-9 Sidewinder
missiles. On right: On August 24, 1982, the F-16XL-1 successfully released 12 500 pound
Mk-82 bombs from individual low-drag ejector bomb racks. (Both images USAF)
On October 27, Joe Bill Dryden ferried F-16XL-1 back to Fort Worth,
just in time for the first flight of the two-seat F-16XL-2. Although the over-
all external dimensions of both aircraft were the same, the empty weight of
the two-seat aircraft was nearly 2,000 pounds heavier than the single-seat
F-16XL-1 (21,623 pounds as compared to 19,690 pounds). As a consequence
of the second cockpit, XL-2 carried about 1,000 pounds less internal fuel than
the single seat aircraft. After being removed from its assembly tooling in June
1982, subsystems were installed and checked out. Following final safety of
flight reviews, F-16XL-2 flew for the first time on October 29, 1982. General
Dynamics Project Pilot Alex Wolfe was at the front seat controls with Jim
McKinney in the aft seat. On this occasion, F-16XL-2 easily exceeded Mach
1.0. On November 8, both F-16XL aircraft were ferried together in close for-
mation from Fort Worth to Edwards AFB, where they would undergo a series
of intensive flight-test evaluations that would continue until the end of June
111
Elegance in Flight
1985. For the 2.5-hour formation ferry flight, Tactical Air Commands Joe
Bill Dryden and GD Project Pilot Alex Wolfe joined up to crew F-16XL-2.8
P.C. Burnett, one of the AFOTEC members of the Combined Test Force, flew
F-16XL-1. The nonstop formation flight to Edwards was made on internal
fuel and without en route aerial refueling. In spite of 90-knot headwinds, both
aircraft arrived with normal fuel reserves.
In-Flight Elevon Actuation Horn Failure

During F-16XL-1 flight number 79, on November 9, 1982, Jim McKinney was
conducting a stability and control evaluation with the aircraft in the air-to-air
configuration. An elevon actuation horn failed while the aircraft was in a rolling
maneuver at Mach 0.95 at 10,000 feet altitude. The resultant high-transient
structural loads produced on the airframe caused the right-hand AIM-9L mis-
sile, along with its launcher, to separate from the aircraft. The vertical fin-tip
fairing was also lost, possibly due to a glancing impact by the missile and
launcher after they separated from the aircraft. Aerodynamic loads on the
elevons under these rolling flight conditions and high dynamic pressures pro-
duced stresses that were near the
limit hinge-moment capability.
Inadequate material properties
in the elevon control horn were
determined to have been the cause
of the failure. The automatic flight
control system immediately ret-
rimmed the aircraft to compen-
sate for the changed aerodynamic
configuration of the aircraft.
Following engineering investi-
The F-16XL-1 photograph, which McKinney auto- gation and analysis, the elevon
graphed while recovering to Edwards, November 9, actuator horn was redesigned with
1982. (Lockheed Martin) increased thickness and stronger
aluminum alloys. Extensive test-
ing subsequently validated the adequacy of the redesign.9 Jim McKinney had
carried an inflight photo of the F-16XL-1 taken earlier in the test program
aloft with him on this test flight that he autographed during his recovery to
an emergency landing at Edwards AFB.
Pace of Flight Testing Increases

The pace of the combined flight-test effort began to really ramp up, with
Flight International magazine reporting in early December 1982 that the two
aircraft had passed 100 flight hours. By that time, F-16XL-1 had flown 79
112
times and reached 50,000 feet, and the two-seat XL-2 had flown 17 times,
reaching an altitude of 45,000 feet. According to press reports, both aircraft
had achieved Mach 2.0 speeds. (This is somewhat of an exaggeration as XL-1
never exceeded Mach 1.95 during the Air Force test program, while XL-2s
maximum demonstrated Mach number was 1.6.) General Dynamics released
publicity photos showing F-16XL-1 dropping a load of 12 Mk-82 500 pound
bombs from its conformal underwing stations while also carrying a full air-
to-air missile payload. By the end of the year, nearly 130 F-16XL flights had
been accumulated with both aircraft.10
After arrival at Edwards in November 1982, F-16XL-2 was used for a
10-flight-test program that examined elevon loads. This was accomplished in
conjunction with other testing that included performance, loads, propulsion,
and flutter. These combined tests continued through flight number 27, when
the strengthened landing gear and improved elevons were installed. These
modifications were completed at the GD factory in Fort Worth between
November 10, 1982, and January 10, 1983. The new strengthened landing
gear allowed aircraft takeoff gross weight to be increased up to 48,000 pounds
from the previous limit of 37,500 pounds. Throughout Phase I, both F-16XL
aircraft would be used to expand the allowable flight envelope with respect to
airspeed, Mach number, load factor, and maneuvering g-limits for various store
loadings. The test force reported at this time that [p]reliminary testing of the
aircraft has shown significant performance advantages as a result of using the
XL configuration instead of external tanks and multiple store racks to the basic
F-16 to achieve a desired range payload combination.11
Gun firing tests of the F-16XLs M61 Vulcan 20-millimeter (mm) rotary
cannon began on January 10, 1983, with vibration levels being reported as
similar to those experienced on the F-16. An antispin chute was installed on
XL-1 in late January 1983, and high-alpha test missions were flown with the
aircraft both in the air-to-air (missiles-only) configuration and with up to 12
Mk-82 bombs in the air-to-ground configuration. Generally, aircraft charac-
teristics were found to be excellent under the flight conditions evaluated in the
first phase of the planned flight-test program, regardless of store configuration
tested. Results from Phase I high-alpha testing were used to formulate the
next phase of high-AoA testing, during which additional store loadings and
configurations would be evaluated.
Additional weapons separation testing was used to determine safe and reli-
able weapons employment capabilities for the subsequent Operational Utility
Evaluation. The OUE would assess F-16XL combat utility and its potential
effectiveness as an operational Air Force weapons system. The OUE was con-
ducted during Phase I testing, with some Phase II test missions used to collect
additional data as requested by the USAF ASD DFSG for use during the
113
Elegance in Flight
Dual-Role Fighter evaluation. Pilot comments for all configurations flown

during Phase I were largely positive, with the aircraft displaying generally favor-
able qualities in the areas of performance, flutter, and stability and control.
One major area of concern that was quickly highlighted by CTF pilots was
the significantly lower thrust-to-weight ratio of the aircraft as compared to
the F-16A and F-16B. The implications of this issue under a variety of flight
conditions and store loadings were identified as an area for additional careful
evaluation as the test program progressed.12
Operational Utility Evaluation

A total of 90 test missions, or approximately 25 percent of all Phase I flights, were
eventually dedicated to the Operational Utility Evaluation. During the course of
the OUE, both F-16XL aircraft
were evaluated by Tactical Air
Command pilots. On missions
conducted at Nellis AFB, simu-
lated air combat engagements
were flown against Air Force F-4,
F-5, and F-16 fighters using the
highly instrumented Air Combat
Maneuvering Range (ACMR).
For these missions, the F-6XLs
carried an ACMR pod on one
of the wingtip AIM-9 missile
launchers. The pod automati-
cally passed critical air combat
maneuvering and fire control
Each F-16XL had an individualized, multitone
system parameters to the ACMR grey camouflage scheme. (National Museum of
ground stations for postmission the USAF)
review, debriefing, and analysis.
During the OUE, high pitch and
g-onset rate capabilities of the F-16XL were assessed as key factors in the air
combat successes achieved; however, this was somewhat offset by very rapid
energy loss that was experienced during sustained high-g turning maneuvers.
In the air-to-ground portion of the evaluation, handling qualities and track-
ing during weapons deliveries in conventional, pop-up, and lateral-toss mode
were highly rated by the TAC pilots, and the aircraft was rated as quick, solid,
and very responsive in pitch and roll. Ride quality at low altitude and high
speed (an area of high technical interest for the program) was assessed as excel-
lentthis despite the much lower wing loading of the F-16XL compared to
that of the standard F-16.
114
Quick Combat Turnaround Demonstration

In conjunction with the OUE flight evaluation, the ability of the F-16XL to be
quickly armed and refueled was evaluated using an all Air Force maintenance
crew that included AFOTEC and TAC personnel. Some concerns had been
expressed over the amount of time that could be required to individually load
the 12 separate underwing bomb racks. During the quick combat turnaround
demonstration, the aircraft was accepted by the maintenance ground crew fol-
lowing its return from a mission. It was then fully refueled and serviced, a drag
chute was installed, the bomb racks and missile launchers were loaded with
12 semiconformally mounted Mk-82 bombs and 2 wingtip AIM-9 missiles,
the M61 cannon magazine was loaded with 510 rounds of 20-mm dummy
ammunition, the aircraft was accepted by the pilot, the engine was started,
the flight control and inertial navigation systems were tested and aligned, and
the aircraft was launched, all in a little less than 24 minutes. Servicing and
launching a standard F-16 during a quick combat turnaround exercise with a
similar armament load took about 16 minutes, but the F-16XLs turnaround
time was within the TAC criteria of 25 minutes.13
Phase I Testing Completed

The original Phase I flight-test program agreement between the Air Force and
GD had called for test objectives to be completed by May 15, 1983, with a
minimum of 240 missions accomplished. In reality, by the end of Phase I test-
ing, F-16XL-1 had completed 200 flights and XL-2 had flown 169 times, with
the two aircraft averaging 36 sorties per month. The CTF commander, Marty
Bushnell, commented that the aircrafts demonstrated reliability and main-
tainability was about the same as that of the F-16, and F-16XL sortie rates in
operational USAF service should also be similar to those of the F-16.14 During
the 369 flights completed in Phase I testing, a number of key performance
items were demonstrated. These included a maximum speed of Mach 1.95
in full afterburning power while carrying six air-to-air missiles demonstrated
using F-16XL-1. In the air-to-ground configuration, F-16XL-1 reached Mach
1.4 using full engine thrust with afterburner with an external weapons payload
of 12 Mk-82 bombs plus 4 AIM-120s and 2 AIM-9 missiles. In the same air-
to-ground configuration, a maximum airspeed of 600 KCAS was demonstrated
using Military Power thrust (defined as 100 engine rpm without use of after-
burning) at an altitude of 500 feet. When loaded with two 370-gallon wing
tanks, six Mk-82 bombs, and a full load of six air-to-air missiles, F-16XL-1 was
65 knots faster in Military Power than a comparably loaded F-16. In the air-
to-air configuration loaded with six air-to-air missiles, F-16XL-1 demonstrated
a sustained load factor of 3.6 gs at Mach 1.4 at an altitude of 30,000 feet.
During maximum load factor testing, 9.1 gs was achieved with the air-to-air
115
Elegance in Flight
missile load of 6 missiles with 7.2 gs demonstrated while carrying a load of 12

Mk-82 bombs and 6 missiles. The 9.1-g maximum load factor demonstrated
in testing was slightly above the maximum design load factor of 9.0 gs; the
slightly higher load factor registered was due to the g-overshoot issue that is
discussed subsequently. During the flight-test program, missions were flown
up to the maximum takeoff gross weight (MTOGW) of 48,000 pounds.15
Neither F-16XL flight demonstrator proved to be capable of true super-
cruise performance, as was later attained by the Lockheed YF-22A ATF proto-
type and the production Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor. As defined by the Air
Force, supercruise provided a capability for sustained supersonic flight without
the use of afterburner.16 However, the F-16XLs low-drag design, along with
its ability to carry 11,200 pounds of internal fuel, did provide significantly
increased range compared to the standard F-16C. Ironically, when both aircraft
were configured for the air-to-air mission, the F-16C actually had better sub-
sonic cruise efficiency than the F-16XL. As speed approached Mach 1.0, the
F-16XLs comparative cruise efficiency improved, and at Mach 1.4, the F-16XL
had a 25-percent-higher lift-to-drag ratio than that of the F-16C. The clean
aerodynamic design of the F-16XL is clearly seen in photographs of the type.
On the air-to-air mission profile, the XL demonstrated a 53-percent-better
range capability when carrying internal fuel only compared to the F-16C.
With external fuel tanks, the F-16XLs range capability was 124 percent higher.
Similar results were obtained with air-to-ground payloads. For example, with
twice the payload, 12 Mk-82 bombs on the F-16XL compared to 6 similar
bombs on the F-16A, the XLs range was 44 percent greater. The F-16XL dem-
onstrated a ferry range of 2,245 nautical miles without aerial refueling when
carrying two 600-gallon external fuel tanks.17
Shortly after the conclusion of Phase I testing, General Dynamics was
quoted in the aviation press as saying that the F-16XL had demonstrated
maneuverability that was better than expected, with its cranked-arrow wing
planform displaying none of the unfavorable drag characteristics of the tail-
less delta. At the same time, and perhaps defensively, GD claimed that there
was no discernible difference in performance between the Pratt & Whitney
F100powered aircraft and the aircraft powered by the General Electric F110
engine, and it added that extra thrust was not needed.18 However, the Air
Force reported that the F-16XL was purposely designed to have improved
instantaneous turn rates rather than high sustained maneuvering capability.19
In this regard, the F-16XL demonstrated an instantaneous turn rate that was
about 30 percent higher than that of the standard F-16 in the air-to-ground
configuration, with both aircraft carrying the same payload at 30,000 feet. At
the same altitude, the F-16XLs instantaneous turn rate was 14 percent better
than that of the standard F-16 when both aircraft were carrying their full
116
The F-16XL-2 had a fake canopy and air refueling receptacle markings painted on its underside
to visually disorient opposing fighter pilots as to the true orientation of the aircraft. The circular
white markings were intended to represent pilots helmets when seen from a distance. (USAF)
air-to-air missile payload. In contrast, there was a significant loss of sustained

turn capability compared to that of the F-16. For example, at a Mach number
of 0.9 at 30,000 feet, the F-16XLs sustained turn rate was 30 percent lower
than that of the F-16 in both the air-to-air and the air-to-ground configura-
tions. This poor sustained turning performance compared to the F-16 was iden-
tified by the Air Force as resulting from the high induced drag of the F-16XLs
cranked-arrow wing and its relatively low thrust-to-weight ratio. Commenting
on this specific issue, Maj. Patrick K. Talty, the former deputy for engineering
within the F-16E Combined Test Force at the Air Force Flight Test Center,
later reported the following:
Pilot comments generally expressed concern about the loss of energy

that resulted during high g maneuvers with the XL. Typically, in
a 180 degree heading change turn the XL would lose about 180
knots. The operational utility of the gain in instantaneous turning
capability was masked by this loss of energy. The T/W ratio of the
F-16XL with half fuel in the air-to-air loading is 0.7. This is below
the historical trend that US fighter aircraft have been following.
The exceptional rolling ability of the XL was used to offset this loss
of sustained maneuver capability in simulated combat, but the lack
of sustained maneuver capability was always raised as a primary
concern by the pilots attached to the test program.20
117
Elegance in Flight
Test Results and Lessons Learned

Takeoff and Landing Performance
All takeoffs were accomplished with maximum (full afterburner) power. Aft
stick force was applied at about 25 to 30 knots below computed takeoff speed
in order to establish a 10- to 14-degree pitch attitude at liftoff, with the higher
pitch attitude used at heavier gross weights to minimize takeoff distance. Pilots
reported that the commanded pitch rate tended to stop short of achieving the
desired pitch attitude prior to liftoff. Liftoff speeds typically approached 180
knots when the aircraft carried a mixed load of air-to-air and air-to-ground
ordnance consisting of 4 AIM-120 missiles, 2 AIM-9L missiles, and 12 Mk-82
bombs.21 Under such heavyweight conditions, the aircraft had a tendency
to settle back toward the runway as it left ground effect. If the pilot did not
counter this settling tendency with increased back stick pressure to achieve and
maintain a precise takeoff attitude at the computed takeoff speed, the aircraft
could touch back down on the runway before it could establish and maintain a
positive rate of climb. This tendency to skip and touchdown after liftoff under
heavyweight conditions required the pilot to be cautious in retracting the land-
ing gear until a positive rate of climb was established. In spite of these issues,
pilots reported that takeoffs were generally safe, with a workload comparable
to that encountered with other operational fighters under similar conditions.22
Not surprisingly, takeoff performance of the Pratt & Whitney F100pow-
ered F-16XL-1 was significantly degraded as its takeoff weight increased. The
high desert conditions at Edwards AFB (which is located at an elevation 2,310
feet above sea level) further affected takeoff performance. The effects of the
higher operating altitude and hotter temperatures (often well above 100 degrees
Fahrenheit) could be accounted for in performance analyses, but the take-
off performance differential between the two aircraft was very pronounced.
The more powerful General Electric F110 engine installed in the two-seat
F-16XL-2 noticeably improved takeoff performance on hot days. For example,
at relatively heavyweight conditions (a takeoff gross weight [TOGW] of 44,000
pounds) on a hot day at Edwards, F-16XL-1s (F100 engine) takeoff distance
was 5,500 feet. This was due to its low thrust-to-weight ratio, which, measured
under these conditions, was only 0.33. At the same TOGW, the two-seat
F-16XL-2 (with its more powerful General Electric F110 engine) was able to
takeoff in a distance of 3,800 feet. Although this was significantly better than
the takeoff performance of F-16XL-1, it still did not meet the program goal
that called for a takeoff distance of less than 2,000 feet under standard sea
level conditions.23
The CTF rated F-16XL climb performance in military thrust as satisfac-
tory for all munitions and external store loadings tested with the exception
118
of the Tactical Munitions Dispenser (TMD). Rate of climb with the payload
of six TMDs, carried three in tandem under each side of the inboard section
of the wing, was marginal. This was caused by aerodynamic drag that was
much higher than had been predicted from wind tunnel carriage test results.
This was reportedly due to inaccuracies between the subscale TMD models
used in F-16XL wind tunnel testing and the characteristics of the full-scale
TMD. Fin geometry and, hence, store drag of the TMD subscale models was
not representative of the actual weapons. Maximum thrust (full afterburner)
climb performance was rated satisfactory for all weapons and external store
loadings tested.24
Approach and Landing

The F-16XL had a very high approach speed under heavyweight conditions
of 200 KCAS with touchdown speeds well above 170 knots. During powered
approaches to landing, the F-16XL was reported to be smooth, responsive,
and stable.25 The aircraft had to be flown at a higher angle of attack on final
approach than the standard F-16, limiting over-the-nose visibility and increas-
ing pilot workload. It was less sensitive to the effects of gusts than the standard
F-16. Approach AoA was restricted to 13 degrees by limited over-the-nose vis-
ibility, and they also ensured adequate aft fuselage clearance with the runway
at touchdown. A slight airframe buffet at angles of attack greater than 10
degrees provided the pilot with a useful cue, with the aircraft appearing to have
a natural affinity for the 13-degree approach AoA. At this AoA, instrument
approaches were reportedly easy to fly. The Air Force noted a potential for the
aircraft to develop a high sink rate on final approach due to the combined
effects of the high induced drag of the large cranked-arrow wing and the
relatively slow response of the low bypass ratio turbofan engine. This slower
engine response required the pilot to anticipate the need for power changes.
The Air Force considered this as another factor in increased pilot workload.
As the F-16XL approached the runway, the aerodynamic characteristics of
the aircraft changed. This phenomenon is known as ground effect, and it affects
all aircraft. Aircraft with low aspect ratio wings, like the F-16XL, are very sensi-
tive to ground effect. The primary effect is an increase in lift coefficient, with
the drag coefficient and pitching moment also changing. A nose-down pitching
moment generally occurs. Drag coefficient changes may be positive or negative.
Flight in very close proximity to the ground can affect air data measurements
and may also affect aircraft flying characteristics. In most cases, ground effects
are not excessively troublesome and are easily compensated for by an experi-
enced pilot.26 With the F-16XL, a very noticeable decrease in rate of descent
occurred as the aircraft entered the ground effect region within about 10 to 20
feet of the runway, even when the pilot maintained a constant pitch attitude. A
119
Elegance in Flight
normal flared landing usually resulted in a smooth touchdown. Aerodynamic

braking was routinely used by the pilots to assist the brakes, and this helped
to reduce the landing rollout distance. This technique involved the pilot hold-
ing the nose of the aircraft at a pitch angle of 14 degrees immediately after
touchdown. That attitude was
maintained until the airspeed
reached 100 KCAS, at which
time the nose gear was lowered
to the runway and the brakes
applied. Ed Thomas reported:
For every additional degree of
fuselage deck angle, we get a
huge increase in drag from that
big delta wing, greatly improv-
ing our landing performance.27
The XL was reported as being
The Convair XF-92A Dart, progenitor of all American more stable than the standard
delta-wing aircraft, on the ramp of the NACA High- F-16 in the two-point attitude
Speed Flight Research Station (now the Dryden Flight
used during aerodynamic brak-
Research Center) in 1953. The wing and aft fuselage
were tufted for flow visualization studies. Despite ing after touchdown with pitch
its F for Fighter designation, this was strictly a control reported as more posi-
transonic research aircraft. (NASA) tive. Pilots also reported that
the large drag chute was very
effective in initially decelerat-
ing the aircraft and helping
to reduce landing distance.28
The F-16XLs approach and
landing characteristics, and
associated piloting techniques,
were similar to those used with
the classic earlier delta-wing
fighter-interceptors produced
by the Convair Division of
General Dynamicsthe super-
sonic F-102A Delta Dagger
and the Mach 2+ F-106A Delta
Dartand their transonic test
bed progenitor, the Convair
A Convair YF-102 Delta Dagger, flown by NACA at XF-92A Dart.29
Edwards in 1954 on drag and aerodynamic pitch-up The F-16XL did not achieve
studies. (NASA) the goal of having a decreased
120
A Convair QF-106 Delta Dart on takeoff from Mojave Air and Space Port, 1997. (NASA)
landing distance relative to the standard F-16. Indeed, it was significantly

greater: with a full internal fuel load (an aircraft gross weight of 35,000 pounds),
the F-16XLs landing distance was 6,700 feet without use of the drag chute. But
even with the drag chute deployed on landing, landing distance was still 5,100
feet. The standard F-16 with a full internal fuel load had a landing distance of
4,500 feet under the same conditions at Edwards AFB.30
The Air Force attributed the long F-16XL landing distance to several fac-
tors. These included a very flat approach (characteristic of deltas) with a
consequent high-speed approach under heavyweight conditions of 200 KCAS.
Touchdown speeds were often well above 170 knots. These high approach
and touchdown speeds resulted from an approach AoA that was limited to
about 13 degrees due to over-the-nose visibility limitations, and they also
ensured an adequate aft fuselage clearance with the runway at touchdown.
General Dynamics considered several approaches that would increase lift coef-
ficient while holding angle of attack constant in an attempt to reduce the high
approach and touchdown speeds.
These included installation of inboard leading-edge vortex flaps. As previ-
ously discussed, the application of vortex flaps to highly swept wings had been
extensively investigated by NASA Langley researchers. F-16XL wind tunnel
models fitted with leading-edge vortex flaps had been evaluated in Langley
wing tunnels. Changes to the F-16XLs flight control system were also being
investigated. The available pitching moment on the aircraft would have been
increased by modifications to the pitch trim capability. Both approaches to
improve the available F-16XL lift coefficient during final approach to landing
121
Elegance in Flight
were ongoing at NASA Langley using analytic and wind tunnel test efforts
when the program was cancelled by the Air Force in late 1985.31
Flying Qualities in Cruise Configuration

The CTF pilots reported that the mid-envelope flying qualities of the F-16XL
were generally similar to those of the F-16. Roll acceleration was actually
higher. The increased roll capability of the F-16XL was particularly noticeable
when external stores were carried. Roll oscillations were encountered by some
pilots due to the aircrafts rapid roll-onset rate. This was not considered to be
a serious problem by experienced test force pilots who flew the aircraft on a
regular basis.32 In fact, these pilots felt that the high roll-onset and acceleration
rates provided the F-16XL with an initial tactical advantage during close-in
aerial combat maneuvering, enabling the aircraft to be quickly pointed in the
direction of an enemy threat. Test force pilot reports stated that the aircrafts
flying qualities were characterized by high agility, excellent visibility, and a
cockpit environment equal to or better than those found in the standard F-16.33
High-Speed, Low-Altitude Ride Qualities

F-16XL ride qualities were reported to be smooth and comfortable during
flights conducted at the low altitudes and high speeds typical of tactical mis-
sion profiles. The aircraft was capable of a maximum speed of 600 knots at an
altitude of 500 feet while carrying 12 500-pound bombs and 6 missiles. Some
pilots commented that the F-16XL exhibited a somewhat distracting irregular,
low-amplitude pitching motion that detracted from its otherwise excellent low-
altitude handling qualities. Test pilots that regularly flew the aircraft accepted
this as an inherent characteristic of the F-16XL and said it had very little effect
on overall mission performance or pilot workload.34
High-Speed Handling Qualities

The aircraft was capable of rapid acceleration beyond Mach 1 in level flight in
the air-to-air configuration and with some air-to-ground loadings. Trim changes
were not required when the aircraft transitioned from subsonic to supersonic
flight and buffet was not encountered. Acceleration improved as the aircraft
moved beyond Mach 1. As the aircraft accelerated to higher Mach numbers
and dynamic pressures, elevon hinge-moment capacity limitations prevented
the aircraft from being trimmed to maintain level flight. This limited hinge-
moment capacity during high-speed flight resulted in a nose-rise tendency. The
CTF considered this a major problem that required correction. Aircraft roll
rate degraded rapidly to unacceptable levels at high dynamic pressures (above
1,200 pounds per square foot). During maximum command elevated-g rolls at
speeds beyond Mach 1.4, a strong roll oscillation was encountered. The CTF
122
reported that the roll oscillation was due to improper implementation of the
aileron-rudder interconnect within the flight control system design. During
turning maneuvers with heavy loads at Mach numbers in the vicinity of 0.9, a
pitch inflection was encountered as angle of attack reached 16 degrees. The
pitch inflection was characterized as an abrupt change in pitching moment.
During slow-down turns at these conditions, the aircraft would dig-in with
g-forces reaching between 1 and 2 gs above the commanded level. This was
rated as a serious problem because the flight control system was incapable of
responding quickly enough to control the resultant g-overshoot. On several
occasions during flight near the g-limiter, the aircraft limit-load factor was
inadvertently exceeded.35
Maximum Airspeed/Mach Number

The F-16XL was intended to be capable of achieving Mach 2.2 at high altitude
and Mach 1.2 at sea level. However, its maximum airspeed in some military
thrust and in all augmented thrust (afterburning) conditions was never deter-
mined during the Air Force flight-test demonstration program. This was due to
an elevon hinge moment limitation that prevented CTF pilots from reaching
the boundaries of the aircrafts high-speed envelope. Maximum Mach number
reached during the Air Force test program was Mach 1.95. The aircraft had the
excess thrust necessary to enable it to go faster than the speeds that were demon-
strated, especially with the higher power General Electric F110 engine. However,
the flight control system as implemented in the two F-16XL prototypes did
not provide the hinge-moment capability to trim the aircraft for 1-g level flight
at higher speeds. This hinge-moment limitation with the prototypes was not
resolved prior to conclusion of the Air Force flight-test effort. The flight control
system was to be redesigned to correct this and the other control issues previously
discussed if the aircraft had been selected for subsequent full-scale development.36
Formation and Aerial Refueling

At moderate weights, the F-16XL could be flown precisely in close formation
and during aerial refueling, and it generally required a low pilot workload. Pitch
sensitivity increased slightly when external stores (including wing fuel tanks)
were carried. However, there was a significant degradation in stability at heavy
gross weights. This was especially noticeable in the directional axis, where the
aircraft had a tendency to wallow. When refueling while carrying a load of
heavy, high-drag stores, full military power was insufficient to maintain posi-
tion in the center of the refueling envelope when the tanker was turning at its
standard 30-degree bank angle at altitudes above 20,000 feet. In order to main-
tain the proper refueling position under these conditions, pilots had to resort
to cycling into and out of afterburner. This increased both fuel consumption
123
Elegance in Flight
and pilot workload, especially at night or in weather conditions. Extensive

air refueling tanker support to the F-16XL flight-test program was provided
by Boeing KC-135 and McDonnell-Douglas KC-10 tankers assigned to the
Strategic Air Command (SAC). In addition to SAC tankers, a KC-135 belong-
ing to the Aeronautical Systems Division at Wright-Patterson AFB sometimes
provided refueling support. During the course of the Air Force F-16XL flight-
test program, 127 missions involved air refueling with 175 fuel transfers suc-
cessfully accomplished. F-16XLs performance during aerial refueling was rated
by CTF test force pilots as
unsatisfactory under the con-
ditions originally used for air
refueling (a refueling airspeed
of 200 knots at an altitude
of 20,000 feet). Refueling
at these conditions required
intermittent use of after-
burner, as the aircraft gross
weight increased during the
fuel transfer process. This was
especially noticeable when
refueling during turns. The
F-16XL simply did not have
enough excess thrust available
to maintain the proper refuel-
The F-16XL-1 while refueling from a Boeing KC-135 ing position while attached to
Stratotanker on August 12, 1982. (USAF) the tankers refueling boom.
Follow-on testing determined
that aerial refueling could be accomplished without the use of afterburner, but
only if the tanker flew at a lower altitude of 15,000 feet and increased airspeed
to 330 knots.37
Target Tracking
Pilots reported some pitch sensitivity above Mach 0.9 and also at indicated
airspeeds below 300 knots when attempting to track maneuvering targets with
the lead computing optical sight or with the standby sighting reticle. The pitch
gallop phenomena discussed earlier, consisting of a sustained 2.5-cycles-per-
second pitch oscillation, was considered to be much more irritating during high
workload target tracking exercises against maneuvering targets. Pitch gallop
was encountered at all altitudes between 0.90 and 0.94 Mach, becoming more
pronounced in amplitude at lower altitudes. This increased the difficulties
encountered in accurately tracking maneuvering targets.38
124
Reliability and Maintainability

The reliability and maintainability evaluation of the F-16XL was limited by
several factors. Since the Air Force had not established any goals, thresholds, or
contractual requirements for either reliability or maintainability, the evaluation
was limited to a comparison with standard F-16A/B aircraft in USAF fleet ser-
vice. An additional issue was created by the fact that both F-16XLs experienced
some reliability issues that were the result of their being constructed using
fuselages from F-16 full-scale development aircraft that were not equivalent to
standard production F-16A/B aircraft. Several of the subsystems on the F-16XL
prototypes were also different from those found in the standard F-16A/B,
further limiting the validity of the reliability and maintainability evaluation.
Another limiting factor in performing a valid quantitative maintainability
assessment was that General Dynamics performed all F-16XL maintenance
throughout the evaluation using highly skilled company experts. There was a
significant difference between the GD maintenance concept and that used by
the Air Force. The Air Force also noted that the unique F-16XL configuration
produced some excessive maintenance times due to the somewhat restricted
access available in the wing root areas of both prototypes. In fact, the Air Force
concluded that most of the F-16XLs maintainability problems resulted from
structural modifications that had been made during conversion of the original
full-scale development F-16A aircraft to the F-16XL prototype configuration.39
F-16XL aircraft maintainability was rated as satisfactory by the Air Force,
and in many ways, reliability results were actually excellent. F-16XL-1 had
a Mean Time Between Maintenance (MTBM) of 1.6 hours over a period
covering 224.7 flight hours, with F-16XL-2 demonstrating an MTBM of 1.8
hours during a period that included 172.4 flying hours. This was a significant
improvement over the 0.8-hour MTBM demonstrated by F-16A/B test aircraft
during FSD testing. In operational service, the MTBM for the F-16A fleet
had risen to 2.9 hours by the time of the F-16XL flight-test effort. The basic
similarity of most F-16XL subsystems with those of the standard F-16 was a
major contributor to its good maintenance record. Overall, the reliability of
major subsystems in the F-16XL was considered comparable to those of the
F-16A/B fleet. However, the reliability of the higher-gross-weight (48,000
pound) F-16XL landing gear was rated as unsatisfactory because of recurring
brake failures. In fact, the search for suitable wheel, brake, and tire configu-
rations required numerous modifications that were ongoing throughout the
flight-test program. Although a tire design suitable for use at a TOGW of
48,000 pounds was finally settled upon after several tire designs were tested,
its durability was such that it was limited to only 10 flights. The F-16XL flight
control system initially demonstrated poor reliability. Although its reliability
continued to improve as the test program unfolded, the Air Force believed
125
Elegance in Flight
Air Force Flight Test Center Vice Commander Col. William J. Pete Knight taxis back from an
F-16XL-1 familiarization sortie, August 6, 1982. (USAF)
that the flight control system needed further development before any commit-
ment could be made to a production program. The overall sortie rate capability
of the F-16XL was assessed to be virtually the same as that of the standard F-16
throughout all phases of the flight-test program.40
The General Electric F110 engine flown in F-16XL-2 was substantially
more reliable than the Pratt & Whitney F100 installed in F-16XL-1. The F110
engine achieved an MTBM of 57.5 hours with only three minor failures during
172.4 hours of flight. No mission aborts were charged against the F110 engine.
The F110 encountered no augmenter blowouts and had no failures to light or
engine stalls throughout the flight-test program. Shop maintenance was not
required on the F110 during the basic Air Force flight-test program, and its
maintainability was rated as a significant improvement over that of the F100
engine. In comparison, reliability of the F100 engine fitted to F-16XL-1 was
comparable to the F100 engine installed in the F-16A/B fleet. Its reliability
problems were also typical of those encountered in the standard F-16A/B air-
craft. These included instances of fan and compressor stall during afterburner
transient operations and cracks in the afterburner nozzle support seals and
diverter seals. The F110 engine required no shop visits or engine removals
during the flight-test program with F-16XL-2. In comparison, the F100 had
to be removed for maintenance four times during its 224.7 hours of flight in
F-16XL-1. The MTBM for the F100 engine was 37.5 hours.41
126
Phase I Flight-Test Summary

The basic objectives of the Phase I program were to demonstrate the airwor-
thiness of the F-16XL and evaluate its performance. Since the Air Force had
not established specific performance thresholds and goals as standards against
which to evaluate the aircraft, all findings and test results were compared
with performance predictions provided by General Dynamics. This resulted
in criticism from the General Accounting Office (GAO), as well as other
critics of the Air Force approach to the comparative flyoff and its use in
the Dual-Role Fighter source selection. These other critics included General
Dynamics itself, which formally protested the fact that the F-16XL was being
inappropriately compared to the much larger and more expensive F-15E.
This controversial aspect of the F-16XL flight demonstration program and
the DRF source selection are discussed in more detail in the section on the
Dual-Role Fighter Competition. The summary in Table 4 lists specific test
categories along with the number of flights dedicated to each category by
individual test aircraft through the end of Phase I flight testing.
Table 4.
F-16XL Phase I flight-test summary
Subject F-16XL-1 Flights F-16XL-2 Flights Percent of Total
Stability and Control 33 19 14
High AoA 29 8
Flutter 16 4 5
Structural Loads 2 30 9
Performance 60 55 31
Propulsion 1 4 1
Weapon Separation 9 17 7
Operation Ult. Eval. 50 40 25
Total Flights 200 169 100%
Open Issues at the End of Phase I Testing

Some aircraft handling and flying qualities items that were uncovered during
Phase I testing were determined to be significant enough to require addi-
tional investigation during later phases of the Air Forces F-16XL flight-test
program. These included the following items that were still in the process
of being addressed when the program was terminated by the Air Force
in 1985.
127
Elegance in Flight
Excessive nose-down pitch trim was required in order to maintain level

flight at transonic and supersonic flight conditions. At high dynamic
pressures, limitations on elevator hinge-moment capacity were very
restrictive. At lower altitudes, the trim requirements on the elevons
exceeded hydraulic system capabilities at speeds in excess of 650 KCAS.
Roll rates degraded rapidly to unacceptable levels at dynamic pressures
above 1,200 pounds per square inch. During maximum-rate rolling
maneuvers at higher g-levels at speeds above Mach 1.4, strong roll oscil-
lations were encountered. This was determined to be due to improper
aileron-rudder interconnect coordination by the flight control system.
The 2.5-Hz pitch oscillation, or pitch gallop phenomenon, was
encountered in the Mach number region from 0.9 to 0.95. The
amplitude of the stable pitch gallop varied as a function of both
angle of attack and altitude. It prevented accurate air-to-air target
tracking during higher-g-level maneuvering, often frustrating the CTF
pilots. Pitch gallop was the subject of an extensive follow-on investiga-
tion that continued during the remainder of the F-16XL test program.
The results are discussed in some detail in a follow-on section.
G-overshoot, or pitch inflection, characterized by an unanticipated
g-spike when maximum g-level was commanded by the pilot in the
0.95-to-1.05 Mach range. This resulted in the aircraft exceeding the
maximum 9-g-load operational limit, resulting in increased struc-
tural loads on the airframe when the aircraft was rapidly decelerating
through the transonic region.42
Follow-On Flight-Test Activities

Initial follow-on testing evaluated F-16XL flutter and performance characteris-
tics with various external store loadings. These payloads are listed in a follow-on
section. They included six SUU-65s and wingtip-mounted AIM-9 Sidewinder
missiles, flown both with and without 370-gallon fuel tanks. The full load of six
air-to-air weapons was carried with two 600-gallon fuel tanks and six AGM-65
Maverick missiles. An AGM-65 was successfully launched from F-16XL-1
during its 375th flight on March 29, 1985. Additional flight-test efforts were
focused on resolving the pitch gallop issue and obtaining comprehensive air-
frame vibration data. Stability and control test maneuvers prepared the way for
high-AoA testing at more extreme flight conditions than had been previously
evaluated during Phase I. A major aspect of this phase of the flight-test effort
was focused on obtaining stability and control and performance data with the
leading-edge flaps locked at the zero deflection position. Approximately 40 test
128
flights were conducted to verify the aft cg limit, identify the effects of 370-gallon
tanks on high-AoA handling qualities, and evaluate aircraft characteristics with
locked leading-edge flaps.
During these tests, the F-16XL was determined to have a relatively unlim-
ited maneuvering envelope for all store configurations tested. Handling quali-
ties were not degraded with any of the external store configurations evaluated.
Longitudinal maneuvering characteristics were evaluated using constant Mach
number turns and maximum-g slowdown turns. Static stability was assessed
using 1-g accelerations and decelerations. In the air-to-air configuration, the cg
location varied over a region that extended from 44.7 percent to 46.4 percent
of the wings mean effective chord as fuel was burned. The aircraft was tested
over the cg range from 44.7 to 47.5 percent; this allowed flight testing to be
conducted with the cg both forward and aft of the neutral point of the F-16XL.
With the cg forward of the neutral point, the aircraft was statically stable. When
the cg was aft of the neutral point, the aircraft was statically unstable, relying
on continuous inputs from the fly-by-wire flight control system to maintain
adequate control. At subsonic Mach numbers, external stores did not cause a shift
in neutral point. An increase in pitch control surface deflection was required to
maintain 1-g trim above 0.95 Mach number. This was due to a decrease in pitch
surface control effectiveness and the aft shift of the neutral point as sonic speed
was approached. Trim requirements without external tanks were similar with all
weapons loads. When external tanks were carried, 2 to 3 degrees of additional
trailing-edge-down trim were required for a given cg location. While the F-16XL
had positive longitudinal static stability over all Mach numbers tested, its pitch
stability was very low at higher angles of attach and low airspeeds.43
High-Angle-of-Attack Testing
The high-AoA flying qualities of the F-16XL, both with and without external
stores, were rated as outstanding during the Air Force flight-test evaluation.
No airspeed or AoA maneuver limitations were identified with the cg as far
aft as 47 percent of the wing mean aerodynamic chord. When AoA excur-
sions did occur, the aircraft rapidly recovered to controlled flight without any
pilot actions or control inputs being required. Control response was excel-
lent, even at the very low airspeeds that were encountered while the pilot
was maneuvering the aircraft to lower angles of attack For follow-on high
AoA and departure resistance flight testing conducted during the summer
of 1983, F-16XL-1 was again equipped with the Quadra Pod spin recovery
parachute installation. The Quadra Pod spin chute installation was mounted
on the aft fuselage in the beginning of August 1984 and was removed in early
September when the high-AoA portion of the flight-test program was com-
pleted. High-AoA test maneuvers included pitch-yaw-roll doublets, sideslips,
129
Elegance in Flight
1-g and maximum-g decelerations, maximum commanded rolls, and climb

reversals. A number of extreme maneuvers were used to trick the aircraft into
exceeding the programmed maximum AoA limit. Steep, high-pitch-attitude
climbs, often reaching an attitude of 90 degrees (vertical to the horizon), were
employed. Other techniques included a 180-degree roll followed by a full-aft
pitch control input, forward push maneuvers, and maneuvering while holding
a full-aft control input.44
Using these techniques, uncommanded AoA excursions were obtained at
angles of attack above those imposed by the AoA limiter installed in the F-16XLs
flight control system. This was achieved by accomplishing both upright and
inverted constant pitch attitude climbs to minimum airspeed while conducting
repeated roll reversals in the AoA range of known low pitch stability (16 to 24
degrees AoA) and with the aircraft cg near the allowable aft limit. In some cases,
a 90-degree pitch attitude (vertical) climb was maintained to zero airspeed.
During the subsequent tail slide and recovery to a nose-down pitch attitude,
extreme AoA excursions greater than +120 and 90 degrees were encountered.
Total recovery time from start of the tail slide to the point where the pilot was
able to fly the aircraft was about 20 seconds. These AoA excursions were the
only type of departure from controlled flight that was encountered during
the F-16XL flight-test program during flight testing both with and without
external stores. Pitch recovery maneuvers were illustrated, as adopted from
Talty.45 So-called deep stall tendencies (such as existed with both the standard
F-16 and the Swedish J 35 Draken fighter at higher angles of attack) were not
encountered during the F-16XL test program.46 This result was in agreement
with results from the Langley Differential Maneuvering Simulator, where the
same NASA team that had worked the original F-16 deep stall problem had also
worked the F-16XL. The aircraft demonstrated high resistance to inadvertent
loss of control or spin entry. The F-16XL was tested with its center of gravity
located as far aft as 47 percent of the MAC. The planned high-AoA stability
investigation at the full-aft cg limit of 47.5 percent MAC was not completed
at the time the F-16XL program was cancelled in mid-1985.47
The lateral-directional static stability of the F-16XL was evaluated by
wings-level sideslips to the maximum rudder deflection or by applying the
maximum lateral control surface deflection required to maintain wings-level
flight. Lateral-directional stability was not significantly affected by external
stores. As angle of attack was increased above 20 degrees, directional stability
began to reduce approaching zero at 24 degrees AoA; however, this reduction
in directional stability was not noticeable to the pilot. The lateral control
power and rolling performance of the aircraft were also rated as excellent, both
with and without external stores. Roll accelerations and roll-time constants
consistently were better than those of the standard F-16A. During rolling
130
maneuvers with external weapons loads, the automatic flight control system
in the F-16XL effectively reduced the maximum allowable roll rate when the
air-to-ground mode was selected by the pilot. With the cockpit selector switch
in the air-to-ground mode, maximum allowable roll rate was reduced to 230
degrees per second from the 308 degrees per second available in the air-to-air
configuration. During maneuvering flight, the actual allowable roll rate was
automatically scheduled by the flight control computer as a function of aircraft
angle of attack to prevent overstressing the aircraft or encountering potential
out-of-control situations. This insured that the flight control computer main-
tained precise control over roll and nose-pointing maneuvers when the aircraft
was carrying heavy external loads. In addition, tendencies to overshoot or lose
control during rapid rolls were minimized. CTF pilot comments were very
positive when discussing the responsiveness and maneuverability of the aircraft
during ground attack profiles.48
Weapons Testing and Loading Configurations

A wide variety of weapons and external store combinations were evaluated using
both the single-seat and two-seat F-16XL aircraft. The drag characteristics of
the aircraft with these payloads and their effects on performance and handling
qualities were determined. However, weapons release and separation testing
was not accomplished with all of the configurations flown. In most regions
of the flight envelope, flight-test results confirmed GD-provided performance
predictions. However, in the transonic and supersonic regions of the flight
envelope, the contractors predictions of
excess thrust with most store loadings were
anywhere from 10 to 20 percent higher
(poorer) than what was actually demon-
strated during flight test. This discrepancy
held true for both military thrust (100 per-
cent power without the use of afterburner)
and maximum (full afterburning) thrust.
When the aircraft was configured with
SUU-65 Tactical Munitions Dispensers
(TMDs), drag was as much as 30 percent
higher than had been predicted at tran-
sonic and supersonic speeds. The payload
configurations that were tested included
the combinations of weapons and stores
listed below. These weapon payloads The F-16XL could carry a range of exter-
were carried on the external store stations nal stores at 29 different locations on the
shown in the illustration. airframe. (USAF)
131
Elegance in Flight
Standard air-to-air payload (four AIM-120s plus two AIM-9Ls on

wingtip missile launchers)
Limited air-to-air payload (four AIM-120s only, no wingtip AIM-

9Ls, no wingtip missile launchers)
Standard air-to-air payload plus one 300-gallon centerline fuel tank
Standard air-to-air payload plus two 370-gallon underwing drop

tanks
Standard air-to-air payload plus six 500-pound Mk-82 bombs
Standard air-to-air payload plus 12 500-pound Mk-82 bombs
Standard air-to-air payload plus 12 500-pound Mk-82 bombs and

two 370-gallon drop tanks
Standard air-to-air payload plus two 2,000-pound MK-84 bombs
Standard air-to-air payload plus four 2,000-pound MK-84 bombs
Standard air-to-air payload plus six SUU-65 Tactical Munitions

Dispensers
Standard air-to-air payload plus six SUU-65 TMDs and one

300-gallon centerline fuel tank
Standard air-to-air payload plus six SUU-65 TMDs and two

370-gallon drop tanks
Standard air-to-air payload plus two BDU-38s and two 370-gallon

drop tanks
Standard air-to-air payload plus six AGM-65 Maverick missiles
Weapons delivery and separation characteristics were rated by the CTF

pilots as excellent for those weapons released from the F-16XL during the
flight-test program. These included a total of 218 Mk-82 500-pound bombs,
dropped on 37 test flights; 18 Mk-84 2,000-pound bombs, released on 7
flights; and 6 800-pound CBU-58 tactical munitions dispensers, ripple released
132
An unguided AGM-65 Maverick missile was launched from F-16XL-1 store station 3 on March
29, 1985. Weapons carried on this flight included four dummy AIM-120s, two AIM-9Ls, and six
AGM-65 missiles. (USAF)
on a single flight. Other ripple releases included 4 Mk-84s and 12 Mk-82s. As

mentioned earlier, a single unguided AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface mis-
sile was successfully launched from F-16XL-1 on March 29, 1985. Over the
course of the entire flight-test program, 233 F-16XL missions were flown
with bombs. This represented about 29 percent of all F-16XL test missions.
AGM-65 Maverick missiles were carried on six flights. Fifteen flights were
dedicated to investigating the effects of firing the M61 cannon. During these
flights, more than 7,300 rounds of 20 mm ammunition were successfully
fired.49 The complete F-16XL Weapon Separation Log listed by specific flight
and pilot is reproduced in Appendix B.
F110 Slimline Engine Testing and LNSI Inlet Evaluation

Evaluation of the General Electric F110 Slimline engine was a significant aspect
of the F-16XL-2 flight-test program. Airframe, instrumentation, and control
modifications were accomplished to enable the aircraft to accommodate the
GE F110-GE-100 Slimline engine. These modifications were completed at
the GD factory in Fort Worth in mid-July 1984. After two functional check
flights from Carswell AFB, F-16XL-2 was flown to Edwards on July 20 to
begin the F110 Slimline engine evaluation. Initial testing primarily involved
133
Elegance in Flight
the evaluation of engine transient and air-start capabilities. These objectives

were accomplished during F-16XL-2 flights 276 through 281. During flight
number 282 on August 17, 1984, telemetered data received in the flight-test
control room indicated that an engine compressor stall was imminent. The
aircraft was at Mach 0.95 at an altitude of 30,000 feet. GD Project Pilot John
Fergione had just switched from the F110 primary engine control mode to
the secondary (SEC) control mode. The secondary engine control mode was
intended to provide the pilot with a limited get home capability in the event
of problems with the digital engine control system. When operating in the sec-
ondary mode, F110 engine thrust was limited to 70 percent of its full military
thrust and afterburner operation was precluded.50 When Fergione switched
over to the secondary mode, the F110 fan duct pressure sensor (known as
Pressure Sensor 14, or PS14) had registered an extremely low reading. The
engine experts in the test control room believed that the low fan duct pressure
reading signaled that an engine stall had occurred.51 Discussions between the
control room and the pilot resulted in a decision to abort the mission. Fergione
landed without incident on Lakebed Runway 15 at Edwards AFB. Subsequent
investigation determined that the fan duct pressure sensor instrumentation had
registered an erroneous value and actual engine operation was in fact normal.
Flight testing resumed on August 20, 1984, with an uneventful flight.
However, the next day, during XL-2 flight number 284, the control room
received a telemetered engine stall warning indication. This was similar to the
one previously encountered and was from the same pressure sensor. The pilot,
again GDs John Fergione, switched over to the secondary engine control
mode and made a precautionary simulated flameout approach to a landing on
Runway 22 at Edwards AFB.52 This time, a detailed investigation of the F110
engine revealed a crack in a pressure line. Engine operation was being affected
even though no abnormal indications were seen by the pilot. In an attempt to
resolve the problem, General Electric field representatives reinforced the PS14
sensor manifold fitting locations with an epoxy and fiberglass mixture. This
reinforcement added additional mass to the manifold. Perhaps not surpris-
ingly, ground testing of the unsophisticated quick fix showed that the natural
vibration frequency of the manifold had been significantly changed. Increased
manifold vibration amplitudes were now being encountered, causing the epoxy
reinforcement to separate from the fan frame. The next attempt to resolve the
issue used bolt-on manifold fittings along with a new flex-line manifold.
This approach appeared to work during ground tests. The necessary safety of
flight paperwork that allowed F-16XL-2 flight testing to resume was signed
by the AFFTC commander, Maj. Gen. Peter W. Odgers, on October 8, 1984.
The following day, a functional check flight was successful and F110 flight
envelope expansion resumed.53
134
Inflight Afterburner Spray Bar Failure

After the F110 test effort resumed, a program of successful air starts, engine/
inlet compatibility, and inverted flight demonstrations continued without
any problems from F-16XL-2 flight 286 through flight 305. However, on
November 20, 1984, during flight 306, the F-16 chase pilot reported seeing a
large plume of flame extending about three airplane lengths behind the nozzle.
This happened during afterburner operation following a go-around from a
simulated flameout landing. John Fergione immediately throttled back to idle
and performed an uneventful emergency landing on the lakebed at Edwards.
Postflight inspection of the engine revealed that a broken afterburner spray bar
had caused the long plume. The resulting abnormal flame pattern had burned
through the engine nozzle in the seven to ten oclock region, when viewed
from behind the aircraft. There was also significant fire damage to the left speed
brake. A subsequent investigation by General Electric determined that a high
fuel-to-air ratio had caused excessive stress levels in the engine, especially in the
afterburner section. The fuel-to-air ratio was reduced, and successful ground
testing was followed by a spray bar evaluation flight on January 11, 1985.
Instrumented spray bar data was collected during flights 307 and 308. These
data confirmed that spray bar stress levels were now within the acceptable toler-
ance range established by GE. One additional F110 envelope expansion flight
was conducted following the spray bar stress evaluation before the aircraft was
ferried back to Fort Worth on January 28, 1985, for installation of the Large
Normal Shock Inlet.54
LNSI Testing
F-16XL-2 would be absent from the flight-test program from January 29 until
June 25, 1985. During this extended period at the factory, an extensive set
of modifications and structural inspections were completed, requiring a total
of 105 work days. The Large Normal Shock Inlet was installed, along with
additional test instrumentation. Other airframe structural modifications were
required based on the results of the inspections. The F110 Slimline test engine
that had been in the aircraft was returned to the General Electric factory at
Evandale, OH, where it was upgraded to the latest configuration. A functional
check flight with the LNSI installation and the upgraded F110 engine was
conducted at Fort Worth on June 26, 1985. A second functional check flight
on June 28 was followed by a ferry flight to Edwards AFB that afternoon. Once
at Edwards, the new spray bar configuration was tested. This was followed by
a series of combined structural loads and stability and control evaluations of
the aircraft. These included both high-g and elevated-AoA maneuvers to assess
the effects of the larger inlet on aircraft performance and handling qualities.
Instrumentation verified that structural loads on the airframe with the LNSI
135
Elegance in Flight
installed were not significantly

increased. Based on these
results, the aircraft was cleared
to its original maneuver enve-
lope. During subsequent flight
testing of F-16XL-2 with the
LNSI, some airframe vibration
was encountered. There was
insufficient time remaining
in the F-16XL flight-test pro-
gram to address the airframe
vibration issue associated with
the LNSI. However, it was one
of the recommendations for
follow-on investigation.55 F-16XL-2 fitted with the extended air data boom used
On flight number 324, the to measure angle of attack, yaw angle, and static and
F110 engines fuel-to-air ratio dynamic pressures. (USAF Photograph courtesy of
was increased to maximize SMSgt. Norman Taylor, USAF [ret.])
engine performance with the
higher mass airflow rate available from the LNSI. The LNSI provided a mass
flow rate of 270 pounds of air per second as compared to the 254 pounds per
second for the standard inlet. The change in fuel-to-air ratio required another
round of spray bar evaluation flights, which were successfully completed. The
final F110 test effort consisted of completing a comparative evaluation of
engine performance using both JP-4 and JP-8 jet fuels. Additional stability
and control and performance testing included data gathered at low altitude on
flight 358 over the Pacific Ocean off Vandenberg AFB, CA. After this flight,
the engine was removed from the aircraft and replaced with the backup engine
that had been held in reserve. Following a successful functional check flight at
Edwards, XL-2 was ferried to General Dynamics in Fort Worth on October 1,
1985. Once there, it was placed in flyable storage along with XL-1. This was
the final flight of the Air Force F-16XL flight-test program. It marked the 361st
test flight for F-16XL-2. The aircraft had logged a total of 407.1 flight hours.56
Pitch Gallop Investigation

Preliminary observation of what came to be called pitch gallop had been noted
during the very first flight of F-16XL-1 on July 3, 1982. The Air Force flight-test
evaluation had confirmed that pitch axis oscillations were generally encoun-
tered in the Mach 0.900.95 region, becoming more pronounced as altitude
decreased and g-level and angle of attack increased. This phenomenon had
not been seen when flying the early version of the General Dynamics F-16XL
136
flight simulator. Aircraft characteristics that were modeled in the simulator had
been based on aerodynamic data derived from early wind tunnel testing and an
analytical model of the F-16XL flight control computer (FCC). Actual flight
testing revealed that there was a pronounced increase in F-16XL pitch surface
control effectiveness in the high subsonic Mach number range. The magnitude
of this pitch effectiveness increase was much greater than had been predicted
from wind tunnelderived data. GD modified the flight simulator using actual
flight-test-derived aerodynamic data. However, they still had to incorporate an
additional 30-degree phase lag to induce the simulator to create the gallop effect
that was observed during actual flight testing. When aerodynamic data derived
from actual flight testing was used in conjunction with an actual flight control
computer and system hardware instead of the earlier analytical model, the simula-
tor produced a longitudinal pitch oscillation. General characteristics of the pitch
oscillation in the modified computer were similar to the pitch gallop encountered
in flight testing. Subsequent investigation confirmed that the analytical model
of the F-16XL used in the original development of the flight control computer
did not accurately represent actual aircraft hardware. Significantly, the aircraft
hardware models used in the computer simulation had undergone many inde-
pendent verification and validation tests prior to and during the test program
without the problem having been detected.57
The Air Force investigated many possible causes for the pitch gallop phe-
nomenon. Exterior aerodynamics and the pitch axis flight control system were
found to be within design specifications. However, flight testing did determine
that the autopilot had some effect on the severity of the pitch oscillation, espe-
cially at higher altitudes. Changes to the pitch axis gain in the flight control
computer were found to have the greatest effect. A notch-type filter was inserted
in the pitch control path, and a multiplier of 0.50 or 0.75 was applied after the
basic pitch gain was scheduled by the flight control computer. Both multipliers
reduced the magnitude of the pitch gallop problem. A pitch gain reduction of
25 percent in the flight control computer was subsequently used as an interim fix
for the remainder of the F-16XL flight-test program. However, the Air Force did
not consider this interim approach to be a final solution to the pitch oscillation
issue as the actual root cause of the problem had yet to be determined. Even the
modified flight simulator did not fully replicate the observed pitch oscillation.
Therefore, the Flight Test Center decided that a dedicated flight-test effort was
needed. This would be focused on determining the frequency response of the
total F-16XL system. For this purpose, 11 flight-test missions were dedicated to
the pitch gallop evaluation. Actual aircraft hardware and aerodynamics would
be used with the pitch gain and phase angle in the flight control computer
varied over a range of in-flight conditions. Data obtained using this approach
would be used to refine the flight control system to eliminate the gallop problem.
137
Elegance in Flight
Another goal was to improve the fidelity of the flight simulator at high subsonic
Mach numbers.
To determine the system gain and phase angle of the total aircraft, an in-flight
excitation system was developed and installed in F-16XL-1. The objective of the
in-flight excitation tests was to obtain the system gain and phase angle at specific
excitation frequencies and to identify any nonlinearities in gain or phase angle as
a function of control surface position based on excitation amplitude. In the test
approach developed for the F-16XL, the excitation signals were inserted into the
pitch axis control loop, and the system response to pitch inputs from the pilot
was measured. The excitation installation was intended to determine the actual
FCS pitch channel gain and phase margins with various aircraft configurations
and flight conditions. This in-flight excitation approach had been used during
flutter and flight control testing with the F-16. In those earlier tests, excitation
signals had been sent to the flight control surfaces in order to stimulate the
structural modes of the aircraft in various regions of the flight envelope. The
excitation system was pilot-activated through a modification to the autopilot
panel. When activated, increased levels of aileron/elevon movement would be
induced, along with various frequencies of control surface movement. Either a
random or one of three sinusoidal control surface movement frequencies could
be selected.58 Maximum signal amplitude was limited to 1.8-g commands to
the pitch control surfaces.
Pitch oscillation investigations conducted during 1985 involved excitation
testing throughout the F-16XLs flight envelope. The major focus was on the
high subsonic region, known to be the most troublesome area for pitch oscilla-
tions. All excitation tests were used the 25 percent gain reduction in the flight
control computer pitch path that had been adopted earlier as an interim fix to
the pitch oscillation problem. Test results determined that the flight control
system installed in the F-16XL prototypes had a high pitch gain with very close
to a 180 degrees of phase angle in the high subsonic Mach number region. This
was true at all altitudes flown during the excitation tests. A nonlinear effect on
system gain as a function of control surface position was apparent from the test-
ing. Ground excitation testing of the system was subsequently used to investigate
the nonlinearly of the system in the absence of aerodynamic effects. These ground
tests also confirmed the same nonlinearity in gain with neutral pitch trim. This
nonlinearity in system gain was found to be a characteristic of the integrated
servo-actuators used on the F-16XL prototype pitch control surfaces. The actua-
tor nonlinearity was of sufficient magnitude to drive the aircraft system, consist-
ing of aircraft and aerodynamics, into a limit-cycle oscillation. This was defined as
a gain of 1.0 and a phase angle of 180 degrees in the 0.90 to 0.95 Mach range.
However, this limit cycle resulted in a stable oscillation that had no tendency to
diverge or become unstable. This was due to the fact that as pitch control surface
138
deflection increased in magnitude, system gain got smaller, resulting in a stable

system. The pitch oscillation test excitation procedure used on the F-16XL was
successful in producing data that correctly defined the aircraft frequency response
throughout the flight envelope. These data would have been used to refine the flight
control system had the aircraft completed full-scale development.59
Refining the F-16XLs Flight Control

System: Issues and Resolutions
As earlier discussed, a number of F-16XL flight controlrelated issues were
encountered during the Air Force flight-test program. Many were resolved;
however, others remained open when the program ended in 1985. Those flight
control issues that were partially or fully resolved included the following items,
along with the relevant corrective actions.60
Issue Resolution
Attitude control during aerobraking on Improved by incorporation of a revised

landing rollout. pitch rate command system.
Roll performance at higher dynamic Improved by modifications to the aileron

pressures. roll schedule.
High Mach number, elevated-g oscillatory Eliminated by modifications to the

roll rates. aileron-rudder interconnect.
Longitudinal limit cycle (pitch gallop) Partially resolved with a forward pitch
encountered in the Mach number range loop gain reduction. This modification also
from 0.9 to 0.95. improved the low-altitude pitch gallop that
was encountered in turbulent conditions.
Low-speed, high-AoA nose-down pitch Improved with a flight control computer
response. software modification.
Some issues associated with the F-16XL control system remained open
for possible follow-on investigation when the program ended. The low pitch
damping and oscillatory roll rates encountered at higher angles of attack and
low airspeeds, identified during Air Force Phase I testing, were still unresolved.
Two additional deficiencies resulted from changes to the flight control com-
puter made during the course of the Air Force flight-test program. These were
as follows:
139
Elegance in Flight
1. A tendency for a Pilot Induced Oscillation (PIO) to develop on

takeoff and during landing approach. This PIO tendency had been
encountered by some CTF pilots following incorporation of the
revised pitch rate command system.
2. Larger g-overshoots above the 9g design limit encountered during a
maximum command slow down turn through the transonic
Mach range. This resulted from the reduction in forward loop gain in
the flight control computer that had been incorporated in an attempt
to correct the longitudinal limit cycle (pitch gallop) problem.61
General Dynamics made the following six recommendations for additional

F-16XL flight control system development and flight testing. These were, of
course, contingent on the Air Force funding a follow-on F-16E or F-16F full-
scale development program, which did not happen.
1. Determine the cause and correct the low speed damping issue that
had been encountered at high AoA and low speeds.
2. Optimize the takeoff and landing pitch rate control laws to eliminate
the tendency for development of pilot induced oscillations (PIOs).
3. Optimize the pitch control laws to eliminate g-overshoot while at
the same time avoiding the longitudinal limit cycle while maintain-
ing the excellent ride and handling capabilities of the aircraft.
4. Evaluate revised a pitch gradient implementation to determine if
handling qualities during aerial target tracking are improved.
5. Optimize the aileron-rudder interconnect in the region between
Mach 0.9 and Mach 1.2 especially for elevated g rolls.
6. Optimize the rudder fadeout implementation scheme at high angles
of attack to eliminate the AoA excursions observed when carrying
370-gallon external fuel tanks.62
Air Force Flight-Test Program Summary

The Air Force F-16XL flight demonstration program extended from the first
flight of F-16XL-1 on July 3, 1983, to October 1, 1985, when F-16XL-2 was
ferried to General Dynamics at Fort Worth. Once there, it was placed in flyable
storage along with F-16XL-1, which had been delivered on August 14. The
two aircraft had accumulated a total of 939.7 hours on 798 flights. Better than
two-thirds of these flights were flown without any system discrepancies being
recorded. Specific flight demonstration activities are summarized in Appendix
C, with test activities that were presented by engineering objective in Appendix
D.63 Flight Logs for both F-16XL-1 and F-16XL-2 are contained in Appendix E.
140
Table 5.
F-16XL demonstrator aircraft flight activity
(July 3, 1982, through October 1, 1985)
Flights
Aircraft Air-to-Air Air-to-Ground Total
F-16XL-1 318 119 437
F-16XL-2 230 131 361
Total 548 250 798
Flight Hours
Aircraft Air-to-Air Air-to-Ground Total
F-16XL-1 400.0 132.6 532.6
F-16XL-2 283.1 124.0 407.1
Total 683.1 256.6 939.7
Flights Without Discrepancies

Aircraft Number of Flights Percentage
F-16XL-1 336/437 76.9
F-16XL-2 252/361 69.8
Total 588/798 73.7
Pilots and Sorties

Source Air-to-Air Air-to-Ground Total
GD (5) 152 51 203
USAF (17) 299 225 524
Other (3) 3 2 5
Total (25) 454 278 732
Aerial Refueling
Flights and Refueling Air-to-Air Air-to-Ground Total
Total Flights 71 56 127
Wet Refuelings 100 75 175
* Pilot/sorties data valid through June 15, 1985
141
Elegance in Flight
Fourteen pilots had been fully checked out in the F-16XL during the Air
Force flight demonstration program. Of these, five were General Dynamics
project pilots and the remainder were Air Force officers. Thirty-six VIPs were
given demonstration flights in the two-seat F-16XL-2. Most were senior Air
Force officers in command and staff positions involving fighter operations and
weapons systems acquisition. In addition, the Israeli Air Force Chief of Staff
flew the aircraft, as did NASA experimental test pilot Bill Dana, who flew with
Air Force Lt. Col. Joe Bill Dryden on August 12, 1983. Dana would subse-
quently serve as chief engineer at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center
from 1993 until 1998. During his tenure as chief engineer, both F-16XLs
would be based at Dryden, where they would be extensively modified for
flight research into supersonic laminar flow.64 Paul Thayer, then deputy secre-
tary of defense (and reportedly a strong proponent of the F-16XL), flew with
Lt. Col. Marty Bushnell on August 17, 1983.65 In addition, journalists from
Aviation Week & Space Technology (Clifton Berry) and Air Force Magazine (Bob
Ropelewski) flew on separate demonstration flights with GD project pilot Jim
McKinney during late August and early September 1983. Both Ropelewski
and Berry were qualified pilots who were very familiar with the capabilities of
the standard F-16. Their in-depth articles, containing interesting and generally
accurate assessments of F-16XL performance, were published in these widely
read publications prior to the February 1984 Air Force Dual-Role Fighter deci-
sion.66 The F-16XL VIP Flight Log is reproduced in Appendix F.67
142
Endnotes
1. F-16E was the designation that was to be assigned to the two-seat
F-16XL had it been selected for further development and produc-
tion. The two-seat variant would have been the F-16F.
2. Hillaker, F-16XL Flight Test Program Overview; Talty, F-16XL
Demonstrates New Capabilities in its Flight Test Program at
Edwards AFB, California; James O. Young, AFFTC History, 1 Jan
198330 Sep 1984. All AFFTC History documents are stored at
the AFFTC History Office, Edwards AFB.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. GD, F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report; AFFTC
History, 1 Jan 198230 Dec 1982; Robert R. Ropelewski, F-16XL
Shows Advances in Range, Ride and Flying Qualities, Aviation
Week & Space Technology (September 26, 1983): pp. 6271; GD,
F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report; Hillaker, F-16XL
presentation to the Lone Star Aero Club.
7. AFFTC History, 1 Jan 198230 Sep 1982.
8. An Air Force Academy graduate, a superlative airman, and a gre-
garious, ever-helpful individual, Joe Bill Dryden had been the lead
TAC pilot on the Northrop YF-17 portion of the Lightweight
Fighter competition in which the YF-17 was evaluated against the
YF-16. After leaving the Air Force, he became a test pilot with GD/
Lockheed Martin in Fort Worth, during which time he mentored
many airmen from many nations transitioning into the F-16. Sadly,
Dryden was killed on May 24, 1993, near Mineral Wells, TX, dur-
ing a predelivery factory acceptance flight test in an F-16C. His
passing was much mourned by the global Viper community, which
he had done so much to shape.
10. Author unlisted, F-16XLs Pass 100 Hours, Flight International
(December 11, 1982): p. 1666; GD, F-16F (XL) Demonstration
Aircraft Flight Activity, foldout chart, General Dynamics
Corporation, Fort Worth Division (undated, circa 1985).
11. AFFTC History, 1 Jan 198231 Dec 1982.
12. Ibid.; Talty, F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities in its Flight
Test Program at Edwards AFB, California.
13. Ibid.; GD, F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report; Hillaker,
F-16XL Flight Test Program Overview.
143
Elegance in Flight

Air Force Magazine 66, no. 11 (November 1983).
15. Talty, F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities in its Flight Test
Program; GD, F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report.
16. Much later, during the NASA flight-test program (with the aircraft
totally clean of any external stores, including armament pylons, and
powered by the higher-thrust General Electric F110-GE-129 engine,
F-16XL-2 demonstrated sustained Mach 1.1 flight in Military (non-
afterburning) power at an altitude of 30,000 feet.
Program.
18. Graham Warwick, US Fighter Options, Flight International 124,
no. 3071 (July 16, 1983): pp. 139146.
Program.
20. Ibid. Patrick K. Talty joined the F-16XL CTF as deputy director for
engineering in 1984. A Distinguished Graduate of the Air Force Test
Pilot School, he later served as an assistant professor of engineering
and director of research at the United States Air Force Academy and
as deputy director of technology in the Strategic Defense Initiative
Office.
21. Ropelewski, F-16XL Shows Advances in Range, Ride and Flying
Qualities.
22. AFFTC History, 1 Jan 198330 Sep 1984; Talty, The F-16XL
Demonstrates New Capabilities in its Flight Test Program; GD,
F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. The influence of ground effect on a cranked-arrow wing was of great
interest to the HSR program since the proposed High-Speed Civil
Transport (HSCT) was intended to have a similar wing. In this con-
text, NASA would later use the F-16XL in a special research project
that assessed the influence of ground effect on the aerodynamics of
a cranked-arrow wing. This NASA research project is discussed later
in this book, based on test results presented in Robert E. Curry,
Dynamic Ground Effect for a Cranked Arrow Wing Airplane,
NASA TM 4799 (1997).
Demonstrates New Capabilities in its Flight Test Program; GD,
F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report.
144
28. Ibid.
29. The author checked out in the Convair F-102A in 1962, eventu-
ally accumulating about 500 hours in the delta-wing aircraft. For a
detailed discussion of both the F-102 and F-106 aircraft and their
development programs, see Bill Yenne, Convair Deltas: From Sea
Dart to Hustler (North Branch, MN: Specialty Press, 2009).
30. The Edwards AFB runway is located at an elevation of 2,310.5 feet
above sea level. This higher elevation somewhat increases both take-
off and landing roll distances compared to operations from runways
at lower elevations.
Demonstrates New Capabilities in its Flight Test Program.
32. During the NASA research effort with the F-16XL, a similar
issue was identified during high-rate rolling maneuvers, which
NASA pilots referred to as roll ratcheting. Investigation of this
phenomena was the subject of a dedicated NASA research proj-
ect discussed in depth in John W. Smith and Terry Montgomery,
Biomechanically Induced and Controller Coupled Oscillations
Experienced on the F-16XL During Rolling Maneuvers, NASA TM
4752 (1996).
33. AFFTC History, 1 Jan 198330 Sep 1984; GD, F-16XL Flight
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid
37. Ibid. For comparison purposes, a combat-loaded F-16 typically refu-
eled from the KC-135 tanker at altitudes approaching 30,000 feet.
Higher refueling altitudes are preferable for avoiding weather and for
increased fuel efficiency.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid.
40. AFFTC History, 1 Jan 198330 Sep 1984; GD, F-16XL Flight
41. Ibid.
43. Talty, The F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities in its Flight Test
Program; GD, F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. In a deep stall, an aircraft typically enters a stable, high-AoA
descent that becomes progressively steeper and is characterized by
145
Elegance in Flight
pronounced resistance to conventional stall-recovery techniques.

Deep stall has been responsible for several notable aircraft accidents,
most memorably an accident to a British BAC 1-11 jetliner that
claimed a crack test crew captained by Mike Lithgow, a pioneering
British supersonic pilot.
47. Ibid.
48. Ropelewski, F-16XL Shows Advances in Range, Ride and Flying
Qualities; Talty, The F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities in its
Flight Test Program.
49. GD, F-16XL Flight Test ProgramFinal Report; Ropelewski,
F-16XL Shows Advances in Range, Ride and Flying Qualities;
Talty, The F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities in its Flight Test
Program.
50. Walter D. Hutto, F110 Fighter Power: F-16/F110-GE-100 Pilot
Awareness Program (Cincinnati, OH: General Electric Company,
1987).
51. Alireza R. Behbahani, Need for Robust Sensors for Inherently Fail-
Safe Gas Turbine Engine Controls, Monitoring, and Prognostics,
Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, AFRL-PR-
WP-TP-2007-217 (November 2006), published in the Proceedings
of the 52nd International Instrumentation Symposium, Cleveland,
OH, May 7 through May 11, 2006 (2006).
52. Fergione joined General Dynamics, now Lockheed Martin
Aeronautics Company, as an experimental test pilot in 1981 after
service as a naval aviator and then as an instructor at the U.S. Navy
Test Pilot School. He spent 2 years as General Dynamics F-16XL
project pilot and conducted the first flights with the General Electric
F-110-GE-100 engine, both in the F-16XL and in the F-16C.
Assigned to the F-16 Combined Test Force at Edwards AFB from
1985 to 2002, he was also the GD facility manager for much of that
time. Fergione was chief test pilot for the F-16 (non-Block 60) pro-
grams until late 2002, when he became the F-22A experimental test
pilot. A fellow and past president of the Society of Experimental Test
Pilots (SETP), Fergione has logged over 6,400 flying hours.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Tierney, S.S., Inflight Excitation of the F-16XL, AIAA Paper
86-9782, April 1982.
146
59. Tierney, Inflight Excitation of the F-16XL.

61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. Ibid.
64. Bill Dana, a graduate of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point
and a former Air Force fighter pilot, joined the NASA High-
Speed Flight Station in 1958. He was a project pilot on the lifting
body program, flying the wingless Northrop M2-F1, HL-10, and
M2-F3, and the Martin Marietta X-24B lifting body vehicles. Dana
flew 16 flights in the rocket-powered hypersonic North American
X-15 research aircraft and participated in many other NASA test
programs; these included the F-15 Highly Integrated Digital
Electronic Control (HIDEC), the F/A-18 High Angle-of-Attack
Research Vehicle (HARV), the Mach 3.0 Lockheed YF-12, the
Lockheed F-104, General Dynamics AFTI F-16, Piper PA-30 Twin
Comanche, and T-38. Dana was Dryden chief engineer from 1993
until 1998, the period when most NASA F-16XL flight research was
conducted. He retired in 1998 after 40 years with NASA. NASA
Dryden Fact Sheet Bill DanaRocket Pilot, September 4, 2007,
http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/improvingflight/rocket_pilot.html,
accessed July 5, 2012.
65. Hon. Thomas P. Christie, interview by the former DoD Director
of Operational Test and Evaluation, February 15, 2012. W. Paul
Thayer had been a Naval Aviator, a WWII fighter ace, a former chief
test pilot at Vought Aircraft, and an ex-president and CEO of LTV
Corporation.
66. Berry, The Revolutionary Evolution of the F-16XL.
67. GD, F-16XL VIP Flight Log, Appendix A to F-16XL Flight Test
ProgramFinal Report.
147
A General Dynamics F-111F Aardvark of the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing at the National Museum
of the United States Air Force. (USAF)
148
CHAPTER 7
The Dual-Role Fighter

Competition
The comparative evaluation between the F-16XL and the F-15E had its genesis
in a need to improve the night and all-weather strike capabilities of U.S.
tactical air forces. In 1978, the commander of the Air Force Tactical Air
Command, Gen. Wilbur L. Bill Creech, directed an analysis of various
alternative acquisition approaches for a long-range, all-weather strike aircraft.
At that time, this aircraft was being referred to as the Enhanced Tactical
Fighter (ETF).1 As originally conceived, the ETF was intended to supple-
ment or replace the large, heavy General Dynamics F-111F, the outgrowth of
Secretary of Defense Robert McNamaras generally disastrous Tactical Fighter
Experimental (TFX) development program of the 1960s. Known popularly
as the Aardvark, the F-111F was a long-range, twin-engine supersonic
strike aircraft equipped with a sophisticated precision attack system called
Pave Tack. But the F-111 family of aircraft were already endangered by
newer generations of Warsaw Pact air defense weapons and aircraft and, as
well, were not available in significantly large numbers to enable NATO to
meet a critical challenge: the ability to conduct long-range strike operations
at night and in all-weather conditions against Soviet/Warsaw Pact second-
echelon and follow-on armored formations. These forces posed a major threat
against the Central Region of NATO. Dealing with critical elements of the
integrated air defense system that protected Soviet/Warsaw Pact forces was
an important aspect of the ETF requirement.
In some ways, ETF was complementary to the mission conceived for the
Lockheed F-117A low-observable fighter then under development. Due to
its extremely high security, few in Congress, the Defense Department, or
even the Air Force were aware of the existence of this stealth strike aircraft
development. This undoubtedly was beneficial to the Air Force initiative
that evolved from the ETF initiative. This soon became known as the Dual-
Role Fighter as its requirements expanded to include air superiority as well
as ground attack.2
149
Elegance in Flight
DRF: The Origins

Preliminary Air Force ETF studies had concluded that upgraded versions of the
F-111F could satisfy the need for an enhanced deep strike capability in the event
of a conflict in Central Europe. However, many Air Force leaders (and especially
General Creech) strongly believed that a dual-role variant of an existing fighter
was a better all-around alternative to improved F-111Fs. This Dual-Role Fighter
was intended to penetrate enemy defenses at very low altitude without having to
rely on fighter escorts to deal with enemy interceptors or the need for supporting
electronic jamming aircraft. The Air Forces McDonnell-Douglas F-15 Eagle
had been conceived as a pure air superiority fighter whose design philosophy
was based on the often-quoted phrase not a pound for air-to-ground. (Indeed,
the F-15 became arguably the finest air-to-air fighter in aviation history; Eagle
drivers of various nations have shot down dozens of opponents withoutas of
this writingever suffering an air-to-air loss themselves.) The relatively large,
twin-engine F-15 had tremendous power, surprising agility, and a great deal
of internal volume for growth and further development, giving it inherent air-
to-ground capability.3 The F-15 airframe had 15 cubic feet of empty internal
volume compared to only 2 cubic feet of empty space in the much smaller F-16.
As the large, heavy F-111F was very limited in maneuvering capability and had
essentially no capability at all for beyond visual range or in the highly demand-
ing close-in visual combat arena, it was eliminated from further consideration.4
Another significant consideration was the strong competition for limited
fighter production funding from the lower cost F-16. Many senior leaders within
the Air Force were very concerned about the end of F-15 production, for they
recognized that it was a remarkably capable aircraft with extraordinary growth
potential.5 McAirthe McDonnell-Douglas Corporation (MDC)was
actively promoting the development of a two-seat air-to-ground F-15. It would
have longer range made possible by conformal fuel tanks mounted on each side
of the fuselage under the wing-fuselage joint. McAir referred to these conformal
fuel tanks as FAST Packs (Fuel and Sensor Tactical Packages).
The strike version of the F-15 was to carry FAST Packs along with an exten-
sive array of air-to-ground sensors and advanced munitions. This would provide
the capability for all-weather strike missions using precision guided munitions.
McDonnell-Douglas and Hughes Aircraft (the company that developed the
original F-15 radar) collaborated in a privately funded study that examined the
feasibility of adapting the F-15 to the air-to-ground role. They jointly developed a
weapon system concept based on using synthetic aperture radar to provide a high-
resolution ground-mapping capability.6 The rear cockpit of the two-seat strike
aircraft was to be configured with advanced capabilities for a Weapons System
Officer (WSO). The WSOs duties included operating the synthetic-aperture
150
The Dual-Role Fighter Competition
radar (SAR) and other advanced navigation and weapons delivery systems. An
external laser designator pod would enable autonomous delivery of laser-guided
weapons at night. Weapons carriage and release pylons would be integrated
into the FAST Pack conformal fuel tanks, providing the capability for the air-
craft to carry a total of 22 air-to-ground weapons on long-range strike missions.
The F-15s air superiority systems weapons payload of four AIM-9 Sidewinder
infrared-guided missiles and four radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow missiles would be
retained. AIM-7 missiles would be replaced with the far more capable AIM-120
missile as that capability became available and was integrated into the basic F-15.7
Creech later recalled how he discussed development of a dual-role mission-
capable variant of the F-15 (to be called the F-15E) with George S. Graff, the
president of McDonnell-Douglas Aircraft.8 A strong advocate of the F-15,
Creech noted that his and similar efforts by other Air Force leaders solicited
an unsolicited proposal from McDonnell-Douglas. In Creechs words,
The Air Force sold McDonnell-Douglas on the idea that the

USAF needed the F-15E if it was going to continue buying F-15s
into the future. I described to Graff what the F-15Es features
needed to be: stretched fuselage, conformal [fuel] tanks for greater
range, two-person aircrew, LANTIRN equipped, a radar with
great ground map and ground target attack capabilities, modern
glass cockpitsall with no diminution in any way in the aircrafts
air-to-air weaponry or capabilities. Its either go dual-role or
get out of the F-15 business.9
By early 1981, McDonnell-Douglas had (with internal company funding)

built what they termed an F-15 Advanced Fighter Capability Demonstrator
(AFCD). First flown on July 8, 1980, the F-15 AFCD was modified from
F-15B serial number 71-0291, which had been the second two-seat F-15
produced. This aircraft immediately become popularly known as the Strike
Eagle, a name that carried over to the eventual F-15E production aircraft
in Air Force service. Demonstrated with conformal fuel tanks and an air-to-
ground weapons payload of 22 500-pound-class anti-armor Rockeye muni-
tions dispensers, the AFCD Strike Eagle also carried 4 AIM-9 Sidewinder
infrared air-to-air missiles for use in self-defense.10
In the summer of 1980, McDonnell-Douglas demonstrated the two-
seat Advanced Fighter Capability Demonstrator fitted with conformal fuel
tanks and a large payload of weapons at the Farnborough Air Show, where
the author of this study was briefed on the capabilities that the aircraft could
provide. Numerous Air Force officers were given demonstration flights in the
aircraft. They commented very favorably on its capabilities, as exemplified in an
151
Elegance in Flight
enthusiastic report written by Air Force Vietnam fighter ace Steve Ritchie and
published in the influential Air Force Magazine.11 Ritchies impressions were
concisely summarized in the articles subtitle: A fighter ace flies the F-15 dual-
role fighter candidate and reports this bird can do it all. It was a statement with
ominous implications for the future of General Dynamics F-16XL, even then
gestating at Fort Worth.
At the most senior levels of the Air Force, there was also a consensus on
moving forward with an air-to-ground version of the F-15. This aircraft was
increasingly seen as providing important capabilities that would be valuable
beyond the confines of a Central European conflict. The Strike Eagle clearly
incorporated the attributes advocated by Creech, who described the aircraft as
a product improvement conceptfor a possible buy of 400 airplanesfor the
long-range battlefield interdiction mission, including at night.12 In testimony
to Congress, Creech emphasized the role that the dual-role F-15 could play in
operations in the Middle East: I think it is an outstanding airplane for the Rapid
Deployment Force. In fact, range in the Persian Gulf area takes on a whole
new importance that one does not feel in Central Europe. Saudi Arabia is
bigger than the United States east of the Mississippi.13
In addition, there was also Air Force support for building into the F-16
the sophisticated equipment necessary to increase its usefulness and expand its
operating window and for building a prototype and demonstrate advancing
technologies in order to be able to respond quickly to changes in threat or mis-
sion requirements, to show that the F-16XL is an example of what could be
tested next year.14
The Enhanced Tactical Fighter had first been proposed in the Air Forces
fiscal year 1980 budget request to Congress, which was submitted in early 1979.
Congress refused to fund the program, stating that the requirement was relatively
undefined.15 This led to a complete revision of the concept. Instead of a completely
new start, ETF became an evolutionary or derivative development of an existing
TAC fighter modified with advanced avionics and weapons delivery capabilities
to permit multirole operations in demanding high-intensity combat scenarios.
In December 1980, Air Force Magazine reported that possible derivative fighter
designs included the enhanced F-15, being funded by McDonnell-Douglas and
its associated contractors, but also in a similar fashion General Dynamics was
working on their enhanced F-16XL that used a cranked arrow delta wing.16
In March 1981, the Air Force announced its intention to provide a night,
full-adverse-weather weapons delivery capability (a passing reference to what
emerged as the LANTIRN targeting and navigation pod) and that they would
in 1984 begin procuring Strike Eagle ground attack F-15s for this purpose.17 At
the same time, General Dynamics was claiming that its F-16XL, then in devel-
opment using company funding, would be capable of Mach 2.2 performance,
152
had reduced aerodynamic drag made possible by conformal weapons carriage,

and could carry nearly double the air-to-ground payload of the conventional
F-16. With this background, congressional language related to ETF funding
was revised to require the Air Force to conduct a competitive evaluation of dual-
role variants of both the F-15 and the F-16 before full-scale development and
production funding would be provided.
In June 1981, the Air Staff diverted $618 million from planned future fund-
ing for the new Advanced Tactical Fighter program to cover the possibility that
the F-16XL variant would be selected for full-scale development and eventual
production.18 The term Enhanced Tactical Fighter, or ETF, now rapidly evolved
into the Dual-Role Fighter to better describe the enhanced or derivative nature
of the aircraft that the Air Force was seeking in its evaluation of dual-role variants
of the F-15 and the F-16. In October 1981, the Office of the Secretary of the Air
Force directed the Air Force to conduct a comparative flight-test demonstration
program of the two candidate aircraft. The comparative evaluation was intended
to provide data to support a decision to proceed with development of either
the F-15E or the F-16E as a Dual-Role Fighter. The flight-test program would
provide part of the basis for evaluating the forthcoming contractor proposals for
full-scale development and production efforts. It would also provide limited Air
Force pilot assessments of both F-15 and F-16 derivative fighters. The Air Force
emphasized that flight-test data would provide only one of several key sources of
data for use in the DRF source selection process. The source selection would con-
sider performance, effectiveness, cost, and operational availability of both candi-
date aircraft. Their relative
contributions to overall
mission accomplishment
were evaluated based on
the results from flight
testing, other test efforts,
and various mission and
logistics analyses.19
Thus, the approach
used in the DRF source
selection called for flight-
test data to be supple-
mented with data from a
variety of other sources.
These included the
The DRF source selection process evaluated performance,
results from wind tunnel effectiveness, cost, and operational availability, weighing their
and high-altitude engine relative contributions, as shown is this extract from an Air Force
chamber testing, the use report. (USAF)
153
Elegance in Flight
of existing F-15 and F-16 flight-test data, test data from the F-16 Multi-Stage
Improvement Program (MSIP), and data from other relevant systems develop-
mental programs. Additionally, insights derived from extensive war-gaming exer-
cises and mission analyses played a significant role in the evaluation, especially in
the areas of system performance and combat effectiveness. Results from computer
modeling and simulation, as well as operational and logistics support analyses
conducted by subject matter experts, were also considered in the final decision.
The flight-test programs for each aircraft would be conducted by separate F-15E
and F-16E Combined Test Forces at the AFFTC. Personnel from the Flight Test
Center would be responsible for the development test and evaluation aspects of
the test program, with AFOTEC personnel responsible for operational utility
assessments on both aircraft. Flight-test activities and the overall source selection
effort would be coordinated by the Aeronautical Systems Division Derivative
Fighter Comparison Organization, located at Wright-Patterson AFB.20
The Dual-Role Fighter would have to demonstrate superior capabilities for
both the air-to-surface mission as well as in the air-to-air role. The aircraft would
need to be capable of long-range intercontinental deployment and had to demon-
strate high survivability during operations over heavily defended enemy territory.
The selected DRF contender would have to possess the best overall combination
of the following characteristics:21
Table 6.
Desired Dual-Role Fighter operational characteristics
Role Desired Characteristic
Air-to-Surface Long range
Large payload
Automated, accurate, state-of-the-art avionics and weapons
High-speed, low-altitude ingress/egress, day/night, within/under
weather
Adequate internal avionics volume
High combat performance as demonstrated by high speed, high
excess thrust, and satisfactory maneuverability/handling qualities
Two seats with a missionized rear cockpit
Air-to-Air Long range and endurance
Long-range, look-down radar
High combat performance
Two seats
154
On January 28, 1982, the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) directed
that its Aeronautical Systems Division form a dedicated organization to evaluate
both the F-15 and the F-16 Dual-Role Fighter candidates.22 The comparative
evaluation would examine both candidate aircraft from an analytical perspec-
tive as well as in terms of their flying qualities and weapons delivery capabilities.
Flight testing was to be conducted at the Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB,
where an F-16E Combined Test Force was being formed. It would include test
pilots and flight-test engineers from General Dynamics and the AFFTC, with
additional personnel being assigned from TAC, ASD, and AFOTEC. The test
program also included provision for separate Operational Utility Evaluations
(OUEs) of each candidate aircrafts capabilities. These OUEs would be primar-
ily conducted by the Air Forces independent operational test and evaluation
organization, AFOTEC, and were oriented to assessing the potential effective-
ness and suitability of each aircraft to perform the DRF mission. A Derivative
Fighter Steering Group was formed within ASD to provide appropriate senior-
level oversight of the overall evaluation effort.
In a Senate Armed Services Committee hearing on the proposed fiscal year
1983 defense budget that was held on February 26, 1982, Creech reported
that the Air Force was working on the Dual-Role Fighter, an all-weather attack
aircraft based on either a two-seat version of the F-16 (the F-16E) or a two-seat
F-15 (the F-15E) and was to be equipped with LANTIRN and the imaging
infrared (IIR)guided version of the air-to-ground Maverick missile.23 The
following week, at another Senate Armed Services Committee hearing, Maj.
Gen. Robert D. Russ, chief of Air Force Operational Requirements, stated, I
dont believe it is prudent to have a day, clear weather only fighter force and
give the enemy the capability to fight around the clock. I think the increased
capability that it [DRF] gives us is worth the money.24 The general require-
ments for the derivative fighter were briefed to the House Armed Services
Committees Research and Development Subcommittee in March 1982. In
their testimony at the time, the Air Forces stated that a new dual-role capable
fighter was needed by the late 1980s to assist the F-111F in deep interdic-
tion, to complement the F-15 in the air superiority role, and to replace the
aging Vietnam-era F-4, which was then the only truly capable dual-role fighter
in USAF service. The aircraft was described as being capable of conducting
a broad range of air-to-air and air-to-ground missions. Desired Dual-Role
Fighter characteristics were long-range and good endurance, a large weapons
payload, automatic terrain-following capability at very low altitude, and a rear
cockpit for a second crewmember, who would operate the specialized avionics
and weapons subsystems needed for day, night, and all-weather operations.25
Cost estimates for the F-15E and the F-16E Dual-Role Fighters were com-
pleted in conjunction with overall cost analyses conducted by the Air Force in
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Elegance in Flight
August 1982 for the F-15 and F-16 programs. These cost estimates included
both the incremental costs (defined as the additional costs to add a dual-role
fighter capability to each aircraft) and the total cost of the Dual-Role Fighter
procurement for each candidate aircraft. These costs are summarized for the
F-15E and the F-16E aircraft in Tables 7 and 8.26
Table 7.
Incremental Dual-Role Fighter cost breakdown400 aircraft
(Air Force independent cost analyses, August 1982)
(then-year dollars)
Costs F-15E F-16E
Research and Development $275 million $473 million
Incremental Production Cost $870 million $2,492 million
Incremental Acquisition Cost $1,145 million $2,965 million
Incremental Acquisition Cost per Unit $2.9 million $7.4 million
Incremental Recurring Flyaway Cost/Unit $1.6 million $5.5 million
Table 8.
Total Dual-Role Fighter cost breakdown400 aircraft
(Air Force independent cost analyses, August 1982)
(then-year dollars)
Costs F-15E F-16E
Research and Development $275 million $473 million
Incremental Production Cost $14.9 billion $10.9 billion
Incremental Acquisition Cost $15.2 billion $11.4 billion
Incremental Acquisition Cost per Unit $38.0 million $28.5 million
Incremental Recurring Flyaway Cost/Unit $32.6 million $22.4 million
In its approach to the DRF cost assessment, the Air Force assumed that the
dual-role capability would be built into aircraft that were already planned under
the existing F-15 or F-16 acquisition programs. Thus, the Air Force viewed
Dual-Role Fighter costs as essentially consisting of incremental costs over and
above those of existing variants of the F-15 and F-16. The Air Forces view of
DRF program costs as being essentially incremental was based on a planning
assumption that an adequate quantity of either F-15Es or F-16Es would be
156
bought in future years to satisfy the then-perceived, but still unofficial, Air
Force requirement for 400 aircraft Dual-Role Fighters.27 The Air Forces cost
assessment concluded that F-16 E development costs, as well as its incremental
costs, were greater than estimated F-15E development and incremental costs.
This largely reflected the additional costs of the major airframe design changes
required for the radically different F-16E. However, the estimated unit cost
of the smaller single-engine F-16E, with its maximum takeoff gross weight
of 48,000 pounds, was considerably less than that of the larger, twin-engine
F-15E, which has a maximum TOGW of over 80,000 pounds. As seen in Table
7, the unit flyaway cost of the F-15E was about $10 million more per aircraft
than the equivalent flyaway cost of the F-16E.28
Lt. Gen. Lawrence A. Skantze, the Air Forces deputy chief of staff for
research, development, and acquisition, emphasized that the Dual-Role Fighter
evaluation would be conducted by a combined team that would include
representatives from the Air Force Systems Command and the Tactical Air
Command. TAC was responsible for representing the various Air Force overseas
operational commands that would operate the aircraft if it was selected for
production. Skantze noted that various system upgrades would be examined
for each aircraft. He stated that one of the candidates would be selected for
the long range interdictor mission (tailored for the interdiction of the Warsaw
Pacts rear echelons), transforming the aircraft in effect into a dual fighter, while
the other is earmarked for some lesser upgrading.29 At the close of 1982, the
Air Force was still undecided about the total number of aircraft that would be
upgraded for the dual-role mission, but at that time, they expected to select
one of the DRF candidates for further development by the summer of 1983.30
By late 1982, the original Air Force plan to conduct a competitive fly-off
of the two DRF candidates was now being described as consisting of separate
independent evaluations of each aircrafts capabilities in accomplishing the
dual-role mission.31 Despite the fact that Congress had restricted the Air Force
to buying either the F-15E or the F-16E but not both, General Dynamics
spokesmen continued to publicly profess the belief that the Air Force could end
up buying both aircraft. In interviews reported in the press, F-16XL Deputy
Program Manager Harry Hillaker commented that the two aircraft should
not be considered competitive since the F-16 had always been considered to
provide a complementary capability to the F-15 in the context of the high/
low mix of Air Force fighters. Improving F-15 air-to-ground capabilities, along
with enhancing the air superiority performance of the F-16 in the beyond-
visual-engagement arena, were both worthwhile ongoing Air Force initiatives.
Hillaker emphasized that all forward-based aircraft in Europe, including the
F-16, were highly vulnerable to Soviet attack on their airbases. Increased range
was the driving requirement behind the development of the F-16XL, and this
157
Elegance in Flight
would greatly enhance its abilities in both European and Middle Eastern opera-
tions. Reservations about the restrictive congressional language limiting DRF
production procurement to one of the two competing aircraft were reportedly
expressed by Richard De Lauer, the Defense Departments director of research
and development, and General Charles Gabriel, the USAF chief of staff.32
In December 1982, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reiterated
the congressional guidance that only one of the Dual-Role Fighter candidates
was to be selected for full-scale development and eventual production. They
also reported that, as of that time, 538 F-16 variants were associated with
the DRF program, with potential acquisition of up to 400 dual-role F-15s
planned.33 In the case of the F-16, the total marginal cost was reported by
the Air Force to be $4.657 billion for the 538 aircraft, or over $8.6 million
per aircraft. Marginal costs were defined as those costs associated with modi-
fying an existing F-16 into a derivative F-16 dual-role version, not the total
unit cost of an F-16 DRF variant. The GAO also reported that the Air Force
had programmed approximately $10 billion to acquire 538 F-16 aircraft for
modification into two-seat, dual-role variants of the F-16if that aircraft were
to be selected as the DRF.34 In early 1983, the Air Force informed Congress
that the F-16E would cost more to develop than the F-15E (the estimated
development costs that they used were those shown in Table 8: $473 million
for the F-16E compared to $275 million for the F-15E). The Air Force also
noted that the addition of a two-seat cockpit with new avionics tailored for
the DRF mission would add even more development cost to the F-16E. At the
same time, the Air Force emphasized that its immediate operational priority
was dealing with the serious deficiency in all-weather ground attack capability,
with the Dual-Role Fighter providing the means to do so.35
During 1982 and into 1983, the Air Force Tactical Air Command worked
on evolving a Statement of Operational Need (SON) that included perfor-
mance thresholds and goals for the Dual-Role Fighter. Separately, individual
System Operational Concept documents, one for the F-15 and one for the
F-16 Dual-Role Fighter candidates, were being developed. In July 1983, TAC
submitted a revised SON to Air Force Headquarters, but this had not been
approved by early 1984, when the DRF source selection was essentially com-
plete. At the same time, both the F-15E and the F-16E System Operational
Concepts were still in coordination at TAC Headquarters. Performance thresh-
olds and goals incorporated in the earlier draft of the Statement of Operational
Need had been withdrawn by the Air Force. The Air Force rationale for this
action was that they might influence or predetermine the selection of one
candidate aircraft over the other. Thus, specific DRF evaluation criteria were
not ranked in order of importance nor were minimum acceptable performance
characteristicssuch as range and payloaddefined. Instead, the F-15E and
158
the F-16E were evaluated separately on the basis of their individual merits and
capabilities to perform the Dual-Role Fighter mission.
The separate and independent Air Force evaluation of the F-16XLs abil-
ity to accomplish the Dual-Role Fighter mission involved both the single
and the two-seat aircraft and began in April 1983. The separate evaluation
of the F-15 in this mission role had begun in December 1982 and eventually
involved four modified F-15s. These included the two-seat F-15B Advanced
Fighter Capability Demonstrator with its rear cockpit upgraded for the air-
to-ground mission. It was equipped with a modified version of the Hughes
APG-63 radar capable of high-resolution, synthetic-aperture ground mapping.
Additionally, two two-seat F-15Ds, delivered directly from the production line,
were equipped with modified stores stations to enable a variety of different air-
to-surface weapons combinations to be tested from the F-15. Finally, a single-
seat F-15C, fitted with the conformal fuel tanks to be used on the proposed
F-15E, conducted aerodynamic and handling qualities evaluations with various
air-to-ground weapons. The F-15C portion of the F-15 DRF evaluation had
begun in August 1982 and continued through September 1983.36
The DRF Competition: GAOs Concerns

Shortly before the formal Air Force announcement of the result of the Dual-
Role Fighter competition, Frank C. Conahan, director of the National Security
Division of the General Accounting Office, in a January 1984 letter to Secretary
of Defense Caspar W. Weinberger, expressed concerns about the Air Forces
DRF source selection approach.37 These concerns centered on two major issues:
first, the Air Force had not fully defined the operational concept and detailed
system requirements for the Dual-Role Fighter, and second, the F-15 and F-16
derivative designs were not being compared against a common set of evaluation
criteria that set minimum performance characteristics. Also, the GAO noted
that the Air Force intended to select either the F-15E or the F-16E for full-scale
development in early 1984, in advance of any congressional hearings on the
fiscal year 1985 budget. A separate GAO report elaborated on the GAOs DRF
source selection concerns. Of significance, it specifically highlighted the fact
that the F-16E required major changes to the basic F-16 airframe. The GAO
report noted that these changes included a fuselage stretched by 56 inches,
integration of a new cranked-arrow wing that replaced the existing F-16 wing
and horizontal tail, and provision for a strengthened landing gear. Changes
required for the F-15E were not considered by the GAO to be as great as those
needed for the F-16E, and mainly consisted of structural modifications to the
wings as well as a strengthened landing gear.38
159
Elegance in Flight
In the GAOs opinion, the Air Force approach used in the Dual-Role Fighter
source selection was inappropriate in that the Air Force had not compared the
F-l5E and the F-16E against common evaluation criteria to determine how
well each candidate aircraft fulfilled these criteria. They noted that procedures
for defining and documenting system operational requirements were defined
in a formal process that progressed from mission area analyses to definition of a
formal Statement of Operational Need.39 The SON was intended to identify an
existing operational deficiency and state the need for a new or improved capa-
bility. A System Operational Concept would then be established to describe the
intended purpose of the new system, its employment concept, and its intended
deployment and support approaches. Finally, quantitative and qualitative levels
of system performancesuch as range, payload, and maneuvering capabili-
tieswere to be formally established and used for evaluating candidate systems
capabilities before a full-scale engineering development decision was made.
The GAO highlighted the fact that there were formally established Air
Force policies and procedures for selecting contractors for development,
production, or modification of major defense systems.40 These required that
common evaluation criteria be established to assess contractor proposals
to fulfill an operational need. These evaluation criteria were to focus on
core issues related to the mission of the proposed system and were to be
ranked in relative order of importance in the source selection evaluation.
Characteristics, such as range and payload, were to be used as measurable
objective standards for evaluating contractor proposals. These characteris-
tics, which were intended to flow from the process of refining the systems
operational requirements, were to be quantitative where practical and serve
as the required minimum acceptable system performance. The GAO cited
the primary DoD directive on major systems acquisitions.41 This required
that a formal operational requirement be established to validate or demon-
strate the performance of candidate systems in conjunction with the source
selection process. They also reported that the Air Force had not followed its
own established source selection policies and procedures for any modifi-
cation, maintenance, services, and/or other program/project estimated to
require $300 million or more.42 The DRF procurement far exceeded this
program guideline.
The Air Force responded that the standard source selection procedures
relating to establishing specific performance criteria, as set forth in Air Force
Regulation 70-15, did not apply to the Dual-Role Fighter comparison. The
Air Force also noted that a normal source selection would have started with
a common Request for Proposals to each bidding contractor. In the case of
the DRF, separate proposal instructions, respectively tailored to the F-15 and
the F-16 candidates, were used to accommodate inherent differences in those
160
aircraft. The Air Force position was that ranking the evaluation criteria and
further refining and quantifying them might have predetermined the results
of the comparison and defeated their objective of determining the most cost-
effective DRF solution.43 In many ways, the Air Force approach to the DRF
source selection mirrored that used during the Lightweight Fighter program,
which had conducted separate independent evaluations of the performance
and combat potential offered by each candidate design.44
The Air Forces DRF Decision

After a series of internal reviews within the Office of the Secretary of Defense,
the Air Forces source selection decision was upheld and on February 24, 1984,
the F-15E was publicly announced as the winner of the Dual-Role Fighter
competition.45 A contract was issued to McDonnell-Douglas Corporation to
develop the necessary modifications to provide enhanced air-to-ground capabil-
ity to the F-15 for the deep-strike mission. The Air Force stated that it planned
on acquiring 392 F-15Es. The incremental acquisition cost of these 392 F-15Es
amounted to $1.5 billionthis compared to the $1.145 billion estimate for
400 F-15Es contained in the Air Forces 1982 cost analysis. Delivery of the
first production F-15E was scheduled to occur in 1988.46 In announcing the
DRF decision, Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Charles A. Gabriel stated that the
F-15E is vitally needed to redress our tactical forces limited ability to operate
over long ranges in adverse weather conditions, day or night. He also went
on to note, while the F-15 demonstrated clearly superior dual-role mission
capabilities, the modified F-16 with its cranked arrow wing demonstrated high
potential for follow-on development.47
Had the two-seat version
F-16XL won the Dual-Role
Fighter competition, the pro-
duction version of the aircraft
would have been assigned
the Air Force designation
F-16E. Shortly after the DRF
announcement in January
1984, reports confirmed that
the Air Force would evalu-
ate the F-16XLs potential for An F-15E Strike Eagle, of Air Combat Commands 391st
continued development but as Fighter Squadron, dropping a 5,000-pound GBU-28
an advanced single-seat fighter deep-penetrating laser-guided bomb during exercises at
with dual-role capabilities, to the Utah Test and Training Range, August 2010. (USAF)
161
Elegance in Flight
be designated F-16F. Lt. Gen. Robert D. Russ, Air Force deputy chief of staff
for research, development, and acquisition, in a mid-1984 Air Force Magazine
article on the USAF Fighter Roadmap, noted the following:
Another Roadmap feature is a follow-on to the F-16, the F-16F,

which will possess an improved air-to-air capability and a signifi-
cantly enhanced air-to-ground capability. While we cannot, at
this point, define the precise configuration of this aircraft, there
are a variety of promising technologies in various states of evalu-
ation that may be incorporated in the F-16F.48
As the Air Force Flight Test Center reported in 1986, To the surprise of
few, the F-16XL did not win the comparative fly-off (which, in fact, had
been a simulated fly-off conducted at Aeronautical Systems Division).49 The
CTF director, Lt. Col. Edwin A. Thomas, in an interview conducted for the
Flight Test Center history, summarized the strengths and weakness of the
aircraft. He noted that the F-16XL represented a significant improvement
in capability over the standard F-16. Thomas was impressed by the aircrafts
increased range and a payload twice that of the standard F-16, as well as the
tremendous speed capability inherent in this design. The aircrafts ride per-
formance and handling qualities, especially at low altitudes, were considered
by Thomas to be exceptional, with its increased internal volume providing
room for systems growth. He noted that the F-16XL was tremendous for
what it was designed to do but went on to say, you dont get any of these
things for free.50 In their attempt to optimize the aircraft for the air-to-
ground role, he noted that GD had made certain tradeoffs and compromises.
The XL had a very low aspect ratio wing as well as a significantly lower
thrust-to-weight ratio than the standard F-16. As a result, it lacked the F-16s
aerial combat maneuvering capabilities at lower speeds, where it suffered a
significant loss in sustained turning capability. The F-16XLs takeoff and
landing speeds were also considered to be too high for a new fighter. Thomas
noted that many of the F-16XLs limitations could have been resolved if it
had continued into full-scale development although some involved major
development and redesign efforts. In particular, the flight control system was
identified as requiring redesign to provide the larger hinge-moment capabili-
ties necessary for high-speed operations. Although the F-16XL lost the Dual-
Role Fighter comparative fly-off, Thomas considered that it was nevertheless
far from a failure and had demonstrated tremendous potential.
Maj. Patrick K. Talty, USAF, who had served as deputy for engineering on
the F-16E Combined Test Force, described the strengths and areas of defi-
ciency encountered with the F-16XL aircraft during the Air Force flight-test
162
evaluation. Undoubtedly, the strengths and weaknesses (along with cost and
full-scale development risks) that he noted were important considerations
during the Air Force Dual-Role Fighter source selection process. Talty gave
his perspective on the program in an Air University thesis published in the
spring of 1986.
The F-16XL accomplished the air-to-ground mission role better

than the F-16A/B. The XL modification to the F-16 stretched
airframe provided increased payload and range. The XL had
significant increased speed capability with more than twice the
air-to-ground weapon load when compared to the F-16A. The
F-16XL provided the capability to economically carry a large
air-to-ground weapon load while maintaining a potent air-to-air
capability (4 AMRAAMs and 2 AIM-9Ls) for extended ranges.
The XL modification provided many improvements in the air-to-

air maneuver region. The XL had outstanding high angle of attack
flying qualities and departure resistance characteristics. The pilot
could recover from departures with hands-off-control. The high
angle of attack flying characteristics were not degraded by air-to-
ground weapons. The XL had increased AOA and g capability
with external stores. The roll performance both at elevated AOA
and with external stores and tanks was improved, including the
ability to roll 360 degrees with bombs. Supersonic performance
was significantly improved over the F-16A with external stores.
Areas of deficiencies were primarily related to thrust and weight

requirements. At low thrust-to-weight ratios the takeoff distance
was significantly increased. The F110 engine provided greater
thrust on hot day conditions and the takeoff distance is noticeably
improved. The low thrust-to-weight ratio negated the advantage
of increased instantaneous maneuver potential compared to the
F-16 since the increased drag caused the XL to rapidly lose energy
during hard maneuvers. The heavyweight approach and land-
ing performance was not acceptable. The heavyweight approach
speed of 200 KCAS required a drag chute for routine opera-
tions (to minimize brake wear) and resulted in increased landing
distances. The requirement to fly 13 degree AOA approaches
reduced visibility over the nose of the aircraft. The test program
to reduce the approach and landing speed was not completed
due to program termination.51
163
Elegance in Flight
Following the Air Force DRF decision, Flight International magazine

reported, GD was reluctantly drawn into the dual-role fighter contest, and
will continue to offer its arrow-wing F-16XL to the US Air Force in the hope
that, later in the F-16 programme, production will switch to this longer-range
fighter version.52 Reflecting the General Dynamics perspective on the DRF
outcome, John G. Williams, GDs lead engineer on the XL commented, The
XL is a marvelous airplane, but was a victim of the USAF wanting to continue
to produce the F-15, which is understandable. Sometimes you win these politi-
cal games, sometimes not.53
A decade later, Harry Hillaker, by then officially retired from General
Dynamics but still serving as a consultant to the corporation, provided a
very interesting (if understandably emotional) retrospective perspective on
the Air Force approach to the Dual-Role Fighter competition. Hillaker was
responding to a December 1994 article published in the Lancaster, CAbased
defense journal Aerotech News and Review. In the article, the journal quoted
McDonnell-Douglas officials who had been interviewed concerning their
possible participation in an Air Forcesponsored comparative evaluation
of the production F-15E with the proposed Lockheed F-16ES.54 In report-
ing the story, Aerotech News had summarized the earlier Dual-Role Fighter
competition between the F-15E and the F-16XL in the following manner:
Such an evaluation would follow previous comparisons. In the

Dual-role Fighter competition funded by Congress and con-
ducted by the U.S. Air Force in the early 1980s, a prototype of
the F-15E decisively beat an F-16 variant called the F-16XL.
The prototype F-15E, carrying conformal fuel tanks with tan-
gential weapons carriage, a high-technology glass cockpit,
high-resolution ground-mapping synthetic aperture radar and
an infrared targeting system, was superior to the F-16XL in mis-
sion radius, payload, sustained aircraft performance, survivability,
automated weapon system performance and cost-effectiveness.
As a result, the Air Force procured the F-15E as its dual-role
interdiction fighter.55
Hillakers rebuttal to the depiction of the Dual-Role Fighter evaluation as

presented in the Aerotech News and Review article was forceful, colorful, and
insightful. His intimate involvement in development of the F-16XL, as well as
his perception of the politics surrounding the Air Force DRF source selection
decision, provide an interesting perspective on the final outcome of the program.
164
As the recognized Father of the F-16, and Chief Project Engineer

during the concept formulation and preliminary design phases of
the F-16XL and Vice President and Deputy Program Director
during the prototype phase, the article was of considerable inter-
est to me. The disappointment was that only one side of the issue
was presented, a highly biased, self-interest input that does not
adequately, nor accurately, present the real story of the selection
of the F-15E.
First, it should be understood that we (General Dynamics) did not

initiate the F-16XL as a competitor to the F-15E, then identified
as the F-15 Strike Eagle. We stated as unequivocally as possible to
the Air Force, that the Dual-Role mission should be given to the
F-15: that the F-15 should complement the F-16 in ground strike
missions in the same manner that the F-16 complements the
F-15 in air-air missions. A fundamental tenet of the F-16, from
its inception, has been as an air-air complement to the F-15
no radar missile capability, no M=2.0+ capability, no standoff
capability: a multi-mission fighter whose primary mission was
air-surface with backup air-air capability.
We proposed the F-16XL as a logical enhancement of its air-to-

surface capabilities. The F-16C represented a progressive systems
enhancement and the XL would be an airframe enhancement
optimized more to its air-surface missionlower weapons car-
riage drag and minimum dependence on external fuel tanks.
The statement that a prototype version of the F-15E decisively

beat an F-16 variant called the F-16XL, is misinformation. I
dont know what was meant by beat, it is patently true that
McDonnell-Douglas clearly won what was called a competition.
However, by the Air Forces own definition, it was, in reality, an
evaluation to determine which airplane would be better suited
to the dual-role mission. In a formal competition, each party is
evaluated against a common set of requirements and conditions.
Such was not the case for the dual-role fighter. The F-15 Strike
Eagle and the F-16XL were evaluated and flight tested to different
sets of conditions and to different test plansno common basis
for evaluation existed.
165
Elegance in Flight
The F-15 had only one clear advantage in the evaluationa

paper advantage. The weapon loading for one of the missions
used in the evaluation precluded the use of external fuel tanks on
the F-16XL; the F-15 could carry that particular weapon loading
and still carry external fuel tanks, the F-16XL could not. That
one mission was the only place the F-15 had a clear advantage.
(It should be noted that a fundamental design feature of the XL
was the elimination of external fuel tanks with their attendant
restrictions on flight limits and their weight and drag penalty.)
Further, the Air Force would not allow us to use the GE F110
engine in our proposal even though the No. 2 XL, the 2-place
version, was powered by a F110 engine and provided better per-
formance than the P&W F100 engine. And although you would
expect the F-16s clear advantage to be cost, the Air Force treated
the F-15E as a simple modification to a planned production buy
and the F-16XL as a totally new buy. Neither airplane used in the
flight test evaluation was a prototype of a dual-role fighter. The
F-15 was closer systems and cockpit-wise than the F-16XL and
the F-16XL was closer, much closer, airframe-wise. The F-16XLs
were designed to, and flew, at their maximum design gross weight
of 48,000 pounds, whereas the F-15, more than once, blew its
tires while taxiing at 73,000 pounds, well below its maximum
design gross weight [which was 81,000 pounds], a condition not
demonstrated in the flight test program.
In a meeting that I attended with General Creech, then TAC

CINC [Commander-in-Chief ], the general stated that either air-
plane was fully satisfactory. When asked why he and his staff only
mentioned the F-15 (never the F-16XL) in any dual-role fighter
statement or discussion, he gave a reply that was impossible to
refute, We have to do that because the F-16 has a heart and soul
of its own and we have to sell the F-15. Ill have to admit that
I sat mute upon hearing that statement because there was no
possible retort.
We had no allusions as to what the outcome of the Dual-role

fighter competition would be and debated whether to even
respond to the request for information. We did submit, knowing
full well that it was a lost cause and that to not submit would be
an affront to the Air Force who badly needed the appearance of a
166
competition to justify continued procurement of the F-15they

had patently been unable to sell the F-15 Strike Eagle for five years.
As is the case with too much in our culture today, the Air Force
was more interested in style, in appearances, than in substance.
Even today, I feel that giving the F-15 a precision air-surface capa-
bility was proper and badly needed. What continues to disturb
me is that the F-16XL had to be a pawn in that decision and had
to be so badly denigrated to justify the decisiona selection that
could have been made on its own merits.56
D. Randall (Randy) Kent, General Dynamics vice president and program

director for the F-16XL, had presented his views on the F-16XLs accomplish-
ments in an interview published in Air Force Magazine (AFM) in late 1983,
shortly before the Air Force decision that selected the F-15E as the Air Force
Dual-Role Fighter. In the AFM article, Kent firmly expressed the GD goal to
move the program into full-scale development and eventual production:
The F-16XL flight-test program has conclusively demonstrated

that the XL performs as predicted. This performance level represents
a significant increase in mission capability for USAF. Coupling this
with the affordability and low risk of the F-16XL presents USAF
with a viable way to increase mission capability while simultane-
ously growing to a forty-wing TAC force structure.57
F-16F Full-Scale Development Effort

General Dynamics had begun planning for an F-16XL Full-Scale Development
program prior to the Air Force decision that selected the F-15E for produc-
tion in January 1984.58 Initially, the intent had been to develop the aircraft as
a two-seat replacement for the F-111 under the designation F-16E. However,
following the DRF decision in February 1984, the Air Force announced its
intention to develop the single-seat version of the F-16XL as the F-16F. Before
finally terminating the program in August 1985, the Air Force had allocated
funding to begin initial FSD efforts on the F-16F. The F-16F design concept
was based on using the Multi-Staged Improvement Program avionics from
the production F-16C. The production aircraft would have incorporated the
fuselage plugs developed for the F-16XL along with its tailored cranked-arrow
wing. The production program proposed by General Dynamics would have
167
Elegance in Flight
resulted in initial F-16F deliv-

eries to the Air Force from the
Fort Worth factory in 1987.
Under GDs proposed FSD
development approach, the
two existing F-16XL aircraft
would have been modified
to F-16F production-repre-
sentative standard. Two more
F-16F test aircraft would be
built for the FSD flight-test
program that was based on
the use of four test aircraft.
Production planning for The General Dynamics F-16F design concept was based
on component modularity with the production F-16C
the single-seat F-16F air- program while also retaining a very high percentage
craft continued into 1985. of the existing F-16 logistic support and training base.
However, early on in the Full- (Lockheed Martin)
Scale Development effort, it
became evident that a different management approach from that used during
the F-16XL development effort was needed. This had also been the case during
the transition from the YF-16 flight demonstrator effort to the production
F-16 program.59
An unsigned internal GD memorandum pleading for better communications
and improved coordination between elements of the F-16F team reflects some
of the difficulties encountered during this transition from what was essentially a
prototyping effort to a full-scale development program.60
An important aspect of design productivity is effective communica-

tion among the various design disciplines so that design changes
can be evaluated and incorporated in the most efficient and pro-
ductive manner. This is doubly important in a program such as
the F-16XL where the configuration continues to undergo devel-
opment, and changes occur daily. On the XL prototype program,
collocation of aero, structures, loads, materials, mass properties,
manufacturing, systems and management kept all groups informed
of design changes, and kept the system flexible enough to react to
such changes with little duplication of effort or wasted manpower.
In contrast, the XL FSD program has been almost entirely segre-
gated with virtually no effective means of communications between
groups, in a phase of the aircrafts life where changes are even more
critical and have a much greater impact downstream. There have
168
been many instances of oh, by the way, we need to incorporate

this type of after the fact design changes, which serve only to
duplicate effort and reduce the productivity of the engineer. I spend
a great deal of my time marching back and forth between buildings
chasing down engineers from various design disciplines to exchange
information not readily conveyed via phone or mail, or replanning
daily events due to the unavailability of the unscheduled CYBER
or VAX terminals or the too-rigidly-scheduled CADAM terminals.61
The F-16F Full-Scale Development effort ended when the Air Force termi-
nated the program in the summer of 1985, although some ongoing flight-test
efforts continued for a few months longer. These supplemental efforts were
completed by the end of September. On October 1, 1985, F-16XL-2 was
flown to Fort Worth and placed in storage. This marked the last flight of the
Air Force F-16XL program, which had completed a total of 798 flight-test
missions. The wide variety of objectives accomplished during the Air Force
flight-test program is shown in Table 9. During the course of the program,
F-16XL-1 flew 437 times and F-16XL-2 accomplished 361 flight-test sorties.
The two-seat F-16XL-2 aircraft was painted in the so-called Ferris camouflage
scheme, which was being evaluated for possible adoption by the Air Force.62
Both F-16XLs are seen in close formation with the full air-to-air missile payload of four AMRAAMs
and two Sidewinders. The two-seat F-16XL-2 in the lead is painted in the so-called Ferris decep-
tive camouflage scheme. (USAF)
169
Elegance in Flight
Table 9.
F-16XL Activity Through October 1, 1985
Event F-16XL-1 F-16XL-2 Total
Milestones
1st FlightLast Flight 7/3/828/14/85 10/29/8210/1/85
1st Supersonic Flight Flt #2 Flt #1

(7/9/82) (10/29/82)
Maximum G Flight 9.0
(Flt #20 7/28/82)
Max Mach Number 1.95 1.6
(Flt #19 7/28/82) (Flt #25 12/7/82)
Maximum Altitude 50K Feet 50K Feet
(Flt #11 7/24/82) (Flt #212 9/13/83)
Longest Range Demo 1,985 NM
(Flt #224 9/23/83)
1st Flight with GE F110 Flt #274
Slim-Line Engine (7/19/84)
1st Flight with Large Flt #311
Normal Shock Inlet (6/26/85)
Flights
Total Number of Flights 437 361 798
Air-to-Air Flights 318 (72.8%) 230 (63.7%) 548 (68.7%)
Air-to-Ground Flights 119 (27.2%) 131 (36.3%) 250 (31.3%)
Flight Hours
Total Flight Hours 532.6 407.1 939.7
Air-to-Air Flight Hours 400.0 (75.1%) 283.1 (69.5%) 683.1 (62.7%)
Air-to-Ground Flight 132.6 (24.9%) 124.0 (30.5%) 256.6 (27.3%)

Hours
Average Hours Per Flight 1.22 1.13 1.18
170
Program Cancellation: General Dynamics Perspective

Many years later, Randy Kent presented his perspective on the fate of the F-16XL
program. This was in conjunction with the 25th anniversary celebration of the
first flight of the F-16XL, held in Fort Worth in July 2007. Kent stated that the
F-16XL program had been going well, it was on schedule and on cost, perfor-
mance predictions were being verified by flight-test results, and reasonable pro-
duction costs had been established. He noted that the USAF budget contained
funding for a preliminary F-16XL production plan and, in his opinion, there
was strong military and congressional support. However, the Air Force had raised
several technical issues. Kent said that their main complaint was that the F-16XL
was too heavy for the available engine thrust. He countered that this resulted in a
small loss in subsonic turn capability compared to the basic F-16 and, besides, a
growth engine [the GE F110] was in the works.63 The Air Force also noted that
the F-16XL flyaway cost was three million dollars higher than the flyaway cost of
a standard F-16. Kent retorted that this still was much lower than the compet-
ing F-15E.64 His presentation also highlighted the programmatic issues that,
in Kents opinion, influenced the Air Force decision to terminate the program.
Kent stated that the Air Force at the time had significant budget problems
and major debates were under way concerning F-16 versus F-15 procurement.
There were serious concerns that the F-15 production line would be closed down
as delivery of the last of the planned air superiority variant of the F-15 fighter
was imminent. Finally, a new programthe Advanced Tactical Fighter (that
would evolve into the Lockheed F-22 Raptor)was becoming a major focus
at the USAF senior staff level.65 Randy Kent concluded his presentation to the
audience, made up largely of Lockheed Fort Worth representatives, with a chart
that accurately summarized the decisions taken by the Air Force leadership in
the 198485 timeframe. Using the following statements, Kent reported that the
USAF senior staff had concluded that there were more programs upcoming than
the budget could support, the F-15 line must be kept open, the F-15E (an air-
to-ground version of the F-15) would be funded, the Advanced Tactical Fighter
program must proceed immediately, the F-16XL program must be eliminated,
and the F-16XL was a great idea at the wrong time.
End of the Air Force F-16XL Flight-Test Program

On October 1, 1985, F-6XL Program Manager Randy Kent forwarded a memo
titled End of the F-16XL Flight Test Program to David S. Lewis, chairman
of the board of General Dynamics. Kent reported, F-16XL No. 2 ferried to
Fort Worth from Edwards Air Force Base today, arriving 10 minutes ahead of
171
Elegance in Flight
schedule and on prediction for fuel usage. This marks the end of the F-16XL
program under USAF contract. To all of you who worked so hard to make
the program a success, please accept my thanks for a job well done. Perhaps
fortune will smile on F-16XL at a later date but for now it is a sad day.66
Responding the very next day, Lewis stated, It is a sad day. But all of those who
worked on the F-16XL should take pride in the fact that their work resulted
in a superb aircraft which under normal circumstances would be going into
production instead of into the barn. It has been rewarding to read the highly
complementary comments on the quality of the XL volunteered by the USAF
and GD pilots who had the opportunity to work on a real winner, even though
no prize was awarded!67
Even today, 30 years after its first flight, the F-16XL continues to have a
dedicated and enthusiastic following among many former General Dynamics
employees who participated in the engineering development and flight test-
ing of the aircraft. Robert J. Wetherall, who as a newly hired young structural
engineer at GD Fort Worth in the early 1980s worked on the development
of the F-16XL, summarized why he liked the aircraft in these words: It was
beautiful, cool, had elements of The Six Million Dollar Man in it, and I was
building something!68 Unfortunately, the ranks of former F-16XL team mem-
bers continue to decrease as age takes its toll: Harry Hillaker, who played such
a significant role in the original YF-16 Lightweight Fighter program and the
subsequent F-16XL effort, passed away in 2009, and Jim McKinney, who
piloted the aircraft on its first flight in 1982, died suddenly while playing golf
in Atlanta in early 2011. Randy Kent, former F-16XL Program Manager,
passed away after a long illness in 2014.
172
Endnotes
1. James C. Slife, Creech Blue: Gen Bill Creech and the Reformation of
the Tactical Air Forces, 19781984 (Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air
University Press, 2004).
2. Aronstein and Piccirillo, Have Blue and the F-117A.
3. Hallion, A Troubling Past: Air Force Fighter Acquisition since
1945.
4. Slife, Creech Blue.
5. As of late 2012, the F-15 was still in production. Over 1,500 F-15s
have been delivered or are on firm order. Production is anticipated
to continue for foreign military sales through at least 2015.
6. Synthetic-Aperture Radar (SAR) was developed to address the
limitations of conventional radars in imaging surface targets. SAR
systems achieve good azimuth resolution independent of the slant
range to the target. A synthetic aperture is produced by using the
forward motion of the radar. As the aircraft moves toward a surface
target, the target reflects radar pulses in rapid sequence. The SAR
system in the aircraft processes these returns and creates a so-called
synthetic aperture in the computer, providing much improved
azimuth resolution and, hence, greater bombing accuracy.
8. In addition to his role as president of McDonnell-Douglas Aircraft
Corporation, Graff had been selected to serve on the McDonnell-
Douglas Board of Directors in 1973; People and Posts, Flight
International (May 10, 1973).
10. Clarence A. Robinson, USAF Pushes Production, Performance,
Aviation Week & Space Technology 114, no. 11 (March 16, 1981): pp.
4853.
11. Steve Ritchie, An Eagle for All Arenas, Air Force Magazine
(November 1983).
13. Ibid.
14. Robert D. Russ, USAF, Tactical Fighter Development: We Have
Debated Long Enough, Air Force Magazine 64, no. 4 (April 1981).
15. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Armed Services, Department
of Defense Authorization for Fiscal Year 1980, Hearings, 96th Cong.
1st Session (April 2, 1979), p. 2,213.
16. Edgar Ulsamer, In Aeronautics Affordability is King, Air Force
Magazine 63, no. 12 (December 1980).
173
Elegance in Flight
17. Robinson, USAF Pushes Production, Performance, pp. 4853.

18. David C. Aronstein, Michael J. Hirschberg, and Albert C. Piccirillo,
Advanced Tactical Fighter to F-22 Raptor: Origins of the 21st Century Air
Dominance Fighter (Reston, VA: AIAA, 1998).
19. Young, History of the Air Force Flight Test Center, 1 January 1983
30 September 1984.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. John Pike, Dual Role Fighter, GlobalSecurity.org, updated July 7,
2011, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/drf.htm,
accessed December 11, 2011.
23. Marshall L. Michel, The Revolt of the Majors: How the Air Force
Changed After Vietnam (Ph.D. diss., Auburn University, 2006).
24. U.S. Congress, Senate Armed Services Committee, Tactical Air Warfare,
97th Cong. 2nd Session (March 2, 1982), p. 312.
25. USAF, TACAIR Dual Role Fighter Requirement Briefing for the
House Armed Services Committee, Research and Development
Subcommittee, U.S. Air Force Tactical Air Command (March 24,
1982).
26. Both tables are from Enclosure I in Frank J. Conahans letter to Casper
W. Weinberger, Concerns About the Air Force Approach to the Dual
Role Fighter Comparison, GAO/NSAID-84-49 (January 19, 1984).
27. Conahan, Concerns About the Air Force Approach to the Dual Role
Fighter Comparison. In this document, the GAO also noted that if
F-15 production were stabilized at 36 aircraft per year, as intended by
the conferees on the 1984 Congressional Authorization Act, annual
F-15 production would have to be considerably greater than 36 aircraft
to meet the Air Forces DRF fielding schedule.
28. Unit flyaway cost is a measure of the cost of a military aircraft. It
includes the cost of the airframe, engines, avionics, weapons carriage
and delivery systems, and other hardware and software installed in
the aircraft. Unit flyaway cost does not include prior program costs
such as research, development, test and evaluation (which are treated
as sunk costs); the cost of support equipment; or future costs such as
fuel, spares, and maintenance. Unit acquisition cost is the total price
of an individual aircraft. It includes not only the airframe, avionics,
and engine costs, but also auxiliary equipment costs, initial spares,
technical data, support and training equipment costs, as well as one-
time, nonrecurring contract costs such as Research, Development,
Test and Evaluation (RDT&E), and program-related military
construction costs. J. Richard Nelson, F/A-22 Independent Cost
174
Estimate, Institute for Defense Analyses, Report P-4029 (August

2005). As an illustrative example of the very wide range that can
exist between flyaway cost and total program unit acquisition cost,
in 2012, the Air Force reported that the F-22A unit flyaway cost
was $143 million while the GAO reported the F-22A program unit
acquisition cost as $412 million.
29. Edgar Ulsamer, Scoping the Technology Baseline, Air Force
Magazine 65, no. 12, (December 1982).
30. Ulsamer, Scoping the Technology Baseline.
31. Author unidentified, USAF Wants Both F-15E and F-16E, Flight
International (November 13, 1982): p. 1,426.
32. Ibid.
33. CBO, A Review of the Department of Defense June 30, 1982
Selected Acquisition Report, Congress of the United States, CBO
Special Study (September 1982).
34. Based on a comparative analysis by the author, the respective pro-
curement quantities contained in the CBO report (538 F-16 DRFs
vs. 400 DRF F-15s) apparently resulted from an assumption that
the total derivative fighter modification cost would be held constant
regardless of which variant was selected. The anticipated unit cost
differential between the two variants, as determined by the Air Force
in its August 1982 program cost analysis, was used to determine the
potential F-16 DRF procurement quantity based on the procure-
ment cost of 400 F-15 DRFs.
35. Graham Warwick, US Fighter Options, Flight International 124,
no. 3071 (July 16, 1983): pp. 139146.
36. Dennis R. Jenkins, McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-
Weight Fighter (Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1998).
37. Conahan, Concerns About the Air Force Approach to the Dual
Role Fighter Comparison.
38. Ibid., Enclosure I.
39. USAF, Air Force Regulation (AFR) 57-1, Operational Requirements,
Statement of Operational Need.
40. USAF, AFR 70-15, Source Selection Policy and Procedures.
41. DoD, Department of Defense Directive 5000.1, Major System
Acquisitions.
42. USAF, AFR 70-15.
43. Conahan, Concerns About the Air Force Approach to the Dual
Role Fighter Comparison, Enclosure I.
44. Aronstein, The Lightweight Fighter Program.
175
Elegance in Flight
45. Eugene Kozicharow, USAF Selects F-15 as Dual-Role Fighter,

Aviation Week & Space Technology 120, no. 10, (March 5, 1984): pp.
1819; Edgar Ulsamer, In Focus: The Dual Role EagleUSAF
Chooses the F-15E as Derivative Fighter, Air Force Magazine 67,
no. 4 (April 1984).
46. First flight of the first Full-Scale Development F-15E occurred on
December 11, 1986, with the first production aircraft (serial number
86-0183) delivered to the Air Force in April 1988. The first F-15E
unit was operational in October 1989 at Seymour Johnson Air Force
Base in North Carolina. Production of the F-15E for the U.S. Air
Force ended in 1991 with 236 aircraft delivered. Additional vari-
ants of the basic F-15E design were tailored for the needs of Israel
(25 aircraft), Saudi Arabia (72), South Korea (40), and Singapore
(12). In a deal that was announced in December 2011, Saudi Arabia
stated its intent to buy an additional 84 F-15Es. This will bring total
F-15E production up to 469 aircraft.
47. Ulsamer, In Focus: The Dual Role Eagle.
48. Robert D. Russ, Lt. Gen. USAF, The Fighter Roadmap, Air Force
Magazine 67, no. 6 (June 1984).
49. Young, AFFTC History.
50. Lt. Colonel Edwin A. Thomas, Director, F-16XL CTF, interview by
Dr. Richard P. Hallion, AFFTC History Office, June 1985. Quoted
in Young, AFFTC History.
51. Talty, The F-16XL Demonstrates New Capabilities.
52. Author unidentified, F-15 Wins US Fighter Contest, Flight
International (March 3, 1984): p. 550.
53. Ibid.
54. The F-16 Enhanced Strategic (ES) was a variant of the F-16C/D
fitted with conformal fuel tanks that provided it with 40 percent
greater range. It had an internal forward-looking infrared (FLIR)
system with the capabilities of the LANTIRN navigation and target-
ing system but without the drag associated with external pods. The
F-16ES was unsuccessfully offered to Israel as an alternative to the
F-15I Strike Eagle in late 1993. It was one of several F-16 options
offered to the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and led to development
of the F-16E/F for the UAE. An F-16C was modified to ES con-
figuration to test the conformal tanks with simulated FLIR sensor
turrets fitted above and below the nose of the aircraft. The F-16ES
test aircraft first flew on November 5, 1994, with flight testing com-
pleted in January 1995.
176
55. Author unidentified, McDonnell Douglas Prepared to Compare F-15E

and F-15ES, Aerotech News and Review 9, no. 24 (December 9, 1994).
56. Harry J. Hillaker, Personal letter to Paul J. Kinson, Publisher/
Editor, Aerotech News and Review, January 24, 1995.
57. Berry, The Revolutionary Evolution of the F-16XL.
58. GD, Manufacturing/Project Planning Chart: F-16XL Production
Flow (Two Place Aircraft), General Dynamics Corporation, Fort
Worth Division, January 26, 1983.
59. Aronstein, The Lightweight Fighter Program.
60. This internal, undated, unsigned GD memo was provided courtesy
of Robert Wetherall, Lockheed Martin.
61. The CDC Cyber mainframe-class supercomputers were the primary
products of Control Data Corporation (CDC) during the 1970s and
1980s. In their day, they were the computer architecture of choice
for mathematically intensive computing such as modeling fluid
flow, stress analysis, electrochemical machining analysis, and other
applications. Virtual Address eXtension (VAX) was an instruction
set architecture (ISA) developed by Digital Equipment Corporation
(DEC) in the mid-1970s. The VAX name was also used by DEC for
a family of computer systems based on this processor architecture.
62. This disruptive camouflage scheme was named after the brilliant and
highly influential aviation artist Keith Ferris, who proposed its use
on combat aircraft. Reminiscent of the dazzle schemes that had been
successfully used on warships and merchant shipping as far back as
the First World War, Ferris camouflage schemes were evaluated on
a number of aircraft, including the F-14 and F-15, but test results
were inconclusive and it was not adopted for service use.
63. Randy Kent, Perspectives on the F-16XL Program, presentation
to the F-16XL First Flight 25th Anniversary Celebration, Lockheed
Martin Corporation, Fort Worth, TX, July 3, 2007.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.
68. The Six Million Dollar Man was a popular TV series in the late
1970s about a test pilot who survived the crash of an experimental
lifting body reentry vehicle with severe injuries. After undergoing
extensive surgery and receiving bionic implants, he went on to work
on highly classified special projects. The show, based on the novel
Cyborg by Martin Caidin, appeared on the ABC TV network from
1973 to 1978 with the actor Lee Majors playing the title role.
177
F-16XL-2 flying with a supersonic laminar flow control suction glove leading edge, April 1996. (NASA)
178
CHAPTER 8
NASA Supersonic Laminar

Flow Research
After remaining in storage for several years, both F-16XLs were subsequently
transferred to NASA for flight research into a number of areas relevant to the
development of a high-speed commercial transport aircraft. These included
investigations into supersonic laminar flow, noise abatement, and acoustic
signatures. In addition, the aircraft were employed to study pitch-and-roll
oscillation phenomenology, for flutter research, and in the evaluation of a
digital flight control system upgrade to the aircraft.
NASA use of the F-16XL as an experimental research aircraft had its genesis
in the High-Speed Research program that began in the late 1980s. The HSR
program was NASAs highest aeronautical priority during the 1990s. This was
in large part driven by the commercial aircraft and engine companies. They
believed that NASA could make its most useful contribution to development
of a future High-Speed Civil Transport by focusing the HSR program on
demonstrating and maturing the basic technologies that could lead to a practi-
cal supersonic transport. Boeing, in particular, highlighted the fact that there
were major technical risks inherent to successful development of a supersonic
transport aircraft. These were so great that the aircraft and engine industries
were unwilling to invest in an HSCT effort unless NASA reduced the known
technical risks by defining a well-focused HSR program.1 As a result of such
industry concerns, the HSR program was restructured in 1992 to emphasize
those technologies that best addressed critical issues related to the economic
viability of commercial supersonic travel. The restructuring effort was headed
by Cecil C. Rosen, the NASA director of aeronautics. Phase I had concentrated
on proving that the environmental concerns of daily SST operations could
be overcome. The goal of the restructured program, now referred to as HSR
Phase II, was to mature the technologies necessary for a post-2000 HSCT to be
economically competitive with subsonic civil transports. Economic competi-
tiveness was defined as a ticket surcharge of no more than 20 to 30 percent for
supersonic travel. Following extensive analytical studies and economic market
analyses, both Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas concluded that this goal drove
179
Elegance in Flight
the maximum takeoff gross weight of a future HSCT to an upper limit of not
greater than 750,000 pounds. The conceptual HSCT was intended to carry
300 passengers while cruising at Mach 2.4 over intercontinental ranges of up
to 5,000 nautical miles. The takeoff gross weight limitation drove the HSR
program to emphasize the set of technologies that would have the most impact
on achieving the HSCT takeoff gross weight goal.
The HSR Phase II program was led by the HSR Program Office at Langley and
was supported by the Dryden Flight Research Center, the Ames Research Center,
and the Lewis (now Glenn) Research Center. Major industry partners in the
HSR program were Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, McDonnell-Douglas
Aerospace, Rockwell Corporations North American Aviation Division, General
Electric Aircraft Engines, and Pratt & Whitney. Research tasks were accom-
plished by a joint NASA-industry team, with personnel divided into integrated
work units. Boeing was designated overall industry manager for HSR activities.
The HSR Program Office established management offices that were focused on
critical HSCT-related technology topics. These included technology integration
(under William P. Gilbert), aerodynamic performance (Robert L. Calloway),
materials and structures (Rodney H. Ricketts), environmental impact (Allen H.
Whitehead, Jr.), and flight deck technology (Daniel G. Baize). Major decisions
in the program were made by a team comprised of one member from each of
the four prime contractors representing the two airframe companies and the two
engine developers (Boeing, McDonnell-Douglas, General Electric, and Pratt &
Whitney) and two from NASA. This team, known as the Integrated Planning
Team (IPT), oversaw the efforts of the Airframe Management Team (AMT) and
the Propulsion Management Team (PMT). Subordinate to the airframe and
propulsion management teams were a series of Technology Management Teams
(TMTs). The TMTs, in turn, supervised the efforts of Government and indus-
try researchers organized into a variety of Integrated Technology Development
(ITD) teams. In addition to the prime contractors, more than 40 major sub-
contractors were also on the integrated HSR team. The NASA Glenn Research
Center (formerly known as the Lewis Research Center) oversaw the efforts of
the Propulsion Management Team. The PMT was organizationally similar to
the Airframe Management Team, and its efforts also came under the oversight
of the High-Speed Research program IPT.
As it continued to evolve, the HSR program was focused on developing
the critical technologies that would enable a future supersonic transport to
achieve its performance goals at an economical cost. A clear consensus emerged
within NASA and the aircraft industry that strong technology development
efforts were needed in the areas of airframe and composite structures and
advanced propulsion if this vision was to be feasible. To this end, a small super-
sonic laminar flow flight research effort that was originally part of the NASA
180
NASA Supersonic Laminar Flow Research
Aircraft Energy Efficiency (ACEE) program was transferred under the HSR
program. This was not an easy sell, and supersonic laminar flow control just
squeaked into the program. ACEE had supported flight research into laminar
flow control and had sponsored a number of flight-test efforts using various
types of subsonic civil and military aircraft.2 After the ACEE program had been
terminated in 1986, Langley continued its support of laminar flow research
through a Laminar Flow Control (LFC) Project Office. Studies conducted
prior to the formal start of the HSR program had led the LFC Project Office to
consider an aircraft flight research program focused on SLFC. Many members
of the Langley research staff felt strongly that SLFC was a critical ingredient to
the success of a future supersonic transport, especially if such an aircraft was
intended to be economically viable.3
The NASA Langley LFC Project Office, under Richard D. Wagner, had
issued contracts to both Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas Corporation in
1988. The purpose of these studies was to determine the potential benefits
that might be achieved through the use of SLFC on a supersonic civil transport.
In their study, Boeing used their Boeing Model 2707-300 SST configuration
that had originally been conceived as the U.S. contender to the Anglo-French
Concorde before it was cancelled. They determined that if SLFC could be suc-
cessfully integrated into this design, its fuel consumption could be reduced by
12.5 percent, and the maximum takeoff gross weight of the aircraft could be
reduced by 8.5 percent. The payload of the basic Boeing supersonic transport
design was calculated to be only 7 percent of its takeoff gross weight. The
MDC study indicated that SLFC was feasible for their 308-passenger Mach
2.2 conceptual design that featured a cranked-arrow wing and rear-mounted
tail surfaces. MDC had concluded that fuel consumption could be reduced
by 17 percent if both the wing and tail surfaces could be made fully laminar
back to the control surface hinge lines.4 The savings in fuel consumption and
gross weight that potentially could be achieved using SLFC represented major
improvements in the capability of an HSCT. However, SLFC technology was
considered risky and its payoffs problematic at best. It had to be proven to
be both feasible and practical for commercial airline use. In summary, both
Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas highlighted the major issues and risks related
to incorporating SLFC technology into future supersonic transports.5
Laminar flow had been the subject of extensive research efforts since the
1930s, and the technology potentially offered very significant reductions in
fuel consumption. However, practical applications of the technology to pro-
duction aircraft (especially large aircraft) had eluded engineers despite a long
series of attempts over the years. Laminar flow technology, especially as it
related to the supersonic flight regime, had significant risks involving air-
frame design, system integration, production engineering, and manufacturing.
181
Elegance in Flight
Another major unknown area with perceived high risk was the operations and
maintenance of HSCT aircraft fitted with supersonic laminar flow control sys-
tems in widespread airline service. Overall, the risks associated with laminar flow
control technology were known to be high. Most experts believed that a practi-
cal, low- to moderate-risk SLFC approach was unlikely to be ready in time to be
integrated into an HSCT design on the planned schedule that called for initiation
of airframe and engine full-scale development in the year 2000 without a major
risk-reduction initiative.
The general belief in the aircraft industry in the late 1980s was that selection
of supersonic laminar flow technology for use in an HSCT development was a
high-risk challenge. They strongly urged that supersonic laminar flow control
technology be demonstrated and matured via a Government-funded flight dem-
onstration program. NASA agreed that a flight research program was needed
to validate the benefits that could be achieved from the use of SLFC. Without
such a Government-sponsored program, industry would be unwilling to adopt
the concept. Obtaining an appropriate high-speed aircraft that could be read-
ily modified for a NASA SLFC research program was considered a mandatory
requirement for the demonstration. MDC had already addressed the possible use
of the F-16XL for an SLFC technology demonstration in their NASA-sponsored
study. Langleys Jerry N. Hefner was familiar with NASAs role in the F-16XL
development effort and recognized that its cranked-arrow wing design was similar
to that envisioned for use on a future HSCT. Hefner recommended using the
two Air Force F-16XLs, then in storage at the GD factory in Fort Worth, as test
platforms for a NASA research program. Theodore G. Ayers, the deputy director at
NASA Dryden, strongly supported the F-16XL initiative, as did James W. Smolka
and Joe Bill Dryden; both were GD F-16 project pilots in Fort Worth at the time.6
Hefner and Wallace C. Sawyer, who headed the HSR program at Langley, worked
with NASA Headquarters to establish an SLFC program based on the F-16XLs as
test aircraft. Cecil C. Rosen, the director of aeronautics at NASA Headquarters,
agreed that these aircraft would be important to a NASA flight research effort.
Arrangements were then made with the Air Force for the transfer of the two
F-16XL prototypes for NASA use in support of the HSR program.7
As Jerry Hefner subsequently recalled,
My interest in the F-16XL came after a Directors tour to GD

when I was Branch Head of the Civil Aircraft Branch. I saw the
airplanes and wondered out loud to those around me whether we
might use them for laminar flow research. A year or two later, one
of the individuals that showed us the airplanes called me and said
the USAF was going to destroy them by live fire. He thought if I
(NASA) would like them for research that now was the time to act.
182
NASAs conceptual HSCT design featured a cranked-arrow wing similar to that of the F-16XL. (NASA)
Wally [Wallace C. Sawyer] and I talked about my desire to get

the airplanes for SLFC. Jan Tulinius (at Rockwell), who had been
talking to me about using SLFC to cool supersonic fighters lead-
ing edges to reduce their signature, was very interested and he
wanted to conduct a quick experiment on the F-16XL ship 1
to see if LF could be achieved back to the front spar.8 With this
information Wally agreed to approach Cecil Rosen about getting
the two aircraft. Wally felt that Cecil would not approve getting
the aircraft for SLFC, but if he thought Rockwell wanted us to
have the aircraft to conduct experiments to improve the stealth
characteristics of supersonic aircraft, then Cecil might approve the
transfer. Wally was right and GD transferred the aircraft to NASA
and avoided their being destroyed in live fire. The rest is history.9
The F-16XL Transfer to NASA and a Research Synopsis

Final arrangements for the transfer of the F-16XLs were completed in 1988.
Later that year, F-16XL-1 was removed from storage and prepared for flight.
On March 9, 1989, GD test pilot Joe Bill Dryden flew the aircraft on its first
functional check flight since it had been in long-term storage. This was the first
time that it had flown since August 14, 1985. Earlier in his career, Dryden had
been one of the original project pilots assigned to the F-16XL combined test
force at Edwards AFB. The actual transfer of the aircraft to NASA officially
occurred on March 10, 1989, when David McCarthy of General Dynamics
183
Elegance in Flight
The F-16XL-1 photographed on the ramp of the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, VA,
during its brief deployment to the East Coast in 1994. (NASA)
signed the Department of Defense DD Form 250, titled Material Inspection

and Receiving Report.10 Assigned NASA aircraft identification number 849 (the
8 prefix indicating a Dryden aircraft), the F-16XL-1 would be modified for
passive (shape and profile effects) and active (inflight-suction) laminar flow
research studies. Its first flight with a highly instrumented laminar flow wing
glove occurred on May 3, 1990, when it was flown by NASA Dryden test
pilot Steven D. Ishmael. The single-seat F-16XL-1 was briefly assigned to the
NASA Langley Research Center in Virginia from April to November 1994,
where it was to be used to determine takeoff performance and engine noise as
part of a project to evaluate a future HSCT configuration. After a short stay
at Langley, F-16XL-1 departed for the Ames-Dryden Flight Research Facility
in November 1994. In 1995, after being returned to its original aerodynamic
configuration and fitted with acoustic pressure sensors, F-16XL-1 was used
with a NASA Lockheed SR-71 and a propeller-driven Lockheed YO-3A in a
research project intended to further quantify sonic boom phenomenology. In
1997, F-16XL-1 was modified with a digital fly-by-wire flight control system
(DFCS) that replaced the original analog FBW flight control system.
On February 12, 1991, Joe Bill Dryden, who had retired from the Air Force
to become a company test pilot with General Dynamics, flew the F-16XL-2
from Fort Worth to Dryden, where it was formally transferred to NASA. Prior
to its delivery to NASA, the more powerful General Electric F110-GE-129
turbofan engine had been installed in the aircraft, replacing the F110-GE-100
engine that was been used during the Air Force flight-test program. The two-seat
184
F-16XL-2 carried the NASA identification number 848. At Dryden, F-16XL-2

was fitted with an experimental titanium wing glove section installed on its
extended left wing for use in a NASA project involving supersonic laminar
flow control investigations. The glove, designed by Rockwell, was fitted with
an active laminar flow suction system. This system was used to siphon off a
portion of the aerodynamic boundary layer over the leading edge of the wing.
Suction was applied through 10 million extremely small holes drilled through
the wing glove. These holes had been precisely cut by a special laser. The active
suction was intended to maintain smooth airflow within the boundary layer
during supersonic flight conditions. A wind tunnel model of the aircraft fitted
with the active suction control modification was subjected to about 2,800 hours
of testing to validate its aerodynamics with the wing glove. In addition to wind
tunnel testing, a computer model of the aircraft with the glove modification
was evaluated at NASA Dryden to ensure that its handling qualities were not
adversely affected. Since the objectives of the SLFC project were oriented to
application of the technology to an HSCT, high-g, high-AoA maneuvering was
not required. This had led to a decision to design the SLFC glove modification
for 3-g flight conditions. This restriction was imposed on the subsequent SLFC
flight-test program. F-16XL-2 was flown 45 times on the NASA SLFC project
between October 13, 1995, and November 26, 1996.
Dryden had initially used F-16XL-1 for exploratory investigations of lami-
nar flow technology in 1992, during which time a small, perforated-titanium
active-suction wing glove with a turbocompressor was installed on the aircraft.
This initial research effort with F-16XL-1 was followed by a more ambitious
program of supersonic laminar flow control testing with the two-seat F-16XL-2.
This effort would use of a larger active suction glove mounted on the left wing
of the aircraft. In the spring of 1992, Boeing had begun working with NASA
Langley and Dryden, as well as with Rockwell and McDonnell-Douglas, in an
HSR-sponsored project for design and testing of this larger active suction wing
glove on F-16XL-2. Boeing and Rockwell were responsible for the fabrica-
tion and installation of the highly complex titanium glove, which reportedly
cost about $14 million and required three attempts to produce.11 Boeing and
McDonnell-Douglas were responsible for assisting NASA in analyzing flight-
test data. Michael C. Fischer, from NASA Langleys LFCPO, was the NASA
technical principal investigator, with Lisa J. Bjarke serving as Dryden principal
investigator. The NASA F-16XL flight project office was located at the NASA
Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards, CA. Marta R. Bohn-Meyer was
the Dryden F-16XL-2 SLFC flight-test project manager.12 Carol A. Reukauf
later became the Dryden project manager after Bohn-Meyer was promoted to
Dryden chief engineer.Dana D. Purifoy and Mark P. Stuckey were the Dryden
project research pilots for the F-16XL-2 SLFC project.13
185
Elegance in Flight
F-16XL-2 flying with a supersonic laminar flow control suction glove leading edge, April 1996. (NASA)
F-16XL-2 Supersonic Laminar Flow

Control Flight-Test Synopsis
Flight measurements were obtained for the airflow on the leading-edge pas-
sive glove installed on the F-16XL-2s right wing during the 1991 to 1992
timeframe. The passive glove had been designed by McDonnell-Douglas
Corporation and built at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. The goal
of the initial SLFC flight tests with XL-2 was to obtain surface pressure data
needed to calibrate computer software design codes, particularly in the leading-
edge boundary layer attachment-line region. In the first phase of flight tests,
the program addressed the major technical issue of preventing the fuselage tur-
bulent boundary layer from contaminating the attachment-line region of the
wing. Characterizing the acoustic disturbance field and the disturbances from
the fuselage boundary layer was another objective. The pressure and laminar
flow data from this initial flight-test phase provided valuable information for
use in designing the active suction glove that would be mounted on F-16XL-2s
left wing in the next phase of the SLFC test effort.
The perforated active suction glove used on F-16XL-2 had been designed in a
collaborative effort between Boeing, McDonnell-Douglas, Rockwell, and NASA.
The glove covered about 75-percent of the upper-wing surface and 60-percent
of the wings leading edge. It was constructed of inner and outer titanium skins
and aluminum stringers. A turbocompressor in the aircrafts fuselage provided
186
suction to draw air through nearly 12 million holes. These were positioned in
20 individual suction regions on the glove surface. Air was drawn through the
millions of individual holes in the glove via a highly complex manifold system
that employed 20 valves. The glove was instrumented to determine the extent of
laminar flow and to measure other variables, such as the acoustic environment
that affected laminar flow at various flight conditions. Suction was provided by
a modified Boeing 707 turbocompressor installed in what had previously been
the M61 Vulcan cannons 20-mm ammunition bay located aft of the cockpit
on F-16XL-2. The SLFC flight research effort with F-16XL-2 was intended to
achieve laminar flow over 50 to 60 percent of its wing chord.
In addition to the flight-test effort, computational fluid dynamics com-
puter software codes and design methodologies were to be created, along with
laminar flow control design criteria for use at supersonic speeds. The geometric
asymmetry of the F-16XL-2 aircraft when fitted with the suction glove on the
left wing required dedicated wind tunnel tests to determine the aerodynamic
and stability and control characteristics of the modified aircraft before actual
flight testing could begin. The first F-16XL-2 flight after the SLFC suction
glove modification occurred on October 13, 1995. Evaluation of the active suc-
tion glove itself began on November 22, 1995, with the first supersonic flight
test with the suction system operating occurring on January 24, 1996. The
fight-test portion of the SLFC program with F-16XL-2 ended on November
26, 1996, after 45 research fights. During the 13-month flight research pro-
gram, the NASA-industry SLFC team logged about 90 hours of flight time
with F-16XL-2, much of it at speeds of Mach 2 at altitudes of 50,000 feet and
above. The project demonstrated that laminar airflow could be achieved over a
significant portion of a highly swept wing at supersonic speeds using an active
suction system. A highly detailed synopsis of the SLFC flight research effort
with F-16XL-2 is included in the closing section of this chapter.
SLFC Summary
Both F-16XL-1 and F-16XL-2 had configuration-specific shock and expansion
waves, which influenced the laminar flow on the wings at supersonic condi-
tions. Supersonic shock waves emanating from the canopies and engine inlets
spread out over the wings and expansion waves coming from beneath the wing
caused a highly three-dimensional flow field. These resulted in difficulties in
obtaining laminar flow on the attachment-line region at the same test condi-
tions. Despite these problems, which resulted from the decision to use the
F-16XL as the SLFC research aircraft, NASA publicly stated that the supersonic
laminar flow control flight experiments with the aircraft achieved about 70 to
80 percent of the initial research goals. Yet despite the somewhat promising
results from the flight research program, there were other major difficulties
187
Elegance in Flight
with integration of active suction supersonic laminar flow control technolo-

gies into a commercial aircraft. Boeing strongly expressed their opinion that
the manufacturing processes needed to produce a practical SLFC system for a
commercial supersonic transport were so challenging that they were effectively
a showstopper. Boeing had to try four times before they were able to fabri-
cate a suction glove for F-16XL-2 that met the challenging smoothness and
stiffness standards required to maintain supersonic laminar flow. Even then,
some manufacturing discrepancies were simply tolerated in order to move the
program forward. The surface contours of the wing glove had to be controlled
to no more than a few thousandths of an inch. This had already proven very
challenging to achieve on the F-16XLs small, stiff wing. It was well beyond
Boeings manufacturing capabilities to produce an active suction glove for a
wing the size of that planned for the HSCT. Depending on the specific design
approach, a wing of that size was estimated to require precision laser drilling
of as many as a billion tiny holes in its laminar flow control suction panels.
In essence, Boeing felt that the SLFC-related manufacturing technology
needed for a HSCT production line would be both very expensive and risky to
develop. This was due to the precision required to produce active suction on a
flexible airliner wing that was structurally an order of magnitude larger in size
than that of the F-16XL wing. In addition to high manufacturing costs, other
challenges with SLFC technology included costs associated with keeping the
extremely small suction holes clear during routine day-to-day scheduled airline
service. Commercial airline operations, by definition, would have involved rou-
tine flight in heavy rain with icing conditions often encountered. Additionally,
airborne insects found in the vicinity of many commercial airfields would have
resulted in insect accretion on the wing leading edges. These factors had a high
potential to cause the boundary layer over the wing of an HSCT to prematurely
transition from laminar to turbulent flow, increasing the drag due to skin fric-
tion and defeating the purpose of a suction-type SLFC system.14
By 1995, based on several industry design concepts, computer modeling,
and wind tunnel tests, NASA had selected a Technology Concept Aircraft
(TCA) as a common reference point for use with the HSR technology devel-
opment and risk-reduction process. This single concept was intended to have
improved aerodynamic performance and operational characteristics while also
meeting environmental goals for engine emissions and noise pollution. An
important rationale for the Technology Concept Aircraft was to serve as a basis
to ensure that appropriate technology was available to meet both the needs of
a practical and economically realistic design and its concurrent development
schedule. The implications of this dual rationale had a major impact on the
F-16XL SLFC program. In September 1996, the Airframe Management Team
within the HSR program elected to terminate the F-16XL SLFC program.
188
This decision was based on a general agreement among both the Government
and, especially, the aerospace industry members of the Airframe Management
Team. The consensus within the team was that supersonic laminar flow control
was not a near-term technology that could be available in time for integration
into a High-Speed Civil Transport program on any realistic cost and develop-
ment schedule.15
189
Elegance in Flight
Endnotes
1. Cecil C. Rosen III began his professional career with Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft in advanced jet engine design. He held a num-
ber of key positions at NASA, including manager of propulsion
research and technology, director of aerospace research, and associate
administrator of the Office of Aeronautics, where he managed the
four NASA Research Centers (Ames, Langley, Lewis [later renamed
Glenn], and Dryden).
2. Mark D. Bowles, The Apollo of Aeronautics: NASAs Aircraft Energy
Efficiency Program (19731987) (Washington, DC: NASA SP-2009-
574 2009).
3. Michael Fischer and Chandra S. Vemuru, Application of Laminar
Flow Control to the High Speed Civil TransportThe NASA
Supersonic Laminar Flow Control Program, presented at the
Aerospace Technology Conference and Exposition, Long Beach, CA,
September 1991, SAE Paper 912115 (September 1, 1991).
4. As the subsequent SLFC test program with F-16XL-2 would reveal,
achieving fully laminar flow over the entire surface of the HSCT
wing would have been extremely difficult. Thus, the purported
reductions in fuel consumption and HSCT gross weight that could
be achieved by the use of SLFC were highly suspect. These facts, as
well as the major manufacturing challenges in producing an active
suction wing for the very large HSCT, were the primary reasons that
the SLFC effort with the F-16XL was eventually cancelled.
5. Arthur G. Powell, Supersonic LFC: Challenges and Opportunities,
in Proceedings of the NASA Langley Research Center First Annual
High-Speed Research Workshop, Williamsburg, Virginia, May 1416,
1991, Part 4 (April 1, 1992), pp. 1,8231,840; Yorgo E. Saounatsos,
Technology Readiness and Development Risks of the New
Supersonic Transport, Journal of Aerospace Engineering 11, no. 3
(July 1998): pp. 95104.
6. Smolka would soon return to NASA Dryden as a NASA research
pilot. Eric Hehs, Marta Bohn-Myer: NASA Flight Researcher,
Code One Magazine (April 1994).
7. Erik M. Conway, High Speed Dreams: NASA and the Technopolitics
of Supersonic Transportation, 19451999 (Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2005).
8. Jan R. Tulinius had conceived of the Active Aeroelastic Wing
(AAW) concept in 1983. AAW was later evaluated on a modified
F/A-18A under a jointly funded and managed Air Force Research
190
LaboratoryNASA Dryden Flight Research Center program. A total

of 95 AAW research flights were completed between November
2002 and March 2005. Tulinius later was chief scientist for the
North American Aviation Division of Rockwell International Corp
before the company merged with Boeing.
9. The Hefner quote was provided in his comments on the manuscript
of this book and is contained in correspondence between the author
and Joseph Chambers, November 27, 2012.
10. Author unidentified, F-16XL Aircraft Fly Out of Storage to
Perform Flight Tests, Aviation Week & Space Technology 130, no. 13
(March 27, 1989): p. 27; author unidentified, Arrow-wing F-16
Airborne Again, Flight International (March 25, 1989): p. 7.
11. Conway, High Speed Dreams.
12. Marta Bohn-Meyer had been at NASA Dryden since 1979. She
served in positions that included director of flight operations,
director of safety and mission assurance, deputy director of flight
operations, and deputy director of aerospace projects. Bohn-Meyer
became F-16XL Supersonic Laminar Flow Control project manager
in 1990. In October 2001, she was selected as the NASA Dryden
chief engineer. An accomplished aerobatic pilot and twice member
of the U.S. Unlimited Aerobatic Team, Bohn-Meyer died when her
Giles 300 aerobatic aircraft crashed near Yukon, OK, as a result of a
catastrophic failure of the front canopy hinge. Alan Brown, NASA
Dryden Chief Engineer Marta Bohn-Meyer Dies in Airplane Crash,
NASA DFRC Press Release 05-60, September 19, 2005.
13. In a 1994 interview with Flight International, Bohn-Meyer com-
mented, This [SLFC] is the kind of technology that will enable us
to sharpen our pencils to design the HSCT. Quoted in Guy Norris,
Smooth and Supersonic, Flight International 145, no. 4421 (May
18, 1994): pp. 3233. The same article quoted NASA sources as
believing that SLFC applied to an HSCT design could reduce fuel
consumption by 9 percent. That in turn, reportedly would have cut
the aircraft TOGW by between 4 and 7 percent.
14. Boeings Malcolm MacKinnons perspective on SLFC manufacturing
difficulties, as reported in Conway, High Speed Dreams. MacKinnon
was the HSR deputy program manager.
15. Conway, High Speed Dreams; NASA F-16XL Laminar-Flow Tests
Will Aid HSCT Effort, Flight International (February 1, 1995).
191
F-16XL-1 with the active suction glove on the left wing that was used for research into super-
sonic laminar flow control. The grey titanium active suction panel is visible on the inner region
of the white wing glove. The passive outer leading edge of the wing glove is painted black in the
region where a liquid-crystal sensor array was located. A video camera in the wingtip pod was
used to record the liquid-crystal patterns. (NASA)
192
CHAPTER 9
Detailed Aspects of the

F-16XL SLFC Research Effort
For NASA supersonic laminar flow research purposes, both F-16XL research
aircraft were to be modified with the installation of titanium gloves smoothly
faired into the wing with graphite and epoxy. The weight associated with these
gloves had the potential to affect the flutter characteristics of the aircraft. For
instance, the wing glove modification on F-16XL-1 weighed a total of 207
pounds. The wing gloves extended from the forward wing spar on the lower
wing surface, around the leading edge, and aft to the 25- to 40-percent chord
line on the upper wing surface of F-16XL-1. A glove fairing stretched further aft
from the glove to the trailing-edge spar on the upper surface to ensure smooth
airflow across the wing. The active suction wing glove installation later added
to F-16XL-2 was even heavier and extended farther aft on the wing chord.
Previous NASA experience with wing gloves had shown that changes in wing
structural weight, stiffness, and airfoil shape resulted in shifts in wing torsion
modes and vibrational frequencies. These had the potential of lowering the
speed at which flutter could be encountered (flutter onset speed).
NASA F-16XL Flutter Testing

The effects of SLFC wing gloves on F-16XL aeroelastic and aeroservoelastic
characteristics needed to be assessed to determine safe flutter flight envelopes.
This required ground vibration and flight tests both before and after the glove
modifications were installed on the aircraft. One ground vibration test (GVT)
was performed with the basic F-16XL configuration to provide the baseline
case. Another GVT was performed after the aircraft was modified with the
glove. The GVTs showed that several structural modes involving the control
surfaces were changed at higher excitation frequencies. Subsequent flight test-
ing with the glove installed showed satisfactory structural damping levels and
trends with the modified aircraft within the flight envelope approved for the
SLFC research effort. The approved flight envelope for the F-16XL research
193
Elegance in Flight
aircraft as modified for the NASA SLFC research program had significant
restrictions compared to the unmodified F-16XL aircraft. NASA Dryden
research engineer David Voracek played a significant role managing and execut-
ing the F-16XL flutter test program.1
Flutter Test Objectives

During the original Air Force F-16XL flutter clearance program, two wing-
tip configurations had been tested. One configuration consisted of AIM-9
launcher rails with missiles mounted on both wingtips. The other was the
clean aircraft only without the missile launch rails mounted. Flutter clear-
ances had been issued for these configurations out to a maximum dynamic
pressure (max q) of 1,700 pounds per square feet. The clean-wingtip F-16XL
configuration had been tested up to a maximum speed of Mach 1.6 at 30,000
feet. The NASA SLFC test program included an F-16XL configuration with
wingtip-mounted missile launcher rails without AIM-9 missiles being car-
ried. This configuration had not been evaluated during inflight flutter testing
in the earlier program. Flutter analysis data provided by General Dynamics
for the unmodified F-16XL-1 aircraft showed that the flutter frequencies for
different fuel and wingtip store configurations ranged from 23.5 to 29.2 Hz.
The wingtip-mounted missile launcher rail-only configuration (no missiles car-
ried) was one of the configurations to be used during the SLFC flight research
program. This configuration had flutter frequencies that ranged from 23.5
to 25.3 Hz. The addition of the wing glove was determined to affect aircraft
control surface vibration modes above 20 Hz. The aircraft control surfaces were
predicted to have the lowest flutter speeds based on analyses performed during
the original F-16XL aircraft development effort. Potential changes in control
surface vibration modes due to addition of the wing glove raised concerns
about a high-frequency control surface vibration often referred to as buzz. Buzz
normally occurs in the transonic flight region for most aircraft and can lead to
structural failure.2 Buzz is caused by the interaction of supersonic shock waves
with the flexible structure of the control surface. The potential for control
surface flutter coupled with the fact that the launcher rails-only configuration
had never flight-tested for flutter were important factors in planning flutter
test requirements for the modified F-16XL research aircraft.
There were two aspects of the F-16XL flutter test program: ground vibration
testing and in-flight flutter tests. The two main objectives of flutter testing were
first to assess the effect of the wing glove and its associated hardware on the
structural characteristics of the modified aircraft that would be flown during
the SLFC evaluation. The second test objective was to establish a safe flight
envelope free of any flutter or aeroservoelastic instability. The desired flight
envelope for the SLFC program with F-16XL-1 was defined as a dynamic
194
Detailed Aspects of the F-16XL SLFC Research Effort
pressure of 533 pounds per square foot up to an altitude of 32,000 feet. Mach
number was then increased up to a max q of 1,008 pounds per square inch. This
max q was maintained as altitude was increased up the wing glove structures
design temperature limit, which was 160 F.3 The flutter envelope for F-16XL-2
would later be further expanded to enable the SLFC research effort to encompass
a flight envelope out to Mach 2.0 at altitudes well above 50,000 feet.
Ground Vibration Testing

Ground vibration tests used flight-ready F-16XL aircraft. Equipment that was
not yet installed in the aircraft was simulated by ballast weights placed as close
to the proper locations as possible. The aircraft was on its landing gear during
vibration testing, and the landing gear struts were collapsed to eliminate poten-
tial nonlinearities that could affect vibration characteristics of the basic aircraft.
The tires were deflated to one-half their normal pressure to provide a softer
support. The fuel load included full fuselage tanks and empty wing tanks. The
wing tanks were not fueled to ensure that the natural vibration modes of the
wing structure and control surfaces were unaffected by the weight of the fuel
in the internal wing tanks. All structural panels were fastened, and the canopy
was closed and locked. The control surfaces were in the trimmed position for
each test. Three electrodynamic shakers capable of generating a maximum
force of 150 pounds were used to excite F-16XL-1s structure during GVT.
One shaker was placed aft on the right wing launcher rail, a second shaker was
placed forward on the left wing launcher rail, and a third shaker was suspended
from an overhead crane and attached to the vertical stabilizer. A total of 180
piezoelectric accelerometers were attached on various locations to measure the
structural response of the airframe during ground vibration testing.4 A comput-
erized workstation and data-acquisition and analysis system acquired, filtered,
displayed, and recorded 183 channels of data. These provided comprehensive
data on the 3 force inputs and the 180 accelerometer responses during GVTs
on both the baseline and modified aircraft configurations.
Two GVTs were performed on the aircraft: one before the glove installa-
tion (used as the baseline GVT) and a second after the glove was installed on
the aircraft (the modified GVT). The general procedure for each GVT was to
install accelerometers at various locations on the aircraft. These were connected
to a digital data-acquisition system. The aircraft was then excited by the three
electrodynamic shakers using uncorrelated random signals with a frequency
content of 1 to 50 Hz. Structural frequency response functions (FRFs) for
the aircraft were estimated and subsequently used to determine the structural
response frequencies and mode shapes below 30 Hz. The data were analyzed
by estimating airframe modal parameters of frequency, damping, and mode
shape and then comparing the GVT results from the baseline (unmodified)
195
Elegance in Flight
aircraft with GVT results from the modified aircraft to determine if there were
significant modal changes caused by the wing glove installation.
Airframe structural vibration frequencies obtained during ground vibration
testing using the baseline (unmodified) aircraft and the aircraft modified with
the wing glove were compared. Small changes in structural response frequency
existed between the two configurations. There were slight frequency shifts
below 15 Hz because of the added mass of the wing glove with frequency
shifts becoming greater at higher frequencies. Although most of the GVT data
showed close agreement between the baseline and the modified aircraft, three
differences in the control surface vibration modes were encountered. A previ-
ously identified 26.4-Hz symmetric control surface vibration mode with the
unmodified aircraft was not apparent with the modified aircraft. The absence
of this mode was believed to be the result of changes in wing mass and stiff-
ness caused by the addition of the glove. The control surface vibration mode
produces considerable deflection at the wing leading edge and the forward
inboard wing. Since the glove covered this area of the wing, its mass and stiff-
ness substantially reduced the modal response to the control surface deflections.
An antisymmetric control surface vibration was also missing with the modified
aircraft. As with the symmetric 26.4-Hz control surface mode, this mode had
significant inboard wing motion on both the right and left wings. The wing
glove was installed in an area where GVT of the unmodified aircraft showed
significant deflections. The glove stiffened the wing, reducing its deflection and
increasing the vibration frequency. The change in antisymmetric vibrational
mode shape with the modified aircraft was restricted to the glove area, and
vertical stabilizer and the fuselage motion remained unchanged. Another dif-
ference in modal data was observed in another antisymmetric control surface
mode. The mode shape changed from antisymmetric to symmetric with the
modified aircraft. One possible explanation given was that the 26.4-Hz sym-
metric mode was shifted up to 28 Hz because of the glove and coupled with the
28.8-Hz antisymmetric mode. There were no changes in structural vibration
frequency of the airframe in the range where the structural notch filters were
active in the flight control system. This led to the conclusion that there were
no aeroservoelastic concerns for the modified aircraft.
In-Flight Flutter Testing

The F-16XL-1 was instrumented with seven accelerometers that sampled at a
rate of 200 samples per second for in-flight flutter testing. Six of the acceler-
ometers had a data-collection capability up to +10 gs. Since the g levels at the
tip of the aircraft tailfin were much higher than those found at most other loca-
tions on the airframe, the accelerometer located there was designed to collect
acceleration data up to a level of 75 gs. Other accelerometers were located on
196
the forward and aft tips of

both wings and on the left
and right aileron beams.
Accelerometer responses
were telemetered from
the test aircraft to the
NASA Dryden Spectral
Analysis Facility for near-
real-time structural sta-
bility monitoring. Data Accelerometer locations on the F-16XL airframe for use in
from the accelerometers flutter testing. (NASA)
was routed to a spectrum
analyzer that provided near-real-time frequency and structural-damping
information while the planned flutter test points were actually in the pro-
cess of being flown. Other relevant flight information such as Mach number,
altitude, and airspeed were displayed on video monitors. This capability
enabled flutter experts on the ground to provide important information to
the pilot that was needed to safely and effectively progress through the flutter
clearance envelope.
The F-16XL-1 obtained data at 14 flutter test points. These were flown
in order of increasing dynamic pressure over a series of three test missions.
In-flight data were collected during 60 seconds of stabilized flight at each
test point with atmospheric turbulence providing the structural excitation.
Lack of natural turbulence at some test points resulted in pilot-induced
control surface pulses being used to supplement natural turbulence excita-
tion. Accelerometer responses were monitored in real time to detect any
imminent aircraft instabilities. These data were also used for determining in
near-real-time the vibration-mode frequencies and damping characteristics
of the airframe structure at each test point. In-flight results were thoroughly
evaluated to estimate the structural frequency and damping responses before
the aircraft was cleared to the next flutter test point. An in-depth analysis of
flutter data was accomplished after each flight to provide higher confidence
in the validity of estimated structural modal frequencies and damping values.
Aircraft flutter data were acquired at altitudes of 25,000 and 38,000
feet at Mach numbers ranging from 0.70 to 1.8. Trends for frequency and
damping were only clear for six structural modes. The missing frequency and
damping data could not be extracted from the structural response spectra
because of lack of random atmospheric turbulence for excitation at these
frequencies. Accelerometer data showed that some energy was imparted to
the aircraft structure in the 20-Hz range. Original flutter analysis by GD had
indicated that antisymmetric structural vibration modes above frequencies
197
Elegance in Flight
of 20 Hz had the lowest

flutter speeds. Results
from ground vibration
tests with the wing glove
installed showed that sig-
nificant changes occurred
when structural vibration
frequencies were above 20
Hz. However, real-time
monitoring of these vibra-
tion modes during in-flight
flutter testing did not indi-
The F-16XL-1 flutter envelope approved for use during the cate any structural insta-
SLFC research program. The vertical axis shows aircraft bility. The flight envelope
altitude in thousands of feet. (NASA) limits approved for the
NASA F-16XL-1 SLFC
experiment were defined as a maximum airspeed of 400 knots up to an altitude
of 32,000 feet, then a maximum speed of no greater than 605 knots through
38,000 feet, and finally a maximum speed of 1.75 Mach above 38,000 feet.
The final flutter envelope that was approved for the F-16XL-1 aircraft modi-
fied with the LFC wing glove is depicted in the accompanying photograph.
The approved flutter envelope was somewhat reduced from the flight envelope
originally desired for the SLFC research effort.5
F-16XL-1 Flutter Test Summary

Flutter-related tests studied the effects of the glove on the structural dynam-
ics of the modified F-16XL aircraft. Ground vibration tests were performed
before and after the installation of the wing glove. The effects of stiffness and
mass changes on the vibration-mode characteristics of the aircraft were deter-
mined from the GVTs. The frequencies and shapes of the structural vibration
modes did not significantly change below 20 Hz. Above frequencies of 20
Hz, several vibration modes involving the wing flight control surfaces were
changed by the wing glove modification. However, in-flight flutter testing
determined that the aircraft was free from any aeroelastic and aeroservoelastic
instabilities within the very limited flight envelope that was approved for use
during the SLFC program with the F-16XL. A safe and efficient flight flut-
ter clearance program was possible because the stability of those structural
modes for which frequency and damping could not be determined prior to
the start of the flight-test effort was maintained through real-time monitoring
of aircraft-mounted accelerometer responses.
198
F-16XL-1 with the active suction glove on the left wing that was used for research into super-
sonic laminar flow control. The grey titanium active suction panel is visible on the inner region
of the white wing glove. The passive outer leading edge of the wing glove is painted black in the
region where a liquid-crystal sensor array was located. A video camera in the wingtip pod was
used to record the liquid-crystal patterns. (NASA)
F-16XL Supersonic Laminar Flow Control Research

Research with the F-16XL-1
The single-seat F-16XL-1 was fitted with an experimental suction-type wing
glove mounted on the upper surface of the left wing. This perforated wing glove
had both active suction and passive laminar flow sections. The design flight
condition was Mach 1.6 at an angle of attack of 2 degrees and an altitude of
44,000 feet. The glove design was based on the use of a Navier-Stokes com-
putational fluid dynamics computer code. The CFD code was coupled with a
compressible linear stability theory that had been developed by NASA in the
late 1980s for use in supersonic LFC design. A goal of the CFD methodology
was to create a glove design that minimized suction requirements by defining
suction pressures necessary to stabilize the boundary layer. The theory was to
be validated by using the methodology to design the suction LFC glove for
F-16XL-1 and then making a comparison with flight measured results from
the aircraft.6 At about the same time, a NASA-industry team used a thin-layer
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes CFD model to analyze the sensitivity of the
boundary layer attachment line and crossflow velocity profiles to changes in air-
craft angle of attack. As angle of attack increased, boundary-layer thickness and
streamwise velocity profiles remained stable, the boundary-layer attachment
199
Elegance in Flight
line moved from the upper surface of the wing to the lower surface, and the
crossflow velocity component on the upper surface of the wing decreased.
This was important in determining the amount of suction needed to obtain
laminar flow for any position on the wing.7
The wing gloves used on F-16XL-1 were designed and constructed by
the North American Aviation
(NAA) Division of Rockwell
International in El Segundo,
CA (North American Rockwell
would later be absorbed by
Boeing). Both the passive and
active gloves, installed on the
right and left wings, respectively,
were designed with a modified
NASA 65A003 airfoil. Foam and
fiberglass fairings then blended
the glove into the wing. The sur-
face of the active suction glove
on the left wing was manufac-
tured from a thin titanium sheet
whose porosity resulted from
many tiny holes created using
a high-energy laser. The porous
laminar flow test area extended
F-16XL passive and active glove configurations. (NASA)
about 25 percent aft on the wing
chord (or about 7 feet in the
streamwise direction). The suc-
tion glove spanned 3.4 feet. The
active glove had a uniform hole
density of 2,500 holes per square
inch across its porous titanium
skin surface. Each hole was only
25 one-thousandths of an inch
in diameter.
The suction system was
designed to provide suction levels
capable of producing laminar
flow on the wing glove. Air from
The SLFC active suction system used a turbocom-
an array of 22 internal constant pressor adopted from the Convair 880 and 990
cross-section flutes that ran par- jetliners. It was tightly tailored to fit the confines of
allel to the gloves leading edge the F-16XL-1 aircraft. (NASA)
200
flowed inboard through suction tubes, ground adjustable ball valves, and ven-
ture tubes into a central plenum chamber connected to the turbocompres-
sor that provided the suction to the panel. The turbocompressor was legacy
technology, having been modified from an air-conditioning turbocompressor
used in the Convair 880 and 990 jetliner family a quarter-century before, and
was tailored for the SLFC experiment. During system operation, flow distur-
bances in the boundary layer were sucked through the porous panel and flowed
through the internal suction system plumbing to the turbocompressor, as seen
in the cutaway illustration of the system.
The F-16XL-1s Glove Instrumentation

The active suction wing glove installed on F-16XL-1 was initially instrumented
with two rows of 41 flush static pressure orifices and three skin-temperature
gauges. Thirty hot film sensors were installed on the glove in locations that
were varied between flights. These hot film sensors were arranged in five rows
on the active glove and one row on the passive glove. However, all rows of
sensors were installed on the
glove at the same time since
sensors in one row could dis-
rupt the airflow ahead of sen-
sors in an adjacent row. For
follow-on SLFC flight testing
with F-16XL-1, higher density
of hot film sensors were used to
map the boundary-layer tran-
sition front. The higher sensor
density was obtained by using a
sheet with many sensors instead
of the single-element sensors
Test instrumentation used on the F-16XL-1 active
previously used. The use of suction wing glove. (NASA)
liquid crystals as a technique to
visualize boundary-layer transi-
tion on the passive glove was also investigated in this second phase of F-16XL-1
flight testing. A video camera mounted on the wingtip of the left wing was
used to record liquid-crystal patterns on the passive region of the wing glove.
For the liquid-crystal evaluation, a portion of the outboard active wing glove
was painted black.
F-16XL-1 Supersonic Laminar Flow Control Research Summary

Thirty-one research flights were conducted with F-16XL-1 during the SLFC
flight-test effort beginning in 1990. Pressure-distribution and transition data
201
Elegance in Flight
were obtained for the Mach number range from Mach 1.2 to Mach 1.7
and at an altitude range from 35,000 to 55,000 feet. During test missions
flown in 1991 and 1992, limited supersonic laminar flow was achieved on
the upper surface of the suction
panel. However, laminar flow was
achieved at a slightly lower Mach
number and a slightly higher alti-
tude than the suction glove design
point. In fact, laminar flow at the
glove design point of Mach 1.6 at
an altitude of 44,000 feet was not
achieved. The boundary layer tran-
sition and the pressure distribution
data obtained from the SLFC flight
F-16XL-1 with an active suction glove installed
tests were used to refine, correlate,
on the left wing demonstrated limited laminar and validate CFD computer codes.
flow at supersonic conditions during flight test- Calculated CFD pressure distribu-
ing conducted in 19911992. (NASA) tions were compared to the pressure
distributions obtained at vary-
ing angles of attack during flight testing. In general, the CFD data at very
low angles of attack agreed reasonably well with flight-test data. F-16XL-1
flight-test results demonstrated that SLFC using active suction on highly
swept wings was feasible, but laminar flow prediction methodologies and
CFD models were shown to require further refinement. Follow-on SLFC
efforts with F-16XL-2 would result in more refined CFD methodologies
and improved laminar flow prediction techniques. This aspect of the F-16XL
SLFC test effort is discussed in the following section.
The F-16XL-2 Supersonic Laminar Flow

Control Flight Research Program
The two-seat F-16XL was used for more extensive and comprehensive SLFC
investigations that involved a more refined approach to the active suction
wing glove design. As received from the Air Force, F-16XL-2 had incorporated
the Large Normal Shock Inlet (LNSI) and a General Electric F110-GE-100
engine. NASA worked with GD and the Air Force to have the more powerful
F110-GE-129 version of the engine fitted into the aircraft. The additional
engine power gave the aircraft the capability to reach Mach 2.0 at an altitude of
55,000 feet when operating in full afterburner power. With the F110-GE-129
engine, F-16XL-2 was also able to demonstrate limited supercruise perfor-
mance by maintaining Mach 1.1 at an altitude of 20,000 feet in full military
power without resorting to the use of afterburner.8
202
The SLFC flight-test effort with F-16XL-2 was far more complex than
the earlier tests with F-16XL-1, with regions of transition from laminar to
turbulent flow over the wing glove explored at a wider range of supersonic
Mach numbers. F-16XL-2 had been selected for this research effort because
its cranked-arrow wing planform with the 70-degree in-board leading-edge
sweep, its maximum speed (Mach 2.0), and its maximum altitude capabilities
(55,000 feet) were similar to the wing planform, desired cruise speed (Mach
2.4), and cruise altitude (60,000 feet) of the proposed HSCT.9 An additional
advantage of using F-16XL-2 was that the second cockpit made it possible for
a flight-test engineer to accompany the pilot on test missions. The flight-test
engineer in the rear cockpit had the capability to monitor laminar flow condi-
tions in real time. Most importantly, the flight-test engineer was able to vary
the amount of suction pressure in the system during test missions, as were the
ground controllers. The volume of boundary-layer airflow sucked through
the holes into the glove was adjusted using a specially designed control panel.
This allowed detailed investigations into the effects of variations in suction
volume on the area distribution of the laminar flow region on the wing glove.
As Jeffrey S. Lavell, NASA Langley project manager for the F-16XL SLFC test
experiment, commented at the time: Were not planning to just go up and get
laminar flow at our test point and say were done. Were going to vary a lot of
parameters and get a lot of different data to increase the fidelity of our design
codes. The purpose of this experiment, besides the demonstration, is to validate
our CFD codes, which allow us to design these airfoils.10
NASA officials at the time noted that it might not be possible to achieve
laminar flow over the entire supersonic transport wing using moderate suc-
tion levels for both practical and economic reasons. Although the goal of the
research project was to demonstrate that laminar flow was feasible over 50 to
60 percent of the wing chord, NASA officials commented that a more realistic
result might be in the 40- to 50-percent of wing chord region. Michael C.
Fischer, principal SLFC project investigator at NASA Langley, was quoted
as saying that industry was interested in a hybrid version of the laminar flow
control system. This would limit active suction to the leading-edge region of a
supersonic transport wing with the remainder of the wing shaped to provide
the optimum pressure distribution needed to passively achieve laminar flow.
This would do away with the cost, weight, and complexity of providing an
active suction capability over the area of the entire wing. To this end, NASA
planned to follow up the initial F-16XL-2 SLFC tests with follow-on investi-
gations. These would involve covering the aft portion of the laminar flow test
section with very thin tape to determine if the suction on the most critical
section of the wing leading edge was adequate to maintain laminar flow over
a significant portion of the wing farther aft on the chord. Also important was
203
Elegance in Flight
demonstrating that supersonic laminar flow was not easily disrupted by small
changes in flight conditions. The latter could be caused by, for instance, small
changes in angle of attack as the aircraft weight changed with fuel consumption
during the course of long-range intercontinental flights.11
F-16XL-2 SLFC Test Planning and Management

The SLFC research program with F-16XL-2 involved a combination of in-house
and contractor efforts. These included wind tunnel testing, piloted simulations,
computational aerodynamics, hardware design, tooling and fabrication, soft-
ware development and validation, test aircraft modification, and flight testing.
A NASA-industry team consisting of representatives from the Langley Research
Center, the Dryden Flight Research Center, the Boeing Commercial Airplane
Group, McDonnell-Douglas Corporation, and Rockwell International pro-
vided technical support. NASA Langley provided overall technical manage-
ment and wind tunnel test data. Industry contributions included the design
and fabrication of the SLFC test hardware. Dryden Flight Research Center
was responsible for the installation and operation of all flight hardware and the
conduct of flight testing. The NASA-industry team arrangement was designed
to facilitate the rapid development of SLFC technology and the direct transfer
of the technology to industry.12 Specific objectives of the NASA SLFC flight-
test program with F-16XL-2 were to
Achieve 50- to 60-percent wing chord laminar flow on a highly
swept wing at supersonic speeds,
Validate CFD codes and design methodology for supersonic laminar
flow wings, and
Establish initial LFC suction system design criteria to enable
industry to more accurately determine the benefits and integrate the
SLFC concept into the HSCT.
Design, development, and installation of the wing glove, the suction system,
the shock wave diverter fences, a turbulence diverter, and preflight and post-
flight monitoring of excrescences were critical elements of the SLFC flight
research effort, and these aspects are discussed in detail in the following sections.
The F-16XL-2 SLFC experiment was to be conducted in two test phases.
The first phase, using a passive wing glove on the right wing of the aircraft,
studied the effects of wing leading-edge radius and very high Reynolds number
(Re) on the location of the boundary-layer attachment line.13 A primary goal of
the passive glove experiment was to obtain detailed surface pressure distribu-
tion data in the highly swept inner-wing leading-edge region. These data were
obtained for a Mach number range of 1.4 to 2.0 and over an altitude range
from 45,000 to 50,000 feet. These aerodynamic data were then used in the
design of the active suction laminar flow wing glove that was installed over a
204
portion of the left wing in the second phase of the SLFC project. Unlike the
active suction glove used on F-16XL-1, which had uniform hole spacing, the
glove on F-16XL-2 was optimized for supersonic laminar flow with variable
spacing of its suction holes.
Team members from the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center, NASA
Langley Research Center, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, McDonnell-
Douglas Corporation, and Rockwell International supported this phase of the
project.14 NASA staff members with senior responsibilities for the F-16XL-2
SLFC flight-test experiment included
Jeffrey S. Lavell, NASA Langley program
manager; Marta R. Bohn-Meyer and Carol
A. Reukauf, Dryden program managers;
Lisa J. Bjarke, Dryden principal engineer;
Mark Collard, Dryden operations engi-
neer; and Dana D. Purifoy, Drydens pri-
mary project pilot. Scott G. Anders and
Michael C. Fischer, both from the LaRC,
produced an excellent in-depth technical
report that thoroughly documented the
SLFC flight-test experiment with F-16XL-
2. Their report provided extensive docu-
mentation of the research objectives, test
design, aircraft modifications, and results,
including the achievements and limita-
tions of this most ambitious SLFC flight-
test effort. The discussion of the F-16XL-2
SLFC experiment in the following sections
is heavily based on their published work. The F-16XL-2 was fitted with a General
It goes into relatively significant depth in Electric F110-GE-129 engine. The pas-
sive wing glove on the right wing and
order to provide insight into the major active suction glove on the left wing give
challenges that existed in accomplishing it a distinctive asymmetric planform.
the ambitious goals of the SLFC project.15 (Lockheed Martin via Robert Wetherall)
Supporting Research: Wind Tunnel and Flight Tests

The SLFC program included experiments in low-disturbance-level super-
sonic tunnels, tests with a 1/15-scale wind tunnel model with the modified
wing configuration, and precursor flight tests with the actual F-16XL-2 air-
craft. These efforts, described in more detail in the following sections, were
designed to reduce technical risk, enhance the design of the final experi-
ment, and satisfy safety of flight concerns that resulted from the asymmetric
test configuration.16
205
Elegance in Flight
Passive Wing Glove Tests

A passive laminar flow glove was installed on the leading edge of the F-16XL-2s
right wing. It was used to provide information on airflow over a wing with a
leading-edge radius and shape that was similar to that planned for the active
suction glove. The passive glove was con-
structed from foam and fiberglass and it
extended the leading edge of the right
wing forward by a few inches. Five rows
of flush pressure orifices located in the
passive glove measured pressure pro-
files across the leading edge. Hot films
mounted on the surface of the wing
The passive wing glove was instrumented glove were used to determine the loca-
to collect information on supersonic flow tion where the boundary layer transi-
over the wing leading edge. (NASA) tioned from laminar to turbulent flow.
Aerodynamic Flow Fixes

The basic design of the F-16XL aircraft created several areas of concern that
required the development and installation of aerodynamic fixes to help ensure
that the airflow over the active suction wing glove would not excessively disrupt
formation of smooth laminar flow. Data were also collected to address several
concerns related to the final active suction wing glove design. These included
determining the canopy-closure shock wave location on the upper wing sur-
face, evaluating the effectiveness of the preliminary shock wave blocker-fence
design, and an evaluation of leading-edge turbulence-diverter concepts. Two
rows of pressure belts were installed on XL-2s upper wing surface in the vicinity
of where the canopy-closure shock wave was predicted from CFD assessments.
The actual canopy-closure shock wave location turned out to be somewhat
forward of the CFD-predicted location, but it was still where it would be
blocked effectively by a wing-mounted shock fence. To assess the effectiveness
of a shock wave fence in blocking the inlet shock wave system, a 10-inch-tall
aluminum fence with a 60-degree swept leading edge was mounted on XL-2s
right wing at butt line (BL) 45. The aluminum shock fence was 90 inches long
in the chordwise direction and was -of-an-inch thick. It was mounted at the
missile attachment point originally intended for an AIM-120 AMRAAM mis-
sile. The inlet diverter is the wedge-shaped structure centrally located between
the undersurface of the fuselage and the engine inlet on the standard F-16,
as well as on the F-16XL. The inlet diverter was a significant feature of the
F-16 design and prevented the turbulent boundary layer on the lower fuselage
from entering the engine inlet. Ingestion of this turbulent airflow would have
disrupted engine performance, especially at higher angles of attack.
206
Shock Wave Fence Design Options

Five rows of flush static pressure orifices were installed on the passive glove on
both the upper and lower surfaces of the leading edge. Pressure measurements
from these sensors were used to evaluate the effectiveness of an underwing
shock fence in blocking pressure disturbances on the wing leading edge. The
pressure belts on the lower surface were primarily used to determine the effec-
tiveness of the shock fence.
The 10-inch high shock fence
that was initially tested was
found to reduce the strength
of the pressure disturbances
caused by the inlet shock
wave system. However, it did
not entirely eliminate their
influence on airflow on the
wing glove. CFD calculations
using a detailed grid model
of the F-16XL-2 fitted with
the 10-inch-tall shock fence
were compared to flight-test
results with the fence. The
flight-test data and the CFD
results with the shock wave
blocker fence both on and off
the aircraft compared favor- Initially, the F-16XL-2 had a 10-inch-tall shock wave
ably. Based on this success, fence under its starboard wing, as seen above. (NASA)
CFD was then used to assess
several possible shock wave fence configurations. This assessment resulted in
the decision to develop two different 20-inch-tall shock wave blocker fences
for the next phase of the projectthe active suction SLFC flight-test effort.
The two shock wave fences used in the research effort are described in detail
in a following section.
Transonic and Supersonic Wind Tunnel Tests

Concerns that the asymmetric wing planform of the modified F-16XL-2
might create excessive pitchup tendencies along with diminished directional
control led to a decision by NASA to structure a special wind tunnel test
program. The goals and objectives of the wind tunnel test effort with the
modified aircraft model were intended to
Determine the stability and control characteristics of the F-16XL-2
aircraft with the asymmetric wing planform,
207
Elegance in Flight
The F-16XL-2 in flight showing its Langley-tested shock wave fence under the port wing. (NASA)
Obtain force and moment coefficients needed to upgrade the

existing F-16XL simulator model,
Verify CFD design software codes with actual measured surface
pressures, and
Determine the effectiveness of proposed supersonic shock wave
diverter fences in minimizing the effects of the inlet/diverter shock
wave on the leading edge of the wing glove.
A 1/15-scale model of the modified F-16XL aircraft was used to obtain
required force and moment data. Transonic testing was done in the Langley
8-Foot Transonic Pressure Tunnel, and supersonic wind tunnel tests were con-
ducted in the Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. The model was tested with
both the gloved wing and the baseline wing to compare the stability and control
characteristics of the two configurations. Different shock fence designs were
also tested using this model. A dedicated NASA Langley team that included
Gaudy Bezos-OConnor, Stan J. Miley, Paul M. Vijgen, and Jeffrey K. Viken
coordinated and conducted the wind tunnel test effort. Approximately 2,800
hours of wind tunnel test time were accumulated in preparation for the SLFC
flight-test program.
Flight Simulator Upgrade

Aerodynamic data derived from NASA transonic and supersonic wind tunnel
testing was used to predict aircraft performance and handling qualities with the
XL-2s asymmetric wing configuration. Using these wind tunnel data, NASA
engineers at Dryden reprogrammed the computer software in the F-16XL
simulator model to ensure that the characteristics of the modified aircraft were
208
accurately represented. NASA Dryden research pilots Dana D. Purifoy and

Mark P. Stucky evaluated the handling qualities, safety, and performance of the
new aerodynamic configuration in the upgraded flight simulator prior to the
start of in-flight testing with the modified aircraft. Their evaluation showed no
significant adverse effects on aircraft handling qualities with the asymmetric
configuration up to the 3-g maneuver limitation that NASA established for the
SLFC experiment. In-flight characteristics of the modified F-16XL-2 aircraft
were later found to compare well with those of the upgraded simulator.
The Active Suction Wing Glove

The active suction wing glove was designed by a combined NASA and contrac-
tor team that included engineers from the Langley Research Center, the Dryden
Flight Research Center, Rockwell International, Boeing, and McDonnell-
Douglas. Modifications to the F-16XL-2 included the installation of the active
suction test panel and related suction system components on the left wing and
in portions of the fuselage. The glove design included an extension of the wing
leading edge that continued the 70-degree in-board wing leading-edge sweep
into the forward fuselage, similar to the configuration of the HSCT wing.
Other modifications included new instrumentation, power supplies, signal
conditioning units, cables, wiring, suction ducting, a plenum chamber, suction
control valves and flow meters, a suction turbocompressor, and passive foam-
fiberglass contour fairings. The turbocompressor was installed in the bay that
previously held the 20-mm ammunition magazine. A titanium suction panel
and a foam-fiberglass passive fairing covered about 75 percent of the upper
wing surface of the left inner segment of the cranked-arrow wing. Its outer
metal surface was perforated with 12 million extremely small, laser-cut holes.
A suction system drew a very small portion of the boundary layer through
the porous surface of the wing glove and was intended to expand the region
of laminar flow to reduce aerodynamic drag. The glove was instrumented to
measure laminar flow and other variables that affected laminar flow at various
flight conditions. These included surface imperfections on the wing surface and
surface pressure variations caused by the acoustic environment or produced by
supersonic shock waves impinging on the wing gloves surface.
The perforated wing glove for F-16XL-2 and its aerodynamic fairing
were designed by Boeing using a constrained direct iterative surface curva-
ture (CDISC) design methodology. Originally developed by NASA Langley,
CDISC was coupled with a three-dimensional, thin-layer Navier-Stokes flow
solver computer program to create the final wing glove design.17 Boeing fab-
ricated the wing glove, constructed of sheets of titanium 0.040 inches thick.
The active portion of the glove was perforated with more than 12 million
laser-drilled holes. These holes nominally were 0.0025 inches in diameter and
209
Elegance in Flight
were spaced at distances that ranged from 0.010 to 0.055 inches, depending
on the required suction porosity. The inverse conical shape of the individual
holes provided the perforated surface through which suction was applied to
remove instabilities in the boundary layer. The exit diameter of each hole was
double the entrance diameter. This taper was intended to ensure that small
particles ingested into the holes passed through and did not obstruct airflow
through the hole. The titanium suction panel extended 17 feet outward along
the leading edge of the wing and back to 60 percent of the wing chord. This
was much larger than the active suction wing glove used during earlier SLFC
tests with F-16XL-1, whose suction panel only extended aft to 30 percent of
the wing chord.
The active suction panel was physically bounded by the apexan alumi-
num substructure with a carbon-fiber cover and a carbon-fiber passive fairing
that blended the suction panel with the existing wing contour. Inner sup-
port structures in the apex region of the wing continued the 70-degree swept
wing directly into the forward fuselage. The maximum thickness of the suc-
tion panel, measured above the existing left wing, was about 5.5 inches. This
increased to 7 inches in the region where the fairing around the suction panel
joined the fuselage. The test panel and
related suction system components
were installed on the left wing and in
portions of the fuselage. This instal-
lation included instrumentation,
power supplies, signal conditioning
units, cables, wiring, suction ducting
and plenum, suction control valves
and flow meters, a turbocompressor,
an apex extension, and passive fair-
ings. The perforated titanium suction The physical dimensions of the F-16XL-2 SLFC
panel was positioned near the center active suction wing glove and the location of
of the inner segment of the highly the shock fence on the underside of the left
swept left wing.18 wing are shown in this NASA drawing. (NASA)
Design Flight Conditions

The design point for the SLFC experiment of Mach 1.9 and 50,000 feet was
selected based on the performance capabilities of the modified F-16XL-2 with
the F110-GE-129 turbofan engine. The foam-fiberglass passive glove area sur-
rounding the suction panel was designed to blend the test panel smoothly into
the basic wing and was an integral element of the aerodynamic design. Boeing
designed the SLFC suction panel and fairing geometry using an inverse wing
design methodology originally developed by NASA Langley coupled with a
210
three-dimensional thin-layer Navier Stokes CFD flow solver.19 Design flight

conditions for the SLFC research experiment were based on the results from
CFD analyses and previous laminar flow flight experiments with F-16XL-2.
A passive laminar flow wing glove had been installed on the right-side lead-
ing edge of the aircraft. It was flight tested before the active suction glove was
ever installed on the left wing to verify the aerodynamic design approach used
in the leading-edge region. The SLFC design point, Mach 1.9 at an altitude
of 50,000 feet, was within the achievable F-16XL-2 flight envelope with the
modified aircraft. Depending on drag and engine performance, XL-2 could
achieve Mach numbers and altitudes that were higher than the supersonic
laminar flow design point. The calculated Reynolds number at the SLFC design
condition was 22.5 million. The actual Reynolds number during any test run
was dependent on the local dynamic viscosity of the air. Since the viscosity
of the air depends on the local air temperature at the test altitude, it varied
somewhat for each test flight. Thus, the actual Reynolds number at specific
test conditions also varied somewhat between each flight.
Design Pressure Distribution

The pressure distribution over the gloved F-16XL-2 wing was designed to
minimize development of airflow disturbances that could cause the boundary
layer to transition from laminar to turbulent conditions. The steep leading-
edge curvature of the wings upper surface resulted in the airflow being rapidly
accelerated through the region of aerodynamic crossflow. This acceleration was
followed by the development of a gradual, favorable pressure gradient that
acted to stabilize Tollmien-Schlichting wave disturbances.20 The lack of span-
wise gradients in the design pressure distribution allowed for nearly unswept
isobars or streamlines across the upper surface of the wing at the design angle
of attack.21 Although the design pressure distribution over the wing was very
important in obtaining laminar flow, active suction was essential to obtain
extensive laminar flow region over the highly swept inner region of the F-16XLs
cranked-arrow wing. To obtain this suction, extensive modifications to the
aircraft were required.
Suction System
The suction panel had 20 individually controlled independent suction regions.
Seven were located on the upper surface of the glove and 13 were in the leading-
edge region. The suction system consisted of 20 individual collector ducts (one
for each independent region), 20 individual mass flow sensors and control valves,
a common plenum chamber, a master control valve, and a turbocompressor.
The turbocompressor turbine was driven by engine bleed air; this allowed the
compressor to provide the low-pressure source for the suction system. Exhaust
211
Elegance in Flight
from the compres-

sor and turbine was
dumped overboard
on the right side of
the aircraft, behind
the rear cockpit (the
side of the aircraft
opposite from the
suction panel on
the left wing). The
design suction pres-
sure distribution
on the wing glove
had been derived by
The engine bleed airpowered turbocompressor used with the
Boeing using linear,
active SLFC suction system was installed in F-16XL-2s ammuni-
tion bay, formerly used to house the 20-mm rounds used by its boundary-layer sta-
M61 Vulcan cannon. The overboard flow vent that exited on the bility theory calcu-
upper right side of the aircraft is in the foreground. (NASA) lations. The Boeing
analysis was cor-
related with wind tunnel and flight-test data and was used to establish the
design criteria for the maximum and minimum suction levels. The suction
control system was designed to achieve the design suction pressure distribu-
tion as closely as possible by varying the suction applied to the panel surface
at different locations. Suction was provided by a modified Boeing 707 cabin
airpressurization turbocompressor that was fed by bleed air ducted from the
aircrafts GE F110 engine. The turbocompressor was installed in the large bay
just aft of the cockpit normally used to house the F-16s 20-mm ammunition
drum. All air exiting the turbocompressor was vented overboard through an
exit duct on the right side of the aircraft. Originally designed as an auxiliary
power unit for the Boeing 707 jet airliner, the turbocompressor had been modi-
fied by the Allied Signal Corporation under contract to NASA Dryden to meet
airflow requirements of the SLFC experiment. This modification included an
upgrade to enable the turbocompressor to safely run at higher speed (allowable
rpm) to provide greater suction pressure.
The turbo compressor installation in the F-16XL presented interesting issues
related to reliability and operational safety. Turbines are, by their nature, highly
energetic and highly loaded, and thus subject to potentially dangerous failures.
The turbo compressor had failed catastrophically during development testing
of the suction system design. The existing ammunition bay in which the turbo
compressor was installed was located aft of the cockpit and in relatively close
proximity to the aircrafts hydrazine-powered emergency power unit (EPU)
212
The turbocompressor exhaust duct exited the F-16XL-2 in the center-of-black region behind the
rear cockpit. Note the special fairing mounted over the canopy frame to minimize shock wave
formation. (NASA)
and the fuselage fuel cells.22 Concerns with the integrity of the design in the
event of an in-flight failure prompted the decision to add additional protec-
tion around the turbocompressor bay. General Dynamics technician Steve
Slaughter was assigned to come up with an internal structural reinforcement
approach within the existing F-16 fuselage ammunition bay. Slaughter graphi-
cally described this task in his own words: I had to develop an armor system
for NASA because they were blowing up the cabin pressurization turbo pump
they used for boundary layer control. Had to invent and install the panels
in 7 days to meet the flight test schedule. That gun breech where the pump is
located is kinda bad if the pump grenades: Hydrazine APU, Fuelbummer
when it lets go.23
The suction flow rate through the surface in each region of the suction panel
was determined by the perforation hole spacing and was controlled by vary-
ing the pressure in the internal suction regions. The rate of air drawn through
the holes was measured by mass flow sensors and controlled by butterfly flow
control valves (FCVs). The air passed into a common plenum chamber then
through a large duct, where the master FCV was located. When insufficient
quantities of air were drawn through the master FCV, a surge valve opened, pro-
viding supplemental air to the turbocompressor. As noted earlier, the suction
panel was divided into 20 regions, 13 of which were located in the leading edge.
213
Elegance in Flight
Three so-called flutes provided suction

to the regions located in the leading
edge. Each suction region had its own
mass flow sensor and flow control
valve. A suction control system in the
rear cockpit was used by the flight-test
engineer to control the master FCV
Schematic of the F-16XL-2 active wing glove and the 20 individual control valves
suction system. (NASA) through a special onboard computer.
The onboard computer interfaced in
real time with uplinked command sig-
nals sent to the aircraft from the mis-
sion control room at Dryden. These
uplinked signals controlled the indi-
vidual control valves, setting the indi-
vidual suction levels for each region on
the panel. In this way, a variety of suc-
There were 20 separate suction regions on tion distributions could be evaluated
the F-16XL-2 wing glove, and different suction on each flight to determine their effects
levels could be applied to each region. (NASA) on laminar flow.
Design and Fabrication of the F-16 XL-2s Suction Panel and System Hardware
Existing NASA design databases for surface waviness, steps, gaps, and rough-
ness, developed and used in previous subsonic laminar flow experiments, were
used in designing the F-16XL-2 wing glove. To ensure that the desired design
surface pressures were achieved on the surface of the wing glove, the contour
and shape of the suction panel had to be manufactured to extremely precise
tolerances. Allowable manufacturing deviation was no more than 20 one-thou-
sandths of an inch in the leading-edge region of the wing. As the distance pro-
gressed aft on the wing glove, allowable manufacturing tolerances were relaxed
to fifty one-thousandths of an inch. These manufacturing tolerances had been
derived from computer calculations in which the wing panel was evaluated
with different levels of manufacturing tolerance in a simulated supersonic flow
field. Maximum allowable surface wavelengths and heights, steps and gaps, and
three-dimensional roughness values were based on flight-test and wind tunnel
databases. Surface waviness, in particular, was an area of concern. The presence
of steps and gaps in the wing surface was another area of concern. The design
criteria for aft-facing steps were more restrictive than for forward-facing steps.
Any airflow along a gap was to be avoided whenever possible. Accepted limits
for steps and gaps during fabrication and assembly of the wing glove were set at
a maximum height of three one-thousandths of an inch for forward-facing steps.
214
The aft-facing step-height manufacturing limit was set at only one-thousandth

of an inch. The gap-width limit in areas where airflow moved over the gap was
set at two and one half one-thousandths of an inch.
An attempt was made to minimize any three-dimensional roughness caused
by steps and gaps in the panel design effort. The perforated titanium skin was
formed in two continuous sheets joined at one seam in an attempt to eliminate
the need for rivets and sources of roughness. Finally, porosity of the suction sur-
face depended on both individual diameter of the suction holes and relative hole
spacing. The nominal diameter of the laser-drilled holes was 25 one-thousandths
of an inch for the entire panel. Porosity was varied by changing the spacing
between the holes on different regions of the panel. The 20 suction regions con-
tained 123 patches, or individual panel areas that had a specific, constant hole
spacing. Despite major efforts at maintaining high quality control standards, the
processes used in manufacturing, installing, and maintaining the wing panel and
glove were determined to contribute to unanticipated variations in panel porosity.
On left: The laminar flow wing glove during the positioning process on F-16XL-2s left wing,
February 1995. On right: The F-16XL-2 after the laminar flow wing glove was mounted on the
wing and the forward wing fairing was installed. Note how far forward on the fuselage the left
wing extended. (Both images NASA)
Structural and Suction System Design

The entire suction panel and its associated substructure were designed to be
mounted over the existing left inner wing of F-16XL-2. The panel extended
about 12 inches upstream of the original left-wing leading edge, giving the air-
craft its unique asymmetric appearance. Aluminum structural ribs that provided
panel stiffness and a means for securely attaching the structure to the existing
wing were bonded to the lower surface of the suction panel. An apex region
in-board of the suction panel provided structural support and continued the
cantilevered structure inward to the F-16XL-2 forward fuselage while main-
taining a constant 70-degree leading-edge wing-sweep angle. The wing glove,
suction system, associated instrumentation, and a shock fence that was added to
the underside of the left wing added about 1,700 pounds to the aircraft weight.
The panel and suction system had been developed by a contractor team headed
215
Elegance in Flight
by Rockwell under a contract to NASA Langley. Detailed aerodynamic and

structural design and fabrication of the suction panel was done by Boeing with
McDonnell-Douglas responsible for design of the complete suction system up
to the point where it joined the turbocompressor. Both companies were under
contract to Rockwell, who was the prime contractor to Langley for the SLFC
program with F-16XL-2. The laminar flow wing glove was installed on the air-
craft in NASA Dryden aircraft maintenance facilities in February 1995.
F-16XL-2 Unique Flow-Field Features

Certain features unique to the basic F-16XL-2 aircraft produced flow field
disturbances at supersonic speed. These in turn altered the pressure distribu-
tion on the surface of the suction panel, affecting the ability to achieve laminar
flow. Significant shock waves that were
produced by the canopy and the engine
inlet were areas of primary concern. A
secondary issue was the lower strength
shock wave produced by the 20-mm
cannon trough. The shock wave from
the canopy windshield intersected the
wing leading edge in the area of butt
line 30 to 35, depending on Mach
number. However, since the suction
glove was located further outboard on
A faired gun trough fairing was added to the wing, beyond BL 41.5, shock waves
F-16XL-2 to minimize shock wave influences emanating from the windshield could
on the laminar flow wing glove. (NASA) not interact with the suction panel and
adversely affect laminar flow. The shock
wave created by the cannon trough was mainly resolved by mounting an alu-
minum fairing over the trough.24
Shock Wave/Wing Glove Flow-Field Interaction

If not taken into account, shock waves unique to the F-16XL-2 configuration
would have interacted with the flow field over the active suction wing glove,
resulting in a highly three-dimensional flow field. This phenomenon would have
made laminar flow difficult to achieve over the entire wing glove. Two distinct
supersonic shock waves were produced by the F-16XL engine inlet. One of these
came from the inlet diverter and the other from the inlet face itself. Additionally,
a shock wave emanating from the canopy joint created unfavorable pressure gra-
dients and caused undesirable boundary-layer transition on the upper surface of
the laminar flow glove. To minimize these problems, several shock wave block-
ers were designed, installed, and tested on XL-2 during the SLFC program.
216
Inlet Shock System

Inlet shock waves propagated outward across the lower surface of the wing
and crossed the leading edge near midspan. This would have adversely affected
the extent of laminar flow on the upper surface of the wing. Boeing, who was
responsible for the aerodynamic design of the suction panel and fairings, rec-
ommended the installation of a shock fence on the lower surface of the wing to
block the inlet shock waves. Numerous design iterations using CFD and results
from supporting flight and wind tunnel tests were used during development
of the wing shock fences used in the SLFC flight-test program.
Canopy-Closure Shock
Due to the three-dimensional geometry of F-16XL-2s canopy, the airflow
over the canopy expanded as the physical canopy profile extended into the
fuselage contour. At the location where this expansion ended, a so-called clo-
sure shock wave was produced. This shock wave moved outward across the
wings, as shown in the accompanying drawing, where the effects of Mach
number variation on shock wave location are indicated. The canopy-closure
shock wave was a factor in the design of the suction panel because the pres-
sure produced by the shock wave was likely
to cause loss of laminar flow on the glove.
The suction panel was designed so that only
the rearmost portion was intersected by the
canopy-closure shock wave at Mach 2.0. In
addition, suction pressures in the rearmost
area of the glove surface could be tailored to
compensate for the presence of the canopy-
closure shock wave pressure disturbance. A
The canopy-closure shock wave
separate suction region provided higher impingement locations on the upper
suction pressures to deal with the bound- surface of F-16XL-2 are illustrated for
ary layer disturbance caused by the closure several representative cruise Mach
shock wave.25 numbers. (NASA)
Shock Wave Diverter Fences

As noted earlier, the engine inlet configuration of the F-16XL raised concerns
that shock waves generated by the engine inlet and diverter would impact on
a critical region of the leading edge of the laminar flow suction glove, reducing
the possibility of obtaining supersonic laminar flow. During previous SLFC
flight testing, a 10-inch-tall shock fence with a 60-degree leading edge had
been used to reduce the effects of the inlet diverter shock wave on the wing
leading edge. The 10-inch-tall shock fence was only partially effective. Two
different 20-inch-tall shock fences were designed for the second phase of the
217
Elegance in Flight
SLFC test program with F-16XL-2. They were known by the sweep angle of
the leading edge of each shock fence. The first fence that was flown was known
as the 60-degree shock fence. This fence was based on the 10-inch-tall fence
used during the previous phase of the F-16XL-2 laminar flow project. The
60-degree shock fence was installed on the test aircraft during 19 of the
45 research flights flown in the second phase of the SLFC program with
F-16XL-2. However, this fence was unable to block the shock wave coming
from the engine inlet face. This shock wave had not been identified in earlier
flight testing because the leading edge of
the wing without the SLFC glove had
been located farther in-board and aft. A
shock fence designed to more effectively
block both inlet shock waves was then
constructed that featured a 10-degree
leading-edge sweep angle. However,
the leading edge of this 10-degree
fence was submerged in supersonic
flow and produced a shock wave of
its own that spread out over the wing
glove. Unfortunately, this was exactly
what the shock fence was designed to
prevent. The 10-degree shock fence was
Different underwing shock wave fences were
used to block the shock waves produced by installed on the aircraft for 24 SLFC
the engine inlet from affecting the airflow on research flights. The aluminum shock
the leading edge of the wing glove. (NASA) fences were mounted onto an existing
AIM-120 missile attachment station.
Both shock fences were fitted with
strain gages to ensure that their design
structural load limits were not exceeded
during the flight-test program.
Two test flights were flown without
the 10-degree or the 60-degree shock
fences installed to obtain baseline data
on shock wave effects produced by the
basic aircraft. As expected, supersonic
laminar flow was not achieved on these
The F-16XL-2 seen with the 60-degree flights due to shock wave impinge-
shock fence installed under the left inner
ment on the boundary layer. In-flight
wing in this November 1996 NASA Dryden
photo. The fence was designed to block measurements of the pressure distribu-
the shock waves that emanated from the tions on the in-board segment of the
engine inlet system. (NASA) F-16XL-2 wing over the Mach number
218
range from 1.4 to 2.0 provided a baseline to determine the location of shock
waves on the panel. This was very important to ensure that these shock waves
did not invalidate or compromise follow-on testing to determine the effec-
tiveness of the SLFC experiment. Results from these tests were analyzed and
reported by Lisa J. Bjarke of NASA Dryden and Stephen F. Landers and John
A. Saltzman, research engineers with PRC, Inc., the NASA Dryden systems
engineering test-support contractor.26
Turbulence Diverter
A boundary-layer turbulence diverter that consisted of a narrow longitudi-
nal slot was installed on the extended
leading edge of the left wing, in-board
of the active suction panel. This slot
allowed the turbulent boundary layer
that normally would have flowed out-
board from the leading edge where it
attached to the fuselage to be swept
aft by the airflow. This allowed a new
laminar flow boundary-layer attach-
ment line to be formed on the in-
board leading edge of the suction Unique features of the modified F-16XL-2 air-
panel. The turbulence diverter design craft included the active suction laminar flow
wing glove, the extended left-wing apex, the
was based on experience gained with
turbulence diverter (the darker strip along the
three different diverter configurations intersection of the left wing with the forward
test flown on F-16XL-2 during the fuselage), and the shock wave fence under
previous phase of the SLFC project.27 the left wing. (NASA)
Test Instrumentation
The F-16XL-2 was highly instrumented for the SLFC research effort. A flight-
test nose boom was used to determine airspeed and airflow angles. In addi-
tion to the aerodynamic vanes used to measure angles of attack and sideslip,
the nose boom also provided measurements of total and static pressure. The
aircraft was also instrumented to measure total temperature, Euler angles,
accelerations, and flight control surface positions.28 The wing glove was exten-
sively instrumented. There were over 450 pressure taps, 151 thermocouples,
40 microphones, mass flow sensors, and up to 50 hot-film anemometers. An
array of pressure taps installed on the left wing was used to obtain both surface
and internal pressure measurements. Of the 454 surface pressure taps, 200 were
located on the active suction panel with 113 of these positioned in the leading-
edge region. The remaining 254 surface pressure taps were located on passive
regions of the glove fairing surrounding the suction panel, including the apex
219
Elegance in Flight
portion of the inner wing. Seventy-two internal pressure taps monitored the
pressure within the suction flutes. Twenty mass flow sensors were inserted in
the ducts between the surface of the suction panel and the flow control valves.
They measured the suction flow rate in each region of the system.29
Hot-film sensors with temperature-compensated anemometer systems were
used on or around the suction panel on both the upper and lower surfaces. The
sensors were mounted such that their active elements were nearly perpendicular
to the airflow, with the temperature elements adjacent and slightly aft of the
hot-film sensors to avoid possible flow disturbance over the active elements
of the hot-film sensors. Twenty-four hot-film sensors were mounted directly
to the titanium surface on the edge of the active suction region on the wing
upper surface. The number of hot films on the active suction surface varied
from 0 for the first eight flights to 31 for the final flights. The location of these
hot films was varied between flights as different areas of the suction panel were
investigated. Although the number of usable lower-surface hot films was lim-
ited to 15, the location and number of these sensors also varied throughout the
flight phase. Initially, 14 lower-surface hot films were used, the first of which
was mounted to the carbon-fiber panel just forward of the turbulence diverter.
The other 13 were mounted directly to the titanium surface on the edge of the
suction-panel regions.30
Data Recording and Interpretation

All instrumentation data were telemetered to the control room in real time
during SLFC research flights. Air data and aircraft parameters were measured
at a rate of 50 samples per second. Wing glove pressure data were obtained
at 12.5 samples per second. Mass flow data were obtained at 60 samples per
second. Telemetered hot-film data were acquired at 100 samples per second.
Data from the hot-film sensors were used to determine the boundary-layer
state. The dynamic portion of the hot-film signal was quieter for laminar
flow than for turbulent flow because the temperature-compensated hot-film
sensors required less voltage input to keep the temperature constant for laminar
flow. During laminar flow conditions, the hot-film sensors required less voltage
because there was less mixing in the boundary layer, thus there was less convec-
tive heat transfer away from the sensor than in turbulent flow. Consequently,
the laminar flow signal had lower voltage amplitude. Conversely, for turbulent
flow, the heat transfer rates increased and the data showed rapid fluctuations.
Extensive flow mixing within the boundary layer led to data signals with higher
amplitudes. High-amplitude voltage spikes in the hot-film data were an indica-
tion of transitional flow. Spikes in the direction of positive voltage indicated a
mostly laminar signal with turbulent bursts. Spikes in the direction of negative
voltage indicated a mostly turbulent signal with laminar bursts. Boundary-layer
220
transition from laminar to turbulent flow was indicated by a maximum occur-

rence of high-amplitude (positive voltage) spikes.31
Surface Imperfections (Excrescences)

Excrescences, or imperfections on the suction panel surface such as rough spots,
dimples, and surface contamination caused by dirt or insect impacts, were long
known to prevent the development of laminar flow on an airfoil. Such surface
imperfections cause disturbances in the boundary layer and trip the airflow
from laminar to turbulent flow.32 NASA Dryden personnel performed exten-
sive inspections of the wing glove before and after each flight and kept detailed
records about the locations of any surface imperfections. By such means, odd
behavior or a lack of repeatability in laminar flow data was sometimes linked
to insect impacts on the wing glove. Impacts encountered during or shortly
after takeoff were particularly difficult to correlate with unusual laminar flow
occurrences noted during flight. Often the remnants from these insect impacts
had eroded away and were no longer obvious during postlanding inspection.
In an attempt to minimize the dirt and insect impact problem, the suction
panel was thoroughly cleaned before each flight-test mission.33
Research pilot Dana Purifoy flew the highly modified F-16XL-2 on its first flight with the asym-
metrical wing configuration on October 13, 1995. Wingtip-mounted flutter excitation vanes are
fitted on both wingtip missile launchers. (NASA)
The F-16XL-2 SLFC Flight-Test Effort

Forty-five SLFC research flights were flown with F-16XL-2 between October
13, 1995, and November 26, 1996. NASA research pilot Dana D. Purifoy flew
the highly modified asymmetric aircraft on its first flight on October 13, 1995.
Flight-test engineer Mark Collard occupied the rear seat on the 64-minute
221
Elegance in Flight
flight during which the aircraft reached an altitude of 30,000 feet and a
Mach number of 0.78. The NASA Dryden project manager for the Phase 2
SLFC effort, Marta Bohn-Meyer, was the ground controller for this 1.1-hour
mission, which essentially consisted of a functional check flight (FCF) of the
aircraft and its systems. The active suction system was not operated on the
first flight.
During the first Phase 2 SLFC research flight, an excessive pressure dif-
ferential involving the laminar flow test section on the left wing was observed.
Under certain flight conditions, the difference in pressure between the upper
surface of the wing and a narrow cavity where the test section was attached
to the original wing exceeded the acceptable limit of 0.75 psi. Concerns were
expressed that continued exposure to the higher pressure differential could
damage the attachment mechanism that held the active suction laminar flow
test section to the basic wing structure. It was believed that the higher-than-
expected pressure differential occurred during flight at higher angles of attack
that were not typical of cruise conditions, perhaps even during takeoff and
landing approach. A flight restriction that limited the aircraft to no more
than 2 gs during subsonic flight at lower altitudes was chosen to mitigate the
issue. This, plus some other improvised modifications to better seal the wing
glove, kept the pressure differential to within acceptable limits. The modified
F-16XL-2 aircraft had been originally been cleared for flight to an angle of
attack of 15 degrees and a 3-g limit.34
The second F-16XL-2 research flight on November 25, 1995, involved
structural loads and flutter clearance tests, evaluation of the handling qualities
with the asymmetrical configuration, and engine and air refueling systems
checks. The flight-test effort very quickly expanded to include investigations
of turbocompressor and suction system performance and the collection of
supersonic laminar flow data at the design Mach number and altitude. Dana
Purifoy flew the first 12 missions from the front seat with Mark Collard flying
as test engineer in the rear cockpit. On February 28, 1996, NASA research
pilot Mark P. Stucky flew in the rear cockpit on his initial checkout flight in
the aircraft with Dana Purifoy instructing from the front seat. On the next
flight, Mark Stucky was in the front seat but the mission was terminated after
0.5 hours due to an in-flight emergency caused by a right main landing gear
door failure. Stucky completed his F-16XL flight checkout on March 6.
F-16XL crewmembers were required to wear the NASA Combined High
Altitude and Gravity System (CHAGS) during research flights conducted
above an altitude of 50,000 feet. NASAs CHAGS ensemble was based upon
the British Jerkin system, which had been in use for nearly 20 years. The
oxygen regulator associated with the CHAGS system was designed to provide
aircrew protection up to 9 gs, as well as protection from decompression at
222
high altitudes. Dana Purifoy eventually flew 38 of the 45 research missions

conducted during the Phase 2 SLFC effort. Sixteen of these were flown at
altitudes above 50,000 feet. Air refueling tanker support was used on many
research flights to extend the time that laminar flow data could be collected
at high supersonic speeds. Dana Purifoy, who had flown the first flight with
F-16XL-2 in the asymmetric configuration, also flew F-16XL-2 on the 45th
and last flight of the Phase 2 SLFC program, on November 26, 1996.35
During the Phase 2 SLFC program with F-16XL-2, a number of in-flight
anomalies were encountered. Nine in-flight emergencies (IFEs) were declared,
resulting in termination of the test mission and an early return to base (RTB).
Two of these were due to problems with landing gear doors. The remaining
in-flight emergencies were related to issues with the F-16XLs flight control
system that required SLFC test missions to be aborted early. Laminar flow data
was collected on 34 flights. The special laminar flow test instrumentation on
the aircraft and the turbocompressor and active laminar flow suction system
generally functioned well. In one case, the turbocompressor experienced an
rpm overspeed, but it automatically shut itself down as it was designed to do.
Detailed mission logs containing flight objectives, test point accomplishment,
and postflight commentary for each Phase 2 SLFC flight-test mission with
F-16XL-2 are contained in Appendix H.36
F-16XL-2 SLFC Flight-Test Results

The Supersonic Laminar Flow Control Phase 2 research program with
F-16XL-2 was intended to achieve laminar flow over 50 to 60 percent of the
highly swept inner wing chord at supersonic speeds. In addition, flight-test
data was to be used to validate computational fluid dynamics computer codes
and glove suction design methodologies. Laminar flow test data was obtained
at a wide variety of flight conditions throughout nearly each SLFC research
flight. However, the primary focus of flight testing was at conditions associ-
ated with supersonic flight at Mach 2. Primary data collection altitudes ranged
from 50,000 feet to 55,000 feet. Angles of attack during laminar flow test
collection ranged from +2 degrees to +4 degrees, and angles of sideslip were
either zero or 1.5 degrees nose-right. The flight-test program was primarily
conducted at these flight conditions instead of at the wing glove design con-
ditions, which were Mach 1.9 at an altitude of 50,000 feet with a 3.3-degree
angle of attack and zero angle of sideslip. Those wing glove design conditions
had been determined from previous SLFC flight-test results and from analysis
of CFD simulation results. However, flight testing at those design conditions
did not result in supersonic laminar flow on the glove. The angles of attack
and sideslip angles used during flight testing were based on those that would
be seen at cruise conditions by the planned High-Speed Civil Transport. These
223
Elegance in Flight
were an angle of attack of 3.5 degrees with zero sideslip. Maneuvers that were
typically performed during the SLFC flight-test effort involved steady-state
pushovers to a predesignated angle of attack, which was then maintained while
laminar flow data were collected. These smooth pushovers were performed
with and without sideslip, and data-collection runs typically lasted about 10
seconds. Achieving and maintaining laminar flow was found to be very sensi-
tive to changes in aircraft angles of attack and sideslip.37
Wing Pressure Distributions

During flight-test missions, the pressure distribution over the suction glove
had been measured at constant intervals on the surface of the wing from BL 50
to BL 110 both with and without active suction applied to the glove. Several
variables had influenced the glove pressure distribution including pressure
disturbances caused by the engine inlet shock wave and the canopy-joint shock
wave. The maximum level of laminar flow that was achieved on the wing glove
occurred at an altitude of 53,000 feet with a 3.7-degree angle of attack and
1.5 degrees of sideslip. At these flight conditions, the Reynolds number was
22.7 million and laminar flow extended aft over the wing to 46 percent of
the wing chord. With the 60-degree shock fence installed, laminar flow was
observed as far aft as 42 percent of the wing chord. This occurred at an altitude
of 53,000 feet, at an angle of attack of 3.4 degrees with an angle of sideslip of
1.5 degrees. This represented the maximum amount of laminar flow observed
with the 60-degree shock fence installed.
Boundary-Layer Attachment Line

Obtaining and maintaining a laminar, leading-edge boundary-layer attach-
ment line on a highly swept wing at supersonic speeds is a primary concern
if laminar flow is to be achieved over a significant portion of the wing glove.
Lower surface hot films placed near the leading edge were used to identify the
spanwise extent of laminar flow at the attachment line. Many variables affected
the attachment-line and boundary-layer state; foremost were the flight condi-
tions, the shock fences, and the turbulence diverter. Their respective influences
are discussed in the following subsections.
Flight Condition and Shock Fence Effects

Key parameters in laminar flow experiments are Reynolds number, angle of
attack, and angle of sideslip. Test data were acquired over the Mach number
range from 1.9 to 2.0 and at altitudes ranging from 50,000 to 55,000 feet.
A completely laminar attachment line was not attainable without a shock
fence installed because of the inlet shock effects on the airflow over the
wing glove.
224
Turbulence Diverter Effects

CFD investigations conducted prior to the SLFC flight-test program had been
used to predict the local flow field over the aircraft. These had showed that any
turbulence created by the in-board row of hot films would not contaminate the
hot films located farther downstream. However, CFD results had also indicated
that the in-board region of the suction panels upper surface would experience
a turbulent boundary layer. This turbulent boundary layer was formed because
the turbulence diverter was not removing all of the oncoming turbulent flow.
This prevented a laminar boundary layer from being formed on the in-board
region of the suction panel. In addition, the turbulence diverter may also have
been generating a vortex that would cause turbulent flow along the in-board
edge of the glove. To verify this theory, the gap in the turbulence diverter was
filled with low-density foam and room-temperature vulcanizing silicon, and it
was coated with epoxy. When filled, the turbulence diverter was no longer able
to remove the turbulent boundary layer to allow a laminar flow attachment
line to form. Instead, the boundary-layer attachment line was now completely
turbulent, regardless of panel suction levels or flight conditions. Both the tur-
bulence diverter and the canopy-joint shock were identified as the cause of the
turbulent in-board upper-surface region. The forward portion of the turbulent
in-board region was thought to most likely be caused by a vortex generated by
the turbulence diverter. The aft portion of the turbulent in-board region on the
wing was caused by the shock wave disturbance generated by the canopy joint.
Suction Effects on Transition

Obtaining the optimum suction pressure distribution on the panel proved
to be highly challenging. The suction system design had been optimized for
flight conditions at Mach 1.9 at an altitude of 50,000 feet. Successful lami-
nar flow results were consistently obtained at Mach 2.0 and an altitude of
55,000 feet. The suction system was usually not turned on until the aircraft
was approaching flight-test conditions, thus there was time to observe the
behavior of the hot films with the suction system off. The lower surface hot
films often showed laminar flow without active suction at altitudes and Mach
numbers ranging from 1.7 to 1.93 and at 45,000 to 50,000 feet. These same
sensors often indicated a transition from laminar to turbulent flow when
design suction pressure level was applied. This was caused by too much
suction being present in the regions where the boundary layer transitioned
from laminar to turbulent flow. The design suction levels that were believed
necessary to overcome the leading-edge pressure disturbance from the engine
inlet shock wave had been analytically determined using CFD prior to the
start of the flight-test program. The need for a lower-than-design suction
pressure level was found to occur only on the boundary-level attachment
225
Elegance in Flight
line. Hot films in other regions on the glove often showed laminar flow with
design suction levels.
F-16XL-2 SLFC Program Summary

The maximum region of laminar flow achieved over the wing glove during the
entire SLFC program with F-16XL-2 is illustrated in the accompanying diagram.
Both laminar flow cases shown
were obtained with the 10-degree
sweep shock wave fence on the
left wing. Hot films on the lower
surface of the wing were used to
indicate the presence of laminar
flow. In the first case shown, a
laminar flow region that extended
8.6 feet along the surface of the
wing glove was attained at Mach
2.0 at 50,000 feet. During this
test, the aircraft was at an angle
of attack of 2.6 degrees, some-
what lower than the desired angle
of attack for the High-Speed
Civil Transport at its supersonic
cruise condition. The second case
shows laminar flow at Mach 2.0 at
53,000 feet at an angle of attack
The maximum extent of supersonic laminar flow on of 3.7 degrees. These flight con-
the F-16XL-2 active suction wing glove was achieved ditions were closer to the desired
at Mach 2.0 at an altitude of 53,000 feet. (NASA) HSCT cruise angle of attack and
altitude. Laminar flow extended
as far aft as 46 percent of the wing chord equivalent to a distance of 10.3 feet
from the wing leading edge. The best supersonic laminar flow was produced at
Mach 2.0 and an altitude of 53,000 feet. On the last flight of the SLFC program,
on November 26, 1996, laminar flow was measured over the wing as far aft as
42 percent of the chord.
Conclusion and Possible Follow-On Efforts

During NASAs research efforts with both F-16XLs, data on various aspects of
supersonic laminar flow control was obtained, and it indicated that significant
progress toward accomplishing the goal was achieved.38 However, laminar flow
226
was not achieved at the wing glove design point of Mach 1.9 at an altitude
of 50,000 feet. Boundary-layer transition data were obtained on the suction
glove at Mach 2.0 and altitudes of 53,000 to 55,000 feet. The best laminar flow
results were obtained at Mach 2.0 at an altitude of 53,000 feet. At an angle of
attack of 3.7 degrees, which was near the desired cruise angle of attack for the
High-Speed Civil Transport, laminar flow was obtained over the wing glove to
a streamwise location of 46 percent of the wing chord. The Reynolds number
during this test run was 22.7 million. Laminar flow was consistently obtained
to a minimum of 42 percent of the wing chord at Mach 2.0 at 50,000 feet
using the suction levels determined to be optimum from flight testing. The
Reynolds number at these conditions was 21.2 million.
The conceptual HSCT would have experienced a much higher Reynolds
number than was seen during the SLFC experiment with F-16XL-2. At the
HSCTs cruise conditions of Mach 2.4 at 60,000 feet, the Reynolds number
would have been about 200 million versus the 22.7 million seen during laminar
flow test missions with the F-16XL. This led NASA to investigate the use of
the much larger Russian Tupolev Tu-144 supersonic transport as a more repre-
sentative test bed for follow-on SLFC research. The large, slender delta-winged
Russian supersonic airliner would have had the additional advantage of avoid-
ing the laminar flow contamination issues that had been caused by shock wave
impingement on the F-16XLs wing glove. In late 1992, Dennis M. Bushnell,
NASA Langley chief scientist, held preliminary discussions on the possibility
of using the Tu-144 with Tupolev officials who were supportive of the concept.
In March 1993, Joseph R. Chambers, then head of the NASA Langley Flight
Applications Division, and Kenneth J. Szalai, the director of the NASA Dryden
Flight Research Center, formally proposed the concept of using one of the
retired Tu-144s for SLFC experimentation at Dryden. Louis J. Williams, the
HSR Phase 1 program manager, had already been considering the possibility
of a NASA Tu-144 research project. To this end, the HSR Program Office
had issued a contract through the Air Force to the North American Aviation
Division of the Rockwell Corporation. The North American contract was
for a feasibility assessment of
restoring a Tu-144 for NASA
use as a SLFC test bed.
By mid-1993, direct dis-
cussions were in progress
between NASA and Tupolev.
Wesley L. Harris, NASA asso-
ciate administrator for aero-
nautics, was a strong advocate
of the joint U.S.-Russian Comparison of the F-16XL with the proposed HSCT. (NASA)
227
Elegance in Flight
research effort. Preliminary estimates were that it would cost at least $40 mil-
lion to return the Russian aircraft to flightworthy status. Extensive airframe
modifications were needed to incorporate active suction laminar flow gloves
and a purpose-designed suction system into the Tu-144; these were estimated
to cost at least another $50 million. However, North Americans engineering
assessment indicated that the existing wing on the Tu-144 routinely rippled
during supersonic flight at Mach 2 due to the effects caused by heating on the
structure. These ripples were considered to be large enough to totally disrupt
any possibility of successfully achieving supersonic laminar flow with an active
suction system. The North American study recommended the development
and integration of a new purpose-designed wing with an original Tu-144 fuse-
lage to create a new SLFC flight demonstrator for use in NASA SLFC research
(an approach that was curiously similar to what GD had done in creating the
SCAMP/F-16XL). However, this approach would have cost far more than the
relatively small NASA HSR program could afford. The NASA research effort
with the Tu-144 was limited to a restricted budget of only $15 million. The
Tu-144 effort went forward with a joint U.S.-Russian 10-flight-test program
that investigated various areas of interest to the HSR program, but these did
not include SLFC research.39
228
Endnotes
1. David F. Voracek, Ground Vibration and Flight Flutter Tests of
the Single-Seat F-16XL Aircraft with a Modified Wing, NASA
TM-104264 (June 1993).
2. Control surface buzz was first encountered in the United States in
the early 1920s, but it became a serious problem two decades later,
as aircraft approached the speed of sound during high-speed dives.
The aileron buzz phenomenon was demonstrated to pilots (includ-
ing the author) during their initial check-out flight in the two-seat
version of the F-80, the T-33. Michael W. Kehoe, A Historic
Overview of Flight Flutter Testing, NASA TM 4720 (October
1995); N.C. Lambourne, Control Surface Buzz, (London:
Aeronautical Research Council, Ministry of Aviation, R&M No.
3364, 1964).
3. Dynamic pressure (commonly referred to as q) is the difference
between the stagnation pressure and the static pressure on an object
in a fluid flow. The stresses on an aircraft are directly proportional to
the dynamic pressure. The maximum allowable aerodynamic load on
the airframe is reached at maximum q, which is a critical param-
eter in aircraft design and flight test. Dynamic pressure q is defined
by the equation q=v2 where is air density and v is the velocity.
4. A piezoelectric sensor uses the piezoelectric effect to measure param-
eters such as pressure, acceleration, strain, or force. Piezoelectricity
is the electrical charge that accumulates in certain solid materials
(notably crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as
bone, DNA, and various proteins) in response to applied mechani-
cal stresses. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting
from pressure. Discovered in the 19th century by the French Curie
brothers, the first practical application of a piezoelectric device was
in a hydrophone system, designed to detect submerged submarines,
developed in France during the First World War.
5. Lura Vernon, In-Flight Investigation of a Rotating Cylinder-Based
Structural Excitation System for Flutter Testing, NASA TN 4512
(June 1993).
6. C.J. Woan, P.B. Gingrich, and M.W. George, Validation of a
Supersonic Laminar Flow Concept, presented at the 29th AIAA
Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, NV, January 1991, AIAA paper
1991-0188 (1991).
7. J. Flores, E. Tu, B. Anderson, and S. Landers, A Parametric Study
of the Leading Edge Attachment Line for the F-16XL, presented
229
Elegance in Flight
at the 22nd AIAA Fluid Dynamics, Plasma Dynamics and Lasers

Conference, Honolulu, HI, June 2426, 1991, AIAA paper 91-1621
(June 1991).
8. Hehs, Marta Bohn-Meyer.
9. Michael Fischer and Chandra S. Vemuru, Application of Laminar
Flow Control to the High Speed Civil TransportThe NASA
Supersonic Laminar Flow Control Program, presented at the
Aerospace Technology Conference and Exposition, Long Beach, CA,
September 1991, SAE paper 912115 (September 1, 1991).
10. Laurie A. Marshall, Summary of Transition Results from the
F-16XL-2 Supersonic Laminar Flow Control Experiment, pre-
sented at the AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference, Denver, CO,
August 1417, 2000, AIAA paper 2000-4418 (August 2000); Bruce
A. Smith, F-16XL Flights Could Aid in HSCT Design, Aviation
Week & Space Technology (October 23, 1995).
11. Ibid.
12. Michael C. Fischer, F-16XL Supersonic Laminar Flow Control
Program Overview, NASA Langley Research Center First Annual
High-Speed Research Workshop, Part 4, NASA (April 1, 1992), pp.
1,8111,820.
13. Reynolds number (Re) is used to determine the dynamic similar-
ity between different experimental cases in fluid dynamics, e.g.,
comparing results obtained with the F-16XL to those from the very
much larger High-Speed Civil Transport. Named after the English
physicist Osborne Reynolds (18421912), Re is also used to charac-
terize differences in flow states, such as laminar or turbulent flow. A
dimensionless number, Re provides a measure of the ratio of iner-
tial forces (which determine how a fluid resists changes in motion)
to viscous forces. The calculation of Re includes fluid density and
viscosity, its velocity, and a characteristic surface dimension. For air-
craft, the mean aerodynamic chord (mac) of the wing is often used
for this purpose. Re is defined as follows:
Re = (vL)/ = (vL)/
where:
v is the mean velocity of the object relative to the fluid
L is a characteristic linear dimension such as the mac
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid
is the kinematic viscosity, where = /
is the density of the fluid
14. Marshall, Summary of Transition Results.
230
15. Scott G. Anders and Michael C. Fischer, F-16XL-2 Supersonic

Laminar Flow Control Flight Test Experiment, NASA Technical
Publication (TP) 1999-209683 (1999).
16. Ibid.
17. Navier-Stokes equations describe how the velocity, pressure, tem-
perature, and density of a moving fluid are related and include
the effects of viscosity on the flow. The highly complex equations
were derived independently by G.G. Stokes, in England, and M.
Navier, in France, in the early 1800s. Navier-Stokes equations are
too difficult to solve analytically. In the past, approximations and
simplifications were used to form a group of solvable equations.
Today, high-speed computers solve approximations of the Navier-
Stokes equations using a variety of analytic techniques. This techni-
cal area is known as computational fluid dynamics, or CFD. John
D. Anderson, NASA and the Evolution of Computational Fluid
Dynamics, Case 7 in Hallion, NASAs Contributions to Aeronautics,
Vol. 1.
18. Smith, F-16XL Flights Could Aid in HSCT Design.
19. The constrained direct iterative surface curvature (CDISC) design
tool that was used by Boeing in designing the wing glove for
F-16XL-2 had been developed at the NASA Langley Research
Center. The CDISC methodology consisted of a set of linear aerody-
namic relations between the flow properties of velocity and pressure
related to the local surface curvature. These relations allowed for
rapid surface modifications to drive toward a specified distribution
of pressures and velocities. Other constraints based upon geometry,
desirable pressure features, total integrated forces, and more were
incorporated into the CDISC methodology, which was used for
aerodynamic design in subsonic, transonic, and supersonic airflows
for both simple two-dimensional cases and complex three-dimen-
sional geometries.
20. A TollmienSchlichting (T-S) wave is a streamwise instability that
occurs within the airflow moving through the boundary layer. It is
one of the ways in which the airflow within the boundary layer tran-
sitions from laminar to turbulent flow. T-S waves are initiated when
some external pressure disturbance (generated from, for example, a
supersonic shock wave) interacts with the airflow. T-S waves slowly
amplify as they move downstream, eventually growing large enough
that the flow transitions from laminar to turbulent condition. T-S
waves were discovered in Germany in the early 20th century by
231
Elegance in Flight
Ludwig Prandtl. They are named for two of his students, Walter
Tollmien and Hermann Schlichting.
21. An isobar connects regions of equal pressure in a flow field.
22. The emergency power unit (EPU) on the F-16 is powered with
hydrazine from a tank located inside the right wing strake.
Hydrazine is a highly toxic and dangerously unstable compound. It
was first used by the Germans as a rocket fuel during World War II.
The Messerschmitt Me 163B rocket fighter plane, described as being
more dangerous to its pilots than to the enemy, was hydrazine-pow-
ered. It experienced a number of catastrophic explosions attributed
to the unstable nature of its fuel. Hydrazine is commonly used as a
monopropellant for maneuvering thrusters on spacecraft. It powered
the Space Shuttle Auxiliary Power Units (APUs). The Curiosity rover
that landed on Mars in August 2012 employed hydrazine-powered
thrusters during its descent to the surface.
23. Wetherall, F-16XL First Flight 25th Anniversary Celebration..
24. Stephen F. Landers, John A. Saltzman, and Lisa J. Bjarke, F-16XL
Wing Pressure Distributions and Shock Fence Results from Mach
1.4 to Mach 2.0, NASA TM 97-206219 (1997).
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. In analyzing moving the motion of a rigid body, the xyz system
is referred to as the space coordinates with the body coordinates
known as the XYZ system. Space coordinates are treated as unmov-
ing while the body coordinates are rigidly embedded in the moving
body (in this case, the aircraft). Aerospace engineers use the terms
yaw, pitch, and roll to refer to rotations about the x-, y-, and z-axes,
respectively, often calling these the Euler angles. NASA Glenn
Research Center.
29. The individual sensors that were used to correlate valve position with
mass flow in each of the 20 suction regions on the wing glove were
laboratory-calibrated at NASA Langley prior to the F-16XL-2 SLFC
flight-test missions. Anders and Fischer, F-16XL-2 Supersonic
Laminar Flow Control Flight Test Experiment.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. An excrescence is an imperfection, accumulation, or growth on a
surface. In the case of an aircraft wing, excrescences produced by
manufacturing variations and accumulated insect impacts are very
common. Developed by NACA beginning in the late 1930s, natural
232
laminar flow airfoils had their maximum thickness located further

aft on the wing chord than conventional airfoils. The WWII North
American Aviation (NAA) P-51 Mustang was the first production
aircraft to be fitted with a laminar flow airfoil that had been col-
laboratively designed by NAA and NACA. But while it could be
attained by a carefully cleaned and polished P-51 aircraft in a full-
size wind tunnel, laminar flow rarely if ever existed in practice due to
manufacturing imperfections and dirt and insect impact accumula-
tions on the wing leading edges.
33. Laurie A. Marshall, Boundary-Layer Transition Results From
the F-16XL-2 Supersonic Laminar Flow Control Experiment,
NASA TM 1999-209013 (December 1999); Saltzman and Bjarke,
F-16XL Wing Pressure Distributions.
34. Bruce A. Smith, Dryden Analyses Test Section Problem, Aviation
Week & Space Technology 9 (November 6, 1995): p. 76.
35. A former Air Force test pilot, Dana D. Purifoy joined NASA as
a research test pilot in August 1994. A distinguished graduate of
EPNER, the French Test Pilot School (which he attended as a U.S.
Air Force exchange pilot), Purifoy later served as project manager for
NASAs Aeronautics Test Program at the DFRC. He accumulated
over 5,000 flying hours in more than 100 different aircraft. NASA,
NASA People: Dana D. Purifoy, September 2010, http://www.nasa.
gov/centers/dryden/news/Biographies/Pilots/bd-dfrc-p013.html, accessed
August 9, 2011.
36. The F-16XL-2 SLFC Mission Test Logs, Document 6 in Albert
L. Braslow, A History of Suction-Type Laminar Flow Control with
Emphasis on Flight Research (Washington, DC: NASA Monograph in
Aerospace History Number 13, 1999).
37. Ibid.
38. Ronald D. Joslin, Overview of Laminar Flow Control, NASA TP
1998-208705 (1998).
39. Robert A. Rivers, NASAs Flight Test of the Russian Tu-144 SST,
Case 15 in Hallion, NASAs Contributions to Aeronautics, Vol. 2;
Conway, High Speed Dreams.
233
F-16XL-1 was used in its basic unmodified aerodynamic configuration for the CAWAP flight-test
effort. (NASA)
234
CHAPTER 10
Other NASA F-16XL Flight

Research Efforts
Although the main thrust of NASA flight testing with the F-16XL was focused
on research into supersonic laminar flow control, as discussed in the previous
chapter, the two aircraft were also used for flight research into other areas
that were important to risk reduction and technology transfer for the pro-
posed High-Speed Civil Transport. These included research oriented toward
understanding issues associated with noise in the vicinity of airfields, sonic
boom signature measurement and prediction, measurement of vortical flow
over highly swept wing planforms, and the cooperative development of com-
putational fluid dynamics tools and design methodologies. A comprehensive
program of analytical and wind tunnel testing was closely associated with these
research efforts. Flutter envelope flight clearances were defined via ground and
flight testing for both F-16XL aircraft as they were modified to support NASA
SLFC research efforts. Separately, the F-16XL tested a new flutter excitation
system concept that was evaluated and qualified over the flight envelope from
subsonic through transonic to high-speed supersonic flight conditions. This
flutter excitation system has since been widely adopted in the international
flight-test community. Each of these research efforts with the F-16XL is dis-
cussed in further detail in the following sections.
Vortex Flap Flight-Test Planning

The Flight Applications Division at NASA Langley, led by Joseph R. Chambers,
was responsible for high-lift aspects of the High-Speed Research program.
Takeoff noise had been identified as a major problem of the High-Speed Civil
Transport with its highly swept cranked-arrow wing. Very high takeoff thrust
levels are required to compensate for the low-lift and high-drag characteris-
tics of such highly swept low aspect ratio wings. Since supersonic transports
were optimized for good long-range supersonic cruise performance, they had
poor cruise performance at subsonic conditions and especially in their landing
235
Elegance in Flight
configuration. This was the consequence of the high induced drag that resulted
from their low aspect ratio wings. NASA Langley research efforts were focused
on improving the subsonic lift and drag characteristics of supersonic transports
with highly swept low aspect ratio wings. Wind tunnel and computer-based aero-
dynamic studies were used to assess various wing leading-edge high-lift design
approaches that could be used to improve HSCT performance. These included
fixed camber configurations, deflectable cambered flaps, and vortex flaps.
By 1993, a flight-test program designed to obtain detailed information on
leading-edge vortex flaps at high-lift subsonic conditions was approved using
F-16XL-1 as the test bed aircraft. As previously discussed, NASA Langley
researchers had conducted low-speed and transonic vortex flap wind tunnel
tests during the early 1980s in conjunction with the original F-16XL develop-
ment effort. By the 1990s, interest in low-speed, high-lift devices had increased
within the High-Speed Research program, driven by the need to improve take-
off and landing performance and reduce HSCT noise. Langley had obtained
an F-16 on loan from the Air Force to conduct ground crew and pilot training
in preparation for receiving F-16XL-1 for the planned high-lift/noise pro-
gram. The aircraft arrived at Langley on April 15, 1993. On October 5, it was
painted in a striking black-and-gold color scheme to enhance the use of flow
visualization techniques for the planned flights, which would encounter strong
vortical flows. However, the decision was made to transfer the aircraft back to
Dryden, and it departed Langley on October 22, 1993. While F-16XL-1 was at
Langley, it had been used for simulation-to-flight flying qualities work. During
this effort, NASA pilots flew on back-to-back flights in Langleys fixed-base
Differential Maneuvering Simulator (DMS) and the F-16XL-1 to evaluate
tasks and perceived handling qualities with the fixed-base simulator. This test
effort lasted about 1 month, during which time two pilots, including James
W. Smolka, flew the aircraft. This work was monitored by engineers from the
Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL).1
Langley researcher David E. Hahne conducted wind tunnel tests that used
an F-16XL model with several different leading-edge flap configurations.
Testing focused on selection of a vortex flap concept that was intended to be
built and tested on the inner segment of the F-16XL wing with its 70-degree
sweep. The proposed vortex flap flight research program with the F-16XL
would also investigate unconventional thrust-management concepts. Using
these approaches, power would be reduced at certain takeoff conditions to
reduce noise in the vicinity of airfields. Noise intensity in the airport vicin-
ity would be measured while the F-16XL used different thrust-management
approaches in combination with extended leading-edge vortex flaps. NASA
Langley engineers designed and implemented a piloted simulation of the
modified F-16XL in the DMS at Langley in preparation for the actual vortex
236
Other NASA F-16X Flight Research Efforts
flap flight-test effort that was to use a modified F-16XL-1. By 1996, all the
wing tooling needed to install the vortex flaps had been delivered to NASA
Dryden in anticipation of an eventual F-16XL flight-test effort. When the
flight research effort with the aircraft modified with vortex flaps was eliminated
from further consideration that same year, the vortex flap tooling was placed
in storage at Dryden. All tooling related to the vortex flight research effort
with F-16XL was later destroyed after the entire NASA High-Speed Research
program was cancelled in 1999.2
Acoustic Research
Airport noise was one of the major issues that needed to be addressed in
determining the environmental and public acceptability of a civil supersonic
transport. These heavy aircraft would have been powered by large, high-thrust
engines operating at high nozzle pressure ratios (NPRs) and high exhaust-jet
velocities. Concerns existed not only for the noise produced in the vicinity of
the airport during takeoff and landing but also for the noise footprint produced
along the flightpath during climb out to cruise altitude. This noise footprint
extended outward for a distance of up to 50 miles from the takeoff runway.
To determine the engine noise for these supersonic transport designs, NASA
Langley had developed computer-based acoustic prediction software programs
such as the Aircraft Noise Prediction Program (ANOPP). However, these pro-
grams had been developed and validated using data acquired from earlier tur-
bofan engine designs whose nozzle bypass ratios and flight speeds were lower
than those planned for future supersonic transports. Doppler amplification of
the noise forward of the aircraft flightpath was also a concern for these higher
speed aircraft. For these reasons, NASA Langley and NASA Dryden jointly
planned and conducted flight tests to acquire in-flight acoustic data for high
nozzle bypass ratio engines.
Flyover and static tests of the F-16XL-2 powered by the General Electric GE
F110-GE-129 engine were used to study the acoustics of high-NPR engines,
like those planned for use in an HSCT. Flight-test objectives were to assess
noise during the subsonic climb-to-cruise (CTC) phase of operations using
an aircraft equipped with highnozzle bypass ratio engines and to obtain an
improved noise database to validate aircraft noise predictive software codes.
Engine exhaust flow properties (mass flow, temperature, pressure, velocity,
and Mach number) were key factors in determining acoustic characteristics.
An engine cycle computer program was used to calculate parameters for com-
parison with parameters measured during in-flight tests. The engine computer
program and follow-on calculations were also used to calculate engine exhaust
237
Elegance in Flight
The two-seat F-16XL-2 powered by the F110-GE-129 engine seen on a test flight from NASA
Dryden in October 1991. (NASA)
properties where in-flight measurements were not possible. These tests were
performed in conjunction with NASA Langley as part of a study to investigate
the acoustic characteristics of jet engines operating at high nozzle pressure con-
ditions. Dryden was responsible for the planning and conduct of the flyover
tests, recording and analyzing flight data, determining the aircraft space posi-
tion, determining engine exhaust gas flow properties, and conducting a ground
static acoustic survey. NASA Langley responsibilities included the design and
setup of the microphone array, recording the noise measurements, merging the
acoustic and space position data, analyzing and evaluating the acoustic data,
and correlating these data with Dryden-determined engine exhaust properties.
The F-16XL acoustic research effort included F-16XL flights over a micro-
phone array at varying speeds and altitudes. Noise levels were determined
during subsonic climb-to-cruise conditions, and acoustic data collection was
used to enable predictive computer software codes to be refined and validated.
In the subsonic climb-to-cruise portion of the study, flyovers of the acoustic
array were conducted at altitudes from 3,800 feet to 12,300 feet and from
Mach 0.3 to Mach 0.95 at intermediate (non-afterburning) power settings.
During acoustic data collection for the evaluation of aircraft noise predic-
tion computer software codes, tests were flown at an altitude of 3,800 feet
and at speeds from Mach 0.3 to Mach 0.95. Ground-level engine testing was
conducted at power settings ranging from idle to intermediate to establish
baseline exhaust noise levels at ground static conditions. The final test report
summarizing the acoustic flight-test program was prepared by NASA Dryden
238
research engineers Jon K. Holzman, Lannie D. Webb, and Frank W. Burcham,

Jr.3 Separately, NASA Langley research staff members Jeffrey J. Kelly, Mark R.
Wilson, John Rawls, Jr., Thomas D. Norum, and Robert A. Golub correlated
the acoustic test results with predictions obtained from the NASA-developed
ANOPP computer program. They produced and published a detailed acoustic
flight-test database based on the results from the F-16XL flight-test effort.4
Acoustic Test Instrumentation

F-16XL-2 was instrumented to measure both aircraft and engine parameters.
In addition, measurements of acoustic, meteorological, and aircraft space-
positioning were collected from sensors on the ground. Mach number and
altitude were obtained from the Pitot static probe on the F-16XL-2 noseboom.
Pressures from the Pitot probe were fed to the aircraft central air data computer,
where Mach number and altitude were calculated. The aircraft also had an iner-
tial navigation system (INS) for accurate velocity and position determination.
Angle of attack and angle of sideslip were measured by vanes on the F-16XL-2
flight-test noseboom. These data were recorded at a rate of 10 samples per
second by an onboard system on a 10-bit pulse code modulation (PCM) data
system, and the data was also transmitted to the ground. The F-16XL-2 was
also equipped with a C-band radar beacon to aid in precise spatial positioning.
The General Electric F110-GE-129 turbofan was equipped with a digi-
tal electronic engine control (DEEC) unit. The F110 engine was extensively
instrumented for the acoustic test effort in support of the High-Speed Research
effort. Engine parameters were used as inputs into the F110-GE-129 engine
computer program and acoustic analyses. Results from the F110 engine com-
puter program were used for comparison with flight-test results. They included
throttle position, engine face total temperature, fan discharge total pressure,
A cutaway view of the General Electric F110-GE-129 turbofan engine shows the engine station
number locations. (NASA)
239
Elegance in Flight
compressor discharge static pressure, core engine fuel flow, fan rotor speed,
core rotor speed, engine exhaust gas temperature (EGT), and exhaust nozzle
throat area.
Acoustic Measurements
Noise propagation in the vicinity of airfields was a major concern with the
supersonic transport. Public perceptions of noise were known to be signifi-
cantly affected by weather conditions. For this reason, meteorological condi-
tions were significant inputs into the aircraft noise prediction program, and
weather conditions during the flight-test missions needed to be measured. They
were determined from four main sources: F-16XL-2 onboard measurements,
weather balloons, a ground weather station at the acoustics van, and a tethered
balloon located near the flyover array.
Onboard measurements obtained from the F-16XL-2 primarily consisted
of winds-aloft data determined from the aircraft inertial system and total tem-
perature measured at the F110 engine face. A tethered balloon was located near
the array of microphones at the flyover location on Rogers Dry Lake. It was
raised and lowered on a 1,500-foot-long line to support meteorological data
collection during the acoustic test missions.
During flyover tests, acoustic data were measured with an analog and digi-
tal microphone array. The array was positioned along a defined flyby line on
Rogers Dry Lake. This location provided a good proximity to the tracking
radar; was an adequate distance from the Edwards, CA, main runway; and had
a large, flat area suitable for acoustics measurements. The analog microphone
setup was similar to the setup used by NASA Dryden during static ground run
engine acoustic testing. The NASA Dryden FPS-16 radar was used to track the
C-band radar beacon on the aircraft during the acoustic flyovers. Ground test
controllers in the mission control room assisted the F-16XL pilot in lining up
for each test, establishing the time for beginning and completing data runs,
and determining track validity for each flyover. These data were also used by
NASA Langley in their postflight analyses to determine the spatial position of
the aircraft. This was important for correlation with the acoustic data collected
by the microphone arrays.
For static signature measurements, an array consisting of 24 microphones
was located on a large, flat taxiway area at NASA Dryden. The microphones
were placed every 7.5 degrees on an arc that was located 99 feet from the
engine exhaust centerline. The microphones were mounted upside down inside
protective windscreens. The microphone diaphragms were located 0.5 inches
above a thin aluminum plate taped to the surface of the concrete or asphalt.
This test arrangement enabled acoustic exhaust noise from the F-16XL to
be recorded without interference by ground reflections. The NASA Dryden
240
acoustics research van was used to record the 24 channels of microphone data.
Two 14-track tape recorders were installed in the mobile trailer. Twelve chan-
nels of acoustic data were recorded on each of the two recorders. The remain-
ing tape channels were used to record the time and the pilots event marker.
Each of the 24 microphone stations was battery-powered and consisted of a
condenser microphone, a preamplifier, and a line driver amplifier. The trailer
also contained a weather station for recording local temperatures, wind velocity,
and wind direction in the area of the microphone array. The trailer also had
UHF radios for communication with the test aircraft.
Test Procedures
To satisfy test objectives, acoustic levels were measured during the F-16XLs
subsonic climb-to-cruise altitude and data necessary to validate the aircraft
noise predictive software computer code was collected. In both cases, collec-
tion of acoustic data was desired when the aircraft was located more than 10
to 15 degrees above the horizon as measured from the center of the acoustic
microphone array. Data collection start- and end-point distances from the
acoustic array depended on the flight altitude of the F-16XL-2 aircraft during
each flyover pass. At the lowest test altitude, which was 1,500 feet above ground
level (AGL), this start- and end-point distance was approximately 1 nautical
mile from the acoustic data-collection microphone array. The F-16XL pilot
flew the planned flyovers across the acoustic test array using visual navigation
cues, inputs from his onboard inertial navigation system, and radio directions
from the test controller in the mission control room.
Climb-To-Cruise Tests
The flight matrix for the climb-to-cruise runs consisted of level flight accelera-
tions over the acoustic array at various Mach numbers and altitudes. During
these runs, the engine power setting was held constant at the intermediate
level in order to obtain maximum engine nozzle pressure ratio. Test altitudes
varied from 3,800 feet to 32,300 feet, and Mach numbers ranged from 0.30 to
over Mach 0.90. To establish the desired climb-to-cruise condition, the pilot
initially stabilized the aircraft at the desired altitude just below the desired
Mach number. As the airplane approached the start point for acoustic data
collection, the throttle was advanced to the intermediate power setting based
on a radio call from the mission control room. The engine was allowed to sta-
bilize for approximately 5 seconds before the start of the test run. The aircraft
accelerated through the desired test conditions in level flight depending on the
degree of excess thrust available. Some acoustic runs were initiated directly over
the center of the array with the run terminating when the elevation angle was
again 15 degrees above the horizon. At some flight-test conditions, the aircraft
241
Elegance in Flight
speed brakes were deployed to reduce aircraft acceleration during acoustic

data acquisition. The climb-to-cruise tests resulted in a significant change in
Mach number during test runs caused by the excess engine thrust available
with the F-16XL-2. Mach numbers during test runs ranged from Mach 0.30
to Mach 0.95.
Aircraft Noise Prediction Program Code Evaluation Tests

The aircraft noise prediction program software code evaluation tests were flown
at constant Mach numbers and at an aircraft altitude of 3,800 feet above sea
level (1,500 feet above the local ground level). The throttle was set at the power
required for level flight at constant speed. For these runs, the pilot coordinated
his overflight of the microphone array with the mission control room. Once
the engine power was set, it was not changed during the data-collection run
and small changes in Mach number were allowed to occur. Speed brakes were
not used during ANOPP data-collection test runs.
Static Ground Tests

For F-16XL-2 ground static tests, the aircraft was secured to tiedown points
and engine power setting was varied to achieve various engine pressure ratio
increments between idle power and intermediate power and then back to idle.
The engine was stabilized for 1 minute at each test point, then acoustic data was
acquired for 30 seconds. All static testing was conducted with the wind speed
below 5 knots to minimize wind effects on noise measurements. Atmospheric
data during ground acoustic testing were obtained from the NASA Dryden
acoustics van and from observations taken at other locations around the Air
Force Flight Test Center.
Analytical Techniques
Jet-mixing and shock cell noise are the two primary sources of noise for engines
with high NPRs during takeoff and subsonic climb. Engines of this type were
to be used on the proposed HSCT. Engine noise is primarily affected by air-
craft velocity and Mach number, exhaust velocity at the engine exhaust exit,
and the engine nozzle bypass ratio. For purposes of acoustic analysis, engine
exhaust characteristics were defined at the nozzle exit and also at a location
somewhat behind the nozzle exit where the engine exhaust was assumed to be
fully expanded. Jet-mixing noise primarily results from the difference between
the fully expanded nozzle jet velocity and the free-stream air velocity. Shock
cell noise is related to the difference between the Mach number of the fully
expanded jet and the Mach number at the engine nozzle exit and is based on
the nozzle expansion ratio.
242
F110-GE-129 Digital Engine Model

Flight-test and ground-test data collected from the instrumented engine could
not measure values of pressure, temperature, velocity, and mass flow directly
at the engine nozzle exit. Measurements from the instrumented engine did
not directly provide the data needed for the evaluation of climb-to-cruise and
validation of the aircraft noise acoustic predictive software codes. For these
reasons, a General Electric F110 digital engine performance computer model
was used to calculate some of the parameters needed for the acoustic evalua-
tion. Other engine performance parameters were computed separately using
follow-on calculations. The F110-GE-129 engine performance model (also
referred to as the engine deck) was a digital computer-based FORTRAN
software languagebased computer program. It predicted engine parameters
and performance consistent with that of a nominal F110-GE-129 engine. This
aerothermodynamic model was used to calculate various F110 engine oper-
ating parameters that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to measure
because of excessively high temperatures and/or inaccessibility of certain areas
internal to the engine to installation of test instrumentation. Input parameters
used for the analysis consisted of altitude, Mach number, engine-face total
temperature, and throttle setting.
The engine computer program modeled engine performance based on the
measured airplane flight parameters previously inputted into the program.
Some parameters needed for the acoustic analysis could not be measured in
flight, and these were computed by the engine model. These nonmeasurable
parameters included gross thrust, nozzle pressure ratio, the ratio of the exhaust
nozzle effective exit-plane area to its effective throat area, the ratio of exhaust
nozzle flow exit-plane static pressure to ambient static pressure, the exhaust
nozzle mixed-jet total temperature at the throat, the mass flow rate at the
exhaust nozzle throat, and other useful exhaust nozzle exit-stream parameters,
such as throat total pressure, the exhaust nozzle total throat pressure, and the
specific heat ratio of the exhaust gas at the nozzle entrance. The engine deck
also calculated many other parameters that could be compared to actual in-
flight data obtained from engine measurements.
Selected flight-test parameters were compared with the times associated with
pilot call outs for the selected inbound distance to the acoustic test array, the
overhead point, and the selected outbound distance. Results determined that
Mach number, altitude, exhaust nozzle throat area, and throttle setting were
the main controllable parameters that determined test data quality. Constant
throttle setting and exhaust nozzle throat area along with a constant or slowly
accelerating Mach number and a relatively constant altitude yielded the most
consistent test results.
243
Elegance in Flight
Acoustic Research Test Summary

F110-GE-129 engine parameters were measured during test flights with
F-16XL-2 at NASA Dryden and compared with parameters calculated using
the General Electric F110-GE-129 engine computer program. Erroneous
results could have occurred if the flight-test engine installed in F-16XL-2 was
significantly different from the nominal engine modeled in the engine com-
puter program. For this reason, engine parameters were measured during flights
with the F-16XL. These measurements, along with altitude and Mach number,
were compared with F110 parameters calculated using the engine computer
program. A comparison of results showed very good agreement, confirming
that the computer model of the General Electric F110-GE-129 engine was a
good representation of the actual engine flown in F-16XL-2. Ground static
testing, climb-to-cruise data, and flyover data showed good to excellent agree-
ment between measured and estimated noise signatures that were produced
using the NASA Langley Aircraft Noise Prediction Program.
F-16XL Cranked-Arrow Wing Aerodynamics Project

The F-16XL aircraft provided a unique opportunity for computer model
correlation and CFD code validation with in-flight and wind tunnel data.
This would provide a valuable contribution to the design of an HSCT
with its similar highly swept cranked-arrow wing configuration. A series of
vortex flow studies based on the aerodynamics of the F-16XL were led by
NASA Langleys John E. Lamar. This project was known as the Cranked-
Arrow Wing Aerodynamics Project (CAWAP). Lamars team of research-
ers included Langleys Clifford J. Obara, Susan J. Rickard, and Bruce D.
Fisher, as well as Drydens David F. Fisher. The CAWAP research approach
was planned to take advantage of the detailed measurements and analyses
of F-16XL vortex flow characteristics that had been created in conjunc-
tion with NASA wind tunnel and flight-test research efforts. Data obtained
from these efforts included static and dynamic pressures on the surface of
the F-16XL cranked-arrow wing, detailed boundary-layer measurements,
and airflow visualization on the upper surface of the cranked-arrow wing.
The flow visualization studies used cameras installed at various locations
on F-16XL-1 to image large numbers of tufts located on the upper wing
surface. Flight-test results were correlated with data derived from CFD
studies. As the effort evolved, CAWAP became the basis for a series of
follow-on multinational studies and analyses of vortex flow when the effort
was expanded, becoming known as the Cranked-Arrow Wing Aerodynamics
Program International (CAWAPI).5
244
As originally planned, CAWAP

was intended to be divided into
three phases of flight testing. These
were based on the modifications to
the F-16XL wing configuration to
support anticipated HSCT technol-
ogy and risk-reduction needs. Phase
1 was structured to use the basic
F-16XL-1 with no modifications.
Data from this phase was to serve as
The CAWAP flight-test program was originally
the technical baseline for the follow- intended to be conducted in three phases, with
on phases. Phase 2 modifications the F-16XL-1 wing planform progressively modi-
would have extended the cranked- fied for each phase as depicted above. (NASA)
arrow wing farther forward into the
fuselage, removing the distinctive S-curve at the wing apex. The S-curve had
been incorporated into the F-16XL wing design as a result of earlier NASA
Langley wind tunnel testing. It was intended to minimize the pitchup problems
that would be encountered with an air superiority fighter during aggressive
maneuvering at very high angles of attack. However, the S-curve at the apex
of the wing was not needed for a civil transport aircraft. The Phase 2 con-
figuration, with its continuous 70-degree swept wing leading edge, was more
representative of the cranked-arrow wing that was planned to be used on the
future supersonic transport.
NASA Langley had previously conducted wind tunnel tests of a large
(18-percent) scale F-16XL model fitted with a wing similar to that which was
to be installed on F-16XL-1 for the CAWAP Phase 2 test effort. To compensate
for the pitch instability caused by the extended wing leading edges at higher
angles of attack, the test model was
equipped with a thrust-vectoring
capability. Phase 3, the final CAWAP
flight-test phase, would have incor-
porated a high-lift (vortex flap) device
along the entire leading edge of the
F-16XL-1 wing. The exact configu-
ration of this final high-lift device
would have been determined from
wind tunnel experiments, CFD pre-
dictions, and the results of flight test- A free-flight model of the F-16XL with the
ing with the F-16XL aircraft in the wing apex modification seen during high-AoA
Phase 2 configuration. However, the free-flight testing in the Langley 30- by 60-foot
CAWAP Phase 3 configuration, with wind tunnel. (NASA)
245
Elegance in Flight
its NASA-developed high-lift vortex flaps, was planned to be fully representa-

tive of the HSCT conceptual design in its takeoff or landing configuration.6
A significant objective of the flight-test effort associated with the CAWAP
was to verify the performance of proposed high-lift concepts for the HSCT
while ensuring acceptable compliance with community noise standards. The
first step in this process would establish a ground-to-flight noise correlation
for the aircraft with the cranked-arrow wing planform. The original intent of
the program was that all three F-16XL-1 wing planform configurations would
be flown, with the resulting data used to calibrate design and analysis tools
as well as noise prediction codes. In addition, advanced operating procedures
for possible use with the HSCT during takeoff and landing would have been
evaluated during flight testing. The final CAWAP objective would have assessed
the integration and operation of high-lift devices on a highly swept cranked-
arrow wing in realistic operational scenarios that were representative of actual
airline service.
Program Rescope
In the spring of 1994, during preparations for Phase 1 of the planned
CAWAP effort, the remainder of the three-phase flight-test effort was can-
celled by NASA. Sufficient funding was provided to complete the Phase
1 effort using F-16XL-1 in its baseline configuration. Test objectives were
revised to focus on documenting flow physics at both high-lift and transonic
conditions and to characterize the stability and control of the aircraft. The
approach was still on a combined wind tunnel, CFD, and flight-test-cor-
relation approach. However, only
the baseline (unmodified) F-16XL
wing configuration would be used
for the remainder of the CAWAP
effort. The first CAWAP flight
occurred at Dryden on November
21, 1995. The CAWAP flight-test
program ended in April 1996,
never having progressed beyond
the Phase 1 effort. This decision
effectively ended the entire NASA F-16XL-1 was used in its basic unmodified
F-16XL flight-test effort within the aerodynamic configuration for the CAWAP
HSR program, although F-16XL-1 flight-test effort. (NASA)
would be upgraded with a digital
flight control system for potential use as a pneumatic vortex control (PVC)
test bed prior to finishing its test flying days at Dryden. This aspect of the
flight-test program is discussed separately.
246
CAWAP Data Collection

The CAWAP flight-test program was designed to maximize the quality, quantity,
and availability of data that could be collected with F-16XL-1. Pressure-based
data were to be collected using surface static pressure ports, boundary-layer
rakes, and modified Preston tubes. Video recordings would be used to image
tufts, surface oil patterns, and surface liquid crystals mounted on the upper
surface of the wings. To ensure the validity of test data, precise geometric data
on the upper surface of the F-16XL-1 was determined using photogrammetry
and compared with the original numerical surface description of the aircraft.
Data from surface-mounted hot films would also be collected and analyzed.
The pressure and surface flow data were intended to be used to establish the
effects of variations in Mach number on local airflow on the wing. Hot-film
data would determine the conditions under which the boundary layer transi-
tioned from laminar to turbulent flow. Details of the complex set of instrumen-
tation that were installed on the aircraft for the CAWAP effort are described
in more detail below.
A wide variety of specialized sensors and tailored test instrumentation was installed on
F-16XL-1 to collect accurate airflow data for the CAWAP flight-test effort. (NASA)
F-16XL-1 was fitted with a highly sophisticated pressure instrumentation

system. The layout of this system on the aircraft included a large number static
pressure ports distributed on the wing surface as well as boundary-layer rakes
and modified Preston tubes.7 The static pressure ports were either belt- or
flush-mounted on the surface of the wing. The static ports were connected to
247
Elegance in Flight
An extensive suite of pressure instrumentation systems was installed on F-16XL-1 during the
CAWAP test effort. (NASA)
electronically scanning pressure (ESP) modules inside the wing through tubes.
Individual pressure tubes inside each pressure belt measured two separate values
of pressure. This was done by sealing each tube about halfway along its length
with separate pressures collected from one forward and one aft pressure port.
Static pressures on the wing surface were measured using 337 static ports.
These included flush static pressure ports installed in the leading-edge region
of the right wing and in the streamwise belts. Eleven ESP transducers were
distributed at various locations on the wing. During the flight-test effort, only
326 of the 337 static pressure ports provided reliable data. Of these, 280
were on the upper wing surface and 46 on the lower surface. The static ports
were distributed so that there were sufficient numbers at any given butt line
or fuselage station location to enable the surface pressures on the wing to be
correlated with aerodynamic cross flow. Another consideration that drove the
pressure collection layout on the aircraft was coverage of other regions of special
interest, especially the apex of the wing and the areas forward and aft of the
trailing-edge control surface hinge lines.
Boundary-layer pressure measurements were obtained using two 2-inch-
high pressure rakes at a time. The pressure rakes were mounted at four different
positions on the left wing. The most in-board of the rakes was used as a control.
Each rake had 16 active tubes with 15 used to measure total pressures and 1
to measure static pressure. The two rakes were connected to a 32-port ESP
module located inside the wing. Each rake was mounted on the upper surface
of the wing and was oriented into the local flow at an average angle based on
the results from CFD predictions. The local flow at and slightly above the wing
248
surface was used to establish the rake orientation angles for specific aircraft flight
conditions. Finally, 16 modified Preston tubes were aligned with the local flow on
the wing near fuselage station FS 330. They were used to determine the local skin
friction across the left wing. Through a process of calibration, the pressure change
between the total pressure and
the static tubes was related to
the local skin friction.
Video data was recorded
with six external cameras.
Two cameras were mounted
at the top of the vertical tail,
one was on either side of the
fuselage behind the canopy,
and one was located in the
nose of each wingtip-mounted
dummy AIM-9 missile shape.
Video recordings were used The F-16XL-1 was heavily instrumented for the CAWAP
to image tufts, surface oil pat- research program. The aircraft is seen during a data-
collection run at an angle of attack of 21 degrees at
terns, and surface liquid crys- an altitude of 17,500 feet. The surface tufts, pres-
tals mounted on the upper sure belts, and visual reference markings are readily
surface of the wings. discernible. (NASA)
Wind Tunnel Testing

Wind tunnel testing for comparison purposes with the results from compu-
tational fluid dynamics analyses and flight-test data was mainly accomplished
using three subscale F-16XL models. The first of these was a 0.11-scale F-16XL
model, which was tested in the NASA Ames 11-Foot Tunnel. This model was
used to estimate loads on the aircraft from Mach 0.60 to Mach 2.0 prior to
the start of NASA Dryden flight testing with F-16XL-1. A total of 190 pres-
sure ports, located in streamwise rows, were distributed on the left upper wing
surface and the right lower wing surface. During the tests, angle of attack was
varied from 2 degrees to nearly 29 degrees. Separately, a 0.18-scale F-16XL
model was tested in the NASA Langley 30- by 60-Foot Full-Scale Tunnel. For
these tests, Mach number was kept below 0.08 and angle of attack was varied
from 5 degrees to 30 degrees. Angle of sideslip was varied between 20 degrees
and 20 degrees. This 18-percent-scale wind tunnel test model had 30 right-
wing-mounted, flush upper static pressure surface ports positioned in both
streamwise and spanwise rows. These pressure port locations were duplicated
on the actual F-16XL-1 aircraft in order to ensure the most valid comparison
between the wind tunnel test results and in-flight data. Force, moment, and
pressure data on the aircraft were obtained from these wind tunnel test efforts.
249
Elegance in Flight
A 0.18-scale instrumented F-16XL model was tested in the NASA Langley 30- by 60-foot Full-
Scale Tunnel to obtain precise vortical data for comparison with airflow results predicted from
CFD modeling. (NASA)
The final wind tunnel test for comparison purposes used an instrumented
0.04-scale wind tunnel model of the F-16XL. It was tested in the NASA Langley
Basic Aerodynamic Research Tunnel, colloquially known as the BART. Test con-
ditions included Mach numbers up to 0.165 with angle of attack varying from 5
to 20 degrees. This model was fitted with 82 pressure ports divided between the
right upper wing surface and the left
lower wing surface. The pressure port
locations correlated with those on the
0.18-scale wind tunnel model, and
they were duplicated on the actual
F-16XL-1 aircraft. Flow visualization
tests were conducted with this 1/25-
scale F-16XL-1 wind tunnel model
during 1992. During these tests, the
airflow over the top of the model was
illuminated by three laser sheets. A A /25-scale F-16XL-1 model was tested in the
1
Basic Aerodynamics Research Tunnel at NASA

fine mist of smoke was then intro- Langley Research Center in 1992. Laser light
duced upstream from the model sheets illuminate the vortex flow field around the
into the wind tunnel. The laser model. (NASA)
250
sheets captured the vortex created by air flowing over the F-16XL leading-edge
extension at a moderately high angle of attack. The vortex core was visualized
as it flowed downstream over the model from the left to the right.8
CFD Modeling
The last major source of data in the CAWAP effort was generated by computa-
tional fluid dynamics modeling. A Navier-Stokes CFD computer program, mod-
ified to incorporate a turbulent boundary
layer, was used to determine airflow char-
acteristics across the F-16XL-1 model
using a multiblock, patched grid that was
superimposed on the aircraft geometry. In
its original version, this grid used 750,000
tiny triangles superimposed over the sur-
face geometry of F-16XL-1. To improve
the fidelity of the results from the compu-
tational fluid dynamics analyses, the final
version of this particular patchwork grid
was greatly increased in size to encompass
1,460,000 triangles. During the course of
the CAWAP effort, CFD analyses were
conducted over a variety of simulated
flight conditions to enable results from
The geometric grids used for precisely
computer modeling to be correlated with modeling F-16XL geometry were very
data derived from wind tunnel models and intricate in order to produce high-fidelity
F-16XL-1 flight testing. CFD results. (NASA)
CAWAP International
Based on the success of CAWAP in fostering the use of CFD to analyze high-
AoA airflow over complex aircraft like the F-16XL, NASA moved on to
sponsor a similar multinational initiative. This would result in CAWAP
being expanded to encompass a broader community of nations and aca-
demic institutions in both Europe and the United States. The U.S. delegation
to the NATO Research and Technology Organization (RTO) Air Vehicle
Technology (AVT) Symposium, held in Germany in the spring of 2000,
had proposed a set of independent CFD-based aerodynamic studies that
would be conducted by cooperating nations. National organizations (either
government research facilities or academic institutions) would use their CFD
techniques to predict the vortical flow aerodynamics around the F-16XL
aircraft. The results from these independent CFD analyses could then be
compared with actual flight-test results. This would enable an evaluation of
251
Elegance in Flight
multinational capabilities to accurately predict the aerodynamics around a

complex aircraft like the F-16XL. This would be followed by refinements
to existing CFD techniques within these multinational organizations. The
goal of the CAWAPI effort was to increase the Technology Readiness Level
(TRL) of computational fluid dynamics tools and techniques for use in the
development of advanced military aircraft (in particular, high-performance
fighters) by allied nations. The TRL approach was a NASA innovation con-
ceived by Stan Sadin at NASA Headquarters in 1974. With some variation,
it has since been widely adapted by organizations and agencies around the
world, including the U.S. Department of Defense.9 (Appendix G furnishes
a list of the nine TRLs as defined by NASA.)
NASA agreed to provide highly detailed geometrical data and grids on
the F-16XL to appropriately authorized nations to enable the various par-
ticipating national organizations to accomplish these independent CAWAPI
research efforts. Overall sponsorship of the effort would come under the
NATO RTO. Direct management was assigned to the Performance, Stability
& Control, and Fluid Physics Technical Committees operating under the
RTO AVT working group. During a meeting in Norway in the spring of
2001, a variety of vortex flow topics were discussed with two topics selected
for further study. These were the international expansion of the NASA
CAWAP (F-16XL flight-test and CFD) effort and a separate Vortex Flow
Experiment.10 Since both topics involved vortex flows around slender wings,
they were merged into a single proposal in the fall of 2002. The proposal was
submitted to the NATO RTO for approval. In the spring of 2003, the RTO
approved the project as AVT-113, Understanding and Modeling Vortical
Flows to Improve the Technology Readiness Level for Military Aircraft.
The expanded CAWAP activity was then designated CAWAPI to denote the
multinational involvement. CAWAPI would eventually involve the creation
of a Virtual Laboratory at NASA Langley for facilitating secure data storage
and transmission among participating member nations.11
The objectives of the CAWAP International effort were contained in the
Terms of Reference, a document prepared by the Air Vehicle Technology work-
ing group. This document called for participating nations to cooperate in the
following ways:12
Assess various CFD codes against F-16XL-1 flight and wind

tunnel data sets in order to increase the Technology Readiness
Level (TRL) of CFD computer software codes to a value of
5, where a TRL of 5 was defined by NATO (using the NASA
definition) as Component and/or breadboard verification in a
relevant environment;
252
Develop best practices for each CFD code based on the data sets;
and
Incorporate appropriate or upgraded turbulence models into the

respective codes to provide for improved agreement between wind
tunnel, flight-test, and CFD results.
These objectives were to be accomplished by assigning responsibility for

certain aspects of the effort to each of the participating groups. In particular,
NASA agreed to do the following.13
Supply export-controlled geometry in various formats of

the F-16XL-1 aircraft to participating partners once formal
Memorandum-of-Agreements are in place.
Make available F-16XL-1 flight pressures, images, skin friction, and

boundary layer measurements to the team.
Supply data formats and coordinate necessary database services.
The completion date for these actions was originally set for December 2005
but was later extended to December 2007. The U.S. International Traffic in
Arms Regulations (ITAR) restricted unlimited open-level dissemination of the
highly detailed F-16XL aircraft geometry. This created some complications for
NASA in meeting its CAWAPI agreements. An acceptable solution that was
adopted consisted of the creation of the CAWAPI Virtual Laboratory, housed in
an electronically secure facility located at the NASA Langley Research Center.
This electronically secure virtual laboratory was subsequently used to securely
transfer F-16XL aircraft geometry and highly detailed CFD grids among the
authorized CAWAPI participants.14
Participating CAWAPI organizations eventually included four airframe com-
panies: EADS, in Germany; Turkish Aircraft Industries; Boeing Phantom Works,
in St. Louis, MO; and Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company, in Fort Worth,
TX. Two government research laboratories also played major roles. These were
the National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR) in the Netherlands and the NASA
Langley Research Center in the United States. In addition, there were six inde-
pendent university-led research efforts, three in Europe and three in the United
States. The European academic research efforts were led by the Royal Institute
of Technology/Swedish Defense Research Agency, the University of Glasgow/
University of Liverpool in the United Kingdom, and Vrije Universiteit Brussel/
Numeca (the Free University of Brussels) in Belgium. Participating American
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Elegance in Flight
universities were the University of Tennessee-Chattanooga SimCenter, the

United States Air Force Academy, and the University of Wyoming.15
CAWAPI Summary
The NASA-developed Technology Readiness Level approach coupled with the
NATO-sponsored CAWAPI effort improved the technical capabilities of U.S.
and allied aeronautical organizations to use state-of-the-art CFD techniques. The
CAWAPI research effort was accomplished under the auspices of the NATO RTO.
A dedicated working group (designated AVT-113) composed of independent
researchers from various nations and research establishments was able to indepen-
dently evaluate the airflow on and around a highly precise computer-based geo-
metric model of the F-16XL aircraft. The F-16XL model had been provided using
approved secure technology transfer procedures that were specially developed for
the CAWAPI effort. The latest CFD methodologies were used to prepare predic-
tions of the airflow over the F-16XL using the geometric model and a detailed
F-16XL flight-test dataset provided via NASA Langley under the CAWAPI effort.
Results from actual F-16XL flight test was compared to CFD predictions pro-
duced by participating U.S. and allied research organizations. With appropriate
refinements to CFD models, the results produced by these organizations were
shown to agree very closely with NASA in-flight measurements. Representative
illustrations of predicted vortical airflow over the F-16XL under various flight con-
ditions, prepared by teams from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, NASA,
the U.S. Air Force Academy, and Lockheed Martin, are shown below.16
Some examples of vortical airflow over the F-16XL as graphically predicted using the CFD
modeling capabilities of various national organizations. (NATO)
254
Dynamic Ground Effects on a Cranked-Arrow Wing

The High-Speed Civil Transport program motivated renewed research into
dynamic ground effect based on the known sensitivity of low aspect ratio slen-
der wings to this phenomenon. The primary objective of the cranked-arrow
wing dynamic ground effect test program was to obtain ground effect data
containing sufficient detail and accuracy to enable analysis of the dynamic
nature of the problem. A second objective of the research effort was to develop
an engineering model of dynamic ground effect and evaluate an algorithm
based on this model using flight-test data. The F-16XL, with its low aspect ratio
cranked-arrow wing, had a wing configuration that was similar to that planned
for the HSCT. Thus, it was selected as the research aircraft for the dynamic
ground effect test effort. The test approach and data analysis methods were
similar to those used on previous ground effect flight-test programs. The one
significant difference was the differential global positioning system (DGPS)
that provided highly accurate spatial position information as the F-16XL closed
with the runway. NASA Dryden researcher Robert E. Curry analyzed the flight-
test results and prepared the formal test report covering the dynamic ground
effects research effort.17
Ground effect had originally been studied as a steady-state situation in
which incremental changes to aerodynamic forces and moments on an air-
craft due to its proximity to the ground were determined as a function of the
aircrafts height above the ground. Conventional wind tunnels were used to
predict steady-state ground effects, and results were successfully correlated with
steady-state analytical methods. During a series of flight tests of low aspect
ratio aircraft beginning in the late 1960s, distinct differences were observed
between the data obtained from steady-state wind tunnel testing (holding
height above the ground constant) and dynamic flight data (descending to
the ground). This was verified through subsequent wind tunnel experiments
in which the dynamic conditions of descending flight were simulated. Flight
testing confirmed the distinction between steady-state and dynamic data and
identified trends that depended on the aircrafts rate of descent close to the
ground. Earlier test data either were limited to constant rates of descent (or sink
rate) for a given run or the data were limited to a constant glide-path angle.
During typical landing approaches, both the sink rate and the glide-path angle
vary continuously during the portion of flight influenced by ground effect.
Although flight testing can obtain data in more realistic dynamic scenarios,
aircraft must be operated within a small range of vertical and horizontal veloci-
ties to ensure flight safety. As the aircraft approaches the ground, its flightpath
flattens out as the rate of descent is reduced immediately prior to touchdown
a phenomenon referred to in aviation jargon as flare. Many other parameters
255
Elegance in Flight
(angle of attack, dynamic pressure, control surface positions) also tend to vary
during the final stages of a landing approach, complicating the determination
of aerodynamic ground effects.18
Flight-Test Techniques
Twenty-four dynamic landing approaches into ground effect were accom-
plished on seven different research flights with F-16XL-1 at NASA Dryden.
The flight-test technique that was used was for the pilot to lower the landing
gear and begin the landing approach descent at a predetermined glide slope and
angle of attack. After stabilizing on the final approach, the pilot held the power
constant and made minimal control surface inputs. As the aircraft descended
close to the runway and reacted to ground effect, the pilot held the throttle
constant and maintained a constant angle of attack using sidestick inputs
to the flight control system. The approach into ground effect maneuver was
considered complete when the aircraft touched down or the pilot adjusted the
throttle. This maneuver was termed a constant alpha approach. The use of
a constant throttle setting and nearly constant angle of attack eliminated the
source of many potential errors and greatly simplified subsequent data analysis.
During the ground effect evaluation, constant alpha approach maneuvers at
a range of glide-slope angles were flown. The pilot used the instrument landing
system (ILS) glide-slope indicator as an aid in setting up the initial condition. The
flightpath angle for a typical constant AoA landing approach was nearly constant
during the descent down to a height of about one wingspan above the ground.
Then the flightpath began to round out naturally as the F-16XL responded to the
increase in lift as it entered the ground effect region near the runway. On some
occasions during these constant alpha maneuvers, the aircraft automatically flared
to level flight before touching down. Of course, the flightpath angles that could
be practically used during the ground effect evaluation were limited by aircraft/
landing gear structural and tire restrictions on allowable vertical and horizontal
touchdown speeds. Flightpath angles to the horizontal that were observed during
the ground effect flight-test evaluation ranged from 1 to 3 degrees at altitudes
above ground effect height (generally one wingspan). However, this flightpath
envelope decreased to a range between 0 and 1.9 degrees by a height above the
ground of one-half of the aircraft wingspan.
During a more typical F-16XL landing, unlike the controlled test maneu-
vers used during the ground effect evaluation, the flightpath angle tended to
vary continuously during final approach. However, the range of flightpath
angles that were encountered during typical landings was still within the enve-
lope of the landing approach maneuvers used in the ground effect study. The
initial angle of attack for all F-16XL landing approaches ranged from 11 to
13 degrees.
256
F-16XL-1 is seen during landing rollout with its drag chute deployed and the speed brakes on
either side of the engine nozzle in the open position. (NASA)
Results and Discussion

The F-16XL was used to determine force and moment coefficient changes
due to ground effects. Incremental changes in lift coefficient, normalized to
the out-of-ground effect (OGE) lift coefficient, were compared for a variety
of aircraft configurations with different wing aspect ratios. All aircraft con-
figurations indicated the same general trend: dynamic ground effect lift data
was less affected by the influence of the ground than had been indicated from
steady-state wind tunnelderived test data. In the case of the F-16XL, the nor-
malized lift coefficient increased by over 20 percent at an aircraft height of 0.3
wingspans from the ground. This distance represented a height of about 11 feet
above the ground, or just as the aircraft neared touchdown with its landing gear
extended. The normalized drag coefficient increment as the aircraft approached
ground level was also positive but was comparatively much smaller. Both flight
test and wind tunnel data consistently indicated a moderate nose-down pitch-
ing moment increment when in the influence of ground effect. Wind tunnel
data for the variation in lift increment in ground effect was evaluated with the
dynamic ground effect data obtained from actual flight testing.
Flight-test results, obtained under dynamic conditions, showed significantly
lower changes in the lift coefficient in ground effect than had been indicated
from wind tunnel data obtained under steady-state conditions. This funda-
mental difference between wind tunnel and dynamic test results was consistent
with the data obtained from other aircraft configurations for which steady-state
and dynamic lift data were available. Both the steady-state and the dynamic
257
Elegance in Flight
F-16XL ground effect data followed similar trends to those observed in ground
effect with other aircraft, both in wind tunnel and actual flight testing. For
comparative purposes, the incremental change in lift coefficient in ground
effect normalized to the lift coefficient out-of-ground effect for the F-16XL
was compared with various other aircraft configurations. These other aircraft
included delta wings with differing leading-edge sweep angles, the F-104 with
its low aspect ratio straight wing, the F-15 with a conventional horizontal
tail, and the X-29 with its forward-swept wing and canard configuration. The
F-16XL flight-test effort enabled NASA to develop a more accurate engineer-
ing model of dynamic ground effect. This dynamic ground effect model was
validated with highly precise data obtained during the F-16XL flight-test effort
and dynamic wind tunnel testing.
Sonic Boom Probing Experiment

NASA required sonic boom propagation data to validate and refine computer
prediction software codes. These sonic boom propagation prediction codes
would be used by the Sonic Boom Integrated Technology Development Team
within the NASA High-Speed Research program to assess the environmen-
tal impact of High-Speed Civil Transport designs. The Lockheed SR-71 was
selected as the sonic boomgenerating aircraft for the test because of its large
size and supersonic endurance. It was flown at speeds from Mach 1.25 to Mach
1.6 at altitudes of 31,000 and 48,000 feet in steady, level flight. These Mach
numbers were far slower than the proposed cruise speed of the HSCT (Mach
2.4), but they were selected to ensure that an existing NASA fighter-type air-
craft could be used for the sonic boom probing experiment. A probing aircraft
that could match the speed of the SR-71 was important. Small differences in
closure speed maximized the amount of data that could be collected during
each probing pass and increased the resolution of the shock waves. Also, an
increased number of probing passes were possible when the probing aircraft
was able to maneuver in close proximity to the SR-71. The F-16XL was selected
for the probing experiment since it had good supersonic performance and
endurance. Equipped with special pressure instrumentation in and behind its
flight-test nose boom to collect sonic boom pressure signatures, the F-16XL
was used as the near-field sonic boom probing aircraft because of its ability to
fly in formation with the SR-71 up to speeds of about Mach 1.5. In addition,
the F-16XL had greater supersonic endurance than the majority of supersonic
fighter-type aircraft available at NASA Dryden. However, the SR-71 had much
greater supersonic endurance than the F-16XL, and aerial refueling was rou-
tinely used to maximize data collection on each flight.
258
F-16XL-1 was used for sonic boom probing tests with the NASA SR-71. The F-16XLs speed
brakes are extended in this photo taken at subsonic speed; however, the F-16XL had a difficult
time maintaining formation with the SR-71 above Mach 1.5. (NASA)
F-16XL Sonic Boom Overpressure Instrumentation

The overpressures produced by the shock waves from the SR-71 were measured
using four independent systems in the F-16XL. The first system measured the
pressure differences between two flush pressure ports located 37.5 degrees
from the top of the noseboom. The second system used flush ports offset 90
degrees. The transducers that measured the overpressure differentials between
the pressure ports sampled at a rate of 200 samples per second. These transduc-
ers were accurate to within 1 psi. The third system used an absolute digital
pressure transducer to record the indicated static pressure close to the nose
boom. The fourth and last system measured indicated total pressure using a
transducer that was plumbed into the aircraft total pressure line close to the
nose boom.
There was some concern that the orientation of the flush ports with the
incident shock wave from the SR-71 would affect the overpressure readings.
Probing data taken from below the SR-71 showed that the 37.5-degree ports
gave the same overpressure readings as the 90-degree ports when the F-16XL
aircraft was steady in pitch and yaw. The two sets of ports also gave the same
overpressures when probing data were gathered to the side of the SR-71 aircraft.
Thus, for steady level flight, the orientation of the ports to the incident shock
wave had no effect on the overpressure data. However, pressure port readings
were affected by changes in both pitch and yaw angle. To determine these
effects, angular sweeps in pitch and yaw were conducted while the F-16XL
259
Elegance in Flight
was flying at high supersonic speeds but was not actively involved in probing
the SR-71 shock waves. The 90-degree ports showed pressure variations with
changes in aircraft pitch attitude. Since slight pitch changes occurred when the
F-16XL was conducting probing maneuvers below the SR-71, the resultant
overpressure data from the 90-degree ports were slightly affected. The data
from the pressure ports at the 37.5-degree locations were steady during pitch
changes but were affected by yaw changes. Because yaw generally remained
steady while probing below the SR-71, the pressure ports located at the 37.5-
degree locations on the noseboom were determined to provide more valid
overpressure data than did those located at the 90-degree locations.
Another test to determine the accuracy of the overpressure instrumenta-
tion installed in the F-16XL was conducted using sonic booms generated by
a NASA Dryden McDonnell-Douglas F/A-18 aircraft. During this test, the
F-16XL was stationary on the ground with its overpressure instrumentation
system operational. Several portable automatic triggering system (PATS) sonic
boom recorders were placed with their pressure sensors at the same height and a
few feet to the side of the F-16XLs noseboom. The F/A-18 was flown at a speed
of Mach 1.20 at an altitude of 30,000 feet over the F-16XL aircraft and the
PATS recorders, both of which measured the differential pressures produced
by the sonic boom. The data measured by the differential pressure transducers
on the stationary F-16XL compared favorably to the overpressures measured
by the adjacent ground-based PATS units.
An extensively instrumented Lockheed YO-3A aircraft (69-18010, itself a
remarkable research aircraft, originally the last of 10 special quiet observation
aircraft produced for service during the Vietnam War) was also used to measure
SR-71 sonic boom signatures. Virtually silent in flight, it flew at relatively low
altitudes that ranged from 21,000 to 38,000 feet below the SR-71 flight alti-
tude. The YO-3 recorded data from 17 SR-71 passes. Sonic boom signatures
at ground level as well as atmospheric data were recorded for each test mission.
Results showed that shock wave patterns varied with SR-71 gross weight, Mach
number, and cruise altitude. For example, noncoalesced shock wave signatures
were measured by the YO-3A while flying at a distance that was 21,000 feet
below the SR-71s acoustic test cruise altitude of 31,000 feet. At the time, the
SR-71 was at a low gross weight and was cruising at Mach 1.25.19
Computer predictions had shown that some planned SR-71 flight condi-
tions could result in severely distorted sonic boom signatures reaching ground
sensors due to possible turbulence in the atmosphere nearest the ground.
Because this turbulent atmospheric layer could extend several thousand feet
above ground level, researchers decided to use an airborne platform to record
the sonic booms above this layer to provide undistorted signature data. The
YO-3A aircraft was flown along the predetermined SR-71 flight track at a
260
A NASA Lockheed YO-3A was used to measure the sonic boom signatures emanating from a
Lockheed SR-71 flying at supersonic speed at much higher altitudes. (NASA)
cruise altitude of 10,000 feet. It maintained an indicated airspeed of about 65

knots while it recorded sonic boom signatures above the turbulent atmospheric
layer. During data-collection flights, the YO-3A stayed at a distance that was
up range from the array of sonic boom recorders on the ground to avoid pro-
ducing any interference with their data. Sonic boom signatures were recorded
by the YO-3A as the SR-71 passed overhead. The F-16XL aircraft could not
probe at this relatively low altitude at supersonic speeds because of aircraft and
airspace limitations.20
F-16XL Probing Maneuvers

Probing maneuvers began with the F-16XL behind the SR-71s tail shock
wave. The F-16XL then moved forward through the SR-71 shock wave pattern
ending ahead of the bow shock wave. Then, the F-16XL aircraft slowed down
and repeated the probe moving from the bow shock wave backward past the tail
shock. Because the shock waves sweep behind the SR-71, longitudinal separa-
tion existed between the tail of the SR-71 aircraft and the nose of the F-16XL
aircraft. During probing maneuvers, the F-16XL attempted to maintain level
flight with no lateral offset from the SR-71. While some probing maneuvers
were quite level with very little lateral offset, most had some variability in alti-
tude and lateral offset. The F-16XL pilot had several indications of crossing the
shock wave pattern when he probed within a distance of about 1,000 feet from
the supersonic SR-71. These indications included the pilot feeling the pressure
changes within the cockpit, his being slightly jostled by the shock waves, and
261
Elegance in Flight
his being able to hear the roar of the SR-71s engines when positioned aft of
the tail shock. When probing maneuvers were conducted at vertical separa-
tions that were greater than about 1,000 feet, the pilot was unaware when he
had penetrated the shock wave pattern. Pressure and temperature data from
both the SR-71 and F-16XL were recorded on the aircraft and transmitted to
the control room in real time. Pressure data collected from the F-16XL was
displayed in real time in the control room. The ground controller advised the
F-16XL pilot when he was ahead of or behind the SR-71 shock wave system
to enhance his sonic boom data-collection opportunities.
Probing Maneuver Test Summary

Three NASA aircraft were used during the SR-71 Sonic Boom Experiment. The
SR-71 was the primary sonic boom generator; the F-16XL was the supersonic
probing aircraft; and the YO-3A was the far-field, slow-speed microphone plat-
form. Test aircraft were equipped with instrumentation systems that included
specialized pressure sensors on the F-16XL and differential carrier phase Global
Positioning System (GPS) on the SR-71 and F-16XL. Prior to the start of the
flight-test effort, the accuracy of these instruments was validated during ground
and airborne calibration tests. During the sonic boom evaluation, the SR-71
was flown at three flight conditions to assess the effects of Mach number and
altitude on boom propagation. Gross weight of the SR-71 during the super-
sonic test runs ranged from 73,000 to 118,000 pounds. The SR-71 generated
sonic booms over the speed range from Mach 1.25 to Mach 1.6 at constant
altitudes of 31,000 to 48,000 feet. The F-16XL probed the sonic boom signa-
tures at nearly the same speed as the SR-71 while the YO-3A operated at much
lower altitudes and was overflown by the SR-71.
The F-16XL measured the SR-71s near-field shock wave pattern from dis-
tances that varied from very close proximity to the aircraft to more than 8,000
feet below. The YO-3A collected sonic boom signatures from distances rang-
ing from 21,000 to 38,000 feet below the SR-71. The F-16XL gathered sonic
boom data during 105 probing maneuvers on seven flights; the SR-71 made 17
passes over the YO-3As acoustic sensors. In addition, an array of several types
of ground-based sonic boom recorders were used to complete the sonic boom
propagation dataset with a total of 172 signatures recorded. Atmospheric data
were gathered for flight data analysis and for use with sonic boom propagation
prediction codes. The results from the SR-71 sonic boom probing tests were
analyzed and published by NASA Dryden researchers Edward A. Haering, Jr.,
L.J. Ehernberger, and Stephen A. Whitmore. The detailed acoustic overpressure
data obtained from the F-16XL, YO-3A, and ground-based sensors were used
by researchers at NASA Langley to validate sonic boom propagation prediction
computer software codes.21
262
F-16XL Flutter Excitation System Test

The F-16XL was also used to evaluate an airframe excitation system for use
in subsonic, transonic, and supersonic aircraft flutter testing. The excitation
system had been conceived and patented by former NASA Langley employee
Wilmer Reed, who had retired in the early 1980s after a 34-year career with
NASA. During his long career, Reed had gained international recognition for
innovative research and his patented ideas relating to aircraft flutter and aero-
elasticity.22 The airframe-mounted structural excitation system developed by
Reed consisted of a wingtip-mounted vane with a rotating slotted cylinder at
the trailing edge. As the cylinder rotated during flight, the flow was alternately
deflected upward and downward through the slot, resulting in a periodic lift
force at twice the cylinders rotational frequency. Primary objectives of the
excitation research effort with the F-16XL were to determine the systems abil-
ity to generate adequate force levels necessary to excite the aircrafts structure
and to evaluate the frequency range over which the system could excite aircraft
structural modes. Excitation parameters such as sweep duration, sweep type,
and energy levels were assessed, and results from the flutter exciter vane were
compared with results from atmospheric turbulence excitation alone at the
same flight conditions. The comparison indicated that the vane with a rotating
slotted cylinder provided data of higher quality with less variation than results
obtained from atmospheric turbulence. The flight-test evaluation of the flut-
ter excitation system used F-16XL-2 as the test bed. Detailed test results were
reported on by NASA Dryden research engineer Lura Vernon.23
Background: Structural Excitation Systems

NASA Dryden had extensive experience and a long history of in-flight flutter
testing using a variety of structural excitation systems. Natural atmospheric
turbulence had often been used as the structural excitation mechanism during
flutter testing. However, natural atmospheric turbulence is difficult to find and
usually does not excite all aircraft structural vibration modes. Pilot-induced
control surface pulses were frequently used in conjunction with atmospheric
turbulence to excite the aircraft structure. However, these pilot-initiated con-
trol surface impulses typically did not excite structural vibration modes above
a frequency of about 5 Hz. Other means of structural excitation included
sinusoidal control surface excitation, rotary inertia exciters, pyrotechnic thrust-
ers (known in the flight-test community as bonkers), and oscillating aero-
dynamic vanes. Each of these had been used previously and successfully in
flutter test projects. However, each of these techniques, briefly discussed in
the following paragraphs, had disadvantages that prevented them from being
used consistently for aircraft flutter testing.24
263
Elegance in Flight
Rotary Inertial Exciter

A rotary inertia exciter consists of a rotating unbalanced weight attached to a
shaft. As the unbalanced weight rotates, a sinusoidal varying force is applied
to the surface to which it is attached.25 The excitation force produced is pro-
portional to the rotational acceleration. At high rotational frequencies, the
excitation force levels are high; however, at lower rotational frequencies, the
force levels produced are low and may be insufficient to excite the aircraft
structure. Adding mass to the exciter increases the amount of excitation force
that is produced. Unfortunately, that could also affect the flutter characteristics
of the aircraft.
Pyrotechnic Thrusters (Bonkers)

Pyrotechnic bonkers are small, single-shot solid propellant rockets with very
rapid burn times. Attached to various locations on the airframe, they provide
a short-duration impulse to the aircraft structure, exciting a number of aircraft
structural modes. They have maximum thrust levels that range from 400 to
4,000 pounds. Disadvantages include low reliability under vibration and at
the extreme cold conditions encountered in high-altitude flight testing, as well
as difficulties in synchronizing ignition. The number of possible impulses per
flight-test mission is also limited.26
Sinusoidal Control Surface Excitation

In sinusoidal control surface excitation, the aircraft control surfaces are pre-
programmed through the flight control system to oscillate through a predeter-
mined frequency range. The effective excitation frequency range was limited by
the frequency response capability of the control surface actuator. This method
also required modifications to the aircraft control system software, a process
that was costly and time consuming.
Externally Mounted Aerodynamic Vanes

Earlier flutter research determined that externally mounted oscillating aero-
dynamic vanes were effective in producing vibrational forces on the aircraft
structure. These devices were designed to oscillate either symmetrically or
asymmetrically at the desired excitation frequencies. However, they were
clumsy, produced large loads on the exciter system, and required relatively
large amounts of external power. Typically, aircraft systems were used as power
sources, and installation was costly and time-consuming.27
The DEI Flutter Exciter System

Disadvantages of earlier flutter excitation methods led to the need to develop
a more effective structural excitation system for use in flight test programs. A
264
structural excitation system that adequately excites all modes of interest was
required to verify the absence of flutter within the aircraft flight envelope.
With NASA Langley encouragement and support, Dynamic Engineering, Inc.,
(DEI) of Hampton, VA, designed, developed, and tested a relatively low-cost
flutter excitation system that was capable of generating the required in-flight
forces on aircraft structures. The DEI flutter exciter system was tested on the
two-seat F-16XL aircraft at NASA Dryden to determine its effectiveness as a
structural excitation system. The DEI exciter concept incorporated a wingtip-
mounted vane with a rotating slotted cylinder attached behind the trailing
edge. This system was designed to be a lightweight, self-contained structural
excitation device that could be rapidly installed on a variety of aircraft with
minimal interface with normal aircraft systems.
Test Objectives
The F-16XL flutter exciter flight-test effort was designed to determine the abil-
ity of the vane exciter system to develop the force levels necessary to excite the
aircraft structure. The frequency range over which various aircraft structural
vibration modes were excited would be measured. Various parameters such as
exciter sweep duration, sweep type, and energy levels were also to be determined.
The exciter vane was installed on F-16XL-2s left wingtip, and the aircraft was
instrumented with nine accelerometers to collect structural vibration data. The
accelerometers were located on the wingtips, in the aileron actuator housing, in
the fuselage, and on the vertical tail. Since a conventional flutter clearance had
been conducted during the development of the basic aircraft, the NASA flutter
test effort was initially focused on evaluating the vane exciter system.28
DEI Flutter Exciter System Description

The DEI flutter excitation system consisted of three main components. These
were a cockpit control panel, an electronics box, and the fixed-vane exciter
that was designed for installation on the exterior of the airframe. Installation
of the system on the F-16XL required mounting the control box in the cock-
pit, mounting the electronics box in the instrumentation bay, and routing the
necessary electrical wiring through the F-16XLs leading-edge flap to the fixed-
vane exciter at the wingtip. A cockpit control panel located in the aft cockpit
controlled the excitation system. Eighty work hours were required to install
the flutter exciter system on the F-16XLs left wingtip.29
Operating Modes
The exciter system incorporated several operating modes. These were constant
frequency, linear or logarithmic sine sweeps, sweep frequency range and dura-
tion, a quick-stop feature for free-decay response measurements, and high- or
265
Elegance in Flight
low-force amplitude options. The exciter system was capable of excitation at

frequencies up to 50 Hz with the force level measured by a bending-moment
strain gauge that was mounted near the root of the exciter vane. The fixed-vane
exciter consisted of a diamond-shaped symmetric airfoil section and a rotating
slotted cylinder at the trailing edge. The vane was attached to the wingtip of
the F-16XL using an adapter plate that was specially designed to slide into the
wingtip-mounted AIM-9 missile launcher. The vane had a span of 1.0 foot,
an area of 0.85 square feet, and it weighed 10 pounds. A ground vibration test
showed that the weight of the vane did not change the vibration characteristics
of the F-16XL wing structure.
Exciter Operation
During flutter testing, the two slots in the cylinder attached to the exciter vane
generated periodic forces that excited the aircraft structure. As the cylinder
rotated during flight, the flow was alternately deflected upward and down-
ward through the slots, resulting in a periodic lift force at twice the cylinders
rotational frequency. The cylinder was rotated through 180 degrees for each
full sinusoidal forcing period. The amplitude of the excitation force depended
upon the dynamic pressure and the amount that the slot was open. The amount
that the slot was open was controlled by the direction of rotation of the slotted
cylinder. Reversing the rotational direction of the cylinder drive motor caused
half of the spanwise slot opening to be blocked by an inner cylinder in the
in-board slot. Closing the in-board slot attenuated the excitation force by half
in flight. The lift force produced by the vane rotating cylinder concept was
analogous to that of an oscillating vane. The rotating cylinders main advantage
was that it required a small amount of power to overcome the aerodynamic
and frictional forces opposing its rotation. A low-wattage electric servomotor
requiring only 28 volts ran the exciter system. It operated from the normal
aircraft power supply. The design condition for the exciter vane was Mach 1.2
at 10,000 feet (a dynamic pressure of 1,467 pounds per square foot) at an angle
of attack of 4 degrees. The vane stalled at an angle of attack of about 12 degrees.
Exciter Test Procedures

The flutter excitation system was tested in subsonic, transonic, and supersonic
flight conditions. Exciter force sweeps covered the primary structural vibration
modes of interest on the F-16XL. Data on structural excitation via random
atmospheric turbulence were also acquired at each test point to compare with
the forced excitation data. Linear sweeps were used to assess the effects of
exciter vane test duration on structural excitation characteristics. Logarithmic
sweeps were compared with linear exciter force sweeps of the same duration.
Structural response data were acquired for frequencies corresponding to the
266
F-16XLs symmetric and antisymmetric wing bending modes. The accelerom-

eter response data and strain-gauge load data were telemetered to a ground sta-
tion for real-time data collection and monitoring to observe structural response
levels. Data were sampled at a rate of 200 samples per second.30
Exciter Sweep Compared With Random Atmospheric Turbulence Excitation

At each stabilized test point, 60 seconds of aircraft random response data
generated by natural atmospheric turbulence excitation was collected before
the exciter sweep response data were collected. Frequency and damping esti-
mates were obtained at each flight condition for each type of excitation. A
comparison was made of the left wings response to excitation caused by
random atmospheric turbulence and forced excitation produced from the
exciter vane. At Mach 0.9 at 30,000 feet, the pilot reported encountering
light to moderate atmospheric turbulence. From atmospheric turbulence
excitation, only the 8-Hz mode was well excited. Natural atmospheric turbu-
lence did not excite any of the structural modes above 14 Hz. In comparison,
all expected structural modes were excited by the exciter vane. Excitation
provided by the exciter vane was superior to natural atmospheric turbulence
for use in flutter test programs.
The most critical flutter frequencies for this F-16XL configuration were
predicted to be in the range of 20 to 30 Hz. It was important that these modes
were excited to ensure detection of any impending aeroelastic instabilities.
The exciter vane provided excitation at these frequencies while atmospheric
turbulence did not. For every flight condition, the forced excitation data
yielded higher structural damping values than those obtained from atmo-
spheric turbulence data. Structural damping estimates for the forced excita-
tion data were often as much as twice the value of the data for the atmospheric
turbulence. This is attributed to the fact that the amplitudes for the vibration
modes that were excited by atmospheric turbulence had a very low signal-
to-noise ratio. The modes were not well excited and were contaminated by
noise; therefore, the damping levels were difficult to calculate accurately.
Static Forces
The exciter vane was mounted at a 0-degree angle with respect to the launcher
rail. No attempt was made to determine a mounting angle that would minimize
static loads at planned flight conditions. The static loads generated at different
Mach numbers were measured. At Mach 0.8, when the aircraft was at an angle
of attack of 6.5 degrees, the vane generated 160 pounds of upward force. The
magnitude of the static loads on the wing decreased until the aircraft reached
Mach 1.7. At that speed and with an aircraft angle of attack of 2 degrees, 30
pounds of downward force was measured.
267
Elegance in Flight
Dynamic Forces
The dynamic forces generated by the exciter vane at each Mach number
were given in pounds, peak to peak, and were all for the high-force setting
(cylinder slot 75 percent open). Overall, the average dynamic force increased
with increasing Mach number, which was expected because dynamic pressure
was also increasing. The dynamic forces ranged from about 50 pounds at
Mach 0.8 to almost 90 pounds at Mach 1.7 (all at a 30,000-foot altitude).
These loads were less than expected. For the design condition of Mach 1.2
at 10,000 feet (equivalent to a dynamic pressure of 1,467 pounds per square
foot), wind tunnel and flight-test data had estimated a pound peak-to-peak
force range produced by the exciter of 409 pounds. The force level produced
by the exciter at a flight condition of Mach 1.7 at an altitude of 30,000 feet
(where the dynamic pressure was 1,271 pounds per square foot) was expected
to be close to the this wind tunnel prediction. However, the exciter used on
the F-16XL-1 had been modified by the addition of an internal plug that
reduced the exciter slot opening by 25 percent. This, as well as the local
airflow conditions over the F-16XL launcher rail, affected the excitation
forces that were produced. While lower force levels had been predicted, these
dynamic force levels were more than sufficient to excite F-16XL structural
modes of interest.
Force Roll-Off
The exciter vane generated adequate force across the entire flutter frequency
range of interest (5 to 35 Hz). The dynamic force peaked at two frequencies
that corresponded to antisymmetric structural modes. The increase in force at
these frequencies was most likely caused by an inertial reaction of the exciter as
these structural modes are excited. An increase in amplitude was also seen at the
sweep cutoff frequency at 35 Hz. This was a result of the excitation frequency
approaching the exciter vanes first bending mode, which is at 43 Hz.
Logarithmic and Linear Sweeps ComparedAt Mach 0.9, the effects of logarithmic
and linear force exciter sweeps were nearly identical. As Mach number increased,
the logarithmic sweep did not excite the control surface modes in the important
frequency range from 20 to 30 Hz as well as the linear sweep did. This trend was
even more pronounced for longer sweep durations. Overall, the linear sweep was
more consistent in exciting aircraft structural modes over the range of Mach num-
bers tested with F-16XL-2. To determine the effect of different sweep durations
on structural airframe response, linear sweeps from 5 to 35 Hz were performed
for time periods of 60, 30, 15, and 7 seconds. Overall, the 30- and 60-second
sweeps produced about the same level of structural response, regardless of Mach
number, and these levels were considered adequate for aircraft flutter testing.
268
Excitation Energy Distribution

During the evaluation flights, the vane assembly was mounted on the left
wingtip of the aircraft. Accelerometers were mounted both on the left and
right wingtips. The response from the accelerometer was used to measure the
energy transferred from the left wing to the right wing during exciter opera-
tion. Symmetrical and antisymmetric wing bending modes were excited well
on both wingtips; however, one of the launcher pitch modes was not excited
on the right wing. The exciter, as well as the aft accelerometer, was placed near
the node line for this mode. There was sufficient energy to excite this mode on
the left side of the aircraft. However, there
was insufficient energy to excite this mode
on the right side. In addition, the higher
frequency control surface modes were not
excited as well on the right wing when
compared to the left wing. Overall, vibra-
tion modes above 20 Hz were not excited
well on the side of the aircraft opposite
where the exciter was installed. This flight-
test deficiency was overcome by adding a
vane exciter to the right wingtip missile
launcher. Vane exciters were mounted on
both wingtip missile launchers during the
subsequent flutter clearance effort with
F-16XL-2 after it had been modified for a F-16XL-2 was fitted with wingtip-
mounted DEI excitation vanes for flutter
later phase of the supersonic laminar flow testing with the asymmetrical wing
control effort resulting in an asymmetric configuration that was used for NASA
wing configuration. supersonic laminar flow research. (NASA)
Flutter Excitation System Results

The objectives for the flight-test effort were to determine the capability of the
DEI vane excitation system, to develop adequate force levels needed to excite
the aircraft structure, and to determine the frequency range over which the
system could excite aircraft structural modes. The system was found to ade-
quately excite most F-16XL structural modes during flight tests in the subsonic
and transonic flight regimes. The structural response data quality obtained with
the exciter was superior to that obtained with random atmospheric turbulence.
Responses from the forward and aft accelerometers on the left wing indicated
that all modes that had been previously identified during ground vibration tests
were excited, with the exception of a vertical fin mode and a symmetric wingtip
missile launcher pitch vibration mode. All expected structural vibration modes
269
Elegance in Flight
in a frequency bandwidth of 5 to 35 Hz were excited, while atmospheric

turbulence alone only excited the wings first bending mode. The vertical fin
mode was not excited because the excitation energy was not transmitted to the
vertical fin from the wingtip exciter vane. Since the exciter vane was mounted
on the vibrational node line for the symmetric launcher pitch mode, this mode
was not expected to be excited.31
Best results were obtained with 30- and 60-second linear frequency sweeps.
Shorter-duration sweeps and logarithmic sweeps did not always sufficiently
excite aircraft structural modes above 20 Hz. Because the exciter system was
mounted on the left wingtip of the aircraft, energy distribution to the right side
of the aircraft was of concern. The symmetric and antisymmetric wing bending
modes were excited well on both wingtips; however the missile launcher pitch
mode on the right-wing launcher pitch mode was not excited. In addition,
vibration modes above 20 Hz were not excited well on the side opposite the
single flutter exciter. This deficiency was overcome by adding a second exciter
vane to F-16XL-2s right wingtip for use in subsequent flutter testing after the
aircraft was modified with an asymmetric wing glove configuration. The rela-
tively simple installation, precise excitation control, low-power requirements,
and effectiveness over a large frequency range showed the vane exciter system
to be a viable solution for aircraft flutter testing. Today, the vane-type flutter
excitation system is now nearly universally used in flutter testing of new or
modified aircraft designs around the world.
F-16XL Digital Flight Control System Upgrade

F-16XL-1 was modified with a digital FBW flight control system that replaced
the original analog FBW flight control system in 1997. Gerald D. Gerry
Budd was the NASA Dryden manager for the F-16XL Digital Flight Control
System Upgrade Envelope Expansion Flight Test Project, during which 10
flights were flown over a 12-week period. Designed by the Lockheed Martin
Tactical Systems Division in Fort Worth, TX, the new digital flight control
system used revised software and new hardware that had been developed for
the Air Force F-16C/D digital upgrade program (integrated into Block 40
production aircraft). The new software was specifically tailored to the F-16XLs
aerodynamics, flight control system characteristics, and operational flight
envelope. The original F-16XL flight control laws were rewritten in digital
format using a flight parameter sampling time of 64 cycles per second. Other
changes to the digital flight control system included both new and modi-
fied gains and filters. Existing electronic and flight control system hardware
components were retained, but control over leading-edge-flap scheduling, air
270
data management, and AoA-related functions was moved to the digital flight
control computer.
The rationale for upgrading the F-16XL to a digital flight control system had
been to support a possible joint Air ForceNASA flight research effort intended
to investigate the use of Pneumatic Vortex Control across the full aircraft flight
envelope. Under this approach, F-16XL-1 would have been specially modi-
fied as a flying test bed for PVC research with appropriate provisions made to
its entire flight control system. Jay M. Brandon was the lead NASA Langley
researcher for the effort doing all the simulations of the upgraded aircraft. Patrick
C. Stoliker was the primary research contact at NASA Dryden with Ken A.
Norlin of Drydens Simulation Laboratory providing simulation support and
expertise. Dr. Lawrence A. Walchli in the Advanced Development Branch at the
Air Force Research Laboratory at Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, was responsible
for managing the proposed PVC program; however, available funding ran out
and the effort was cancelled before the aircraft was ever modified.32
Restricted Flight Envelope

The F-16XL was originally designed to operate out to Mach 2.0, up to an alti-
tude as high as 60,000 feet, with a maneuvering load capability as high as 9.0
gs. However, restrictions were placed on F-16XL-1s allowable flight envelope
with the DFCS as a result of issues identified during pilot-in-the-loop simulator
testing. The piloted simulator had predicted that the aircraft with the digital
flight control system would experience an increase in roll rate of about 25 per-
cent over that available with the original analog system. The aircraft instrumen-
tation was not adequate to monitor the increased structural loads that could
be encountered at such high roll rates. As a result, the aircraft was restricted to
operations with the Cockpit Stores Configuration Switch in the CAT III mode
only.33 When the CAT III
mode was engaged, the max-
imum possible commanded
roll rate was automatically
reduced by 75 degrees per
second. The piloted simu-
lation had also identified a
deficiency in the digital flight
control system that would
have allowed the aircraft
to exceed the 9.0-g limiter
during aggressive maneuver-
ing. This resulted in another Flight envelope restrictions and maneuver limits were
restriction that required that imposed on F-16XL-1 during the DFCS evaluation. (NASA)
271
Elegance in Flight
the aircraft be operated with the g-limiter set no higher than 7.2 gs. This was
intended to eliminate the potential to exceed the 9.0-g structural operating
limit during flight testing with the DFCS. For the handling qualities evalua-
tion, allowable test points were restricted to a flight envelope that was defined
by a maximum Mach number of 1.6, a maximum angle of attack of 18 degrees,
and a maximum flight altitude of 35,000 feet.
Flown by NASA research pilot Dana Purifoy, F-16XL-1 takes off on the initial flight in the Digital
Flight Control System evaluation project on December 16, 1997. (NASA)
Handling Qualities Tasks

The DFCS flight-test evaluation began in December 1997 and ended in March
1998. The flight envelope clearance program consisted of 10 flights to col-
lect maneuvering performance and handling qualities data. The first flight in
the DFCS evaluation occurred on December 16, 1997. NASA research pilot
Dana D. Purifoy performed systems functional checks and handling qualities
maneuvers out to a speed of Mach 0.6 and 300 knots during the 1 hour 25
minute flight.34 During DFCS evaluation flights, doublets were performed
in all three axes. Other maneuvers included windup turns, 1.0 negative-g
pushovers, steady heading sideslips, and 360-degree rolls at most flight condi-
tions.35 Flight data was analyzed using standard handling qualities analysis
techniques, and where possible, results were compared with qualitative pilot
handling qualities assessments. Pilot comments and Cooper-Harper ratings
(CHR) were obtained for close trail formation flight and air-to-air tracking
272
maneuvers and during powered landing approaches with the landing gear and
flaps extended.36 Additional maneuvers that were flown during the evaluation
included 180-degree over-the-top rolls; pitch, roll, and normal acceleration
captures; rolls with higher g loadings; and g-loaded roll reversals. Handling
qualities evaluation tasks included normal acceleration captures, pitch attitude
captures, bank angle captures, air-to-air tracking, and close trail formation
flight. Detailed descriptions of the handling qualities tasks and criteria used
to assess F-16XL performance during the DFCS evaluation are contained in
Appendix I. The Cooper-Harper Rating Scale, used by the NASA research
pilots to assess aircraft handling qualities, is also included in Appendix I.
Test Results
Pilot comments on aircraft performance in the lateral (roll) axis during handling
qualities maneuvers flown with the DFCS were generally positive. F-16XL
roll characteristics with the DFCS were considered to be very similar to the
analog aircraft.37 Performance during lateral handling qualities tasks was rated
as good. Performance during steady-state formation flying tasks was rated as
adequate and given primarily level 2 CHRs (good, with negligible deficiencies).
However, the NASA research pilots noted that adequate performance was not
possible while executing rapid roll reversals during maneuvering flight tasks
in routine or trail formation, and they typically gave level 3 CHRs (fair, with
some mildly unpleasant tendencies) to these tasks. During air-to-air tracking
tasks, the aircraft received CHR level 2 ratings for gross acquisition and level
2 to level 3 ratings for fine tracking. Pilots frequently reported encountering
a pitch bobble while attempting to track targets. The pitch bobble had the
greatest negative effect during fine tracking. Pitch bobble was the biggest reason
for the less than adequate performance (level 3) pilot ratings given at some
flight conditions.
During the evaluation of the digital flight control system, pitch and roll data
were obtained at both subsonic and supersonic flight conditions. Conventional
flight control analysis techniques were applied to the longitudinal (pitch axis)
flight-test data. These pitch control analyses had predicted level 2 to level 3
CHR handling qualities, depending on flight conditions, with improvement
in handling qualities predicted as aircraft speed increased. However, this trend
was not seen in the actual pilot ratings and comments. Pilots rated the aircraft
at near the CHR level 2 to level 3 handling qualities border regardless of flight
conditions. This was largely attributed to the high estimated time delay inher-
ent in the digital flight control system as it was implemented in F-16XL-1.
Pilot comments on F-16XL-1 performance during the DFCS handling quali-
ties task evaluation along with their Cooper-Harper ratings are contained in
Appendix I.
273
Elegance in Flight
DFCS Test Summary

During the F-16XL-1 DFCS Upgrade project, nine flights had been flown over
a 12-week period. Pilot comments and Cooper-Harper ratings were obtained
for air-to-air tracking and close trail formation flight tasks at a number of
subsonic flight conditions. Pilot comments during lateral handling qualities
tasks were generally favorable. However, the two NASA research pilots were
critical of a pitch bobble that degraded performance during fine tracking tasks
typical of air-to-air gunnery. This pitch bobble led to level 3 CHR ratings (fair
with some mildly unpleasant deficiencies) at some flight conditions. Pilots also
commented that adequate aircraft performance could not be obtained during
roll reversals during close trail formation flight. This also resulted in CHR level
3 ratings (mildly unpleasant) for roll reversal tasks at some flight conditions. At
the conclusion of the project, Gerry Budd, who served as the NASA Dryden
project manager for the F-16XL digital flight control system evaluation, was
quoted in a 1998 NASA Dryden news release as stating, The aircraft and
the new control system work very smoothly together and have proven to be a
good combination.38 However, the aircraft had some flight control limitations
related to higher maneuverability tasks involving, for instance, high-g maneu-
vering and air-to-air tracking tasks. The NASA observations were consistent
with earlier Air Force and GD findings that the F-16XL flight control system
needed additional development effort. If the aircraft had been extensively
modified for a PVC research effort, as originally envisioned, the flight control
system would likely have been upgraded to address such concerns.
274
Endnotes
1. The discussion of the F-16XL-1s use at NASA LaRC is based on
comments from Jay Brandon via Joe Chambers and technical details
reported in: Jay M. Brandon, Louis J. Glaab, Phillip W. Brown,
and Michael R. Phillips, Ground-to-Flight Handling Qualities
Comparisons for a High Performance Airplane, NASA TM
111925, presented at the Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference
held in Baltimore, MD, August 79, 1995, published as AIAA Paper
95-3457 (August 1995).
2. Wetherall, F-16XL First Flight 25th Anniversary Celebration.
3. Jon K. Holzman, Lannie D. Webb, and Frank W. Burcham, Jr.,
Flight and Static Exhaust Flow Properties of an F110-GE-129
Engine in an F-16XL Airplane During Acoustic Tests, NASA TM
104326 (November 1996).
4. Jeffrey J. Kelly, Mark R. Wilson, John Rawls, Jr., Thomas D.
Norum, and Robert A. Golub, F-16XL and F-18 High Speed
Acoustic Flight Test Data Base, NASA CD TM-100006 (1996).
5. J.E. Lamar and C.J. Obara, Review of Cranked-Arrow Wing
Aerodynamics Project: Its International Aeronautical Community
Role, AIAA Paper 2007-0487 (January 2007).
6. Ibid.
7. A Preston tube consists of a circular Pitot tube placed directly on the
surface of an object in a fluid flow. It is named for British engineer
J.H. Preston, who showed in 1953 that the stagnation pressure
measured from a Pitot tube located on a surface can be related to
the surface shear stress (skin friction) by the Prandtl-Karman law of
the wall for turbulent flow. The law states that fluid properties near
the wall are related to the surface shear stress. J.H. Preston, The
Determination of Turbulent Skin Friction by Means of Pitot Tubes,
Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society 58, no. 109 (1954).
8. A laser was used as the illumination source because of the fineness of its
beam and the monochromatic nature of laser light. These characteris-
tics enabled more precise evaluation of the flow field around the model.
9. Technology Readiness Levels is a NASA-developed systematic met-
ric/measurement system that supports assessments of the maturity
of a particular technology. The first NASA TRL scale had seven
levels; a revised scale with nine levels gained widespread acceptance
and remains in use today. The TRL approach is incorporated in
the NASA Management Instruction addressing integrated technol-
ogy planning for all programs at NASA. It has been adopted by
275
Elegance in Flight
the DoD, the European Space Agency, NATO, and many other
organizations and agencies around the world. John C. Mankins,
Technology Readiness Levels: A White Paper, Office of Space
Access and Technology, NASA Headquarters (April 6, 1995).
10. James M. Luckring, An Overview of the RTO Symposium
on Vortex Flow and High Angle of Attack Aerodynamics, in
Proceedings of the 2002 International Council of the Aeronautical
Sciences (ICAS) Congress (2002).
11. John E. Lamar and James M. Luckring, The Cranked-Arrow
Wing Aerodynamics Project and its Extension to the International
Community as CAWAPI: Objectives and Overview, chapter 3
in Summary Report of Task Group AVT-113, RTO-TR-AVT-113
AC/323 (AVT-113) TP/246 (October 2009).
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. John E. Lamar, Catherine K. Cronin, and Laura E. Scott, Virtual
Laboratory Enabling Collaborative Research in Applied Vehicle
Technologies, in Proceedings of the NATO RTO AVT-113 Symposium
on Flow Induced Unsteady Loads and the Impact on Military
Application, a conference held in Budapest, Hungary, April 2529,
2005, NATO RTO-TR-AVT-113 (October 2009).
15. Lamar and Luckring, The Cranked-Arrow Wing Aerodynamics
Project. The participation of the Swedish defense research establish-
ment in this NATO-sponsored project was one of the interesting
aspects of the CAWAPI effort.
16. J.E. Lamar and K.S. Abdol-Hamid, USM3D Unstructured Grid
Solutions for CAWAPI at NASA LaRC, AIAA Paper 2007-0682
(2007); Kenneth Badcock, Oklo Boelens, Adam Jirasek, and Arthur
Rizzi, What Was Learned from Numerical Simulations of F-16XL
(CAWAPI) at Flight Conditions, AIAA Paper 2007-0683 (2007).
17. Robert E. Curry, Dynamic Ground Effect for a Cranked Arrow
Wing Airplane, NASA TM 4799 (August 1997).
18. Ibid.
19. Edward A. Haering, Jr., L.J. Ehrenberger, and Stephen A.
Whitmore, Preliminary Airborne Measurements for the SR-71
Sonic Boom Propagation Experiment, presented at the 1995 High
Speed Research Program Sonic Boom Workshop, NASA Langley
Research Center, Hampton, VA, September 1213, 1995, NASA
TM-104307 (1995).
20. The YO-3A was based on a Schweitzer sailplane design, and it was
fitted with a highly modified engine and a special quiet propeller
276
design to minimize its acoustic signature. Drydens had been based at

the NASA Ames Research Center in Mountain View, CA, to measure
the in-flight acoustic signatures of helicopters. Its quiet signature and
excellent slow-speed flight characteristics made it an excellent airborne
complement to the F-16XL for recording sonic boom signatures.
Haering et al., Preliminary Airborne Measurements for the SR-71
Sonic Boom Propagation Experiment, Ibid.; Lockheed YO-3A
Quiet Star, Western Museum of Flight, Torrence, CA, http://www.
wmof.com/yo-3a.htm, accessed September 26, 2012.
21. Edward A. Haering, Jr., SR-71 Experiment on Propagation of
Sonic Booms, NASA Tech Briefs 20, no. 1 (January 1996): pp.
6869.
22. Dynamic Engineering, Inc. (DEI), had been established in 1972
in Newport News, VA, near the NASA Langley Research Center.
The company began by building wind tunnel models for Langley
Research Center test programs. At DEI, Reed recognized the need
to increase the safety and minimize the cost and hazards associated
with aircraft flight flutter testing. He conceived and patented the
DEI Flutter Exciter, now used worldwide in flight flutter testing of
new or modified aircraft designs. NASA, Aircraft Flutter Testing,
Spinoff, NASA (1997), p. 62; Reed provided his reflections on
his career in aeroelastic research and flutter testing at Langley in
Aeroelasticity Matters.
23. Lura Vernon, In-Flight Investigation of a Rotating Cylinder-Based
Structural Excitation System for Flutter Testing, NASA TM-4512
(January 1993). Vernon would later become NASA Drydens chief
technologist.
24. Ibid.
25. This technique was first used in Germany during in-flight flutter
test efforts with larger multiengine aircraft in 1935. Michael W.
Kehoe, A Historic Overview of Flight Flutter Testing, NASA TM
4720 (October 1995); see also Ernst Heinrich Hirschel, Horst Prem,
and Gero Madelung (eds.), Aeronautical Research in Germany from
Lilienthal until Today (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2004).
26. The term bonkers is post-WWII British slang meaning crazy or
mad. It is often associated with impressive fireworks displays on Guy
Fawkes Day in England, which may account for the origin of the
term in the context of pyrotechnic thrusters. Officially, the British
referred to these structural excitation devices as lateral thrust units.
Wingtip and vertical-fin-mounted bonkers were used in the 1960s
during flutter testing of the delta-wing Fairey FD. 2 supersonic
277
Elegance in Flight
research aircraft. The FD. 2 was extensively modified for the British
SST program, becoming the BAC 221 when fitted with a highly
swept ogee-shaped wing mounted on its extended fuselage (a modifi-
cation very much in the fashion of the later F-16XL). This ogee wing
planform was subsequently adopted for the Anglo-French Concorde
SST design. Wingtip and fin-mounted bonkers were also used in the
Concorde flutter test program. BAC. 221: Slender-delta Research
Aircraft, Flight International (July 23, 1964); Jon Lake, Fairey
Deltas: FD.1, FD.2, & BAC 221, Wings of Fame, vol. 11 (London:
Aerospace Publishing Company, 1998); Robert Rosenbaum, Survey
of Aircraft Subcritical Flight Flutter Testing Methods, NASA
CR-132479 (August 1974).
27. This flutter technique was pioneered at the German Aviation
Research Institute (Deutsche Versuchsanstalt fr Luftfahrt [DVL])
during the 1930s; Hirschel et al., Aeronautical Research in Germany.
28. Vernon; Ibid. Later, after F-16XL-2 was modified with the active-
suction wing glove and the extended left wing leading edge, DEI
flutter excitation vanes were installed on both wingtips. The two-vane
flutter exciter configuration was used during flutter investigation of
F-16XL-2 in the asymmetric configuration. These flutter tests were
conducted in conjunction with the NASA SLFC research effort.
29. Vernon, In-Flight Investigation.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Information on planned use of F-16XL-1 for PVC research came
from Jay Brandon and is contained in correspondence between the
author and Joseph Chambers, November 27, 2012. The feasibility of
F-16XL as a full-scale flying test bed with PVC as the primary con-
trol effector across the full aircraft flight envelope was the subject of
a joint NASAAir Force Research Laboratory investigation. Under
this effort, a highly detailed F-16XL simulation provided by NASA
DFRC was installed at Wright Laboratory. The F-16XL simulation
was modified to assess multiaxis (wing, forebody, and vertical tail
mounted) PVC devices and determine required lateral/directional
closed-loop performance and PVC mass flow levels for a potential
follow-on full-scale flight-research program. See: John Valasek and
Lawrence A. Walchli, High Speed, Low Angle-of-Attack Pneumatic
Vortex Control, AIAA Papers 98-4449 and A98-37266 (1998);
Ken A. Norlin, Flight Simulation Software at NASA Dryden Flight
Research Center, NASA TM-104315 (October 1995).
278
33. The CAT III position on the F-16 Cockpit Stores Configuration
Switch limits the attainable roll rate by approximately 40 percent to
provide departure resistance. The CAT III position is normally used
when the F-16 is carrying heavy air-to-ground weapons payloads.
USAF, F-16C/D Blocks 25, 30, and 32 Flight Manual, USAF T.O.
1F-16C-1 (May 14, 1990).
34. Marty Curry, NASA F-16XL Makes First Flight with Digital Flight
Control System, NASA Dryden Research Center News Release
97-50 (December 17, 1997).
35. A doublet is a standard flight-test maneuver in which the pilot
applies full control surface defection in one direction. As aircraft
motion reaches its maximum point, the controls are then deflected
fully in the opposite direction.
36. NASA Ames research pilot George Cooper developed a handling
qualities rating system based on the need to quantify pilot judgment.
Coopers approach established specific definitions of pilot tasks and
related performance standards. It accounted for demands placed
on the pilot by the aircraft in accomplishing a given control task
to some level of precision. The Cooper Pilot Opinion Rating Scale
was initially published in 1957. The rating system was modified in
collaboration with Robert Bob Harper of the Cornell Aeronautical
Laboratory in 1969. As the Cooper-Harper Handling Qualities
Rating Scale, it remains the standard for measuring flying quali-
ties. Paul F. Borchers, James A. Franklin, and Jay W. Fletcher, Flight
Research at Ames: Fifty-Seven Years of Development and Validation of
Aeronautical Technology (Washington, DC: NASA, 1998).
37. Susan J. Stachowiak and John T. Bosworth, Flight Test Results for
the F-16XL with a Digital Flight Control System, NASA TP-2004-
212046 (March 2004).
38. NASA, NASA F-16XL Completes Digital Flight Control System
Verification, NASA DFRC News Release 98-21 (April 14, 1998).
279
The F-16XL-1 is seen during ground taxi tests at the Dryden Flight Research Center on June 28,
2007. Neither of the two F-16XLs moved under its own power after this date. (NASA)
280
CHAPTER 11
Final Research Options

and Retirement
In 2005, Boeing had identified potential lowsonic boom flight demonstrator

configurations under a Sonic Boom Mitigation Project study contract with
NASA. The Boeing assessment produced a matrix that contained 22 flight
demonstrator configurations. These included modified F-5s, F-15s, F-16s,
F-18s, Russian Sukhoi Su-27s, and even entirely new X-planes designed from
scratch. However, the Boeing study identified a modification of the F-16XL
as the most cost-effective option for a low-boom flight demonstrator. They
proposed a lowsonic boom research aircraft that was based on an exten-
sively modified F-16XL-1. The Boeing lowsonic boom flight demonstrator
would have incorporated a new lengthened nose and a sweptback V-type wind-
screen similar to those that had been used on the earlier Convair F-102 and
F-106 fighters and the Lockheed SR-71. These modifications were intended
to reshape and reduce the strength of the shock wave produced at the for-
ward end of the aircraft by tailoring the area distribution and certain features
of the basic aircraft. Other modifications to the aircraft included a canopy
closeout fairing, a reshaping of the forebody chine and wing leading edge,
raked wingtips, drooped ailerons, a rear-fuselage stinger-type extension above
the nozzle carrying a small horizontal tail, and the fitting of an overexpanded
engine nozzle. These modifications were intended to reduce the strength of
the shock wave coming from the aft end of the aircraft. Boeing also noted that
this combination of modifications to the F-16XL-1 would preclude achieving
the low-drag supersonic characteristics that also would have been desirable in
a high-speed research aircraft.1
In 2007, F-16XL-1 was again being considered for future research projects
involving sonic boom investigations, presumably to include the lowsonic
shock flight demonstrator effort. The feasibility of upgrading the aircraft sys-
tems and returning the aircraft to full flight-ready status was considered in an
F-16XL Return to Flight and Supportability Study. Equipping F-16XL-1 with
the more powerful General Electric F110-GE-129 engine in place of its Pratt
& Whitney F100-PW-200 engine was an option, as were systems upgrades
281
Elegance in Flight
The F-16XL-1 is seen during ground taxi tests at the Dryden Flight Research Center on June 28,
2007. Neither of the two F-16XLs moved under its own power after this date. (NASA)
intended to improve the digital flight control and avionics systems. However,
funding was not provided to proceed with these upgrades, which would have
brought the aircraft systems closer to the standard of new production F-16s. A
NASA Dryden spokesman stated at the time, F-16XL-1 is now being looked
at for possible research efforts that are as yet undefined. It is being thoroughly
inspected to assess its health and the feasibility of bringing it back to flyable
status.2 In conjunction with this evaluation, the aircraft systems were brought
back to basic flightworthy status. NASA research pilot Jim Smolka, who had
been project pilot on the earlier supersonic laminar flow control experiments,
successfully taxi-tested F-16XL-1 at Dryden in late June of 2007. This would
be the final time that either F-16XL moved under its on power.
In 2009, NASA Langley researcher Peter Coen, principal investigator for
the supersonics project in NASAs fundamental aeronautics program, stated
in an interview with Aviation Week & Space Technology that proceeding with a
lowsonic shock flight demonstrator was a fairly high priority. He went on to
note that the NASA aeronautics budget was not large enough to support such
a program without help from other agencies and industry partners. We cant
do it without significantly modifying an existing aircraft or building something
new. The F-16XL is an aircraft we have. Boeing had continued work on their
F-16XL lowsonic shock flight demonstrator concept under NASA contract.
Coen stated that the Boeing work looks promising and initial design stud-
ies have been encouraging with respect to shock mitigation of the forebody,
canopy, inlet, wing leading edge and aft lift/volume distribution features. He
282
Final Research Options and Retirement
went on to comment that the Boeing team was moving from initial concept
validation to optimizing the detailed design configuration and the modified
F-16XL appeared to be fairly low in cost. Coen added a realistic qualifier
noting: We will not necessarily get everything we want. We will not be able to
explore low boom and low drag at the same time. But it (the low sonic shock
flight demonstrator) will give us a shaped front and aft signature and we can
use the resulting aircraft in studies related to sonic boom acceptability.3
In any case, NASA did not proceed with the F-16XL lowsonic shock
flight demonstrator project after the contract with Boeing ended later in 2009.
This resulted in a NASA decision to permanently retire both F-16XLs. The
single seat F-16XL-1 is now exhibited at the Dryden Flight Research Center at
Edwards, CA. As of December 2012, the two-seat F-16XL-2 was still at Dryden
pending a decision on future restoration and possible exhibition at the National
Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, OH.
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Elegance in Flight
Endnotes
1. Graham Warwick, Boeing Studies F-16XL Low-Sonic-Boom
Demonstrator, Aviation Week & Space Technology (March 23, 2009);
Lawrence R. Benson, Softening the Sonic Boom: 50 Years of NASA
Research, Case 4 in Hallion, NASAs Contributions to Aeronautics.
2. NASA Dryden Flight Research Center, Return to Flight and
Supportability Study, Solicitation Number NND07204397Q-
DAC, DFRC Code A (Research and Development) (June 20, 2007);
John Croft, NASA Could Put F-16XL Back in the Air, Flight
International (October 7, 2007); Wetherall, F-16XL First Flight
Anniversary Celebration: The NASA Years.
3. Warwick, Boeing Studies F-16XL Low-Sonic-Boom
Demonstrator.
284
F-16XL-1 over Texas on first flight L-M. (Lockhead Martin)
286
CHAPTER 12
Summary and
Observations
Summary
The F-16XL program began as a private venture by the General Dynamics
Corporation in the mid-1970s, not long after the F-16 had entered service
with the Air Force. GD had observed that the F-16, whose highly innovative
design concept was highly focused on the lightweight air combat fighter mis-
sion, was being increasingly used on ground attack missions. In that role, the
range and performance of the small F-16 were limited by the weight and drag
of large loads of external stores when compared to larger strike aircraft. Initially
known by the acronym SCAMP (Supersonic Cruise and Maneuver Prototype),
the initiative also was oriented to address emerging Air Force interest in super-
sonic combat capability. GD proposed to develop an inexpensive experimental
prototype derived from the F-16 to validate improved transonic/supersonic
cruise and maneuverability along with expanded air-to-ground capabilities. A
key aspect of the GD F-16XL business development approach and marketing
strategy involved interesting the Air Force in supporting the development and
eventual production of a new aircraft that would share much in common with
the existing F-16s airframe, engine, avionics, and subsystems. The F-16XL was
seen by GD as providing the Air Force with a more affordable procurement
option to replace the much larger F-111 in the demanding deep-strike mission,
one that could lead to follow-on production contracts.
NASA support had been extremely productive during both the YF-16
Lightweight Fighter technology demonstration and the follow-on F-16 Full-
Scale Development program, and it proved quite effective in resolving difficult
technical issues such as airframe flutter when carrying certain external stores.
This encouraged GD to develop a collaborative arrangement with NASA for
SCAMP research that would effectively exploit ongoing NASA supersonic
transport and fighter research efforts based on the use of aerodynamically
efficient cranked-arrow-wing planforms. The final F-16XL prototype configu-
ration, featuring a stretched F-16 fuselage along with a cranked-arrow wing,
was in many significant ways the direct result of this collaborative effort with
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Elegance in Flight
NASA. The Air Force supported the GD F-16XL prototyping initiative, provid-
ing equipment (including two F-16A fuselages), test facilities, and partial funding
for a flight demonstration. However, as the requirement for an F-111 replace-
ment evolved, the Air Force concept changed to include close-in and beyond-
visual-range air-to-air capabilities along with advanced all-weather ground attack.
The aircraft that would meet this requirement was now referred to by the Air
Force as the Dual-Role Fighter. In its marketing, General Dynamics strove to
convince both Congress and the Air Force that the F-16XL could meet the DRF
requirement and complement, rather than compete with the larger F-15E for the
deep-strike mission. However, Congress directed that only one aircraft would be
funded for production, with the decision to be based on a comparative evaluation
of the F-16XL and the F-15E.
The F-16XL flew for the first time on July 3, 1982, at Carswell AFB, TX,
adjacent to the Fort Worth Division of General Dynamics, where the two experi-
mental prototypes had been built. The subsequent Air Force flight-test evaluation
of the F-16XL was conducted at the Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force
Base from 1982 to 1983 using the Combined Test Force (CTF) approach that
had been successfully used during the Lightweight Fighter Program. The CTF
included both military and contractor participation in nearly all aspects of the
flight-test effort, which unfolded very rapidly with 369 flights accomplished by
May 15, 1983. During the evaluation, the F-16XL demonstrated many out-
standing capabilities. Its range, payload, and supersonic performance were far
superior to those of the standard F-16, and its spin resistance and out-of-control
recovery characteristics were outstanding. Demonstrated takeoff and landing
distances were longer than desired, and the aircraft was unable to cruise super-
sonically without the use of afterburner. The aircrafts relatively low thrust-to-
weight ratio combined with the high induced drag produced by its low aspect
ratio wing resulted in rapid loss of airspeed during sustained subsonic high-g
maneuvering. These issues were important considerations in the Air Force DRF
decision, which was based on results from F-15E and F-16XL flight testing as
well as other sources of information, including the outcomes of computerized
war games. Faced with challenging budgetary choices, the Air Force elected to
fund the F-15E as its DRF, along with the high-stealth F-117 and Advanced
Tactical Fighter (ATF). Limited F-16XL flight testing continued until October
1985, by which time the two prototypes had accumulated a total of nearly 800
sorties before being placed in storage.
During the 1990s, NASA was pursuing a complex program of High-Speed
Research (HSR) that included investigations into many aspects related to com-
mercial supersonic flight. The potential application of supersonic laminar flow
control (SLFC) capability to a highly swept cranked-arrow wing was an area
of high interest to the HSR program. A flight demonstration to reduce the
288
Summary and Observations
perceived high level of SLFC technology risk would support development and
production of a future High-Speed Civil Transport (HSCT). Since the F-16XL
cranked-arrow-wing planform closely resembled conceptual HSCT designs, their
ready availability presented a unique opportunity for an SLFC technology flight-
test effort. NASA arranged for the two F-16XL prototypes to be transferred to
the Dryden Flight Research Center, where they were used for a series of HSR-
related test projects during the 1990s, with tests involving SLFC research being
the most challenging. Highly modified and specially instrumented, the F-16XL
experimental prototypes evaluated the technical feasibility of the active suction
SLFC concept as well as contributed to other areas important to HSCT develop-
ment and risk reduction. Experiments with the F-16XLs had produced a very
large volume of technical data by the time NASA decided to end the research
program in late 1996. NASA research with the F-16XL furthered the state of
the art in aerodynamics, acoustic, and sonic boom phenomenology, and it was a
major contributor to improved understanding of vortex flow over highly swept
delta wings. In addition, it made major contributions to development and valida-
tion of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) capabilities and design tools and
methodologies across the aerospace community.
Observations and Lessons Learned

NASA provided extensive technical support during F-16XL engineering devel-
opment and design refinement. Notable aspects of NASA support included
innovative wing design methodology and analytical procedures developed at
LaRC, wind tunnel model testing, the use of performance predictions based
on wind tunnel test results, and important inputs into the design of the
F-16XLs specially tailored digital flight control system. The latter was based
in part on successful pilot-in-the-loop testing in the Differential Maneuvering
Simulator at NASA Langley. Thousands of hours of wind tunnel testing were
accomplished by the first flight of the F-16XL, in July 1982. An unusually
large number of configuration variables were evaluated during the cooperative
wind tunnel test effort with NASA. These included a wide variety of wing
planforms, vertical tails, leading-edge flaps, vortex fences, wingtips, spoilers,
different fuselage stretches, forebody strake designs, airfoils and camber varia-
tions, and even potential canard arrangements. In addition, geometrically and
dynamically scaled models of different weapons, external stores, and guided
missiles were tested on the final F-16XL configuration prior to eventual flight
testing. By the time the Air Force F-16XL program ended in late 1985, over
4,000 wind tunnel test hours had been completed, most of that in NASA
wind tunnels.
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Elegance in Flight
Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)

systems were extensively used in the F-16XL development in an early demon-
stration of the power of these technologies to enhance aeronautical design and
system engineering effectiveness. Computer-based structural analysis, design,
and manufacturing systems had greatly benefited from a major NASA initiative
known as NASTRAN (NASA Structural Analysis System), which was managed
under Langley Research Center leadership. NASTRAN led to the development
and widespread use of many commercially developed CAD/CAM systems.
In designing the F-16XL, GD employed a Lockheed-developed CAD/CAM
system called CADAM; it played a major role in the successful design, manu-
facture, and smooth integration of the complex cranked-arrow wing into the
prototype flight demonstration aircraft.
In another early demonstration of advanced technologies, the F-16XLs
wing skins were constructed of aeroelastically tailored composite laminates.
These were more adaptable to being formed into the compound curvature sur-
faces of the cranked-arrow wing with its complex combination of wing camber
and twist. Designed to deform favorably under heavy loads while meeting the
strength requirements of a minimum-weight, damage-tolerant structure, the
F-16XLs aeroelastically-tailored composite wing skins resulted in significant
weight savings. An additional benefit was reduced manufacturing cost since
the composite wing skins did not require machine milling or chemical etch-
ing like metallic skins. Other important structural benefits were increased
stiffness and better rigidity along with improved durability. Widespread use
of advanced composite structures in the aerospace industry was heavily influ-
enced by NASA- and Air Forcesponsored research efforts with many aerospace
companies, including General Dynamics.
Extensive wind tunnel, spin tunnel, and drop model test efforts conducted
at NASA facilities were critically important to F-16XL flight control system
functionality and effectiveness. Design of the leading-edge flaps and program-
ming of the software used in the F-16XLs computerized fly-by-wire flight
control system capitalized on Langley research efforts on deep stall recovery
and automatic spin prevention. An automatic pitch override capability pro-
vided pitch-rocking commands to the flight control system in the event of a
stabilized deep stall, and manual pitch override allowed the angle-of-attack
limiter to be bypassed, providing full-pitch-command authority to enable the
pilot to break a deep stall. These features, developed in close cooperation with
NASA experts, provided a significant contribution to the F-16XLs very high
resistance to inadvertent loss of control or spin development; this was con-
vincingly demonstrated during extensive flight testing that involved aggressive
maneuvering to extreme pitch attitudes and angles of attack.
290
The F-16XLs refined low-drag aerodynamic design, along with its ability to
carry a much larger quantity of internal fuel in its large cranked-arrow wing and
stretched fuselage, provided significantly increased range and combat radius
compared to the standard F-16C. With twice the ordnance payload, combat
radius was nearly 50 percent greater than that of the F-16C. Its instantaneous
turn rate was exceptional, but there was a significant loss of sustained turn
capability due to the high induced drag produced by the low aspect ratio wing
and the relatively low thrust-to-weight ratio of the aircraft. The F-16XLs excep-
tional rolling ability partially offset the loss of sustained maneuver capability;
however, high energy loss experienced during aggressive combat maneuvering
was a major concern to the Air Force.
The F-16XL had a very high approach speed under heavyweight condi-
tions, with touchdown speeds well above 170 knots. It was reportedly smooth,
responsive, and stable during landing approach, but its approach angle of attack
was limited by restricted over-the-nose visibility and also to ensure adequate
aft-fuselage clearance with the runway. The aircraft was more stable than the
standard F-16 during aerodynamic braking after touchdown, with pitch con-
trol reported as being more positive. The F-16XL did not achieve the goal of
decreased landing distance relative to the standard F-16. Its much longer land-
ing distance was primarily due to its very high approach and touchdown speeds.
Several approaches to increase the effective lift coefficient of the aircraft were
being investigated by GD in cooperation with NASA Langley in an attempt
to reduce final approach and touchdown speeds. These included fitting vortex
flaps to the inner wing leading edge, modifications to the wing trailing edge
and the elevons, and changes to the digital flight control system intended to
optimize landing approach characteristics.
An interesting phenomenon involving a longitudinal oscillation in the pitch
axis, commonly referred to by the test pilots as pitch gallop, affected the
F-16XLs ability to effectively track maneuvering aerial targets. To determine
the cause of the anomaly, an in-flight-excitation test procedure was devised
and used to obtain aircraft frequency responses at any condition within the
flight envelope. Flight testing using this methodology revealed a disagreement
between the analytical model of the aircraft flight control system and the actual
flight control system in the aircraft. The pitch gain turned out to be slightly
out of phase in the frequency range where the longitudinal oscillation existed
and was not detected during preflight pilot-in-the-loop simulations of the
flight control system.
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Elegance in Flight
NASA F-16XL Flight Research

The main thrust for NASA use of the F-16XL was supersonic laminar flow
research in support of technology risk reduction efforts oriented to a future
HSCT. In this regard, laminar flow technology potentially offered significant
reductions in fuel consumption, but practical application of the technology to
a production aircraft had proven fruitless despite a long series of attempts over
the years that had included many flight-test programs. Laminar flow technol-
ogy, especially as it related to the supersonic flight regime, had significant risks
that involved airframe design, system integration, production engineering, and
manufacturing feasibility. Operations and maintenance of an HSCT fitted
with SLFC in routine airline service also faced many uncertainties. A program
of SLFC flight research was needed if these risks were to be mitigated in time
for integration into any HSCT. This was the primary motivation for NASAs
selection of the two idle F-16XLs for modification into SLFC test beds. In
addition, the modified airframes would also be used for NASA research into a
number of other issues associated with reducing technical risk and operational
feasibility for a viable commercial supersonic transport.
F-16XL-1 arrived at NASA Dryden in March 1989 where it was modified
for laminar flow research. Its first flight with a highly instrumented laminar
flow wing glove occurred in May 1990. A perforated titanium active suction
wing glove with a turbocompressor was installed in the aircraft in 1992 for
initial SLFC investigations. In 1995, after being returned to its original aero-
dynamic configuration and fitted with acoustic pressure sensors, F-16XL-1
was used with a NASA Lockheed SR-71 and a Lockheed YO-3 in a research
project intended to further quantify sonic boom phenomenology. In 1997,
it was modified and tested with a digital fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control
system (DFCS) that replaced the original analog FBW flight control system
for potential use in a NASA program that would have tested nonconventional
pneumatic control effectors on the aircraft. However, a proposed flight-test
program of this technology using F-16XL-1 was not pursued.
A more ambitious program of supersonic laminar flow control testing used
the two-seat F-16XL-2, which had been assigned to Dryden in February 1991.
The SLFC flight research effort with F-16XL-2 was intended to achieve laminar
flow over 50 to 60 percent of its wing chord. In addition to the flight-test effort,
CFD computer software codes and design methodologies were to be created
along with laminar flow control design criteria for use at supersonic speeds.
Prior to its delivery, NASA had arranged for the more powerful General Electric
F110-GE-129 turbofan engine to be installed in F-16XL-2 for SLFC testing,
replacing the F110-GE-100 engine used during the earlier Air Force flight-test
program. Initial F-16XL-2 testing was accomplished during 19911992 using
292
a passive wing glove designed by McDonnell-Douglas Corporation and built at

the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. Data from initial flight testing was
used to calibrate computer software design codes, particularly in the leading-
edge boundary-layer region. Preventing the turbulent boundary layer on the
fuselage from contaminating the boundary layer attachment-line region on
the wing leading edge was a major technical issue that was also addressed in
early flight testing with F-16XL-2. The data obtained was subsequently used
to design the active suction glove that would be installed for the next phase
of SLFC testing.
Work began on the active suction glove in 1992 in a collaborative effort
between Boeing, McDonnell-Douglas, Rockwell, and NASA. Designed to
fit on the inner left wing, the gloves leading edge extended forward into the
fuselage to better replicate the HSCT wing. This resulted in a pronounced
asymmetric configuration when the glove was installed on F-16XL-2 at NASA
Dryden. Constructed of inner and outer titanium skins and aluminum string-
ers, the glove covered about 75 percent of the upper-wing surface and 60 per-
cent of the leading edge. A turbocompressor mounted in the fuselage provided
suction to draw air through nearly 12 million laser-drilled holes via a highly
complex manifold system that employed 20 independently moving computer-
controlled valves. The geometric asymmetry of the F-16XL-2 with the active
suction glove required dedicated wind tunnel tests to determine the aerody-
namic and stability and control characteristics of the modified aircraft before
actual flight testing could begin. A wind tunnel model of F-16XL-2 fitted
with the active suction glove was subjected to about 2,800 hours of testing to
validate its aerodynamic characteristics. In addition to wind tunnel testing, a
computer simulation of the aircraft with the glove modification was evaluated
in a flight simulator at Dryden to ensure that aircraft handling qualities were
not adversely affected by the asymmetrical aerodynamic configuration. Since
the objectives of the SLFC project were oriented to application of the technol-
ogy to a transport aircraft, high-g, high-AoA maneuvering was not required in
the test program, and the SLFC glove was designed for 3-g flight conditions.
Evaluation of the active suction glove began in November 1995, and the
first supersonic flight test with the suction system operating occurred in January
1996. The fight-test portion of the SLFC project with F-16XL-2 ended in
November 1996 after 45 research fights during which about 90 hours of flight
time were logged, much of it at speeds of Mach 2 at altitudes of 50,000 feet
and above. The project demonstrated that laminar airflow could be achieved
over a significant portion of a highly swept wing at supersonic speeds using an
active suction system. However, the F-16XL had configuration-specific shock
and expansion waves, which affected laminar flow over the wings at supersonic
conditions. Supersonic shock waves emanating from the canopies and engine
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Elegance in Flight
inlets spread out over the wings, and expansion waves coming from beneath the
wing caused a highly three-dimensional flow field. These resulted in difficulties
in obtaining consistent laminar flow at the same test conditions. Despite these
problems, the SLFC experiments with the F-16XL achieved about 70 to 80
percent of the initial goals.
HSCT Integration Issues

Despite the promising results from the flight research program, there were
other major difficulties with integration of active suction supersonic laminar
flow control technologies into a commercial transport aircraft. Industry experts
strongly expressed their opinion that the manufacturing processes needed to
produce a practical SLFC system on a commercial supersonic transport were
so challenging that they were effectively a showstopper. Boeing had to try
four times before they were able to fabricate a suction glove for F-16XL-2 that
met the challenging smoothness and stiffness standards required to maintain
supersonic laminar flow. Even then, some manufacturing discrepancies were
simply tolerated in order to move forward. Surface contours on the wing glove
had to be controlled to no more than a few thousandths of an inch. This had
already proven very challenging to achieve on the relatively small, stiff F-16XL
wing and was assessed to be well beyond the manufacturing capabilities needed
to produce an active suction glove for the much larger wing planned for the
HSCT. Depending on the specific design approach, a wing of that size was
estimated to require precision laser drilling of as many as a billion tiny holes in
its laminar flow control suction panels. The manufacturing technology needed
for an HSCT production line was considered both very expensive and risky to
develop due to the precision required to produce active suction on a flexible
airliner wing that was an order of magnitude larger in size than the F-16XL.
In addition to high manufacturing costs, other challenges with SLFC technol-
ogy included costs associated with keeping the extremely small suction holes
clear during routine day-to-day scheduled airline service. Commercial airline
operations, by definition, would have involved routine flight in heavy rain with
icing conditions often encountered. Additionally, airborne insects found in the
vicinity of many commercial airfields would have resulted in insect accretion on
the wing leading edges. These factors had a high potential to cause the bound-
ary layer over the wing of an HSCT to prematurely transition from laminar
to turbulent flow, increasing the drag due to skin friction and defeating the
purpose of a suction-type SLFC system.
294
Program Conclusion
In 1995, based on industry design concepts, computer modeling, and wind
tunnel tests, NASA selected a Technology Concept Aircraft (TCA) as a
common reference point for use in subsequent high-speed research technol-
ogy development and risk reduction. This single concept was intended to have
both improved aerodynamic performance and operational characteristics while
also meeting environmental goals for engine emissions and noise pollution. An
important rationale for the Technology Concept Aircraft was to serve as a basis
to ensure that appropriate technology was available to meet both the needs of
a practical and economically realistic design and its concurrent development
schedule. The implications of this dual rationale had a major impact on the
F-16XL SLFC project. In September 1996, the Airframe Management Team
within the NASA HSR program elected to terminate the F-16XL SLFC project.
This decision was based on a general agreement among both the Government
and, especially, the aerospace industry members of the Airframe Management
Team. The consensus within the team was that supersonic laminar flow control
was not a near-term technology that could be available in time for integration
into an HSCT program on any realistic cost and development schedule.
A Retrospective Assessment
In retrospect, the F-16XL was a remarkably productive research effort, whose
impact and benefits extended far beyond its original purpose. Begun as a long-
range strike variant of the basic F-16A air combat fighter, the F-16XL made its
greatest contribution as a test bed for a series of technological approaches to
enable efficient supersonic cruising flight. NASA (and the NACA before it) had
made use of military prototypes for basic and applied research purposes many
times before, but rarely with such productive results. The complex double-delta
cranked-arrow wing planform, studied extensively in wind tunnels and by
predictive analytical methodologies, received an important in-flight validation
and exploration going well beyond earlier experience with similar (if not so
sophisticated) planforms, such as that employed on the path-breaking Swedish
Saab J 35 Draken of the 1950s. The benefits of that research will influence civil
and military design choices and design trades for decades to come.
While the F-16XL did not enter service with the United States Air Force,
it possessed a design configuration suitable for subsequent long-range inhab-
ited and remotely piloted reconnaissance and strike systems, and thus mili-
tary interest in the test program went beyond the immediate interest in the
F-16XL-F-15E Strike Eagle competition. In the civil sense, the configuration
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Elegance in Flight
selected by the General Dynamics design team for what became the F-16XL
reflected NASAs long-standing interest in deriving and refining highly effi-
cient aerodynamic planforms for supersonic flight, applicable to supersonic
commercial aircraft. While the anticipated market for supersonic airliners did
not emerge so that the double-delta arrow wing could have been applied to a
second generation follow-on to the Anglo-French Concorde and the Soviet-
era Tupolev Tu-144, market interest in smaller commercial supersonic aircraft
remains high, and, therefore, it is quite possible that the planform will be
adopted by designers seeking to build super-cruising commercial business jets
capable of spanning the oceans. If so, the flight-test and developmental lessons
learned from the F-16XL program will continue to benefit the progression of
aeronautical science.
Finally, the story of the F-16XL explains much about the organization of
American aerospace science and technology, the adaptation of that technology for
military and civil purposes, and the workings of aerospace professionals, industry,
and the test and evaluation communities of both the military and NASA.
NASA, through its years of refined study at Langley Research Center (and
building on earlier legacy work from the days of the NACA at what were then
the Langley and Ames aeronautical laboratories), had matured a concept to
the point that it could be applied to both civil and military aircraft; all that
was required was a justification to do so. That justification came about through
the recognition that the F-16 aircraft family would be primarily dedicated to
air-to-surface attack, with a secondary air-to-air mission. Thus, the arrow wing,
with its promise of enhanced long-range efficiencies, excellent high-speed prop-
erties, and ability to carry greater ordnance loads, was immediately attractive
to the General Dynamics team.
The General Dynamics design team had the insight, inventiveness, and
innovative spirit to recognize that, in the era of fly-by-wire flight control
technology, they could take the basic configuration of the F-16A and, with a
straightforward modification, transform it into an aircraft with quite different
properties and qualities. This is not an innocuous point; since the time of the
Wright brothers themselves, many design teams have been better at invention
than at innovation. In the case of General Dynamics, the F-16 team pos-
sessed a rare willingness to play with their basic configuration to fulfill new
purposes and generate new capabilitiesa commendable corporate spirit of
innovation. The seeming simplicity of their resulting design belied the com-
plex analysis and subtle under the skin changes necessitated if one were to
move successfully from the deceptively conventional planform of the original
F-16A to the elegance of the arrow-wing F-16XL. While constrained by such
issues as landing gear location and properties, the resulting aircraft was, in its
own fashion, a remarkable accomplishment. Had it not faced the F-15E Strike
296
Eagle, it is altogether possible that it might have served as the basis for a larger,
more powerful, and more capable production variant, the F-16XL functioning
in much the same fashion for that ultimate production machine as the earlier
YF-16 had for the original F-16A.
The Air Force and NASA test teams on the aircraft performed with the
characteristic excellence that has come to distinguish flight testing and flight
research in the skies over what was then the Air Force Flight Test Center (now
the Air Force Test Center) and the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. As
noted earlier, Air Force flight testing quickly confirmed that while the F-16XL
had outstanding range, payload, and supersonic performance when compared
to the F-16A from whence it sprang, it had other deficiencies in takeoff and
landing distance, turn performance, and thrust-to-weight ratio that, taken
together with changes in Air Force operational requirements, mitigated against
its being placed in production. Accordingly, the service selected a different
design for derivative development, the McDonnell-Douglas (now Boeing)
F-15E Strike Eagle.
It was at this juncture in its brief history that the F-16XL, seemingly des-
tined for the scrapheap or museum, received a reprieve: its opportunity to
function as a technology demonstrator and configuration research aircraft to
validate not only the cranked-arrow planform but also a range of other concepts
and technologies (most notably supersonic laminar flow control) applicable
to sustained, efficient, supersonic cruising flight, supporting NASAs long-
standing interest in High-Speed Research leading to possible High-Speed Civil
Transports. Under NASA auspices, the F-16XL flew for over another decade,
expanding knowledge not merely of the properties and characteristics of the
cranked-arrow wing, but on related subjects such as sonic boom propagation
and validation of CFD tools and analytical methodologies.
In sum, the F-16XL was an important research tool in the furtherance of
understanding of supersonic cruising vehicle design. Though not used for the
combat purposes for which it was originally conceived, it nevertheless proved
an important weapon in the continuing struggle of humanity to master move-
ment through the third dimension.
297
The F-16XL-2 during radar signature testing conducted by General Dynamics. (Lockheed Martin)
298
APPENDIX A
F-16XL First Flight

Certificate
GD F-16XL First Flight Certificate
299
APPENDIX B
F-16XL Weapon
Separation Log
Flt Date A/C Load-Out and/or Weapons Mission

Configuration Released Notes
37 8/24/82 1 Twelve Mk-82 Twelve Mk-82 .75 M/
bombs 13 K/
1g
45 1/24/83 2 Twelve Mk-82 Two Mk-82

5K
47 1/26/83 2 Six CBU-58 bombs, Six CBU-58 .75 M/

two 370 gal. tanks 5K
60 10/13/82 1 Six Mk-82 One Mk-82 500 kt/

1,500 ft
61 10/14/82 1 Six Mk-82 One Mk-82 480 kt/

500 ft/
25-deg bank
64 10/18/82 1 Six Mk-82 One Mk-82 500 kt/
500 ft/
2 gs
67 10/19/82 1 Six Mk-82 One Mk-82 500 kt/
500 ft/
4 gs
69 10/20/82 1 Six Mk-82 One Mk-82 540 kt/
500 ft/
2 gs
300
F-16XL Weapon Separation Log

71 10/21/82 1 Six Mk-82 One Mk-82 540 kt/
500 ft/
4 gs
72 10/22/82 1 Six Mk-82 One Mk-82 540 kt/
500 ft/
4 gs
5K
86 3/9/83 2 Two Mk-82 One Mk-82 .90 M/

10 K/
30-deg dive
87 3/10/83 2 Six Mk-82, One Mk-82 .90 M/
twelve pylons 10 K/
2 gs
88 3/10/83 2 Two Mk-82, One Mk-82 90 M/
twelve pylons 10 K/
47-deg dive
89 3/11/83 2 Six Mk-82, One Mk-82 .88 M/
twelve pylons 9.6 K/
4.3 gs
91 3/11/83 2 Two Mk-82, One Mk-82 .90 M/
twelve pylons 9 K/
3.8 gs
177 4/14/83 1 Twelve Mk-82 One Mk-82 Bomb impact
survey
246 1/27/84 2 Twelve Mk-82 Eight Mk-82 .75 M/

5K
247 1/31/84 2 Twelve Mk-82 Eight Mk-82 .90 M/

5K
248 2/2/84 2 Two Mk-84 bombs Two Mk-84 .75 M/

5K
301
Elegance in Flight

249 2/21/84 2 Two Mk-84 Two Mk-84 .75 M/
5K
250 2/28/84 2 Two Mk-84 Two Mk-84 .80 M/

5K
251 3/5/84 2 Two Mk-84 Two Mk-84 .90 M/

10 K
257 4/12/84 2 Two Mk-84 Two Mk-84 .90 M/

5K
265 5/9/84 2 Four Mk-84 Four Mk-84 .75 M/

5K
266 5/17/84 2 Four Mk-84 Four Mk-84 .75 M/

(Tandem Carriage) 15 K
375 3/29/85 1 One AGM-65 One AGM-65 .75 M/

Maverick missile 10 K/
10-deg dive
302
APPENDIX C
F-16XL Flight-Test Activity

Through October 1, 1985
Milestone Data
Item F-16XL-1 F-16XL-2 Total
1st Flight-Last Flight 7/3/828/14/85 10/29/8210/1/85
1st Supersonic Flight Flt 2 (7/9/82) Flt 1 (10/29/82)
Maximum G Flight 9.0 gs (Flt 20,

7/28/82)
Maximum Mach 1.95M (Flt 19, 1.6M (Flt 25, 12/7/82)
Number 7/28/82)
Maximum Altitude 50K ft (Flt 11, 7/24/82) 50K ft (Flt 212,
9/13/83)
Longest Range Demo 1,985 nm (Flt 224,
9/23/83)
1st Flt w/ GE 110 Flt 274 (7/19/84)
Slimline Engine
1st Flt w/ Large Flt 311 (6/26/85)
Normal Shock Inlet
Flight Data
Total Number of 437 361 798
Flights
Total Air-to-Air Flights 318 (72.8 percent) 230 (63.7 percent) 548 (68.7
percent)
Total Air-to-Ground 119 (27.2 percent) 131 (36.3 percent) 250 (31.3
Flights percent)
303
Elegance in Flight
Flight Hour Data

Total Number of Flight 532.6 407.1 939.7
Hours
Total Air-to-Air Flight 400 (75.1 percent) 283.1 (69.5 percent) 683.1
Hours (72.7
percent)
Total Air-to-Ground 132.6 (24.9 percent) 124 (30.5 percent) 256.6
Flight Hours (27.3
percent)
Average Hours Per 1.22 1.13 1.18
Flight
Aerial Refueling
1st Aerial Refueling Flt 26 (8/12/82) Flt 30 (1/7/83)
Flight
Number of Refueling 71 56 127
Flights
Number of Wet 100 75 175
Refuelings
Longest Flight with 4.5 hrs (Flt 89, 4.0 hrs (Flt 33,
Refueling 12/15/82) two aerial 1/11/83), two aerial
refuelings refuelings
Longest Flight without 4.0 hrs (Flt 224, 2.5 hrs (Flt 5, 11/8/82)
Refueling 9/23/83) with two 600 2.5 hrs (Flt 68,
gal tanks 2/22/83)
Gunfire Data
1st Gun-Firing Flight Flt 163 (4/1/83) Flt 32 (1/10/83)
Number of Gun-Firing 8 7 15
Flights
Number of 20-mm 4,763 2,600 7,363
Rounds Fired
304
F-16XL Flight-Test Activity Through October 1, 1985
Weapon Data
Number of Bomb Drop 14 31 45
Flights
Mk-82 bombs 89/14 129/23 218/37
dropped/flights
CBU-58 bombs 0 6/1 6/1
dropped/flights
Mk-84 bombs 0 18/7 18/7
dropped/flights
Flights Carrying 71 80 151
Mk-82
Flights Carrying CBU- 7 1 8
58
Mk-84
BDU-38
SUU-65
AGM-65 Carriage 5 0 5
Flights
AGM-65 Launches/ 1/1 0 1/1
Flights
305
APPENDIX D
F-16XL Flight-Test
Objectives Accomplished
Purpose/Flight-Test Objectives Number of Flights

F-16XL-1 F-16XL-2
Performance 75 65
Stability and Control (S&C) 38 16
Flutter Expansion Envelope 10 8
Stability and Control (High Angle of Attack) 43
Stability and Control (Structural Loads) 26
Stability and Control (Speed Break Loads) 8
Stability and Control (Pitch Gallop Investigation) 11
Stability and Control (Landing Handling 5

Qualities)
Stability and Control (Aft Center-of-Gravity 22
Envelope Expansion
Stability and Control (Inflight Excitation 37
[Random/Sinusoid])
Stability and Control (G-Overshoot Investigation) 6
Performance/Stability & Control (Combined) 13 9
Performance/Stability & Control w/ Locked LEF 24
306
F-16XL Flight-Test Objectives Accomplished

F-16XL-1 F-16XL-2
Flutter/Stability & Control (Combined) 7 2
Flutter/Performance (Combined) 6
PropulsionF110 Slimline Engine Envelope 32

Expansion
Propulsion/S&C/ PerformanceF110 Engine w/ 30
LNSI Using JP-4 Fuel
PropulsionF110 Engine w/ LNSI Using JP-8 13
Fuel
PropulsionHigh-Speed Envelope Expansion 9
Hinge Moment Evaluation w/ Modified LEF 5
Helmet Mounted Display Evaluation 3
Weapon Separation/Gun Firing/Air Combat 14 28

Maneuvering Instrumentation (ACMI) Pod Range
Vibration Test Maneuvers 8
Elevon Loads Survey 5
ECS/Drag Chute Deployment 2
Air Data Calibration 4 3
Aerial Refueling 2 3
Operational Utility Evaluation (OUE) Testing 42 29
Special Test Objectives 9 6
Reliability & Maintainability Evaluation 7 2
Ferry Flights (General Dynamics Forth Worth to/ 10 8

from Edwards AFB)
307
Elegance in Flight

F-16XL-1 F-16XL-2
Functional Check Flights (Engine/FCC/etc.) 9 15
VIP Demonstration/Practice 35
Used as Target and/or Chase Aircraft 7
Pilot Training/Checkout/Familiarization 18 9
TOTAL FLIGHTS BY EACH AIRCRAFT 437 361
308
APPENDIX E
F-16XL Flight-Test Logs
Appendix E-1:
F-16XL-1 FLIGHT LOG
F-16XL-1 Pilots
BR Burnett D Dryden N Newman T Thomas
BS Bushnell F Fergione O Oestricher W Wolfe
C Cary K Knight P Payne
CG Caughlin M McKinney S Svendsen
Flt. Date Hrs Pilot Mission Configuration Notes

1 7/3/82 1.0 M FCF A/A
2 7/9/82 2.1 M Performance/ A/A First Supersonic

S&C
3 7/17/82 1.9 M Performance/ A/A
S&C
4 7/18/82 1.3 M Performance A/A
5 7/18/82 2.3 M Ferry to EAFB A/A
6 7/20/82 .9 BS Pilot Fam./ A/A

AS Calibration
7 7/22/82 .8 W Performance A/A
8 7/22/82 1.5 M Flutter A/A
9 7/23/82 .9 BS Performance A/A
10 7/23/82 1.5 W Flutter A/A
309
Elegance in Flight

11 7/24/82 1.2 BS Performance/ A/A
S&C
12 7/24/82 .9 W Performance A/A
13 7/24/82 .8 W Performance/ 12 Mk-82

S&C
14 7/26/82 .6 M Flutter 12 Mk-82
15 7/27/82 .7 W Performance 12 Mk-82
16 7/27/82 .5 M Performance 12 Mk-82
17 7/27/82 .8 W Performance 12 Mk-82
18 7/27/82 .8 D Pilot 12 Pylons

Familiarization
19 7/27/82 1.2 BS Performance A/A
20 7/28/82 1.1 M Performance/ A/A 9g

S&C
21 7/29/82 1.1 BR Pilot A/A
Familiarization
22 8/3/82 .5 T Pilot A/A Lost System A
Familiarization Hyd.
23 8/6/82 .9 K Pilot A/A
Familiarization
24 8/9/82 .8 W Flutter/S&C A/A
25 8/12/82 1.8 W Data A/A

Calibration
26 8/12/82 1.8 BS Air Refueling A/A
(A/R)
27 8/13/82 1.4 T Pilot A/A
Familiarization
28 8/13/82 1.1 M Flutter A/A
310

29 8/16/82 1.4 M S&C A/A
30 8/17/82 1.1 BS AoA Cal. A/A
31 8/17/82 .7 T Performance 12 Mk-82
32 8/17/82 .5 M Flutter 12 Mk-82
33 8/18/82 .5 D Performance 12 Mk-82
34 8/18/82 1.8 BR Performance 12 Mk-82
35 8/23/82 1.0 W S&C A/A
36 8/23/82 1.4 BS S&C A/A
37 8/24/82 .7 W Weapon 12 Mk-82

Separation
38 8/25/82 .4 W Flutter 12 Mk-82
39 8/25/82 .9 T S&C A/A
40 8/26/82 1.7 BS A/A
41 8/26/82 1.7 D A/A
42 8/28/82 .7 W S&C A/A
43 9/22/82 2.4 W Ferry to GDFW A/A
44 9/22/82 .7 M FCF
45 9/22/82 2.4 BR Ferry to EAFB A/A
46 9/23/82 .8 W Loads A/A
311
Elegance in Flight

47 9/27/82 1.6 BS 12 Mk-82
48 9/28/82 .9 T 12 Mk-82
49 9/28/82 2.4 BR Performance 12 Mk-82
50 9/30/82 1.8 D 12 Mk-82
51 10/1/82 1.8 T S&C A/A
53 10/4/82 .9 M Loads A/A, 2 fore.

AMRAAMs
54 10/4/82 1.8 T Performance A/A
55 10/11/82 .5 M Flutter A/A
56 10/11/82 1.3 W S&C A/A
57 10/11/82 1.0 M S&C A/A
58 10/12/82 .8 W S&C A/A
59 10/13/82 .9 BS S&C 6 Mk-82
60 10/13/82 .8 W Weapon 6 Mk-82

Separation
61 10/14/82 .7 T Weapon 6 Mk-82
Separation
62 10/14/82 .9 W S&C 6 Mk-82
63 10/15/82 1.0 BS Performance 6 Mk-82
64 10/18/82 .9 T Weapon 6 Mk-82

Separation
312

65 10/18/82 1.0 BS S&C A/A
66 10/19/82 .9 T Performance 6 Mk-82
67 10/19/82 .7 W Weapon 6 Mk-82

Separation
68 10/19/82 .8 C Pilot A/A
familiarization
69 10/20/82 .7 T Weapon 6 Mk-82
Separation
70 10/20/82 .7 BR Separation 6 Mk-82
Practice
71 10/21/82 .6 W Weapon 6 Mk-82
Separation
72 10/22/82 .6 BR Weapon A/A
Separation
74 10/25/82 1,4 M Performance A/A
75 10/26/82 .9 BS S&C A/A
76 10/27/82 2.1 D Ferry to GDFW A/A
77 11/8/82 1.6 M FCF A/A
78 11/8/82 2.5 BR Ferry to EAFB A/A
79 11/9/82 1.0 M S&C A/A
81 12/7/82 .9 BS S&C/ 2 BDU-38,

Performance 2 370-gal. tanks
82 12/7/82 .7 T Flutter 2 BDU-38,
2 370-gal. tanks
313
Elegance in Flight

83 12/10/82 .7 D Performance 12 Mk-82
84 12/13/82 .7 T Flutter/S&C 6 CBU-58,

2 370-gal. tanks
85 12/13/82 .5 M Flutter 6 CBU-58,
2 370-gal. tanks
86 12/14/82 .5 T Performance 6 CBU-58,
2 370-gal. tanks
87 12/15/82 .7 BS Performance 6 CBU-58,
2 370-gal. tanks
88 12/16/82 .9 T Performance 6 BDU-38,
2 370-gal. tanks
89 12/15/82 4.5 D A/A
90 12/16/82 .4 T Performance 6 CBU-58,

2 370-gal. tanks
91 12/17/82 1.7 C Performance 6 CBU-58,
2 370-gal. tanks
92 12/17/82 1.1 BS Performance 6 BDU-38,
2 370-gal. tanks
93 12/20/82 1.5 BR Performance A/A
95 12/21/82 1.3 C Performance A/A
96 12/21/82 1.1 T Performance 12 Mk-82
97 1/11/83 1.0 T S&C A/A
98 1/12/83 .6 W S&C A/A
99 1/12/83 2.5 C Performance 12 Mk-82
100 1/13/83 .8 T Performance 12 Mk-82
314

101 1/14/83 3.3 T Performance 6 SUU-65, 2 370-
gal. tanks
102 1/24/83 .7 M S&C A/A (with spin
chute)
103 1/28/83 .8 M High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
104 1/28/83 1.0 BS SFO practice A/A (with spin
chute)
105 1/31/83 1.9 W High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
106 2/1/83 .8 BS High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
107 2/4/83 1.5 M High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
chute)
109 2/8/83 2.6 BS High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
110 2/9/83 2.3 M High AoA A/A (with spin Weather abort
chute) (WX)
chute)
chute)
chute)
114 2/15/83 .6 BS High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
chute)
chute)
chute)
118 2/18/83 .7 W High AoA 12 Mk-82 (with 48K wheels
spin chute) tires brakes
315
Elegance in Flight

119 2/18/83 2.7 BS High AoA 12 Mk-82 (with
spin chute)
120 2/22/83 .5 BS High AoA 12 Mk-82 (with
spin chute)
spin chute)
spin chute)
123 2/24/83 .7 M High AoA 12 Mk-82 (with
spin chute)
124 2/24/83 .9 M High AoA 12 Mk-82 (with
spin chute)
chute)
spin chute)
spin chute)
128 3/3/83 .5 M High AoA 12 Mk-82 (with
spin chute)
129 3/4/83 1.1 D High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
130 3/4/83 .9 C High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
131 3/4/83 .7 BR High AoA A/A (with spin
chute)
132 3/8/83 2.4 C OUE A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
133 3/8/83 1.0 D Ferry A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
134 3/9/83 2.4 BR OUE A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
135 3/9/83 .9 C Ferry A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
136 3/10/83 1.3 D OUE A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
316

137 3/10/83 1.1 D OUE A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
138 3/10/83 .9 BR Ferry A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
139 3/11/83 2.5 C OUE A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
140 3/11/83 1.2 D Ferry A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
pods
pods
143 3/15/83 1.2 T Propulsion A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
144 3/15/83 2.4 C OUE A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
pods
pods
pods
148 3/22/83 2.7 D OUE A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
149 3/23/83 .7 D Ferry A/A plus 2 ACMI
pods
150 3/23/83 .8 M Flutter A/A with clean
wingtips
151 3/24/83 .8 T Flutter A/A with clean
wingtips
152 3/24/83 .5 T S&C A/A with clean
wingtips
153 3/25/83 .8 D S&C A/A
154 3/25/83 1.9 BS OUE A/A
317
Elegance in Flight

155 3/28/83 .6 BR OUE 12 Mk-82
156 3/29/83 .9 D OUE 12 Mk-82
157 3/29/83 1.8 C OUE 12 Mk-82
158 3/29/83 .7 C Ferry 12 Mk-82
159 3/30/83 .8 C OUE 12 Mk-82
160 3/31/83 .8 C OUE A/A
161 3/31/83 .6 M Flutter A/A
162 4/1/83 1.3 BR OUE 12 Mk-82
163 4/1/83 1.0 C OUE 12 Mk-82
164 4/4/83 1.2 C OUE 12 Mk-82
165 4/4/83 1.2 BR OUE 12 Mk-82
166 4/5/83 2.0 C OUE A/A plus 2 ACMI

pods
pods
168 4/8/83 .9 BS S&C 12 Mk-82
169 4/6/83 1.7 D OUE 6 Mk-82
170 4/7/83 .6 BS S&C 12 Mk-82
171 4/7/83 1.1 C OUE 6 Mk-82
172 4/8/83 1.3 BR OUE 12 pylons
318

173 4/11/83 1.5 D OUE 12 Pylons
174 4/11/83 1.9 D OUE 12 Mk-82
175 4/11/83 .9 D Ferry 12 Mk-82
176 4/13/83 1.1 C OUE 12 Mk-82
177 4/14/83 1.5 D Impact Survey 12 Mk-82, 2

AMRAAMs
178 4/15/83 1.4 BR OUE 2 BDU-38,
2 370-gal. tanks
179 4/18/83 1.4 M Flutter 12 Mk-82,
2 AMRAAM
180 4/18/83 1.6 C OUE 12 Mk-82,
2 AMRAAM
181 4/19/83 .7 M Flutter 12 Mk-82,
2 AMRAAM
182 4/19/83 1.6 D OUE 12 Mk-82,
2 AMRAAM
183 4/21/83 2.2 D OUE A/A, 2 AMRAAM
184 4/22/83 1.7 BS Air Data A/A, 2 AMRAAM

Calibration
185 4/29/83 1.2 D Performance A/A
186 5/2/83 1.3 BR Performance A/A
187 5/2/83 .8 T Performance A/A
188 5/3/83 .6 C Performance 12 Mk-82
189 5/3/83 1.0 D Performance 12 Mk-82
190 5/4/83 1.2 C Performance 12 Mk-82
319
Elegance in Flight

191 5/4/83 1.8 T Performance 12 Mk-82
192 5/5/83 1.0 T Performance 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
193 5/5/83 2.3 C Performance 2 BDU-38,
2 370-gal. tanks
196 5/9/83 1.3 T Performance 6 SUU-65,

2 370-gal. tanks
198 5/11/83 1.4 T OUE 6 SUU-65,

2 370-gal. tanks
199 5/12/83 1.4 BR A/A
200 5/13/83 1.6 BS Performance 6 Mk-82
201 5/17/83 1.1 M Performance 6 SUU-65,

2 370-gal. tanks
202 6/3/83 .9 BS Performance 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
203 6/3/83 .9 T Flutter A/A,
2 370-gal. tanks
204 6/7/83 .6 M Flutter A/A,
2 370-gal. tanks
205 6/14/83 .9 D FCS A/A
206 6/28/83 1.1 BR FCS A/A
207 7/7/83 .7 W FCS A/A
208 7/15/83 1.9 BS Flutter 6 AGM-65
320

209 7/19/83 .8 M Performance 6 SUU-65
210 7/20/83 1.5 BS Performance 6 SUU-65
211 7/25/83 2.1 D Ferry A/A
212 8/15/83 2.0 C Ferry A/A
213 9/2/83 2.2 BS Performance 6 Pylons
215 9/7/83 2.6 T Performance 6 SUU-65
216 9/8/83 2.4 T Performance 6 SUU-65
218 9/15/83 2.0 T Flutter A/A,

2 600-gal. tanks
219 9/16/83 .9 W Performance A/A,
2 600-gal. tanks
220 9/19/83 1.7 T Performance A/A,
2 600-gal. tanks
221 9/19/83 .9 T Flutter A/A,
2 600-gal. tanks
222 9/21/83 .9 BS Performance 6 SUU-65
223 9/22/83 .5 D FCF Tandem Pylons
224 9/23/83 4.0 D Extended A/A,

Cruise 2 600-gal. tanks
225 9/26/83 .7 BS Performance 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
226 9/27/83 1.0 BS Performance 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
321
Elegance in Flight

227 9/28/83 3.8 C Extended A/A,
Cruise 2 600-gal. tanks
228 10/7/83 .8 BS FCS A/A
229 10/11/83 1.3 T FCS A/A
230 10/13/83 1.1 F Loads A/A,

2 AMRAAMs
231 10/18/83 1.2 W S&C A/A
232 10/20/83 1.3 BS S&C A/A
233 10/21/83 1.1 BS FCS A/A
234 10/25/83 1.6 D FCS A/A
235 10/28/83 1.0 T FCF A/A
236 10/28/83 .2 D FCF A/A
237 10/28/83 .2 T Performance 6 SUU-65,

2 370-gal. tanks
2 370-gal. tanks
2 370-gal. tanks
2 370-gal. tanks
2 370-gal. tanks
2 370-gal. tanks
243 11/9/83 1.2 T FCS A/A
244 11/17/83 1.1 T FCS A/A
322

245 11/21/83 1.1 T FCS A/A
246 12/7/83 1.5 F FCS A/A
247 12/9/83 1.4 F Performance A/A,

2 370-gal. tanks
248 12/9/83 3.3 F Ferry to GDFW A/A,
2 370-gal. tanks
249 12/22/83 2.5 F Ferry to EAFB A/A,
2 370-gal. tanks
250 1/9/84 1.0 W Landings A/A
251 1/16/84 1.5 T FCS A/A
252 1/25/84 1.4 T Aerial 6 SUU-65,

Refueling 2 370-gal tanks
253 2/1/84 1.3 P Pilot A/A,
Familiarization 2 370-gal tanks
254 2/13/84 1.3 T FCS A/A
255 2/15/84 1.3 P Flutter A/A,

2 370-gal. tanks
256 2/23/83 1.5 T Performance A/A,
2 370-gal. tanks
257 2/28/63 1.9 F Proficiency A/A,
2 370-gal. tanks
258 3/7/83 .9 W Proficiency A/A
259 3/12/83 1.4 W Handling A/A

Qualities
260 3/14/83 .8 T Handling A/A
Qualities
261 3/22/84 1.8 F Handling A/A
Qualities
262 3/27/84 1.1 P Proficiency A/A
323
Elegance in Flight

263 3/28/84 1.3 T Handling A/A
Qualities
264 4/26/84 .9 T Vibration A/A
265 4/27/84 .8 T Vibration A/A
266 5/1/84 2.5 W Ferry to GDFW A/A, 12 pylons
267 5/7/84 2.7 W Ferry to EAFB A/A, 12 pylons
268 5/7/84 .8 W Vibration 12 Mk-82
269 5/11/84 .6 P Vibration 12 Mk-82
270 6/6/84 1.4 P FCP A/A, 12 pylons
271 6/7/84 .9 P Vibration 12 Mk-82
272 6/8/84 .9 T Gun Firing A/A, 12 pylons
273 6/11/84 1.2 W S&C A/A
274 6/13/84 .9 W S&C A/A
275 6/15/84 .8 T S&C A/A
276 6/18/84 1.5 F ARI A/A
277 6/22/84 .7 F FCF A/A For ECS
278 6/22/84 .8 F Propulsion A/A, 6 pylons
279 6/29/84 .9 T FCF A/A, spin chute For

straps instrumentation
280 7/6/84 1.0 P S&C A/A, spin chute
straps
324

281 7/10/84 1.0 F Locked LEF A/A, spin chute
straps
282 7/11/84 .9 T Locked LEF A/A, spin chute
straps
straps
284 7/24/84 1.0 T Locked LEF A/A, spin chute
straps
285 7/25/84 1.0 W Locked LEF A/A, spin chute
straps
286 7/26/84 .9 W Locked LEF A/A, spin chute
straps
287 7/27/84 .6 W Locked LEF A/A, spin chute
straps
288 8/7/84 1.2 T High AoA A/A, spin chute
289 8/8/84 1.0 W High AoA A/A, spin chute
292 8/16/84 1.2 F High AoA A/A, spin chute
293 8/16/84 .8 F High AoA A/A, spin chute
294 8/17/84 1.3 P High AoA A/A, spin chute
295 8/20/84 .8 T High AoA A/A, spin chute
325
Elegance in Flight

300 8/24/84 .9 W High AoA A/A, spin chute
305 8/29/84 .6 T High AoA A/A, spin chute
311 9/7/84 ,6 T High AoA A/A, spin chute
315 9/17/84 1.3 W High AoA A/A, spin chute Changed ECA
326

319 9/21/84 1.4 T High AoA A/A, spin chute Added Ballast
320 9/24/84 1.7 W High AoA A/A, spin chute Remv. Ballast
Chute
324 10/3/84 1.5 F High AoA A/A, spin chute ECA #3
325 10/4/84 1.0 F High AoA A/A, spin chute
326 10/11/84 1.0 T Locked LEF A/A, spin chute

straps
327 10/16/84 1.0 P Locked LEF A/A, spin chute
straps
straps
329 10/23/84 .9 T FCS A/A FCC #3, ECA #2
330 10/30/84 .7 W Locked LEF A/A ECA #4
331 11/1/84 .7 W Locked LEF A/A
332 11/27/84 1.1 P Locked LEF A/A
333 11/29/84 .7 T Locked LEF A/A
334 12/7/84 .8 P VIP Practice A/A FCC #4, ECA #2
327
Elegance in Flight

335 12/11/84 .8 T S&C A/A
336 12/14/84 .9 P Locked LEF A/A
337 12/17/84 1.0 T Locked LEF A/A, spin chute ECA #4
338 1/3/85 .9 P Locked LEF A/A
339 1/4/85 .7 F Locked LEF A/A
340 1/15/85 1.5 F Locked LEF A/A
341 1/30/85 1.1 T R&M A/A
342 1/31/85 1.4 P R&M A/A ECA #2
343 2/4/85 1.9 P R&M A/A
344 2/5/85 1.0 T R&M A/A
345 2/4/85 1.9 P S&C 6 AGM-65
346 2/5/85 1.0 T S&C 6 AGM-65
347 2/6/85 1.1 F S&C 6 AGM-65
348 2/7/85 1.4 F R&M A/A
349 2/11/85 1.1 T R&M A/A
350 2/14/85 .6 P Gun Firing A/A 510 20mm

rounds
351 2/15/85 1.1 T R&M A/A
352 2/21/85 .8 F Env. Vibration A/A
328

353 2/25/85 1.0 T S&C A/A
354 2/25/85 .8 P S&C A/A
355 2/26/85 .9 T S&C A/A
356 2/26/85 .9 P S&C A/A
357 2/27/85 .9 T S&C A/A
358 2/27/85 1.3 P S&C A/A
359 3/1/85 .6 T Flutter 2 Mk-84,

2 370-gal. tanks
360 3/5/85 1.4 T In-Flight A/A FCC #2, ECA #3
Excitation
361 3/7/85 1.1 F In-Flight A/A
Excitation
362 3/8/85 1.0 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
363 3/8/85 1.1 F In-Flight A/A
Excitation
364 3/11/85 2.4 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
365 3/11/85 1.5 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
366 3/12/85 1.4 F In-Flight A/A
Excitation
367 3/12/85 1.7 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
368 3/14/85 1.3 F In-Flight A/A
Excitation
369 3/15/85 1.2 P Gunfire A/A
Vibration
370 3/19/85 1.6 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
329
Elegance in Flight

371 3/20/85 1.0 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
372 3/20/85 1.1 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
373 3/22/85 1.1 P SFO Practice A/A, 6 pylons
374 3/26/85 1.0 P AGM-65 6 AGM-65

Rehearsal
375 3/29/85 .7 P AGM-65 6 AGM-65 1 AGM-65 Fired
Launch
376 4/4/85 1.2 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
377 4/5/85 .9 T G-Overshoot A/A
378 4/8/85 .8 F Performance A/A
380 4/10/85 .8 T In-Flight A/A

Excitation
381 4/11/85 1.5 F In-Flight A/A
Excitation
382 4/11/85 .8 F In-Flight A/A
Excitation
383 4/12/85 1.7 T S/B Loads A/A, 2 aft
AMRAAMs
384 4/15/85 .7 F In-Flight A/A
Excitation
385 4/17/85 1.0 F S/B Loads A/A, 2 AMRAAMs
386 4/17/85 1.2 D S/B Loads A/A, 2 AMRAAMs
387 4/18/85 .6 F S/B Loads A/A, 2 AMRAAMs
330

389 4/22/85 1.0 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
390 4/22/85 .7 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
391 4/24/85 .8 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
392 4/24/85 .9 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
393 4/26/85 1.1 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
394 4/26/85 .8 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
395 5/8/85 1.0 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
396 5/8/85 .9 D In-Flight A/A
Excitation
397 5/13/85 .9 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
398 5/15/85 .7 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
399 5/16/85 1.2 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
400 5/21/85 .9 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
401 5/22/85 1.1 F In-Flight A/A
Excitation
402 5/23/85 1.4 P In-Flight A/A
Excitation
403 5/28/85 1.5 P Demo A/A
Practice
404 5/29/85 1.2 T Proficiency A/A
405 5/30/85 .9 P In-Flight A/A

Excitation
406 5/30/85 .8 T R&M A/A
Excitation
331
Elegance in Flight

407 5/31/85 1.3 T In-Flight A/A
Excitation
408 6/11/85 1.7 F Proficiency A/A
409 6/12/85 1.3 F Proficiency A/A
410 6/13/85 1.0 T In-Flight A/A

Excitation
411 6/14/85 .8 P In-Flight A/A,
Excitation 2 370-gal. tanks
412 6/17/85 1.0 T Performance 6 Mk-82,
2 370-gal. tanks
413 6/18/85 1.3 P Target A/A, 6 pylons
414 6/19/85 1.1 T Proficiency A/A, 6 pylons
415 6/19/85 1.4 P Proficiency A/A, 6 pylons
416 6/20/85 1.2 P Performance A/A, 6 pylons
417 6/24/85 1.3 F Proficiency A/A, 6 pylons
418 6/28/85 1.0 T Performance A/A, 6 pylons,

2 370-gal. tanks
419 7/1/85 1.4 T Performance A/A, 6 pylons,
2 370-gal. tanks
420 7/2/85 1.9 D Target A/A, 6 pylons.
421 7/3/85 .8 F Performance A/A, 6 pylons,

2 370-gal. tanks
422 7/3/85 1.2 CG TR-1 A/A, 6 pylons
423 7/9/85 1.4 D In-Flight A/A

Excitation
424 7/11/85 3.0 CG TR-2 A/A
332

425 7/16/85 1.5 CG Proficiency A/A
426 7/17/85 1.1 P In-Flight A/A

Excitation
427 7/18/85 .8 D Chase A/A
428 7/18/85 1.0 CG G-Overshoot A/A
429 7/18/85 .8 D Chase A/A
430 7/23/85 .7 CG G-Overshoot A/A
431 7/25/85 1.3 P Proficiency A/A
432 7/30/85 1.3 CG G-Overshoot A/A
433 7/30/85 .6 F G-Overshoot A/A
434 7/30/85 1.8 P Target A/A
435 8/1/85 1.4 CG In-Flight A/A

Excitation
436 8/13/85 1.0 CG FCF A/A FCC #4, ECA #2
437 8/14/85 2.5 D Ferry to GDFW A/A
333
Elegance in Flight
Appendix E-2:
F-16XL-2 FLIGHT LOG
F-16XL-2 Pilots
BR Burnett D Dryden N Newman T Thomas
BS Bushnell F Fergione O Oestricher W Wolfe
C Cary K Knight P Payne
CG Caughlin M McKinney S Svendsen
Test Observers/Aircraft Familiarization/VIPs

AL Aldrich AN Anderson BA Barter BE Berry
BK Beckel BO Bond BU Buck BY Byron
CA Cathey CH Chain CR Craig DA Dana
DR Darner DU Dunn DW Dwyer ET Ettinger
FI Fischer GA Garland GE Gentry GL Gilcrist
GO Goodall GT Gorton GU Gutierrez HA Hall
HF Haeffner HG Hoag HM Hoffman HO Horton
HP Heimple HT Hartinger HU Huete HY Hayashi
JO Johnson JY Joyce KE Kerby KI Kirk
LA Lapidot LR Larson LU Leuthauser MA Manley
MD Meade ME Meschko MH Mathes MI McInerney
ML McMullen MM McMonagle MO Monahan MU Mauley
OD Odgers OL Oliver PA Palmer PH Phillips
RB Robinson RE Reed RO Ropelewski RU Russ
RY Rhynard SC Schofield SK Skantze SM Smith
SP Sprague ST Stott SW Swalm TA Talty
TH Thayer TI Tierney WE Welch YT Yates

1 10/29/82 1.0 W/M FCF A/A
2 11/1/82 1.3 M/W S&C A/A
3 11/1/82 1.1 W/D Performance A/A
4 11/8/82 1.4 O/W Pilot A/A
Familiarization
5 11/8/82 2.5 D/W Ferry to EAFB A/A
6 11/16/82 1.0 BS/D Loads/ A/A
Propulsion
334

7 11/17/82 .8 M/C Loads/ A/A Abort auto
Propulsion transfer to
alternative
8 11/17/82 .8 T/D Loads A/A
9 11/18/82 .7 T/BR Performance A/A
10 11/18/82 1.0 BS/C Performance A/A
11 11/19/82 1.3 T/C Loads A/A
12 11/22/82 1.2 T/D Loads A/A
13 11/23/82 1.1 M/D Loads A/A
14 11/23/82 1.0 C/D Performance A/A
15 11/24/82 .9 T/C Performance A/A
16 11/24/82 .9 BS/T Performance A/A
17 12/1/82 1.0 BS/D FCF A/A New aft control
18 12/1/82 1.0 W/BR Propulsion A/A
19 12/1/82 1.7 T/C Air Data A/A

Calibration
335
Elegance in Flight

20 12/2/82 1.3 BS/W Performance A/A
21 12/3/82 1.3 W/C Loads A/A
22 12/03/82 1.7 C/N OCU A/A
23 12/6/82 1.2 D/C Air Data A/A

Calibration
24 12/6/82 1.0 W/D S&C A/A
25 12/7/82 1.0 W/C Flutter A/A; no tip

missiles
26 12/7/82 1.3 W/D Performance A/A; no tip

missiles
27 12/7/82 1.1 BR/T Performance Clean aircraft
28 1/6/83 .4 W/D FCS and S&C A/A 48K landing

gear
29 1/7/83 .8 W/T Performance A/A
30 1/7/83 .7 BS/D A/A
31 1/10/83 1.3 T/BR S&C A/A
32 1/10/83 1.3 W/D Gun Firing A/A
336

33 1/12/83 4.0 BS/D A/A
34 1/13/83 .7 W/C S&C A/A
35 1/13/83 2.1 D/BR Performance A/A
36 1/14/83 1.2 W/BS Loads A/A
37 1/14/83 3.7 BS/D A/A
38 1/17/93 .9 D/BS Loads A/A
39 1/17/83 .9 T/D Performance A/A
40 1/18/83 1.1 T/D Loads A/A
41 1/18/83 .8 BS/ Demo A/A

OD
42 1/20/83 .8 BS/ Demo A/A

SK
43 1/20/83 .4 M/D Hinge A/A

Moments
44 1/21/83 1.7 BS/S Hinge A/A

Moments
45 1/24/83 .3 BS/ Weapon 12 Mk-82 Short pickle

BR Separation button
337
Elegance in Flight

46 1/25/83 .4 BS/C Weapon 12 Mk-82
Separation
47 1/26/83 .3 M/BR Weapon 6 CBU-58, 2
Separation 370-gal. tanks
48 1/27/83 .5 BR/N Performance 12 Mk-82
49 1/27/83 .5 BR/N Performance 12 Mk-82
50 2/2/83 .8 BS/D S&C 12 Mk-82
51 2/4/83 .8 W/C S&C A/A
52 2/4/83 3.3 BS/N 12 Mk-82
53 2/7/83 .8 T/BR Loads/S&C A/A
54 2/7/83 .9 T/C Loads/S&C A/A
55 2/8/83 1.4 T/C Loads/S&C 12 Mk-82
56 2/8/83 3.1 D/BS 12 Mk-82
57 2/9/83 .5 T/D Loads/S&C A/A
58 2/11/83 .6 T/BR Loads/S&C A/A
59 2/14/83 .7 T/S Loads/S&C A/A
60 2/14/83 .9 T/S Loads/S&C A/A
61 2/15/83 1.1 BR/N Ferry A/A; no tip

missiles
62 2/15/83 1.0 BR/N ACMI Check A/A; ACMI pods
63 2/15/83 1.1 BR/N Ferry to EAFB A/A; no tip

missiles
338

64 2/16/83 1.1 M/S S&C/ A/A High AoA FCS
Propulsion
65 2/17/83 .9 T/AL Loads A/A
66 2/17/83 .8 W/GA Loads A/A
67 2/17/83 2.2 C/D Ferry to GDFW A/A
68 2/22/83 2.5 M/ Ferry to EAFB A/A New paint

scheme
69 2/22/83 .9 T/BR S&C/Loads A/A
70 2/23/83 .9 T/N Loads A/A 48K wheels
71 2/23/83 .7 D/BR Pilot A/A

Proficiency
72 2/24/83 .7 C/BR Pilot A/A

Proficiency
73 2/24/83 .8 BR/C Pilot A/A

Proficiency
74 2/25/83 .4 T/HA Loads 12 Mk-82
75 2/25/83 .5 T/N Loads 12 Mk-82
76 2/28/83 1.1 T/S S&C 12 Mk-82
77 2/28/83 1.0 M/BR High AoA A/A
78 3/3/83 .8 T/ME Loads A/A
79 3/3/83 1.2 C/N OUE 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
339
Elegance in Flight

80 3/4/83 1.2 AN/M Demo 4 AMRAAM,
2 ACMI
81 3/4/83 .8 C/- Ferry 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
82 3/4/83 .7 C/BR Ferry to EAFB 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
83 3/7/83 1.1 C/N OUE 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
84 3/7/83 1.1 BS/T Performance A/A
85 3/9/83 .4 T/D Weapons 12 Mk-82

Separation
86 3/9/83 .6 BS/N Weapons 2 Mk-82,

Separation 12 pylons
87 3/10/83 .7 T/N Weapons 6 Mk-82,

88 3/10/83 .8 BS/N Weapons 2 Mk-82,

89 3/11/83 .7 BS/N Weapons 6 Mk-82,

90 3/11/83 .6 BS/ Weapons 2 Mk-82,

BR Separation 12 pylons
91 3/11/83 .6 BS/N Weapons 2 Mk-82,

92 3/14/83 .5 BS/T Flutter 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
340

93 3/15/83 .8 BS/S Flutter 2 BDU-38,
2 370-gal. tanks
94 3/15/83 1.5 T/DU Flutter 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
95 3/16/83 .7 BS/ S&C 2 BDU-38,

DU 2 370-gal. tanks
96 3/16/83 .8 T/RY S&C 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
97 3/17/83 .7 D/MD Performance 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
98 3/17/83 1.9 C/BR OUE 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
99 3/17/83 .5 C/BR Ferry 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
100 3/17/83 2.5 T/D KC-10 4 AMRAAM,

Refueling 2 ACMI
101 3/18/83 .6 M/S Loads 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
102 3/18/83 2.2 T/HY KC-10 2 BDU-38,

Refueling 2 370-gal. tanks
103 3/18/83 1.0 M/GU Performance 2 BDU-38,

2 370 gal. tanks
104 3/21/83 1.9 D/N OUE 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
105 3/21/83 .7 BS/ Turn Study 12 Mk-82

HO
341
Elegance in Flight

106 3/21/83 .8 BR/C OUE 12 Mk-82
107 3/22/83 .8 T/HU Performance 12 Mk-82
108 3/22/83 .7 C/N OUE 12 Mk-82
109 3/23/83 .6 D/S OUE 12 Mk-82
110 3/23/83 .8 BR/C OUE 12 Mk-82
111 3/24/83 1.1 BR/D OUE 12 Mk-82
112 3/24/83 .7 BS/ Performance 12 Mk-82

BA
113 3/24/83 .7 D/N OUE 12 Mk-82
114 3/25/83 .9 BR/N OUE 12 Mk-82
115 3/25/83 1.9 BS/ Performance 12 Mk-82

HO
116 3/25/83 1.0 C/BR OUE 12 Mk-82
117 3/28/83 1.2 T/GU Performance A/A
118 3/29/83 .9 M/T Performance A/A
119 3/29/83 1.9 D/N OUE A/A
120 3/29/83 1.0 D/N Ferry A/A
121 3/31/83 .9 D/M OUE 12 Mk-82
122 3/31/83 .9 T/BS VIP Practice 12 Mk-82
342

123 4/1/83 .7 M/HU Propulsion A/A
124 4/1/83 .7 BS/S Performance A/A
125 4/4/83 1.1 D/N OUE 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
126 4/4/83 1.1 D/N Ferry 4 AMRAAM,

2 ACMI
127 4/4/83 .7 C/S Performance A/A
128 4/5/83 .7 T/LU Performance A/A
129 4/6/83 .6 D/DU Performance 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
130 4/6/83 1.9 C/S Performance 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
131 4/7/83 .6 D/S Performance 2 BDU-38,

2 370-gal. tanks
132 4/7/83 1.1 T/F Performance A/A,

2 370-gal. tanks
133 4/8/83 1.3 BS/G Performance A/A
134 4/11/83 2.0 BR/C OUE A/A
135 4/11/83 1.2 BR/C Ferry A/A
136 4/12/83 .7 BO/ Demo 12 Mk-82

BS
137 4/13/83 .7 D/N Performance 12 Mk-82
138 4/13/83 1.1 BR/C OUE A/A
343
Elegance in Flight

139 4/14/83 .6 M/S S&C A/A
140 4/15/83 1.2 T/N Performance A/A
141 4/15/83 1.4 C/N OUE A/A
142 4/18/82 1.6 BR/D OUE A/A
143 4/19/83 .8 BS/D Propulsion A/A
144 4/19/83 1.6 C/BS OUE A/A
145 4/20/83 .7 BS/D Gun Firing A/A
146 4/21/83 .8 BS/N Performance 6 SUU-65,

2 370-gal. tanks
147 4/21/83 .9 T/S Performance 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
148 4/22/83 2.0 T/D Performance 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
149 4/22/83 .9 C/BR OUE 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
150 4/25/83 2.1 T/D Performance 12 Mk-82
151 4/26/83 1.2 BS/ OUE A/A

HM
152 4/27/83 1.0 T/S Performance 12 Mk-82
153 4/27/83 1.7 C/D Performance 12 pylons
154 4/28/83 1.1 D/W Performance 6 Mk-82
344

155 4/28/83 1.3 BS/ Performance 6 Mk-82
SC
156 4/29/83 .9 T/S Loads 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
157 4/29/83 .8 T/- S&C 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
158 5/2/83 1.1 T/W S&C/ 6 SUU-65,
Performance 2 370-gal. tanks
159 5/2/83 1.2 BS/N Performance 6 SUU-65,
2 370-gal. tanks
160 5/3/83 .7 BS/N Loads 2 BDU-38,
2 370-gal. tanks
161 5/3/83 .7 T/HG Loads 2 BDU-38,
2 370-gal. tanks
162 5/4/83 .7 BS/S Gun Comp. A/A
163 5/4/83 1.0 BS/D Gun Firing A/A
164 5/5/83 .7 BS/D Gun Firing A/A
165 5/5/83 .7 BS/D Performance A/A
166 5/6/83 .7 T/S Loads 12 Mk-82
167 5/6/83 1.2 BR/ Ride Quality 12 Mk-82

OL Evaluation
168 5/10/83 1.0 C/BR FCF A/A
169 5/11/83 2.3 C/D OUE A/A
170 5/16/83 .7 BS/ Demo 12 Mk-82

BU
345
Elegance in Flight

171 5/16/83 .9 D/KE Demo 12 Mk-82
172 5/19/83 1.0 T/MO Demo 12 Mk-82
173 5/26/83 .5 BS/W H-S Envelope A/A

Expansion
174 6/3/83 .6 BS/ H-S Envelope A/A
HP Expansion
175 6/7/83 .5 T/D H-S Envelope A/A
Expansion
176 6/8/83 .6 T/CR Demo A/A
177 6/9/83 1.0 RE/D Demo A/A
178 6/9/83 .7 M/BR H-S Envelope A/A

Expansion
179 6/10/83 .6 BS/C H-S Envelope A/A
Expansion
180 6/10/83 .5 T/GA H-S Envelope A/A
Expansion
181 6/10/83 .5 BS/N H-S Envelope A/A
Expansion
182 6/13/83 1.4 T/S H-S Envelope A/A
Expansion
183 6/17/83 .7 BS/ Demo A/A FCC #1
HT
184 6/21/83 .5 BS/S H-S Envelope A/A
Expansion
185 6/23/83 .7 BS/YT Demo 12 Mk-82
186 6/27/83 1.0 T/SM S&C A/A
187 6/29/83 1.3 BR/ Demo 12 Mk-82

PH
188 7/7/83 .8 T/S Flutter 2 Mk-84
346

189 7/8/83 .5 W/T Flutter 2 Mk-84
190 7/12/83 .7 W/D Flutter 4 Mk-84
191 7/13/84 1.9 T/S Performance 4 Mk-84
192 7/14/83 .7 W/GU Flutter 12 Mk-82,

2 370-gal. tanks
193 7/14/83 1.8 T/SP Performance 12 Mk-82,
2 370-gal. tanks
194 7/21/83 1.0 M/BS Engine FCF A/A Installed engine
7
195 7/22/83 3.9 D/N A/A
196 7/25/83 1.0 T/S Engine FCF A/A Installed engine

6
197 7/26/83 .9 GO/T Demo 12 Mk-82
198 7/27/83 .9 T/S Photo Flight 12 Mk-82
199 7/28/83 2.7 T/PA Photo Flight 12 Mk-82
200 8/1/83 1.6 BS/W Hinge A/A 9.4 LEF, FTR

Moments 57
201 8/2/83 2.0 W/M Hinge A/A 0 LEF, FTR 24
Moments
202 8/10/83 1.2 T/N Hinge A/A 9.4 LEF, FTR
Moments 57
203 8/12/83 1.1 DA/D Demo A/A
204 8/17/83 .9 BS/ Demo 12 Mk-82

TH
205 8/23/83 .9 T/CH Demo 12 Mk-82
347
Elegance in Flight

206 8/26/83 .9 SW/B Demo 12 Mk-82
207 8/31/83 .9 B/S Engine FCF 12 pylons Installed engine

7
208 8/31/83 .9 M/BE Demo 12 Mk-82
209 9/2/83 1.0 M/RO Demo 12 Mk-82
210 9/6/83 1.0 W/SC Performance A/A,

1 300-gal. tank
211 9/7/83 1.1 D/MM Performance A/A,
1 300-gal. tank
212 9/8/83 .7 BR/C Performance 6 SUU-65,
1 300 gal. tank
213 9/9/83 .9 C/BR Performance 6 SUU-65,
1 300-gal. tank
214 9/9/83 1.0 C/BR Performance 6 SUU-65,
1 300-gal. tank
215 9/14/83 .9 W/S Flutter 4 Mk-84
216 9/14/83 .8 W/S Flutter 4 Mk-84
217 9/15/83 1.0 W/N S&C 4 Mk-84
218 9/15/83 .8 W/N S&C 4 Mk-84
219 9/16/83 1.7 BS/ Flutter 4 Mk-84

MA
220 9/16/83 .8 C/D Flutter 4 Mk-84
221 9/19/83 .7 BS/KI Demo 12 Mk-82
222 9/22/83 .9 T/CA Demo 12 Mk-82
348

223 9/23/83 .9 BR/N OUE 4 Mk-84
224 10/3/83 1.3 F/T Pilot Checkout 12 pylons
225 10/4/83 .9 T/ML Demo 12 Mk-82
226 10/4/83 .9 F/BS Pilot Checkout 12 Mk-82
227 10/12/83 .8 BS/D Loads A/A
228 10/14/83 1.2 F/BR S&C 4 Mk-84
229 10/17/83 .9 T/LR Demo 12 Mk-82
230 11/2/83 1.0 F/BR Engine FCF A/A Installed engine

6
231 11/4/83 .6 T/MI Demo 12 Mk-82
232 12/1/83 1.2 T/P Engine FCF 12 pylons Installed engine

7
233 12/5/83 1.3 BS/T Demo 12 Mk-82
Practice
234 12/6/83 1.3 F/T Demo 12 Mk-82
Practice
235 12/6/83 1.4 T/MU Demo 12 Mk-82
Practice
236 12/8/83 .8 LA/T Demo 12 Mk-82
237 12/8/83 .6 LA/T Demo 12 pylons
238 12/14/83 1.5 BS/ HMD A/A, FLIR pod

DW Evaluation
239 12/15/83 .9 T/HF Demo 12 Mk-82
240 12/16/83 .5 BS/ HMD A/A, FLIR pod

DW Evaluation
349
Elegance in Flight

241 12/16/83 1.5 BS/ HMD A/A, FLIR pod
DW Evaluation
242 1/3/84 1.4 P/T Pilot Checkout 12 pylons
243 1/4/84 .8 P/BR Pilot Checkout 12 Mk-82
244 1/12/83 .2 T/BY Demo 12 Mk-82 Engine surging
245 1/18/84 .6 P/T Engine FCF 12 pylons
246 1/27/84 .5 F/T Weapon 12 Mk-82 8 separated

Separation
247 1/31/84 .5 T/F Weapon 12 Mk-82 8 separated
Separation
248 2/2/84 .5 F/T Weapon 2 Mk-84 2 separated
Separation
249 2/21/84 .5 P/T Weapon 2 Mk-84 2 separated
Separation
250 2/28/84 .5 P/F Weapon 2 Mk-84 2 separated
Separation
251 3/5/84 .6 T/P Weapon 2 Mk-84 2 separated
Separation
252 3/16/84 .8 F/P Proficiency 2 pylons
253 3/19/84 1.1 GT/T Demo 12 Mk-82
254 3/21/84 .9 T/GL Demo 12 Mk-82
255 3/27/84 .9 T/AD Demo 12 Mk-82
256 4/5/84 .6 F/P Weapon 2 Mk-84 2 separated

Separation
257 4/12/83 .5 P/F Weapon 2 Mk-84 2 separated
Separation
350

258 4/16/84 1.1 ET/T Demo 12 Mk-82
259 4/17/84 .7 P/T S&C 12 pylons
260 4/18/84 .9 P/T S&C 12 pylons
261 4/19/84 1.0 WE/T Demo 2 Mk-84
262 4/25/84 .5 T/C Propulsion 2 Mk-84
263 4/26/84 .9 T/FI Demo 2 Mk-84
264 5/1/84 .7 P/MH Engine FCF A/A Changed aft

control
265 5/9/84 1.0 F/P Weapon 4 Mk-84
Separation
266 5/17/84 .9 T/F Weapon 4 Mk-84
Separation
267 5/18/84 1.3 F/P R&M A/A, 12 pylons
268 5/21/84 .8 T/BK Demo 12 Mk-82
269 5/29/84 1.1 P/ST R&M 12 pylons
270 5/31/84 .9 T/RU Demo 12 Mk-82
271 5/31/84 .9 T/GE Demo A/A
272 6/4/84 2.4 W/P Ferry to GDFW A/A, no tip

missiles
273 7/18/84 .8 F/W Engine FCF A/A Installed F110
Slimline
274 7/19/84 1.0 W/T Engine FCF A/A
275 7/20/84 2.2 T/W Ferry to EAFB A/A, no tip

missiles
351
Elegance in Flight

276 7/30/84 1.5 T/P Propulsion A/A
277 8/7/84 1.2 F/P Propulsion A/A
278 8/8/84 1.7 P/T Propulsion A/A
280 8/10/84 1.0 P/F Propulsion A/A
281 8/13/84 2.8 F/P Propulsion A/A
282 8/17/84 .5 F/T Propulsion A/A Abort, lakebed

landing
283 8/20/84 1.2 T/F Propulsion A/A
284 8/21/84 2.0 F/P Propulsion A/A Abort, low P/P
285 10/9/84 1.4 F/T Engine FCF A/A Flex-Line PS14

Man.
286 10/10/84 2.1 T/F Propulsion A/A
287 10/22/84 1.5 P/T Performance A/A
288 10/23/84 1.3 P/W Performance A/A
289 10/24/84 1.0 T/W Propulsion A/A
290 10/25/84 .7 W/P Propulsion A/A
291 10/29/84 1.1 P/W Propulsion A/A New aft control.
292 10/30/84 1.2 W/P Propulsion A/A
293 10/31/84 .8 W/P Propulsion A/A
294 10/31/84 .8 W/P Performance A/A
352

295 11/1/84 2.6 P/W Propulsion A/A
296 11/2/84 1.7 P/F Performance A/A
297 11/2/84 2.3 F/T Propulsion A/A
299 11/7/84 .7 P/F Propulsion A/A No A/B light
300 11/8/84 .5 F/T Propulsion A/A New A/B igniter
303 11/15/84 2.0 W/T Propulsion A/A
304 11/16/84 2.3 T/W Propulsion A/A
305 11/19/84 1.7 P/F Propulsion A/A
306 11/20/84 1.9 F/P Propulsion A/A A/B nozzle

damage
307 1/11/85 .8 T/F FCF, Spray A/A
Bar Evaluation
308 1/23/85 .7 P/T Spray Bar A/A
Evaluation
309 1/25/85 .9 F/T Propulsion A/A
310 1/28/85 2.0 F/ Ferry to GDFW A/A
311 6/26/85 1.1 D/P FCF A/A LNSI, spray bar,

mixer
312 6/28/85 1.3 P/D FCF A/A
353
Elegance in Flight

313 6/28/85 2.3 P/D Ferry to EAFB A/A
314 7/10/85 1.4 F/D Spray Bar A/A

Evaluation
315 7/12/85 1.5 D/F S&C, A/A

Performance
316 7/15/85 .6 D/P S&C, A/A

Performance
317 7/16/85 .9 D/ME S&C, A/A

Performance
318 7/17/85 .7 P/CG S&C, A/A

Performance
319 7/18/85 1.0 P/CG S&C, A/A

Performance
320 7/25/85 .8 F/P S&C A/A
321 7/26/85 .8 F/CG S&C A/A
322 7/26/85 1.0 F/CG S&C A/A
323 7/29/85 1.5 CG/F S&C, A/A

Performance
324 8/1/85 1.1 F/CG Spray Bar A/A Phi ratio set
Evaluation
325 8/2/85 1.5 P/F Propulsion, A/A

Performance
326 8/5/85 1.5 P/D Propulsion, A/A

Performance
354

327 8/6/85 1.4 P/TA Locked LEF A/A
328 8/7/85 .9 D/P Locked LEF A/A
329 8/7/85 1.2 P/D Propulsion, A/A

Performance
330 8/9/85 .8 D/P Performance A/A
331 8/9/85 .9 P/D Performance A/A
332 8/14/85 2.0 CG/P S&C A/A
333 8/14/85 1.3 P/CG S&C A/A
334 8/16/85 1.8 CG/P S&C A/A
335 8/22/85 1.5 F/CG Propulsion A/A
336 8/23/85 1.5 CG/F S&C A/A
337 8/23/85 .7 P/F Propulsion A/A
339 8/26/85 1.2 P/F S&C A/A
355
Elegance in Flight

340 8/27/85 2.3 CG/F S&C A/A
341 8/27/85 2.3 F/P S&C A/A
342 8/29/85 1.4 CG/P Propulsion A/A First JP-8 flight
343 8/30/85 1.1 P/RB Propulsion A/A
344 9/3/85 1.5 CG/D Propulsion A/A
345 9/4/85 1.5 D/CG Propulsion A/A
346 9/5/85 1.3 CG/JY Propulsion A/A
347 9/6/85 1.4 D/CG Propulsion A/A
348 9/6/85 .9 CG/ Propulsion A/A

DR
349 9/13/85 .7 P/F Propulsion A/A
351 9/16/85 1.0 CG/P Propulsion A/A
352 9/16/85 1.0 P/D S&C A/A FCC #4
353 9/17/85 1.4 D/CG S&C/ A/A

Propulsion
354 9/17/85 1.2 P/JO Propulsion A/A
355 9/18/85 1.5 CG/D Propulsion A/A
356 9/19/85 2.1 D/TI S&C A/A FCC #1
356

357 9/24/85 1.2 F/CG FCC Checkout A/A FCC #3
358 9/25/85 2.2 P/CG Performance A/A FCC #1
359 9/27/85 .6 P/CG Engine FCF A/A Installed engine

6
360 9/30/85 1.0 P/ET Engine FCF A/A Abort, data
system
361 10/1/85 2.2 CG/P Ferry to GDFW A/A, no tip
missiles
357
APPENDIX F
F-16XL VIP Flights
Flt Date Hrs Pilot VIP and Position

1983
41 1/18/83 0.8 Bushnell Maj. Gen. Peter W. Odgers, USAF, Commander,
Air Force Flight Test Center, Edwards AFB, CA
42 1/20/83 0.8 Bushnell Gen. Lawrence A. Skantze, USAF, Commander,

Air Force Systems Command, Andrews AFB,
MD
102 3/18/83 2.2 Thomas Col. Melvin Hayashi, USAF, Commander, Air
Force Test Pilot School, Edwards AFB, CA
[for KC-10 refueling]
136 4/12/83 0.7 Bushnell Lt. Gen. Robert M. Bond, USAF, Vice
Commander, Air Force Systems Command,
Andrews AFB, MD
170 5/16/83 0.7 Bushnell Maj. Gen. John T. Buck, USAF, Vice Commander,
Aeronautical Systems Division, W-PAFB, OH
171 5/16/83 0.9 Dryden Col. Michael C. Kerby, UAAF, Commander, 57th
Fighter Weapons Wing, Nellis AFB, NV
172 5/19/83 1.0 Thomas Brig. Gen. George L. Monahan, USAF, Director,
F-16 SPO, Aeronautical Systems Division,
W-PAFB, OH
176 6/7/83 0.6 Thomas Maj. Gen. Thomas L. Craig, DCS for
Requirements, HQ Tactical Air Command,
Langley AFB, VA
177 6/8/83 1.0 Dryden Maj. Gen. Robert H. Reed, USAF, DCS for
Operations, HQ Tactical Air Command, Langley
AFB, VA
358
F-16XL VIP Flights

1983
183 6/17/83 0.7 Bushnell Gen. James V. Hartinger, USAF, Commander,
USAF Space Command, Peterson AFB, CO
185 6/23/83 0.7 Bushnell Brig. Gen. Ronald W. Yates, USAF, Director,
Tactical Systems, Aeronautical Systems
Division, W-PAFB, OH
187 6/29/83 1.3 Burnett Maj. Gen. Richard W. Phillips, Jr., Commander,
AF Operational Test and Evaluation Center,
Kirtland AFB, NM
197 7/26/83 0.9 Thomas Maj. Gen. Harry A. Goodall, USAF, Commander,
17th AF, U.S. Air Forces in Europe, Ramstein
AB, Germany
203 8/12/83 1.1 Dryden William Dana, NASA Research Pilot, NASA
Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA
204 8/17/83 0.9 Bushnell Hon. Paul Thayer, Deputy Secretary of Defense
205 8/23/83 0.9 Thomas Maj. Gen. John T. Chain, USAF, DCS Plans and
Operations, HQ USAF
206 8/26/83 0.9 Bushnell Maj. Gen. Thomas S. Swalm, USAF,

Commander, Tactical Air Warfare Center, Eglin
AFB, FL
208 8/31/83 0.9 McKinney F. Clifton Berry, Air Force Magazine staff
reporter
209 9/2/83 1.0 McKinney Robert Ropelewski, Aviation Week & Space
Technology senior editor
221 9/19/83 0.7 Bushnell Maj. Gen. William Kirk, DCS for Operations, U.S.
Air Forces in Europe, Ramstein AB, Germany
222 9/22/83 0.9 Thomas Lt. Gen. Carl H. Cathey, USAF, Vice Commander,
U.S. Air Forces in Europe, Ramstein AB,
Germany
359
Elegance in Flight

1983
225 10/4/83 0.9 Thomas Lt. Gen. Thomas McMullen, USAF, Commander,
Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-
Patterson AFB, OH
229 10/17/83 0.9 Thomas Maj. Gen. Gerald D. Larson, USAF, Commander,
Air Force Inspection and Safety Center, Norton
AFB, CA
231 11/4/83 0.6 Thomas Maj. Gen. Thomas McInerney, USAF, DCS for
Operations and Intelligence, Pacific Air Forces,
Hickam AFB, HI
237 12/8/83 0.6 Thomas General Amos Lapidot, Chief of Staff, Israeli Air
Force
239 12/15/83 0.9 Thomas Maj. Gen. Fred A. Haeffner, USAF, Vice
Commander, Pacific Air Forces
1984
253 3/19/84 1.1 Thomas Maj. Gen. William Gorton, USAF, Director of
Operational Requirements, Office of the DCS
for RD&A, HQ USAF
254 3/21/84 0.9 Thomas RADM Paul Gilcrist, USN, Assistant CNO,
Pentagon
255 3/27/84 0.9 Thomas Brig. Gen. Jimmie Adams, USAF, Special
Assistant for Tactical Modernization, RD&A, HQ
USAF
258 4/16/84 1.1 Thomas Col. Robert Ettinger, USAF, Deputy F-16
Program Director, ASD, Wright-Patterson AFB,
OH
261 4/19/84 1.0 Thomas Lt. Gen. Larry Welch, USAF, DCS for Programs
and Resources, HQ USAF
263 4/26/84 0.9 Thomas Maj. Gen. Eugene Fischer, USAF, Commander,
Tactical Fighter Weapons Center, Nellis AFB, NV
268 5/21/84 0.8 Thomas Maj. Gen. Robert Beckel, USAF, Director of
Operations, Office of the DCS, Plans and
Operations, Headquarters USAF
360
F-16XL VIP Flights

1984
270 5/31/84 0.9 Thomas Maj. Gen. Robert Russ, USAF, DCS for RD&A,
HQ USAF
271 5/31/84 0.9 Thomas Col. Jerauld Gentry, USAF, Office of the DCS for
RD&A, HQ USAF
1985
360 9/30/85 1.0 Payne Col. Robert Ettinger, USAF, Vice Commander, Air
Force Flight Test Center, Edwards AFB, CA
361
APPENDIX G
NASA Technology
Readiness Levels
NASA Technology Readiness Levels Thermometer. (NASA)
362
NASA Technology Readiness Levels
NASA Technology Readiness Levels

TRL 1 Basic principles observed and reported: Transition from scien-
tific research to applied research. Essential characteristics and behaviors of
systems and architectures. Descriptive tools are mathematical formulations
or algorithms.
TRL 2 Technology concept and/or application formulated: Applied

research. Theory and scientific principles are focused on specific application
area to define the concept. Characteristics of the application are described.
Analytical tools are developed for simulation or analysis of the application.
TRL 3 Analytical and experimental critical function and/or character-

istics proof-of-concept: Proof of concept validation. Active Research and
Development (R&D) is initiated with analytical and laboratory studies.
Demonstration of technical feasibility using breadboard or brassboard imple-
mentations that are exercised with representative data.
TRL 4 Component/subsystem validation in laboratory environment:

Standalone prototyping implementation and test. Integration of technology
elements. Experiments with full-scale problems or data sets.
TRL 5 System/subsystem/component validation in relevant environ-

ment: Thorough testing of prototyping in representative environment. Basic
technology elements integrated with reasonably realistic supporting elements.
Prototyping implementations conform to target environment and interfaces.
TRL 6 System/subsystem model or prototyping demonstration in a rel-

evant end-to-end environment (ground or space): Prototyping implementa-
tions in full-scale realistic problems. Partially integrated with existing systems.
Limited documentation available. Engineering feasibility fully demonstrated
in actual system application.
TRL 7 System prototyping demonstration in an operational environment

(ground or space): System prototyping demonstration in operational environ-
ment. System is at or near scale of the operational system, with most functions
available for demonstration and test. Well integrated with collateral and ancil-
lary systems. Limited documentation available.
TRL 8 Actual system completed and mission qualified through test

and demonstration in operational environment (ground or space): End of
363
Elegance in Flight
system development. Fully integrated with operational hardware and software

systems. Most user documentation, training documentation, and maintenance
documentation completed. All functionality tested in simulated and opera-
tional scenarios. Verification and Validation (V&V) completed.
TRL 9 Actual system mission proven through successful mission opera-

tions (ground or space): Fully integrated with operational hardware/software
systems. Actual system has been thoroughly demonstrated and tested in its
operational environment. All documentation completed. Successful opera-
tional experience. Sustaining engineering support in place.
364
APPENDIX H
F-16XL Flight Research:

NASA SLFC Program
and Overall
Appendix H-1:
F-16XL-2 SUPERSONIC LAMINAR FLOW CONTROL RESEARCH FLIGHTS
SLFC Date Hrs Test Pilot Back- Test Max Objectives Comments
Flt Points Seater Controller Alt
1995
1 10/13/95 1.1 5 Purifoy Collard Bohn- 30K Functional check
Meyer (FC) flight
2 10/25/95 0.9 4 Purifoy Collard Bohn- 50K Loads clearance,

Meyer load/handling
qualities (HQ)
evaluation, air
refueling checks,
engine checks,
flutter clearance,
pressure
differential (P/D),
performance

Meyer flutter clearance,
load/HQ
evaluation,
engine checks,
in-flight refueling
checks
4 11/22/95 3.7 38 Purifoy Collard Bohn- 50K Loads expansion,

Meyer supersonic
laminar flow
control (SLFC)
data
365
Elegance in Flight
1996
5 1/24/96 2.6 7 Purifoy Collard Bohn- 50K Turbocompressor
Meyer (T/C) functional
checks, suction
system evalua-
tion, SLFC data

Meyer T/C performance
and oil bypass,
serve-on-mass-
flow mode
checks
7 2/1/96 0.4 0 Purifoy Collard Bohn- SLFC data at In-flight

Meyer design Mach emergency
and altitude, (IFE); left
T/C startup main
procedure landing
evaluation, gear door
servo-on-mass non-retract
flow mode forced
evaluation return to
base (RTB)
8 2/2/96 2.5 20 Purifoy Collard Bohn- 50K SLFC data at

Meyer design Mach
and altitude,
T/C startup
procedure
evaluation,
servo-on-mass
flow mode
evaluation
9 2/9/96 2.6 19 Purifoy Meyer Bohn- 50K SLFC data on

Meyer leading edge
(LE). Evaluate
River Run for
flight operations
10 2/15/96 1.2 0 Purifoy Collard Bohn- Servo-on-mass-

Meyer flow mode
evaluation, use
of hot films (HFs)
to determine
existence of
laminar flow,
turbocompressor
would not start
366
F-16XL Flight Research: NASA SLFC Program and Overall
11 2/22/96 1.6 4 Purifoy Collard Bohn- 50K FC of T/C
Meyer after shutoff
valve (SOV)
replacement,
SLFC with
hot films,
communication
problem
between
Onboard
Suction System
Computer-
Communications
(OSSC-C) and
downlinkno
suction
12 2/28/96 3.2 11 Purifoy Stucky Yamanaka 50K SLFC off, begin
checkout of
second pilot,
recurrency
training
for backup
controller.
Validate OSSC
system, validate
air traffic
control (ATC)
communications
13 3/1/96 0.5 0 Stucky Purifoy Collard 50K SLFC with IFE, due to
suction system right main
on and off gear door
remaining
down
14 3/6/96 2.1 19 Stucky Purifoy Collard 50K Complete flight
qualification of
second pilot,
SLFC data
with suction
on/off, red
phone training
for backup
structures
engineer
15 3/8/96 2.3 14 Stucky Meyer Collard 50K SLFC data with
suction on
367
Elegance in Flight
16 3/15/96 2.4 34 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka 50K SLFC data
to determine
minimum suction
requirements on
rooftop regions
14 & 15 and LE
17 3/21/96 1.0 7 Stucky Collard Yamanaka 50K SLFC data T/C

to document experienced
baseline revolutions
shock fence per minute
configuration (RPM)
overspeed
with auto
shutdown
18 4/17/96 3.1 50 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka 50K Update loads

envelope, SLFC
data for no
shock fence
configuration.
Determined
minimum g-limit
for suction
during pushover
maneuvers
19 4/23/96 1.4 16 Purifoy Collard Bohn- 50K Determine

Meyer effectiveness of
new larger shock
fence
20 4/26/96 3.1 49 Purifoy Meyer Bohn- 50K Complete Flight

Meyer evaluation of control
shock fence system
configuration (FCS)
caution
lightbut
cleared
21 5/1/96 1.1 14 Purifoy Bohn- Collard 50K Define suction FCS

Meyer distribution with caution
new shock fence declared
IFE
368
22 5/1/96 0.8 0 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka FCS
caution
declared
IFE. First
Combined
High
Altitude
and Gravity
System
(CHAGS)
flight. Had
replaced
electronic
component
assembly
(ECA)
23 5/8/96 0.8 14 Purifoy Bohn- Yamanaka FCS
Meyer caution
declared
IFE. Had
replaced
channel
D power
inverter
24 5/16/96 1.0 1 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka 55K FCS checkout,
loads clearance
at 55K, SLFC
research data
25 5/17/96 1.0 0 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka FCS
caution
declared
IFE, airborne
interface
control
subsystem
(AICS)
box was
functional
26 5/26/96 0.9 16 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka 55K FCS checkout,
loads clearance
at 45K, 42K, and
40K; SLFC data
27 5/31/96 1.25 13 Purifoy Meyer Yamanaka 50K SLFC
data, FCS
caution
declared
IFE
369
Elegance in Flight
28 6/7/96 3.1 31 Stucky Collard Yamanaka 50K SLFC data to
obtain increased
laminar flow
29 6/12/96 2.0 15 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka 55K SLFC data with
lower surface
masking
(unsuccessful).
Tufts and video
30 6/14/96 0.9 8 Stucky Collard Yamanaka 50K SLFC data
masking
lower surface
perforations
(unsuccessful).
Tufts, takeoff
(T/O) delayed
due to pyro
inspection
31 6/26/96 3.0 21 Purifoy Meyer Bohn- 50K SLFC suction
Meyer level verification
of extent of
laminar flow
32 6/28/96 2.0 31 Purifoy Meyer Bohn- 50K SLFC data with
Meyer filled turbulence
diverter
(unsuccessful)
33 7/8/96 2.0 24 Purifoy Bohn- Yamanaka 53K SLFC data
Meyer with gap filled
beneath shock
fence, varying
alphas
34 7/12/96 1.8 15 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka 53K Investigate best
suction levels
at Mach 2.0
with top region
11 masked &
det. turbulence
wedge angle
from HF on
inboard suction
panel
35 7/13/96 2.0 18 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka- 53K Investigate best
Wilcox suction levels at
Mach 2.0 with
top of region 11
masked
370
36 7/15/96 3.0 31 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka- 53K Investigate best
Wilcox suction levels at
Mach 2.0 with
no masking,
varying alpha
and beta
37 7/26/96 3.0 34 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka- 53K Code calibration
Wilcox data
38 8/16/96 3 41 Purifoy Bohn- Collard- 53K Code calibration
Meyer Wilcox data and
baseline data
for shock fence
toe-in
39 8/28/96 2.7 27 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka- 53K Evaluate results
Wilcox of shock fence
toe-in, checkout
canopy ring mod
technique
40 9/13/96 3.2 13 Stucky Collard Yamanaka- 54K Determine
Wilcox effectiveness of
canopy fairing,
get more info
on turbulence
wedge angle
41 9/20/96 3.1 43 Purifoy Collard Yamanaka- 55K Determine
Wilcox effectiveness of
canopy fairing,
get more info
on turbulence
wedge angle,
rooftop suction
reduction
42 10/4/96 2.9 48 Purifoy Collard Wilcox 55K Determine
effectiveness of
canopy fairing,
obtain SLFC
data for rooftop,
LE, and uniform
suction reduction
43 10/24/96 3.2 48 Purifoy Bohn- Collard 52K Using the 60
Meyer shock fence,
obtain data on
the optimum
flight conditions.
Also, obtain
Anderson
Current Loop
data.
371
Elegance in Flight
44 11/13/96 1.3 0 Purifoy Collard Wilcox 51K FCS caution
light for
LE flap
(LEF). RTB
declaring
IFE
45 11/26/96 2.7 43 Purifoy Collard Wilcox 53K Using the 60
shock fence
obtain data for
code calibration
and the inboard
turbulent region.
Also, obtain
Anderson
Current Loop
data and Optical
Sensor data.
Total Hrs and
90.6 796
Test Points
372
APPENDIX H-2:
IN CONTEXTOVERALL F-16XL TEST OBJECTIVES AND FLIGHT SUMMARY
Objectives Number of Flights
F-16XL-1 F-16XL-2
Performance 75 65
Stability and Control (S&C) 38 16
Flutter Expansion Envelope 10 8
S&C (High Angle of Attack) 43
S&C (Structural Loads) 26
S&C (Speed Break Loads) 8
S&C (Pitch Gallop Investigation) 11
S&C (Landing Handling Qualities) 5
S&C (Aft Center-of-Gravity Envelope Expansion) 22
S&C (Inflight Excitation [Random/Sinusoid]) 37
S&C (G-Overshoot Investigation) 6
Performance/S&C (Combined) 13 9
Performance/S&C w/ Locked LEF 24
Flutter/S&C (Combined) 7 2
Flutter/Performance (Combined) 6
PropulsionF110 Slimline Engine Envelope Expansion 32
Propulsion/S&C/PerformanceF110 Engine w/ Large Normal 30
Shock Inlet (LNSI) Using JP-4 Fuel
PropulsionF110 Engine w/ LNSI Using JP-8 Fuel 13
PropulsionHigh-Speed Envelope Expansion 9
Hinge Moment Evaluation w/ Modified LEF 5
Helmet Mounted Display Evaluation 3
Weapon Separation/Gun Firing/Air Combat Maneuvering 14 28
Instrumentation (ACMI) Pod Range
Vibration Test Maneuvers 8
Elevon Loads Survey 5
Environmental control system (ECS)/Drag Chute Deployment 2
Air Data Calibration 4 3
Aerial Refueling 2 3
Operational Utility Evaluation (OUE) Testing 42 29
Special Test Objectives 9 6
Reliability & Maintainability Evaluation 7 2
Ferry Flights (General Dynamics Forth Worth to/from Edwards AFB) 10 8
373
Elegance in Flight
Objectives Number of Flights

F-16XL-1 F-16XL-2
Functional Check Flights (Engine/Flight Control Computer/etc.) 9 15
VIP Demonstration/Practice 35
Used as Target and/or Chase Aircraft 7
Pilot Training/Checkout/Familiarization 18 9
TOTAL FLIGHTS BY EACH AIRCRAFT 437 361
374
APPENDIX I
Pilot Rating of F-16XL-1

DFCS Handling Qualities
This appendix presents the handling qualities tasks and related task descrip-
tions used by the two NASA research pilots in their evaluation of F-16XL-1
aircraft handling qualities with the digital flight control system (DFCS). The
comments, ratings, and Cooper-Harper scores are reproduced verbatim from
the original NASA Dryden F-16XL-1 DFCS report without attribution to spe-
cific pilots. The Cooper-Harper Handling Qualities Rating Scale (commonly
referred to as the CHR scale) is reproduced for convenience in cross-referencing
the NASA pilot ratings assigned to the F-16XL DFCS later in this appendix.1
Cooper-Harper Rating Scale (NASA)
375
Elegance in Flight
Handling Qualities Tasks, Task

Descriptions, and Ratings
Normal Acceleration Captures Task Description:
From 1.0 g trim conditions, the pilot performed an abrupt symmetric pull up
to capture 2.0 g. Pilots also performed 3.0 g captures starting from 2.0 g windup
turns. Pilots commented on the initial and final aircraft response, pitch and
roll attitude performances, and stick forces using abrupt inputs.
Flight Condition: Mach 0.6, 25K:

2.0 g capture from wings level: Full abrupt stick input. Easy to
capture. Bobbled to 1.7 g. Predictable.
3.0 g capture from 2.0 g windup turn: Got right to 3 g with full aft
stick. Easy to capture. Starting to bleed offreally cant get much
more than that.

2.0 g capture from wings level: Expected faster initial acceleration
at higher speed. Was still relatively easy to capture. I did spike it
down to about 1.6 g, then recaptured the 2 g pretty well.
3.0 g capture from 2.0 g windup turn: Spiked to 3.5 g.
Eased off to capture 3 g. Good, predictable response.
Pitch Attitude Captures Task Description:

From 1.0 g trim conditions, pilots captured 5 changes in pitch attitude using
abrupt stick inputs. Pitch attitude captures were also performed using 2.0 g
windup turns as the starting point. Pilots commented on the initial and final
aircraft response and stick forces using abrupt inputs.

5 pitch attitude capture from wings level: Trying to use abrupt
inputs to really capture it. Three degree overshoot and a little bit of
bobble as I settled in on it.
5 pitch attitude capture from constant altitude 2.0 g windup turn:
Moved right to 5 with full aft stick. Very easy to capture. Got
about all youre going to get.

5 pitch attitude capture from wings level: Negligible overshoot.
Three quick half-degree bobbles. Predictable and good.
376
Pilot Rating of F-16XL-1 DFCS Handling Qualities
5 pitch attitude capture from constant altitude 2.0 g windup turn:

Using gyro in cockpit. Cant use HUD. Response seems a bit
quickermaybe due to differences in gauges. Predictable.
Bank Angle Captures Task Description:

From 1.0 g trim conditions, the pilot captured target bank angles using full
stick force. Target bank angles of 30 and 90 were captured starting from a
1.0 g trim reference point. Target bank angles of 90 were also captured using
90 opposite bank as the starting point of the maneuver. Pilots commented
on the initial and final aircraft response, roll attitude performances, and stick
forces using abrupt inputs.

30 bank angle captures from wings level: Nice response. Ten
degree overshoot. Very easy.
90 bank angle captures from wings level: Moderate roll mode
time constant. Builds up gradually.

30 bank angle captures from wings level: Much more abrupt roll
response. On left capture, went to 40, came back with another
overshoot to 35, then captured it nicely. Better on rightdid not
overshoot. Crisp roll response.
90 bank angle captures from wings level: A little bit of bobble.
Two small amplitude bobbles. Seems like a nice smooth response.
Easy to capture.

30 bank angle captures from wings level: One overshoot of about
three degrees on left capture. Pretty easy to capture. Nice crisp,
quick movementeasier than the simulator. Bigger overshoot on
left captureprobably 10 to 12, but came back with no overshoot
to capture. A good crisp acceleration.
90 bank angle captures from wings level: Nice acceleration. Easy
to check with negligible overshoot. Kind of a smooth roll rate. Easy
to capture.

90 bank angle captures from wings level: Moderate roll rate. Easy
to anticipate. Easy to lead. Minimum compensation.
377
Elegance in Flight
90 bank angle captures from 90 opposite bank: Fifteen degree

overshoot on right capture. Performance right on limit of desired.
Increased workload.

30 bank angle captures from wings level: Nice acceleration.
Spiked to just under 45 on left capture, then came back to 30
with no problems. Nice forces. Ten degree overshoot on right cap-
ture. Came back with a one to two degree overshoot then captured.
Nice crisp response.
90 bank angle captures from wings level: Slight ratcheting. Not
quite as fast as expected. Starts off well, but steady state is slower
than expected. Stuck around 70 then captured.
Flight Condition: 18 alpha, 30K:

90 bank angle captures from wings level: Rightcoupled with
pitch. Adequate. A couple of oscillations. Slow roll rate. Left
smooth and predictablecaptured real well.
90 bank angle captures from 90 opposite bank: Desired perfor-
mance. No problems with pitch. Easy to anticipate.
Air-to-Air Tracking Task Description:

In this maneuver, the F-16XL attempted to track a target aircraft from ranges of
1,000 to 1,500 feet. Once the F-16XL was in a position behind the target, the
target aircraft performed a 3.0 g turn. When the target was 30 off the nose, the
F-16XL pilot maneuvered to acquire the target in his gunsight pipper. When the
target was acquired, the F-16XL pilot fine-tracked for 2 to 3 seconds and then
called for the target aircraft to reverse his turn followed by a repeat in the opposite
direction. This task was then repeated with random maneuvering of the target
up to 3.0 g with unannounced reversals. To achieve desired performance in gross
acquisition, the pilot had to be able to track the target within a 50 mm diameter
on the pipper, with one overshoot and no PIO allowed. Adequate performance
required that the target be kept within 75 mm with two overshoots and no PIO
tendencies. In fine tracking, desired performance kept the target within a 10
mil diameter on the pipper for 2 seconds without PIO. Adequate performance
was achieved when the target was tracked within an accuracy region of 20
mils without PIO encountered. Pilots commented on any undesirable motions,
predictability, aggressiveness effects and compensation techniques.2
378

Desired performance on gross acquisitionnice response. Fine
tracking not quite adequate. Pitch bobble - 8 mils.
CHR: gross acquisition - 4; fine tracking - 7.

Could get desired on gross acquisitionnice handling qualities.
Couldnt get adequate in finetracking.

No PIO tendency. Twenty mils edge twice during gross acquisi-
tion. Adequate performance not possible for fine tracking. Slight
pitch bobble. No major deficiencies.

Nice crisp performance on gross acquisition. Able to get it there
without any overshoots. Desired. Right at ten mils or so. Real nice
handling qualities for gross acquisition. Not quite adequate perfor-
mance on fine tracking.

Three g tracking task not doable at this flight condition. With full
afterburner and full aft stick, it is just lagging. Cant match targets
pitch rate. At 45 and full aft stick, cant match targets turn rate.
Just continues to bleed. Have to go off the plane and cut across,
and still cant get the nose back to him.
Two g trackingtwo overshoots on gross acquisition. Once to
edge, once a couple of mils past. Not able to get adequate perfor-
mance during fine tracking. Transitory, two to four mils off target.
Cycles around target. No real PIO tendency.
CHR: gross acquisition - none given; fine tracking - 6 or 7.

Crisper response. Able to get desired performance on gross acquisi-
tion. Could not keep adequate in fine tracking. Would be stable on
exhaust and bobble to wingtip. In a period of ten seconds, a bobble
put it out to almost twice the adequate performance level allowance.
CHR: gross acquisition - 3; fine tracking - no rating.
379
Elegance in Flight

Desired performance on gross acquisition. Crisper response.
Could not keep within desired for fine tracking. A bobble would
put out to adequate performance.
Flight Condition: 250 KCAS, 15K:

Easy to get desired for gross acquisitionwithin 15 mils. Real
smooth, some pitch bobble in fine tracking.

PIO tendency in pitch axis. Similar to analog airplane - maybe
better. Pitch bobble (four mils). Nice and stable.
CHR: none given.

Easy, nice handling qualities, no overshoot in gross acquisition.
Preferred speed range for fine tracking.

Easy gross acquisition. Within 30 mils without overshoot. Most
pitch bobble during fine tracking at this speed range. Seemed to
decrease at other speeds.
Flight Condition: 11 alpha, 15K, Powered Approach

Easy to get desired for gross acquisition. Some pitch bobble seen
in fine tracking; no roll bobble. More pitch bobble with increased
aggressiveness.
Two overshoots in gross acquisition. Sensitive. Pitch heavier than
roll. Energy low. Tendency to couple in roll - impacts predictability.
Nose seems to bobble. Pitch bobble - 5 mils.
Close Trail Formation Flight Task Description:

In this maneuver, the F-16XL followed the tail of the lead airplane with increas-
ing aggressiveness though s-turn maneuvers. For the initial evaluation, the lead
380
airplane maneuvered up to 3.0 g. The desired performance goal was that both the
lateral and vertical displacement of the tracking pipper be kept within 1 tailpipe
diameter from the tailpipe of the lead aircraft without a PIO being encountered.
Adequate tracking performance was achieved when the lateral and vertical pipper
displacement was within 2 tailpipe diameters without PIO. Pilots evaluated air-
craft handling responses during steady tracking and reversals by the lead aircraft.
Cooper-Harper ratings were given for both gross acquisition and fine tracking
based on the desired and adequate performance margins.

Desired performance in steady state. Very nice handling qualities.
Need to lag for quicker reverse. For slower reverse, can get adequate
performance, but not desired.
CHR: steady state - 4; reversals - 6.

No comments.

Able to maintain adequate performance steady state. Adequate
performance not possible for reversals.

Able to maintain desired performance for the majority of the time
in steady state. For a number of seconds after a reversal, unable to
maintain adequate. Probably five or more diameters away.

Can get desired performance in steady state for both longitudinal
and lateraldirectional. Any movement puts me to adequate, or not
even adequate, even if he is calling the reversals. We cant match the
Ps, so we start drifting back. Difficult to evaluate at greater ranges.
CHR: steady state - 4; reversals - 5 or 6.

Noticed a couple of PIO bobbles that were outside of adequate
then got settled out. Not the most predictable thing. Could have
mainly desired for an extended period of time, then have adequate,
381
Elegance in Flight
or not even adequate performance for straight and level flight.

Relatively predictable and able to meet adequate the majority of
the time in turns.
CHR: none given.

Control harmony good. Can see difference between pitch and roll.
Adequate. Very similar to analog aircraft. No tendency rollratchet.
Six to seven mil cycling in pitch.
CHR: none given.
382
Endnotes
1. Susan J. Stachowiak and John T. Bosworth, Flight Test Results for
the F-16XL with a Digital Flight Control System, NASA TP-2004-
212046 (March 2004).
2. A mil is a unit of angular measurement. It is equal to the angle sub-
tended by an arc equal to one one-thousandth of the distance to the
object or target being tracked.
383
APPENDIX J
Acronyms, Abbreviations,
Nomenclature, and Symbols
A Area
A/B Afterburner
A/R Aerial Refueling
A-A, A/A Air-to-Air
AB, A/B Afterburner
AC, ac Aerodynamic Center
ACEE Aircraft Energy Efficiency
ACF Air Combat Fighter
ACMI Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation
ACMR Air Combat Maneuvering Range
AEDC Arnold Air Engineering Center
AF Air Force
AFB Air Force Base
AFCD Advanced Fighter Capability Demonstrator
AFE Alternate Fighter Engine
AFFTC Air Force Flight Test Center
AFFTC Air Force Test and Evaluation Center
AFHQ Air Force Headquarters
AFOTEC Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center
AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory
AFSC Air Force Systems Command
A-G Air-to-Ground
AGARD Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and
Development
AGL Above Ground Level
AGM Air-to-Ground Missile
AHS American Helicopter Society
AIAA American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
AICS Airborne Interface Control Subsystem
AIM Air Intercept Missile
384
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Nomenclature, and Symbols
Alpha Angle of Attack

Alt Altitude, Alternative
AMRAAM Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile
AMT Airframe Management Team
ANOPP Aircraft Noise Operations Prediction Program
AoA, AOA Angle of Attack
APU Auxiliary Power Unit
AR Aspect Ratio
ARC Ames Research Center
ARI Aileron Rudder Interconnect
AS Airspeed
ASD Aeronautical Systems Division
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATF Advanced Tactical Fighter
ATIS Airborne Test Instrumentation System
AVT Air Vehicle Technology
AW&ST Aviation Week and Space Technology
b Wingspan
BART Basic Aerodynamics Research Tunnel
BDU Bomb Dummy Unit
Beta Sideslip Angle
BFM Basic Fighter Maneuvers
BL Butt Line (or Buttock Line)
BVR Beyond Visual Range
C, c Chord
CAD Computer-Aided Design
CADAM Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing
cal Calibration
CAM Computer-Aided Manufacturing
CAP Combat Aircraft Prototype
CAS Calibrated Airspeed
CASI Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute
CAT Category
CAWAP Cranked Arrow Wing Aerodynamics Program
CAWAPI Cranked Arrow Wing Aerodynamics Program
International
CBO Congressional Budget Office
CBU Cluster Bomb Unit
Cd Drag Coefficient
CDC Control Data Corporation
CDISC Constrained Direct Iterative Surface Curvature
385
Elegance in Flight
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

CG, cg Center of Gravity
CHAGS Combined High Altitude and Gravity System
CHR Cooper-Harper Rating
CIC Close-in-Combat
CINC Commander in Chief
CL Lift Coefficient
Cmd Command
CNI Communications, Navigation, Identification
Cp Coefficient of Pressure
CP Complete
CTF Combined Test Force
Ctr Center
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Programs Agency
DCS Deputy Chief of Staff
DD Department of Defense
DEC Digital Equipment Corporation
DEEC Digital Electronic Engine Control
Deg Degrees
DEI Dynamics Engineering Incorporated
Demo Demonstration
det Determine
DFCS Digital Flight Control System
DFE Derivative Fighter Engine
DFRC Dryden Flight Research Center
DFSG Dual Role Fighter Steering Group
DGLR German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics
DGPS Differential Global Positioning System
DMS Differential Maneuvering Simulator
DO Director of Operations
DoD Department of Defense
DoDD Department of Defense Directive
DOR Director of Operational Requirements
DOT&E Director of Operational Test and Evaluation
DRF Dual Role Fighter
DT&E Development Test and Evaluation
DVL Deutsche Versuchsanstalt fr Luftfahrt (Aviation
Research Institute)
EADS European Aeronautic Defense and Space Company
EAFB Edwards Air Force Base
ECA Electronic Component Assembly
386
ECS Environmental Control System

EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
ENGR Engineering
ENG Engineering
Env Environmental
EPU Emergency Power Unit
ESP Electronically Scanning Pressure sensor
ETF Enhanced Tactical Fighter
Eval Evaluation
EWC Equal Weight Composite
Ext Extended
f Feet
Fam Familiarization
FARs Federal Acquisition Regulations
FAST Fuel and Sensor Tactical
FBW Fly-by-Wire
FC Functional Check
FCC Flight Control Computer
FCF Functional Check Flight
FCS Flight Control System
FCV Flow Control Valve
FLCS Flight Control System
FLIR Forward Looking Infrared
FLT Flight
FM Frequency Modulation
FO Flight Operations
FORTRAN
Formula Translating System
FRC Flight Research Center
FRF Frequency Response Function
FS Fuselage Station
FSD Full Scale Development
FSED Full Scale Engineering Development
FSW Forward Swept Wing
ft feet
FTR Flight Test Request
FTW Fort Worth
FW Fort Worth
FWC Fighter Weapons Center
FWD Forward
G, g Normal Acceleration
Gal Gallon
387
Elegance in Flight
GAO General Accounting Office

GD General Dynamics
GDFW General Dynamics Forth Worth
GE General Electric
GFE Government Furnished Equipment
Gnd Ground
GPS Global Positioning System
GVT Ground Vibration Test
HF Hot Film
Hi High
HLFC Hybrid Laminar Flow Control
HMD Helmet Mounted Display
Hp Pressure Height
HQ Handling Qualities, Headquarters
Hrs Hours
H-S High-Speed
HSCT High-Speed Civil Transport
HSR High-Speed Research
HUD Head-Up Display
Hyd Hydraulic
Hz Hertz
ICAS International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences
IDA Institute for Defense Analyses
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IES Institute for Environmental Studies
IFE In-flight Emergency
IFF Identification, Friend or Foe
IFFCS Integrated Fire and Flight Control System
IGE In-Ground Effect
IIR Imaging Infrared
ILS Instrument Landing System, Integrated Logistic
Support
ILSP Integrated Logistics Support Plan
in Inches
inbrd Inboard
INS Inertial Navigation System
insp Inspection
instl Install/Installation
IPE Improved Performance Engine
IPT Integrated Product Team
IR&D Independent Research and Development
388
ISA Instruction Set Architecture

ISA International Society for Automation
ITAR International Traffic in Arms Regulations
ITD Integrated Technology Development
ITEA International Test and Evaluation Association
JAST Joint Advanced Strike Technology
JFS Jet Fuel Starter
JP Jet Propulsion
JTT Joint Test Team
K, k Thousand
KCAS Knots Calibrated Airspeed
kft Thousands of feet
KW Kilowatts
L Laminar Flow
L Length
L/D Lift-to-Drag Ratio
LANTIRN Low Altitude Navigation Targeting Infra-Red Night
LaRC Langley Research Center
Lb, lb pound
LE Leading Edge
LEF Leading Edge Flap
LEFT Leading Edge Flap Test
LFC Laminar Flow Control
LFCPO Laminar Flow Control Program Office
LNSI Large Normal Shock Inlet
LODE Low Aerodynamic Drag Ejector
LT Laminar Flow with Turbulent Bursts
LTV Ling Temco Vought
LWF Light Weight Fighter
M Mach number
m meters
MAC, mac Mean Aerodynamic Chord
Max Maximum
MDC McDonnell-Douglas Corporation
MER Multiple Ejector Rack
MFD Multi-Function Display
MIL Military
MIL-STD Military Standard
MK Mark
mm millimeter
mph miles per hour
389
Elegance in Flight
MPO Manual Pitch Override

MSIP Multi Stage Improvement Program
MTBM Mean Time Between Maintenance
MTOGW Maximum Takeoff Gross Weight
NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
NASTRAN NASA Structural Analysis System
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NLF Natural Laminar Flow
NM, nm Nautical Miles
NPR Nozzle Pressure Ratio
NTPS National Test Pilot School
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
OCU Operational Conversion Unit
OGE Out of Ground Effect
ops Operations
OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense
OSSC Onboard Suction System Computer
OSSC-C Onboard Suction System
Computer-Communications
OT&E Operational Test and Evaluation
OUE Operational Utility Evaluation
P&W Pratt and Whitney
P/D Pressure Differential
PA Pitch Axis
PACAF Pacific Air Forces
Pamb Ambient Pressure
PATS Portable Automatic Triggering System
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
PIO Pilot Induced Oscillation
PMT Propulsion Management Team
POM Program Objective Memorandum
prov Provisions
PS Pressure Sensor
PSI, psi Pounds per Square Inch
Psjet Static Pressure in the Jet Exhaust
PVC Pneumatic Vortex Control
PWT Propulsion Wind Tunnel
Q, q Dynamic Pressure
q max Maximum Dynamic Pressure
R&D Research and Development
R&M Reliability and Maintainability
390
RAM Radar Absorbing Materials

RCS Radar Cross Section
RD&A Research, Development, and Acquisition
Re Reynolds Number
Req Requirements
RFP Request for Proposals
RPM Revolutions per Minute
RTB Return to Base
RTO Research and Technology Organization
S Wing Area
S&C Stability and Control
S/B Speed Brake
SAC Strategic Air Command
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SAM Surface to Air Missile
SAR Selected Acquisition Report
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
SBIR Small Business Independent Research
SC Spin Chute
SCAMP Supersonic Cruise and Maneuver Prototype
SCAR Supersonic Cruise Aircraft Research
SCAT Supersonic Commercial Air Transport
SCIF Supersonic Cruise Integrated Fighter
SCR Supersonic Cruise Research
SEC Secondary
Sep Separation
SETP Society of Experimental Test Pilots
SFO Simulated Flame Out
SFTE Society of Flight Test Engineers
SLFC Supersonic Laminar Flow Control
SLST Sea Level Static Thrust
SMS Stores Management System
SOC Statement of Operational Capability
SOF Safety of Flight
SON Statement of Operational Need
SOV Shut Off Valve
Spec Specification
SPO System Program Office
SS, ss Supersonic
SST Supersonic Transport
ST Start
391
Elegance in Flight
SUU Suspended Underwing Unit

sym Symmetric
Sys Systems
T Turbulent Flow
T/C, TC Turbocompressor
T/O Takeoff
T/W Thrust to Weight Ratio
TAC Tactical Air Command
Tact Tactical
TACT Transonic Aircraft Technology
TC Turbocompressor
TCA Technology Concept Aircraft
TE Trailing Edge
TER Triple Ejector Rack
TFX Tactical Fighter Experimental
TL Turbulent Flow with Laminar Bursts
TMD Tactical Munitions Dispenser
TMT Technology Management Team
TOGW Takeoff Gross Weight
TPS Test Pilot School
TR Transition
TRL Technology Risk Level
T-S Tollmien-Schlichting (Wave)
Turb Turbulence
UAE United Arab Emirates
UHF Ultra High Frequency
Ult Utility
USAF United States Air Force
USAFE United States Air Forces in Europe
USDR&E Under Secretary of Defense for Research and
Engineering
UT University of Tennessee
v Velocity
V&V Verification and Validation
VAX Virtual Address eXtension
VGI Variable Geometry Inlet
VHS Very High Frequency
vib Vibration
VLM-SA Vortex Lattice Method coupled with Suction Analogy
VIP Very Important Person
w With
392
WBS Work Breakdown Structure

WL Water Line
W-PAFB Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
WSO Weapons System Officer
WT Wingtip
WVR Within Visual Range
WX, Wx Weather
x Chord-wise Distance from the Leading Edge
x/c Chord Location (Non Dimensional)
Greek Symbols
Dynamic Viscosity
Angle of Attack
Sideslip Angle
Wing Crank Location Measured from Aircraft
Centerline
Wing Sweep Angle
Kinematic Viscosity
Air Density
Radar Cross Section
393
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the outstanding support and contributions

provided to me by a number of individuals during research and prepara-
tion of this book on the elegant and graceful General Dynamics (GD) (later
Lockheed-Martin) F-16XL.
First and foremost, Dr. Richard P. Hallionsenior consultant, Science &
Technology Policy Institute (STPI) of the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA),
chronicler of the history of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) Dryden Flight Research Center (DFRC), and later the Air Force
Flight Test Center (AFFTC) chief historian at Edwards Air Force Base, CA
graciously discussed his recollections of the F-16XL flight-test effort and provided
access to official AFFTC histories from the time. Those contributions provided
invaluable insights into the flight-test program and were indispensable assets in
describing details of the U.S. Air Force (USAF) evaluation of the aircraft.
Two employees of Lockheed-Martin, the successor company to General
Dynamics, deserve special recognition. Eric Hehs, editor of Lockheeds Code One
Magazine, was most helpful. He provided early GD documents and briefings
on the Supersonic Cruise and Maneuver Prototype (SCAMP) initiative and its
evolution into the F-16XL experimental prototype; much of that information was
original material related to Harry J. Hillaker, the unofficial Father of the F-16.
Robert J. Wetherall, who as a young engineer with GD worked on the design
and development of the F-16XL, shared a massive amount of information from
the formative days of the GD development effort. Robert provided an incred-
ibly informative set of materials, including formal presentations and background
material that he developed for the 2007 celebration of the 25th anniversary of the
F-16XLs first flight. He has continued to provide his insights as well as a wealth of
material on the inner workings of the program as it unfolded within the company.
Another extremely valuable source of information was an Air Force Air
University thesis on the F-16XL program written by Patrick K. Talty, a former
Air Force flight-test engineer in the F-16XL combined test force. His superior
work is repeatedly referenced in the text for its excellent insights and thoughtful
assessment of F-16XL capabilities and limitations.
The Honorable Thomas P. Christie, former Director of Operational Test and
Evaluation (DOT&E) within the Department of Defense and a key player in
the early development of the Lightweight Fighter program, provided valuable
394
Acknowledgments
insights into the political environment as it related to the Air Force Dual-Role
Fighter decision.
Thomas Tom Grindle, Aircraft Maintenance Division chief at NASA
Dryden Flight Research Center, furnished important insights into the structural
layout and design of the F-16XL and the conduct of its flight-test program.
Joseph R. Chambers, head of the NASA Langley Dynamic Stability Branch
in the 1980s and, later, division chief over the Laminar Flow Control Project
Office (LFCPO) during the F-16XL supersonic laminar flow control (SLFC)
research activity, provided extremely worthwhile observations and comments
that clarified certain aspects of the research effort and greatly enhanced this
work. A prolific author and documenter of NASA Langley aerodynamic research
efforts, Joe was closely involved in the cooperative F-16XL development effort
with General Dynamics and worked closely with Harry Hillaker from the birth
to the death of the program.
Gregory V. Lewis, Vice President and Director of the National Test Pilot
School (NTPS) in Mojave, CA, and Russ Stewart, flight-test instructor at the
NTPS, very graciously furnished photographs of their unique two-seat Saab Sk
35 Draken double-delta flight-test training and research aircraft. The author
and editor deeply appreciate their assistance, for the Drakens design anticipated
that of the F-16XL by over a quarter century. The NTPS, a remarkable and
unique civilian educational institution staffed by veteran leaders in flight-test
operations, practice, and methodology, trains test pilots and flight-test engineers
from around the world using the Drakens and a variety of other fixed-wing and
rotary-wing aircraft.
Other former and current NASA Langley personnel who reviewed and com-
mented on the manuscript include Marilyn E. Ogburn, Mark A. Croom, Jerry
N. Hefner, Jay Brandon, and Roy V. Harris, all of whom played significant
roles in the program. The contributions of many other NASA research staff
members, who are too numerous to list here but are mentioned in the body of
the text, were of immense importance in documenting NASA research with
the F-16XL. Their formal publications produced over the years provided a rich
body of technical knowledge related to every aspect of NASA F-16XL-related
research. They deserve a special compliment for their dedication and technical
excellence in support of U.S. aeronautical research.
Last but far from least, there are several individuals at the IDA who con-
tributed their special talents in advising and assisting me in this endeavor.
These include retired USAF Col. Warren L. Jug Jagodnik, Dr. John Richard
Nelson, and Megan McCarty. The staff of the IDA Technical Library was of
immense help in obtaining many significant reports and documents related to
the F-16XL. In this regard, Amanda Talcott and Peter Droubay deserve special
thanks. Carol Ruppe assisted with typing and final formatting of the appendices.
395
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427
Elegance in Flight
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About the Author
Albert C. Piccirillo is a retired Air Force colonel with 3,000 flying hours,
mostly in fighters. His experience includes assignments in research and devel-
opment, ground and flight test, fighter operations, and program management
involving aircraft, engines, guided missiles, and avionics systems. As Advanced
Tactical Fighter system program director, he headed the Air Force conceptual
development effort and the subsequent source selection that resulted in the
selection of Lockheed and Northrop for design and flight test of the YF-22
and YF-23 air superiority fighter prototypes. Previously, he managed several
advanced weapons development programs and headed an engineering unit
responsible for flight testing of uncrewed aircraft. Operational and research
and development duties included combat tours in the F-4 fighter during the
Vietnam War and assignments with the Naval Aircraft Engine Laboratory, the
Aircraft Propulsion Division of the General Electric Company, the Air Force
Flight Test Center, the USAF Aeronautical Systems Division, and Air Force
Studies and Analyses. He headed the C3 Systems Department at PRC, Inc.,
and was a principal aerospace engineer and manager of the Joint Technology
Division at ANSER, Inc. He is currently an adjunct research staff member at
the Institute for Defense Analyses. The author of numerous books and profes-
sional papers, Mr. Piccirillo holds a B.S. degree in aeronautical engineering
from the Pennsylvania State University and an M.S. degree in aerospace engi-
neering from the Air Force Institute of Technology. He is an associate fellow
of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
431
A wind tunnel test model of a modified F-16 fuselage fitted with a forward-swept wing mounted
in the NASA Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel in 1980. (NASA)
432
Index
Page numbers in bold indicate pages with illustrations.

A reference to an endnote is indicated with an n after an entrys page number.
A focus of program and design characteristics

A-4 fighter, 5253n41 and capabilities, viii, 2021n24, 97
abbreviations and acronyms, 38493 funding for, viii, 288
acceleration handling qualities, 273, 376 priority of program, viii, 171
acoustic research and noise abatement aerial refueling
acoustic array and acoustic measurements, altitude for, 12324, 145n37
238, 24041 F-16XL-1 flights, 11012, 307, 310, 323,
acoustic prediction software programs, 237, 373
238, 239, 242, 244 F-16XL-2 flights, 307, 341, 373
airport noise, 236, 237 fake refueling receptacle marking, 117
climb-to-cruise test, 237, 238, 24142, flight-test activity summary, 141, 304
244 handling and controllability qualities during,
F-16XL-2 research, 23744 12324, 124
F-16XL prototypes use for research, 179, number of flights, 124
235 sonic boom probing experiment, 258
F-16XL research contributions, ix, 289 aerodynamic braking, 120, 139, 291
ground-level engine testing, 238, 242, 244 aerodynamics
highnozzle bypass ration engines, 23744 F-16XL research contributions, ix, 289
HSCT takeoff noise, 23536 wing aerodynamic center and aerodynamic
instrumentation for, 23940, 239 pitching moment, 4849nn1314
management of research, 23839 Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel (4T), 4243, 51n32
test procedures and research summary, Aeronautical Systems Division (ASD), Wright-
24144 Patterson AFB
See also sonic booms aerial refueling tanker support from, 124
Active Aeroelastic Wing (AAW) concept, CTF role, 108
19091n8 Derivative Fighter Comparison Organization,
Adams, Jimmie, 360 154
Advanced Prototype Development Program, Derivative Fighter Steering Group (DFSG),
12 108, 11314, 155
Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program DRF flight-test program, 155
development and production of fighter, viii, F-16XL program support, 57
97 F-16XL proposal submitted to, 55
433
Elegance in Flight
Prototype Program Office, 2 quick combat turnaround demonstration

SCAMP concept design, 29 and loading of, 115
supersonic cruise technology, conferences scaled models for testing, 42, 42
about, 1112 weapons carriage and delivery and
aeroservoelastic tests, 95 separation tests, 13233
afterburners weight and weapons configurations, 84
aerial refueling position and use of, 12324 wingtips and, 30
spray bar, 135, 35354 AIM-120 AMRAAM
supersonic cruise capabilities and use of, aerodynamic effects and speed breed
viii, 116, 288 actuator failure, 110
supersonic cruise capabilities without use carriage configurations and ejectors-
of, 202 launchers, 61, 70, 78, 85, 87
AGM-65 Maverick missiles, 38, 42, 87, 128, dummy AMRAAMs, 78, 92n19, 133
13233, 133, 302, 305 F-15E carriage configuration, 151
ailerons F-16XL-1 flights, 11516
actuators for, 32, 71 F-16XL-2 flights, 111
aerodynamic loads on wing from, 72 F-16XL multirole mission capabilities, 97
design specifications and configuration, 68, liftoff speeds and ordnance loads, 118
71, 82 scaled models for testing, 42
features and functions of, 80, 80 weapons carriage and delivery and
pitch control and, 80 separation tests, 13233
roll control and, 80, 139 Airborne Test Instrumentation System (ATIS),
rudder-aileron interconnect and stability and 8788
control, 33, 139, 140 Air Combat Fighter (ACF) program, 6, 7
SCAMP concept, 3132 Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation
wing LEFs and, 32 (ACMI) pod range flight tests
AIM-7 Sparrow missiles, 48n7, 151 F-16XL-1 flights, 307, 31618
AIM-9/AIM-9L Sidewinder missiles F-16XL-2 flights, 33841, 343, 373
carriage configurations, 61, 70, 71, 86, 87 Air Combat Maneuvering Range (ACMR), 114
elevon actuation horn failure and separation Aircraft Energy Efficiency (ACEE) program,
of, 112 18081
F-15E carriage configuration, 151 aircraft industry
F-16XL-1 flights, 11516 SLFC risk-reduction initiative, support for
F-16XL-2 flights, 111 government-sponsored program for, 182
F-16XL multirole mission capabilities, 97 technical risks associated with HSCT,
Falkland Islands conflict, 6364, 67n27 concerns about, 179, 28889, 292
flutter and performance follow-on Aircraft Noise Prediction Program (ANOPP),
investigation, 128 237, 239, 242, 244
liftoff speeds and ordnance loads, 118 aircraft operations and maintenance, SLFC and
risks associated with, 18182, 188, 292
434
Index
aircraft production engineering and Statement of Operational Need (SON),

manufacturing, SLFC and risks associated 15859, 160
with, 18182, 188, 292 supersonic combat capabilities, interest in,
air dams (wing fences), 32, 33, 49n19 viiviii, 1112, 23, 287
air data system Air Force Academy, U.S., 144n20, 254, 254
acoustic research, 23940 Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory
air data boom, 136 advanced fighter designs, contract awards
calibration F-16XL-1 flight tests, 307, 310, for studies of, 11
319, 373 forward-swept wing aircraft, Request for
calibration F-16XL-2 flight tests, 307, Proposals for, 11
33536, 373 Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC)
changes to determine parameters for flight ATIS development, 88
control system, 79 CTF personnel from, 107
F-16XL-2 SLFC research data recording DRF flight testing, 155
and interpretation, 22021 DRF flight-test program, 154, 155
sensors, 79 F-16XL evaluation, 27, 297
airfoils LWF evaluation, 4
NACA airfoils, 71, 200, 23233n32 See also Combined Test Force (CTF)
natural laminar flow airfoils, 23233n32 Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation
Air Force, U.S. (USAF) Center (AFOTEC)
Armament Division, 41 CTF personnel from, 107
candidates for prototyping, initiative to DRF flight-test program, 154, 155
identify, 2 OUE testing, 89, 1089
F-15E Strike Eagle, support for, 15152 quick combat turnaround demonstration,
F-16 System Program Office (SPO), 5556, 115
57, 59, 103 Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)
F-16XL, support for, 152 F-16XL-1 simulation-to-flight flying qualities
F-16XL prototypes transfer to NASA from, test effort, 236
16, 179, 18285 pneumatic vortex control (PVC) research,
Fighter Roadmap, 162 271, 278n32
flight-test evaluation, viii, 27, 39, 70, 103, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC), 155, 157
140, 142, 288, 297 Air Force Test and Evaluation Center (AFTEC), 4
funding support for F-15 program, 171 Air Force Test Center, 297. See also Air Force
funding support for program, 5657, 65n6, Flight Test Center (AFFTC)
108, 171 Airframe Management Team (AMT), 180,
National Museum of the United States Air 18889, 295
Force, 283 airframes
policies and procedures for contractor dynamic pressure (q) and maximum q,
selection, 160 19495, 229n3
Prototyping Study Group, 2, 3
435
Elegance in Flight
faceted airframe shaping and stealth air-to-ground missiles. See missiles, air-to-air
technology, 2 and air-to-ground
HSR program research on, 180 Air Vehicle Technology (AVT) Symposium, NATO
service life of, 61 Research and Technology Organization (RTO),
SLFC and design of, 18182 251
See also structural loads Allied Signal Corporation, 212
air-to-air capabilities and missions Ames Research Laboratory
configuration for, 97 F-16XL prototype design and construction
configuration for, flight-test activity role, 35
summary, 141, 170, 3034 HSR program role, 180
F-16 capabilities, 6, 296 management of, 190n1
F-16 derivative investigations to enhance sonic boom research, 27677n20
capabilities, 7 Anders, Scott G., 205
F-16XL-1 configuration for flight tests, 110, angle of attack (AoA)
11516 AoA limiter, 81, 130
F-16XL capabilities, 58, 97, 163 approach AoA, 119, 121, 163
F-16XL speed and range capabilities, boundary-layer thickness and attachment
11516 line and, 199200
flutter and performance follow-on FBW flight control and high AoA, 30
investigation, 128 highAoA, wing design, forebody strakes,
highAoA flight tests, 113 and flow separation, 4
instantaneous turn rates, 11617 highAoA and nose-down pitch attitude,
OUE testing, 109 130, 139
air-to-air missiles. See missiles, air-to-air and highAoA and stability and control, 13031
air-to-ground highAoA drop model investigations,
air-to-air tracking task, 27274, 37880 4041, 40, 41
air-to-ground capabilities and missions highAoA F-16XL-1 flight tests, 127, 306,
configuration for, 97 31516, 32527, 373
configuration for, flight-test activity highAoA F-16XL-2 flight tests, 339
summary, 141, 170, 3034 highAoA flight tests with missile and bomb
F-16 capabilities, 6, 296 configurations, 113
F-16 derivative investigations to enhance highAoA flying qualities and maneuvering
capabilities, 7, 287 capabilities, 37, 63, 12931
F-16XL-1 configuration for flight tests, 110 highAoA follow-on investigation, 12831
F-16XL capabilities, 58, 6263, 97, 163 nose-up pitching moment and, 31
highAoA flight tests, 113 tail design and, 30
instantaneous turn rates, 11617 vortex flow breakdown and, 33
mission radius, 6263 wingtips and, 2930
OUE testing, 109 APG-63 radar, 159
436
Index
Arnold Engineering Development Center Boeing/Boeing Commercial Airplane Group

(AEDC), 41, 4243, 47, 51n32 F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 204, 205, 209
ATIS (Airborne Test Instrumentation System), HSCT design and characteristics, 17980
8788 HSR program role of Boeing Commercial
avionics Airplane Group, 180
Block 10 avionics, 61 lowsonic shock flight demonstrator,
differences between YF-16 and production 28183
F-16 fighters, 6 merger with North American Rockwell, 200
F-16C/D MSIP avionics, 8283 Phantom Works, 253
features and functions of, 8283, 93n26 SLFC on supersonic civil transport, research
fuselage extension for housing, 78 on, 181
weapons delivery and engagement SLFC wing glove design, fabrication, and
capabilities, 8283, 93n26 installation, 185, 186, 188, 20911, 212,
See also air data system 216, 217, 231n19, 293, 294
Ayers, Theodore G., 182 technical risks associated with HSCT,
concerns about, 179
B Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, 124, 124, 145n37
B-1 bomber, 83 Boeing/McDonnell-Douglas F/A-18 fighter. See
B-24 Liberator bomber, 18n9 F/A-18 and F/A-18A fighter
B-36 intercontinental bomber, 18n9 Boeing Model 2707-300 SST, 181
B-58 Hustler bomber, 18n9 Bohn-Meyer, Marta R.
B61 nuclear weapons, 87 career and experience of, 191n13
BAC 1-11 jetliner, 14546n46 death of, 191n13
BAC 221 aircraft, 27778n26 F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 205, 222
Baize, Daniel G., 180 SLFC flight-test project manager, 185,
bank angles, 273, 37778 191n13
Barnes, Kenneth H. Kenny, 30, 30, 59 SLFC research flights, 36571
Basic Aerodynamic Research Tunnel, 25051, Boileau, Oliver C., 96
250 Bond, Robert M., 334, 343, 358
BDU-38 bombs and practice bombs, 87, 132, bonkers (pyrotechnic thrusters), 263, 264,
305 27778n26
Beckel, Robert, 334, 351, 360 boundary layer
Beggs, James M., 96 active laminar flow suction system and
Bell UH-1 helicopter, 4041 syphoning of, 185, 203
Berry, F. Clifton, 142, 334, 348, 359 angle of attack and thickness and
Bezos-OConnor, Gaudy, 208 attachment line, 199200
Bigi, Bob, 42 attachment line, 22426
Bjarke, Lisa J., 185, 205, 219 excrescences (surface imperfections) and,
Bobbitt, Percy J., 44 204, 209, 221, 23233n32
body coordinates, 232n28
437
Elegance in Flight
highAoA, wing design, forebody strakes, C

and flow separation, 4 C-5A transport, 77
pressure distribution, design, 211 CADAM system, 72, 169
pressure distribution and transition data, Caidin, Martin, 177n68
2012 Calloway, Robert L., 180
pressure distribution during flight tests, 224 Calspan Corporation, 35, 42, 51n32
suction effects on transition from laminar to Campbell, James F., 44
turbulent flow, 22526 canards
suction pressure variation and volume of delta wing/forward-mounted canard surface
boundary-layer airflow, 203 evaluation, 710
Tollmien-Schlichting (T-S) wave, 23132n20 induced drag and delta-winged fighters,
turbulence diverter, 204, 219, 219, 225 4647, 5253n41
turbulent airflow and engine performance, SCAMP concept, 25
206 wing design and, 46
turbulent flow, law of the wall for, 275n7 Cannon, Howard W., 96
See also shock waves canopy, fake, 117
boundary-layer rakes, 247, 247, 24849, 248 canopy and canopy windshield shock wave, 216
Boyd, John, 23 canopy-closure shock wave, 206, 21617,
Brandon, Jay, 271, 278n32 217, 224
British Aerospace Sea Harrier FRS 1 fighters, Carswell Air Force Base (AFB), 288
67n27 Cary, John
Brubaker, F., 47 CTF role, 107
Buck, John T., 334, 345, 358 F-16XL-1 flights, 309, 31314, 31622
Budd, Gerald D. Gerry, 270, 274 F-16XL-2 flights, 334, 33536, 33845,
Burcham, Frank W., Jr., 239 348
Burke, Kelly, 96 Cathey, Carl H., 334, 348, 359
Burnett, P.C. Caughlin, Donald J., 309, 33233, 334,
CTF role, 107 35457
F-16XL-1 flights, 112, 309, 31011, CBU-58 cluster bomb units, 42, 42, 5051n31,
31314, 31620 13233, 300, 305
F-16XL-2 flights, 334, 33546, 34850 CDISC (constrained direct iterative surface
VIP flights, 359 curvature) design methodology, 209, 231n19
Bushnell, Dennis M., 227 center-of-gravity (cg)
Bushnell, Marty H. aft CoG envelope expansion flight tests,
CTF role, 107 306, 373
F-16XL-1 flights, 103, 110, 30922 external stores configurations and stability
F-16XL-2 flights, 33438, 34050 and control, 129
reliability and maintainability evaluation, 115 spin recovery and variation in, 39
VIP flights, 142, 35859 CHAGS (Combined High Altitude and Gravity
buzz, control surface, 194, 229n2 System), 22223
438
Index
Chain, John T., 334, 347, 359 Conahan, Frank C., 159
Chambers, Joseph R., 227, 235, 278n32 conceptual design phase and the rubber
chase aircraft, 308, 333, 374 aircraft, 47, 47
close trail formation flight, 27274, 38082 Concorde, 14, 181, 27778n26, 296
cockpit Congressional Budget Office (CBO), 158,
flight controls, 79, 81 175n34
YF-16 design, 5 constrained direct iterative surface curvature
Coen, Peter, 28283 (CDISC) design methodology, 209, 231n19
Collard, Mark, 205, 22123, 36572 construction, modular approach to, 15
combat turnaround demonstration, 115 Control Data Corporation (CDC) CYBER
Combined High Altitude and Gravity System computer, 169, 177n61
(CHAGS), 22223 control surfaces
Combined Test Force (CTF) buzz, 194, 229n2
concept of and focus of testing, viii, 288 features and functions of, 7981, 80
DRF flight-test program, 154 free-flight testing model, 35, 35, 36
F-16XL-1 delivery to, 103 hydraulic system for, 8485
organization of the team personnel, 1078, spin tunnel testing, 37, 40
144n20, 155 test instrumentation parameters and
pitch gallop flight testing, 103 sensors, 8890, 89
test team, viii See also ailerons; elevons; flutter excitation
composite wing skins, 7375, 73, 74, 95, 290 system test; rudder; wing leading-edge
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) flaps (LEF)
CAWAPI research and correlation between Convair B-24 Liberator bomber, 18n9
in-flight and CFD data, 25154, 254 Convair B-36 intercontinental bomber, 18n9
CAWAP research and correlation between Convair B-58 Hustler bomber, 18n9
in-flight and wind tunnel data and CFD Convair Division, General Dynamics
data, ix, 24451, 245, 246, 250, 251 Corporation, 18n9, 35, 120
correlation between flight-test results and Convair F-102A/YF-102 Delta Dagger, 49n19,
CFD data, 202, 203, 223 120, 120, 145n29, 281
F-16XL research contributions, ix, 289, 297 Convair F-106A/QF-106 Delta Dart, 120, 121,
Navier-Stokes CFD flow solver, 211 145n29, 281
Navier-Stokes equations, 209, 231n17 Convair XF-92A Dart, 49n19, 120, 120
pressure distribution calculations, 202 Cooper, George, 279n36
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes CFD Cooper-Harper Handling Qualities Rating Scale,
model, 199200 27273, 279n36, 375, 375, 37682
SLFC research, ix, 187, 225 Cooper Pilot Opinion Rating Scale, 279n36
tools and design methodologies, costs and funding
development of, 235 Air Force funding support, 5657, 65n6,
computer-aided design/computer-aided 108, 171
manufacturing (CAD/CAM), 7172, 290
439
Elegance in Flight
Air Force funding support for F-15 program, management of program, 244
171 objectives of program, 246
composite wing skin manufacturing costs, vortex flow research, ix, 289
7475 wind tunnel testing, 24951, 250, 275n8
contractor costs, 62 Cranked-Arrow Wing Aerodynamics Program
cooperative NASAGD configuration costs, International (CAWAPI), 244, 25154, 254
62 cranked-arrow wings
DRF costs and funding, viii, 153, 15557, aerodynamic center, aerodynamic
158, 161, 175n34 pitching moment, and flight control, 29,
F-16XL prototype design and construction, 4849nn1314
35, 5557, 58, 65n2, 65n6, 171 aerodynamic loads on, 72
F-16XL prototype design and construction aerodynamics of, research to predict and
proposal, 5557 understand, 44
fighter production funding, 150 angle of incidence, 71, 91n4
flight-test program, 108 camber and twist design, 14, 3031, 68,
Independent Research and Development 6970, 69, 71
(IRAD), 35, 55, 56, 57, 65n2 canard surface placement and, 46
Independent Research and Development chord, 71, 91n3
(IRAD), criteria for allowable use of funds, composite wing skins, 7375, 73, 74, 95,
65n2 290
manufacturing costs, 6162 cooperative NASAGD design efforts,
SCAMP program, 3435 3033
titanium wing glove cost, 185 design and fabrication/manufacturing of,
Tu-144 SLFC test bed, 228 7175, 72, 73, 74, 290
unit flyaway costs, 156, 157, 171, design evolution, 34, 34, 289
17475n28 design specifications and configuration,
Crabtree, Charles F., 59 68, 82
Craig, Thomas L., 334, 346, 358 drag and design of, viii, 62, 288
Cranked-Arrow Wing Aerodynamics Program F-16 derivative investigations, 710, 8
(CAWAP) F-16XL prototype configuration, 28788
correlation between in-flight and wind fuel capacity and, 10, 69, 69
tunnel data and CFD data, 24451, 245, fuselage-wing attachment fittings, 72
246, 250, 251 ground effect and landing performance,
end of program, 246 11920, 144n26, 25558
F-16XL-1 flights, 234, 24451 induced drag and delta-winged fighters,
first flight, 246 4647, 5253n41
flow visualization studies, 244, 247, 249, internal structure of, 7273, 72
249 J 35/Sk 35C Draken (Dragon), 9, 10,
instrumentation for data collection, 24749, 9293n24
247, 248, 249, 275n7
440
Index
leading-edge maneuvering flaps, 32 (see wing twist and camber to minimize drag, 14
also wing leading-edge flaps (LEF)) Creech, Wilbur L. Bill, 149, 150, 151, 152,
lift/drag ratio, 910 155, 166
maneuverability and, 10, 291 Croom, Mark A., 41
maneuverability and cranked double delta Curiosity rover, 232n22
wing planforms, 16 Curry, Robert E., 255
mean aerodynamic center (MAC), 29, CYBER computer, 169, 177n61
48n13, 91n3, 130 Cyborg (Caidin), 177n68
notched apex, 33
performance advantages and limitations, D
62, 63, 6970, 69 D-558-2 Skyrocket, 49n19
performance advantages of design, 62 Dana, William H. Bill
research on and evaluation of, vii, 287 career and experience of, 142, 147n64
SCAMP concept, 2426, 24, 2729, 27, F-16XL-2 flights, 142, 334, 347
29, 3033 retirement of, 147n64
SCAMP concept evolution, 34, 34 test pilot role, 11
SCIF configurations, 1314, 14 VIP flight, 359
S-curved apex and merger with fuselage, X-29 flight research program role, 11
32, 34, 245 Defense, Department of (DoD)
skin friction drag, 62 acquisition process, criticism of, 1
SLFC technology research, ix, 28889 Advanced Prototype Development Program,
supersonic cruise capabilities and cranked 12
double delta wing planforms, 16 competitive prototyping and Fly-Before-Buy
trailing-edge extensions, 32, 33 approach to acquisition process, 13
trailing-edge fairings, 32, 49n19 fighter mafia, 23
vortex camber, fixed and movable, 25, 29 IRAD funds, criteria for allowable use of,
vortex flow and design of, 33 65n2
vortex wing camber, 2425, 26, 29 Technology Readiness Levels and scale use
weight of, 8, 5960, 74, 290 by, 252, 27576n9
wind tunnel testing results report, 3233, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
49n21 (DARPA), 11
wing break loads test instrumentation de Havilland Sea Vixen FAW 1 aircraft, 49n19
parameters and sensors, 89, 90 de Havilland Venom FB 1 aircraft, 49n19
wing-fuselage shear tie stress and De Lauer, Richard, 158
reinforced shear ties, 72 Derivative Fighter Comparison Organization,
wing-fuselage shear tie stress test Aeronautical Systems Division (ASD), 154
instrumentation parameters and sensors, Derivative Fighter Evaluation program, 109
89, 90 Derivative Fighter Steering Group (DFSG),
wing spar failure and wing spar Aeronautical Systems Division, 108, 11314,
modification, 7273 155
441
Elegance in Flight
design tools and methodologies, ix, 231n19, F-16XL anticipated capabilities of landing
289 distances, 58
Development Test and Evaluation (DT&E) landing performance and distance, 120, 121
missions, 108 Norwegian F-16 configuration with, 76
Differential Maneuvering Simulator (DMS), 26, drop model testing
39, 48n10, 70, 91n2, 130, 289 highAoA investigations, 4041, 40, 41
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), 177n61 spin prevention system development, 39,
digital flight control system (DFCS). See flight 290
control systems (FCS) and fly-by-wire (FBW) weapons carriage and external stores, 43
flight control systems Dryden, Joe Bill
doublet, 272, 279n35 career and experience of, 143n8, 183
Douglas A-4 fighter, 5253n41 CTF role, 107
Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket, 49n19 death of, 143n8
drag F-16XL-1 flights, 183, 309, 31014,
carriage drag, 85 31622
cranked-arrow wings and lift/drag ratio, F-16XL-2 flights, 112, 142, 184, 33449,
910 35356
drag due to lift, 46 F-16XL for SLFC technology demonstration,
induced drag, aspect ratio of wing, and, support for, 182
1819n11, 63, 23536, 291 F-16XL SLFC flight project office, 185
induced drag and aircraft performance, 63 ferry flights, 111
induced drag and delta-winged fighters, VIP flights, 35859
4647, 5253n41 Dryden Flight Research Center
ordnance drag penalties and speed and acoustic research, 23744
range of aircraft, vii, 287 Dana role at, 142, 147n64
semiconformal stores carriage and, 62 F-16XL-1 display, 283
skin friction drag, 62 F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 204, 205, 209,
supersonic wave drag, 6970 216
vortex lift and, 13, 2425, 43 F-16XL prototypes transfer to, ix, 289
wing design and, viii, 62, 288 F-16XL research, 297
wing twist and camber to minimize, 14, HSR program role, 180
3031, 6970, 69 management of, 190n1
See also lift-to-drag ratio (L/D ratio) pneumatic vortex control (PVC) research,
drag chutes 271, 278n32
advantages of, 76 SLFC technology research at, ix, 289
deployment flight tests, 307, 373 Spectral Analysis Facility, 197
design and installation of, 7576 Dual-Role Fighter (DRF)
drag chute fairings, 32 capabilities, requirements, and operational
F-16XL-1 landing rollout, 257 characteristics for, 149, 154, 155, 288
442
Index
comparative flyoff and selection of, 127, F-16XL-1 delivery to, 103, 1045n16, 110
153, 157, 162 F-16XL flight-test program, viii, 288
competition and comparative evaluation See also Combined Test Force (CTF)
between F-16XL and F-15E, viii, 127, Ehernberger, L.J., 262
149, 15361, 16467, 288, 29597 ejection seat, 5
congressional restrictions on only one DRF elevator, 4950n24
production procurement, viii, 15758 elevons
costs and funding, viii, 153, 15557, 158, actuation horn failure, 112
161, 175n34 actuators for, 71
Enhanced Tactical Fighter (ETF), 149, 152, aerodynamic loads on wing from, 72
153 control surfaces for pitch attitude, 7980
F-16XL evaluation for, 108 design specifications and configuration, 68,
flight-test program, 15455 71, 82
opinions about competition, 16467 features and functions of, 7980, 80
origins of the program, 15059 hinge moment limitation, 123
OUE testing, 11314 installation of improved, 113
performance thresholds and goals, 15859 loads survey flight tests, 113, 307, 373
procurement quantities, 157, 158, 161, pitch control and, 28, 7980
174n27, 175n34 position when landing gear lowered, 85
prototype program for development of, 3 roll control and, 28, 80
selection of aircraft for, viii, 3, 61, 1089, SCAMP concept, 28, 31
16167, 161, 288 Ellis, J.A., 36
separate and independent evaluation for emergencies, in-flight, 222, 223
DRF criteria, 15859 emergency power unit (EPU), 21213, 232n22
source selection process and evaluation engine inlet
criteria, 15354, 15961 fixed-geometry inlet, 28
thrust-to-weight ratio and selection of, 61 fuselage lengthening and, 78
unit flyaway costs, 156, 157, 171, inlet diverter, 78, 206, 208
17475n28 shock wave, 21619, 218, 223, 29394
Dynamic Engineering, Inc. (DEI), 265, 277n22 variable-geometry inlet (VGI), 26, 28, 29, 29
DEI vane excitation system, 263, 26470, See also Large Normal Shock Inlet (LNSI)
269, 277n22, 278n28 engines
dynamic pressure (q), 19495, 229n3 FCF F-16XL-2 flight tests, 34752, 357
highnozzle bypass ration engines, acoustic
E research with, 23744
EADS, 253 turbulent airflow and engine performance,
Edwards Air Force Base (AFB) 206
altitude and temperature at and takeoff YF-16 turbofan engine, 5
and landing performance of aircraft, 118, See also F100-PW-200 engines; F110-GE
145n30 engine entries
443
Elegance in Flight
Enhanced Tactical Fighter (ETF), 149, 152, 153 DRF and development of, 15059
environmental control system (ECS), 307, 373 DRF costs and funding, 15557, 158, 161,
environmental cooling system, 78 175n34
Ettinger, Robert, 334, 351, 357, 360, 361 DRF procurement quantities, 158, 161,
Euler angles, 219, 232n28 175n34
European Space Agency, 27576n9 DRF selection and production, viii, 3, 61,
excrescences (surface imperfections), 204, 108, 109, 16167, 161, 288
209, 221, 23233n32 end of production, 176n46
external stores. See weapons carriage and F-16E as complimentary to F-15E, viii,
external stores 15758
FAST Packs, 150, 151
F first production aircraft delivery and flight,
F-4 Phantom II, 48n7, 104n9, 109, 110, 114, 161, 176n46
155 number of aircraft produced, 176n46
F-5 fighters, 109, 114, 281 production of, viii, 109
F9F-6 Cougar, 49n19 separate and independent evaluation for
F11F-1 Tiger, 49n19 DRF criteria, 15859
F-15 Advanced Fighter Capability Demonstrator Strike Eagle name, 151
(AFCD), 15152, 159 takeoff gross weight, 157
F-15 Eagle fighter unit flyaway costs, 156, 157, 171,
AIM-9L missile use, 63 17475n28
capabilities and operational characteristics, variants for foreign air forces, 176n46
150 weapons carriage and release pylons, 151,
conformal weapons carriage, 48n7 166
dynamic ground effects research, 258 F-16A Fighting Falcon (Viper)
HIDEC program, 147n64 avionics, 82
interest in alternative to, 23 cockpit and flight controls, 79
lowsonic boom flight configuration, 281 engine for, 83
production of, 150, 173n5 number produced, 6
F-15E Strike Eagle fighter operational use by air forces, 6
Air Force funding support for, 171 photo of, 6
Air Force interest in, viii production of, 6
Air Force support for, 15152 service life of airframe, 61
capabilities and operational characteristics, speed capabilities, 58
151, 15253 success of design of, 6
competition and comparative evaluation takeoff and landing distances, 58
between F-16XL and, viii, 127, 149, thrust-to-weight ratio, 114
15361, 16467, 288, 29597 weight of, 6061
competitive prototyping program for F-16XL F-16B fighters, 79, 114
and, 57
444
Index
F-16C/D fighters F-16XL-1 rollout ceremony, 97

digital flight control system for, 27074 flight testing, 147n64
Dryden flight test of, 143n8 flutter testing, 36
LNSI use on, 84 lowsonic boom flight configuration, 281
Multi-Stage Improvement Program (MSIP), modifications and upgrades to, 6
8283, 154, 167, 168 modular construction approach, 15
speed and range capabilities of, 116 multirole mission of, vii, 287
F-16E/F fighter Norwegian F-16 drag chute configuration, 76
competition and comparative evaluation number produced, 6
between F-15E, viii, 1089, 127, 149, OUE testing of F-16XL, 114
15361, 16467, 288, 29597 preproduction aircraft, 6
competitive prototyping program for F-15E prototype leading to design and production
and, 57 of, 2 (see also YF-16 fighter)
designations, 143n1 speed and range capabilities of, vii, 116, 287
DRF costs and funding, 15557, 158, Stores configuration Switch CAT III mode,
175n34 271, 279
DRF decision, basis for, 16167 success of design of, 6
DRF procurement quantities, 158, 175n34 TAC use of, 9697
F-16E as complimentary to F-15E, viii, turning performance, 11617
15758 vortex lift research, 44
F-16F FSD effort, 16769, 168 working relationship between GD and NASA
separate and independent evaluation for during development of, vii, 28788
DRF criteria, 15859 F-16 System Program Office (SPO), 5556, 57,
single-seat fighter development, 16162 59, 103
takeoff gross weight, 157 F-16XL-1 single-seat prototype
unit flyaway costs, 156, 157, 171, active-suction and passive laminar flow
17475n28 wing glove, design, installation, and
See also F-16XL-1 single-seat prototype; testing, 185, 192, 193, 199202, 199,
F-16XL-2 two-seat flight demonstrator 200, 201, 202, 205, 210
F-16ES (Enhanced Strategic) aircraft, 164, CAWAP research, 234
176n54 close formation ferry flight, 11112
F-16 fighter delivery to Edwards, 103, 1045n16, 110
AIM-9L missile use, 63 design and fabrication/manufacturing of,
aircraft for F-16XL program, 55, 56, 57, 6162, 7679, 77, 95
7679, 76, 77 design specifications and configuration, 70
deep stall issues, 130 digital flight control system research, 184,
derivative investigations, 711, 8, 11, 15, 27074, 271, 272, 292
29697, 432 display of, 283
design and capabilities of, vii, 287, 296 dynamic ground effects research, 25558
differences between prototype and, 6 engine for. See F100-PW-200 engines
445
Elegance in Flight
F-16 aircraft to build, 57 wing spar failure and wing spar

ferry flights, 11112 modification, 7273
fin doubler modification, 75 F-16XL-2 two-seat flight demonstrator
first flight, vi, 98103, 99, 104n1, 104n9, active-suction wing glove, design,
140, 286, 288 installation, and testing, 178, 185,
first flight certificate, 100, 104n12, 299 18687, 186, 188, 193, 2045, 205,
flight-test activity summary, 141, 170, 206, 20916, 210, 214, 215, 226
3035 close formation ferry flight, 11112
flight-test log, 140, 30933 delivery of, 108
landing rollout with drag chute, 257 design and fabrication/manufacturing of,
last time moving under own power, 280, 6162, 7679, 76, 77, 78
282, 282 engines for, 93n28, 184, 238 (see also
lowsonic shock flight demonstrator, F110-GE-100 engine; F110-GE-100
28183 Slimline engine)
modifications for SLFC research, 184, 193, F-16 aircraft to build, 57
292 ferry flights, 11112
NASA number assigned to, 184, 184 final flight, 136, 140, 169, 17172
pneumatic vortex control (PVC) research, fin doubler modification, 75
271, 274, 278n32, 292 first flight, 111
removal from storage and transfer to NASA, flight-test activity summary, 141, 170,
16, 179, 18285 3035
retirement of, 283 flight-test engineer in second seat,
rollout ceremony, 94, 9598, 98, 104n1 advantages of having, 203
serial number, 6162, 76 flight-test log, 140, 33457
shock waves and laminar flow, 187 flutter excitation system test, 26370, 269,
simulation-to-flight flying qualities test 278n28
effort, 236 modifications for SLFC research, 185, 193
SLFC research, 199202, 202, 292 NASA number assigned to, 18485
sonic boom probing experiment and passive leading-edge glove testing, 186,
maneuvers, 184, 25862, 259, 292 204, 205, 206, 206, 207, 207
static testing, 95, 95 removal from storage and transfer to NASA,
storage of prototypes at end of program, viii, 16, 179, 18285
109, 136, 140, 169, 172, 288 retirement of, 283
takeoff performance, 118 serial number, 6162, 77
taxi test, 280, 282, 282 shock waves and laminar flow, 187,
test objectives and flight summary, 3068, 21619, 216, 217
37374 SLFC design flight conditions, 21011,
vortex flap flight-test effort, 23537 22324, 225
weapons carriage and external stores, 70 SLFC flight-test results, 22326, 226
weight of, 6061, 111 SLFC follow-on investigations, 2034
446
Index
SLFC research, 190n4, 20226, 29294 final flight, 136, 140, 169, 17172
SLFC research flights, 185, 22126, 221 first chips ceremony, 59
SLFC simulator flights, 2089 follow-on studies, 16
SLFC test planning and management, funding for, viii
2045 HSCT comparison to, 227, 227
SLFC wind tunnel testing, 185, 205, 2078 initiative to design and develop, vii, 28788
storage of prototypes at end of program, viii, last time moving under own power, 280,
109, 136, 140, 169, 172, 288 282, 282
supersonic cruise capabilities and lessons learned, 28991
performance, 144n16 multirole mission of, 97
takeoff performance, 118 NASA flight research with, 179
test objectives and flight summary, 3068, NASA support for design and development
37374 of, 28991
weight of, 61, 111 personnel and management of program,
wing spar modification, 73 5556, 58, 61
F-16XL aircraft proposal for design and construction of two
Air Force need for, 56 flight-test prototypes, 5558
Air Force procurement of, push for, 96 prototype program for development of, 23
Air Force support for, 152 retirement of, 283
anticipated capabilities, 5758, 15253 SCAMP design and development of, 16,
articles written about, 142 2435, 34
component fabrication, 59 schedule for program, 5862, 60
contributions to research, ix, 289, 29597 support and funding for development,
controlled vortex lift and design of, 45 28788
costs and funding for prototype design and technical data and reports related to
construction, 35, 5557, 58, 65n2, 65n6, program, ix, 289
171 termination of development program, viii
design and fabrication/manufacturing of, unit flyaway costs, 171
35, 6162, 7179, 28991 wind tunnel models, 3536, 35, 37, 3940,
design and manufacturing drawings, 59 39
design evolution, 34, 34 working relationship between GD and NASA,
design specifications and configuration, 68, joint SCAMP research, and prototype
6970, 69, 82 configurations for, vii, 28788
end of program, ix, 108, 122, 127, 136, XL suffix, story behind, 7
17172, 289 F-18 fighter, 281
engineering drawings, 59, 66n17 F-22A Raptor, 2021n24, 97, 97, 116, 171,
enthusiastic following for, 172 17475n28
F-16 aircraft for program, 55, 56, 57 F100-PW-200 engines, 57, 66n21, 76, 8384,
F-16 derivative investigations and design of, 110, 116, 118, 126, 166, 281
711, 1516, 29697 F101 Derivative Fighter Engine (DFE), 83
447
Elegance in Flight
F-102A/YF-102 Delta Dagger, 49n19, 120, F-111/F-111F Aardvark

120, 145n29, 281 capabilities and operational characteristics,
F-104 aircraft, 147n64, 258 149, 150
F-106A/QF-106 Delta Dart, 120, 121, 145n29, development and production of, 17n1, 18n9
281 joint service use of, 17n1
F110-GE-100 engine multipurpose mission of, 17n1
development of, 83 photo of, 148
DRF proposal, 66n21 replacement of, 149, 155, 287, 288
F-16 use of, 77 upgrade of, 150
F-16XL-2 engine, 66n21, 184 F-117/F-117A stealth attack aircraft, viii, 2,
features and functions of, 8384 149, 288
flight-test evaluation, 109 F/A-18 and F/A-18A fighter
P&W F100 engine compared to, 66n21, AAW research with, 19091n8
8384, 116 design and development of, 2, 4, 44
reliability and maintainability evaluation, 126 F/A-18 HARV program, 147n64
takeoff performance with, 118 sonic boom probing experiment, 260
testing of, viii Fairey FD.2 aircraft, 27778n26
F110-GE-100 Slimline engine Falkland Islands conflict, 6364, 67n27
DRF competition and use of, 166 FAST Packs (Fuel and Sensor Tactical
envelope expansion flight tests and Packages), 150, 151
evaluation of, 134, 135, 307, 373 Federal Acquisition Regulations, U.S. (FARs),
flight-test evaluation, 13336 65n2
fuel-to-air ratio, 135, 136 fences, shock wave diverter/blocker, 204,
installation of, 83 2067, 207, 208, 208, 21619, 218, 224
LNSI testing, 109, 13536, 202, 307, 373 fences, wing (air dams), 32, 33, 49n19
Pressure Sensor 14 (PS14) issues, 134 Fergione, John
replacement with backup engine, 136 career and experience of, 146n52
spray bar issues, 135, 35354 F-16XL-1 flights, 309, 32225, 32733
F110-GE-129 engine F-16XL-2 flights, 134, 135, 334, 34957
acoustic research with, 23744 F110-GE-100 Slimline engine evaluation,
F-16XL-2 installation, 93n28, 184, 202, 134, 135
238, 292 Ferris, Keith, 177n62
instrumentation on, 23940, 239 Ferris camouflage scheme, 169, 169, 177n62
lowsonic shock flight demonstrator use ferry flights
of, 281 F-16XL-1 delivery to Edwards, 103,
SLFC design flight conditions, 21011 1045n16, 110
supercruise performance with, 202 F-16XL-1 flights, 11112
supersonic cruise capabilities and F-16XL-1 flight-test log, 309, 311, 313,
performance, 144n16 31619, 321, 32324, 333
F110-GE-132 engine, 93n28
448
Index
F-16XL-2 final flight, 136, 140, 169, features and functions of, 7981, 80, 81,
17172 290
F-16XL-2 flights, 108, 109, 11112 flight-test evaluation and development of,
F-16XL-2 flight-test log, 334, 33843, 109
351, 35354, 357 integrated fire and flight control system
ferry range, 116 (IFFCS), 26
number of flights, 307, 373 issues and resolutions, 13940
structural modifications, flights to GD for, 75 modification of F-16 FBW system, 30, 79
fighter aircraft pitch gallop and conflict in, 103
advanced fighter designs, contract awards pitch override system, 81, 290
for studies of, 11 redesign of and airspeed capabilities, 123
GD supercruise fighter concept design reliability of, 12526
effort, 15 self-test function, 79
supersonic combat capabilities, interest in, sidestick controller, 5, 81, 81
viiviii, 1112, 15, 2021n24, 23, 287 software development, 37, 70
fighter mafia, 23 testing of, 81, 290
Finley, Dennis B., 46 YF-16 quadruple-redundant FBW system, 5
fins, ventral and dorsal, 75 YF-16 taxi test, PIO, and FCS gains, 5
Fischer, Eugene, 334, 351, 360 flight envelope
Fischer, Michael C., 185, 203, 205 aft CoG envelope expansion flight tests,
Fisher, Bruce D., 244 306, 373
Fisher, David F., 244 DFCS testing restrictions on, 27172, 271
flight control surfaces. See control surfaces envelope expansion flights, 113
flight control systems (FCS) and fly-by-wire F-16XL-1 envelope expansion flights, 103,
(FBW) flight control systems 110
automatic spin prevention system, 39, 70 F100 engine envelope expansion flight
checking and preparations for flight testing, tests, 307, 373
95 flutter envelope expansion flight tests and
cockpit installation, 79, 81 evaluation of, 306, 373
control laws, 79, 140 high-speed envelope expansion flight tests,
differences between YF-16 and production 307, 373
F-16 fighters, 6 SLFC research flights, 19395, 198, 198,
digital flight control system (DFCS), F-16XL 199, 203, 21011, 222, 22324
prototypes use for research on, 179, 184, flight readiness reviews, 95
246, 27074, 271, 272, 292 flight-test program
digital flight control system (DFCS), pilots AFFTC evaluation, 27, 297
comments on handling qualities, 27274, Air Force flight-test evaluation, viii, 27, 39,
37582 70, 103, 140, 142, 288, 297
FBW flight control vs. conventional controls, costs and funding, 108
33 criticism about, 127
449
Elegance in Flight
CTF approach to evaluation, viii, 288 F-16XL-1 flights, 127, 306, 307, 30914,
CTF test team, viii 31721, 329, 373
discrepancies, flights without, 140, 141 F-16XL-2 flights, 113, 127, 306, 307,
DRF evaluation, 108 34041, 34648, 373
Edwards AFB flight-test program, viii, F-16XL prototypes use for research, 179,
11026, 288 235
F-16 aircraft for, 55, 56, 57 in-flight flutter testing, 263 (see also flutter
F-16XL-1 flight-test log, 140, 30933 excitation system test)
F-16XL-2 flight-test log, 140, 33457 follow-on investigation, 128
first flight, schedule for, 59, 104n1 onset speed, 193
flight-test activity summary, 141, 3035 SLFC wing gloves and, 19398
follow-on flight-test activities, 12833 structural failure from, 36, 4950n24
limited continuing testing and end of testing test instrumentation parameters, 8889
program, viii, 288 flutter excitation system test, 235, 26370
number of flight hours, 112, 136, 140, 141, characteristics of system, 263
170, 304 DEI vane excitation system, 263, 26470,
number of flights, viii, 59, 103, 108, 109, 269, 277n22, 278n28
11213, 114, 115, 127, 136, 140, 141, development and patenting of excitation
169, 170, 288 system, 263
objectives and flight summary, 3068, objectives of testing and summary of
37374 results, 263, 265, 26970
pace of, 11214 oscillating aerodynamic vanes, 263, 264,
personnel and management of program, 278n27
5556, 58, 61 pilot-induced control surface pulses, 263
Phase I testing, viii, 1089, 11314, pyrotechnic thrusters (bonkers), 263, 264,
11517, 12728 27778n26
Phase II testing Development (Extended) rotary inertial exciter, 263, 264, 277n25
Flight Test, 109, 11314 sinusoidal control surface excitation, 263,
Phase III Pre-FSED Flight Test, 109 264
phases and objectives, 1089 test procedures, 26669
preparations for, 95 fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control systems. See
proposal for, 5558 flight control systems (FCS) and fly-by-wire
resources and funding for, 5557, 58, 65n2 (FBW) flight control systems
schedule for, 56, 5862, 60 forebody strakes, 4, 78
support and funding for, viiviii, 288 formation flight
flow visualization techniques, 236 close formation ferry flight, 11112
flutter close trail formation flight, 27274, 38082
concept of, 36 handling and controllability qualities during,
effects of, 36 12324, 27274, 38182
forward-looking infrared (FLIR) system, 176n54
450
Index
forward-swept wing aircraft, Request for F-16 aircraft, vii, 6, 7677, 76, 87, 125, 287
Proposals for, 11 F-16XL aircraft, 10, 56, 82
Frantz, Bruce, 42 F-16XL/F-16F aircraft, 16769, 168
free-flight testing, 3536, 35 management of program and
Free University of Brussels (Vrije Universiteit communications during, 16869, 177n61
Brussel/Numeca), 253 Pre-FSED Flight Test, 109
frequency modulation (FM) data, 88 Full-Scale Tunnel, 30- by 60-foot
Frink, Neal T., 45 CAWAP research, 249, 250
Frost, Martin, 96 F-16XL testing, 35
fuel and fuel tanks SCAMP concept testing, 2930, 31, 33
checking, calibrating, and preparations for SCIF-4 testing, 13
flight testing, 95 vortex flap research, 4546
conformal fuel tanks, 150, 151 functional check flights
cranked-arrow wings and capacity for, 10, F-16XL-1 flights, 308, 309, 311, 313,
69, 69 32122, 324, 333
external fuel tanks, 84, 85, 8687, 97, 116, F-16XL-2 flights, 308, 33435, 345,
128, 129, 132 34753, 357
F-16 fuselage fuel capacity, 69, 84 number of flights, 308
F-16A specifications, 61 fuselage
F-16XL fuselage fuel capacity, 69, 84, 111, aft fuselage clearance at touchdown, 119,
291 121
features of system, 84 design and modifications to, 7679
fuel consumption savings with SLFC, 181, differences between YF-16 and production
190n4, 191n13 F-16 fighters, 6
fuel pumps and transfer system, 84 F-16 derivative investigations and
internal fuel fraction, 84 lengthening of, 7
JP-4 fuel flight tests, 136, 307, 373 F-16 fuselage and SCAMP, 15, 28
JP-8 fuel flight tests, 136, 307, 373 fairing around suction panelfuselage joint,
quick combat turnaround demonstration 21011, 213, 215, 216
and refueling, 115 fuel capacity in F-16 aircraft, 69, 84
spin tunnel testing with external fuel tanks, fuel capacity in F-16XL aircraft, 69, 84,
3738 111, 291
wind tunnel testing of external wing tanks, fuselage stations (FS), 72, 9192n8
42, 42 length of, 69
See also aerial refueling S-curved wing apex and merger with wing,
Full-Scale Development (FSD) aircraft and 32, 34, 245
programs stretched F-16 as basis for F-16XL design,
differences between production and FSD vii, 28, 7679, 287
aircraft, 6, 125 test instrumentation parameters and
F-15E selection and production, 109 sensors, 89
451
Elegance in Flight
wing design and mating to lengthened General Electric F110-GE-100 engine. See
fuselage, 25 F110-GE-100 engine; F110-GE-100 Slimline
wing-fuselage attachment fittings, 72 engine
wing-fuselage shear tie stress and General Electric F110-GE-129 engine. See
reinforced shear ties, 72 F110-GE-129 engine
wing-fuselage shear tie stress test General Electric F110-GE-132 engine, 93n28
instrumentation parameters and sensors, Gentry, Jerauld, 334, 351, 361
89, 90 German Aviation Research Institute, 278n27
XYZ coordinate system, 9192n8 Gibson, Gordon F., 15
Gilbert, William P., 180
G Gilcrist, Paul, 360
Gabriel, Charles A., 96, 158, 161 Glenn Research Center/Lewis Research Center,
GBU-28 bomb, 161 180, 190n1
General Accounting Office (GAO), 127, 158, Goldwater, Barry, 96
15961 Golub, Robert A., 239
General Dynamics Corporation (GD) Goodall, Harry A., 334, 347, 359
Air Force flight-test evaluation pilots, 142 Gordon, James A. Jim, 30, 30, 59
composite structures use, 290 Gorton, William, 334, 350, 360
Convair Division, 18n9, 35, 120 Government-Furnished Equipment (GFE), 55,
CTF personnel from, 107, 108 56, 57
forward-swept wing aircraft, response to g-overshoot (pitch inflection)
RFP for, 11 characteristics of, 123, 128
initiative to design a supersonic combat control of, 123
aircraft, vii, 287, 29697 F-16XL-1 flights, 306, 330, 333, 373
removal of prototypes from storage, 16, F-16XL-1 load factor, 116
179, 18285 flight control computer changes and, 140
storage of prototypes at end of program, viii, recommendations for elimination of, 140
109, 136, 140, 169, 288 Graff, George S., 151, 173n8
wind tunnels at, 31 Grafton, Sue B., 3233, 35, 49n21
working relationship between NASA and, graphite-bismaleimide composite material,
vii, 28788 7375, 74
General Dynamics F-111/F-111F Aardvark. See graphite-epoxy composite materials, 73
F-111/F-111F Aardvark graphite-polyimide composite material, 73, 73
General Dynamics/Lockheed Martin YF-16 Grindle, Thomas, 86
fighter program. See YF-16 fighter ground effect
General Electric Aircraft Engines, 180 dynamic ground effects research, 25558
General Electric F101 Derivative Fighter Engine landing performance and, 11920,
(DFE), 83 144n26, 255
lift coefficient during final approach and
landing, 25758
452
Index
ground excitation testing, 13839 Have Blue project, 2

ground vibration tests (GVTs), 36, 95, 193, 194, Hayashi, Melvin, 334, 341, 358
19596, 198 Hayward, G.H., 59
Grumman F9F-6 Cougar, 49n19 Hefner, Jerry N., 18283, 191n9
Grumman F11F-1 Tiger, 49n19 helmet mounted display, 307, 34950, 373
Grumman X-29/X-29A FSW technology High-Speed 7- by 10-foot Wind Tunnel, 12,
demonstrator, 11, 258 15, 44
Guy Fawkes Day, 27778n26 High-Speed Civil Transport (HSCT)
acoustic research, 23744
H CAWAP research and design of, 24451
Haeffner, Fred A., 334, 349, 360 design and characteristics of, 17980
Haering, Edward A., Jr., 262 economic competitiveness of, 17980
Hahne, David E., 236 F-16XL comparison to, 227, 227
handling and controllability qualities fuel consumption savings with SLFC,
active laminar flow suction system and, 185 191n13
carefree handling qualities, 70 ground effect and landing performance,
Cooper-Harper Handling Qualities Rating 144n26, 25558
Scale, 27273, 279n36, 375, 375 NASA contributions to development of, 179
Cooper Pilot Opinion Rating Scale, 279n36 SCAT-15F design and, 20n23
digital flight control system (DFCS), pilots SLFC and percent of wing-chord region, 203
comments on handling qualities, 27274, SLFC and tail surfaces fully laminar to the
37582 control surface hinge lines, 181
external stores carriage and, 129, 13133, SLFC and wing surfaces fully laminar to the
131, 133 control surface hinge lines, 181, 190n4
F-16XL-1 DFCS evaluation flights, 27273 SLFC technology, challenges of design and
F-16XL-1 first flight, 99, 100103 integration of, 18889, 292, 29495
F-16XL-1 simulation-to-flight flying qualities SLFC technology demonstration to support
test effort, 236 development of, ix, 18182, 19194,
F-16XL qualities, 29091 191n13, 2034, 22324, 22628, 227,
free-flight testing to evaluate, 36 28889
high-speed handling qualities, 12223 sonic boom probing experiment, 25862,
OUE testing, 114 259, 261
Phase I testing, issues identified during, takeoff gross weight, 180, 191n13
12728 takeoff noise, 23536
pilots comments on, 114, 12224 technical risks associated with, industry
Harper, Robert Bob, 279n36 concerns about, 179
Harris, Roy V., Jr., 12 vortex flap research, 46, 23537
Harris, Wesley L., 22728 High-Speed Research (HSR) program
Hart, Clarence E., 5960 cancellation of program, 237
Hartinger, James V., 334, 346, 359 end of program, ix
453
Elegance in Flight
F-16XL prototypes use for research to I

support, ix, 179, 289 Independent Research and Development (IRAD),
focus of program and research, ix, 179, 35, 55, 56, 57, 65n2
18081, 288 in-flight excitation test
management of and work-units F-16XL-1 flights, 306, 32933, 373
organization, 180 objective of, 138
Phase I, 179 procedure for, 103, 138
Phase II, 17980 insect impacts, 221, 23233n32
priority of program, 179 instrumentation, flight-test
restructuring of program, 179 CAWAP research, 24749, 247, 248, 249,
Technology Concept Aircraft for, 188, 295 275n7
Tu-144 SLFC test bed, 22728 F-16XL-1 active suction wing glove, 201, 201
vortex flap research, 46, 23537 F-16XL-2 active suction wing glove, 209,
See also supersonic laminar flow control 210, 21920, 223, 232n29
(SLFC) technology F-16XL-2 passive laminar flow glove, 206,
Hillaker, Harry J. 206, 207, 21920
aircraft development role of, 18n9 features and functions of, 8790, 89
career and experience of, 18n9 frequency modulation (FM) data, 88
death of, 172 fuselage extension for housing, 78
DRF competition, perspective on, 16467 hot film sensors, 201, 201, 206, 206, 219,
F-16 derivative investigations role, 7 220, 22526, 226, 247, 247
F-16E as complimentary to F-15E, 15758 installation of, 95
F-16XL design and performance objectives, liquid crystals, 201
58 parameters, 8890
F-16XL designation, 57 pulse code modulation (PCM) data, 88
F-16XL program role, 59, 98 sensors, 79, 89, 90
F-16XL program status meeting, 5859 sensors, weight and drag penalties from,
Father of the F-16 attribution, 23, 165 vii, 287
SCAMP program, support for, 23 sonic boom probing experiment, 258,
SCAMP program role, 30, 30 25961
YF-16 program role, 7 space for, 87
HL-10 lifting body, 147n64 integrated fire and flight control system (IFFCS),
Holzman, Jon K., 239 26
hot film sensors, 201, 201, 206, 206, 219, Integrated Technology Development (ITD)
220, 22526, 226, 247, 247 teams, 180
Hughes Aircraft, 150, 159 International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR)
hydraulic system, 8485 U.S., 253
hydrazine and hydrazine-powered components, Ishmael, Steven D., 184
21213, 232n22 isobar, 211, 232n21
Israel Air Force, 142, 176n46, 176n54
454
Index
J prediction methodologies, 202

J 29 Tunnen, 49n19 research on, 181
J 32 Lansen, 49n19 risks and issues related to incorporation of
J 35/Sk 35C Draken (Dragon), 9, 10, 19n13, technology, ix, 18182, 28889, 292
9293n24, 130, 295 shock waves and laminar flow, 187,
Jackson, Charles M., 15 29394
Jerkin system, 222 See also supersonic laminar flow control
jet-mixing noise, 242 (SLFC) technology
Johnson, Joseph L., Jr., 31 Landers, Stephen F., 219
Joint Test Team (JTT), 4, 6 landing gear and wheels
elevon position when landing gear lowered,
K 85
KC-10 tankers, 124, 341, 353 F-16XL-2 landing gear door issues, 222,
KC-135 Stratotanker, 124, 124, 145n37 223
KC-135 tanker, 110 modifications to install strengthened landing
Keel, Alton G., 96 gear, 79, 113
Kelly, Jeffrey J., 239 nose landing gear tire blow out, 77
Kent, D. Randall Randy reliability of, 125
death of, 172 standard F-16 landing gear and wheel well
end of program, 17172 locations, 75, 7879
F-16XL program, perspective on fate of, 171 takeoff gross weight and, 113
F-16XL program role, 59 tire durability, 125
first flight certificate, 100, 104n12, 299 vertical loads test instrumentation
FSD goal, 167 parameters and sensors, 89, 90
Kerby, Michael C., 334, 346, 358 wheel, brake, and tire configuration, 125
Kirk, William, 334, 348, 359 wheel well doors, 79
Knight, William J. Pete, 126, 308, 310, 334 Langley Research Center (LaRC)
acoustic research, 23744
L Basic Aerodynamic Research Tunnel,
Lamar, John E., 15, 44, 244 25051, 250
Laminar Flow Control (LFC) Project Office, 181 CAWAPI research, 253, 254, 254
laminar flow technology Differential Maneuvering Simulator (DMS),
excrescences (surface imperfections) and, 26, 39, 48n10, 70, 91n2, 130, 289
204, 209, 221, 23233n32 Dynamic Stability Branch, 2627, 31
maximum region of laminar flow during F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 204, 205, 209,
research program, 22627, 226 216
natural laminar flow airfoils, 23233n32 F-16XL prototype design and construction
operational use on civil airliner, issues role, 35
related to, ix Full-Scale Tunnel, 30- by 60-foot. See Full-
practical applications for, 181 Scale Tunnel, 30- by 60-foot
455
Elegance in Flight
High-Speed 7- by 10-foot Wind Tunnel, 12, lift

15, 44 cranked-arrow wings and lift/drag ratio,
High Speed Aerodynamics Division, 26 910
HSR Program Office, 180 forebody strakes and, 4
Laminar Flow Control (LFC) Project Office, lift coefficient during final approach and
181 landing, 12122, 25758, 291
Low-Speed Tunnel, 12-foot, 45 vortex flow and, 43
management of, 190n1 wing aerodynamic center, aerodynamic
models for wind tunnel testing, 277n22 pitching moment, and, 29,
NASA Structural Analysis System 4849nn1314
(NASTRAN), 71, 290 wing twist and camber to enhance, 3031
SCAT program role, 12, 12 lifting bodies program, 147n64
SCIF program, 1214, 14, 15, 25 lift-to-drag ratio (L/D ratio)
Transonic Aerodynamics Division, 44 aspect ratio of wing and, 1819n11,
Transonic Dynamic Tunnel, 16-Foot, 36 23536
Transonic Pressure Tunnel, 8-Foot, 13, 208 lift/drag ratio, 116
Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. See Unitary Plan vortex flap research, 4445
Wind Tunnel Lightweight Fighter program
Vertical Spin Tunnel, 20-foot, 37, 3940 competitive fly-off, x, 4
Virtual Laboratory, 252, 253 evaluation of designs, 4
vortex lift research at, 45, 4346 objectives and specifications for aircraft,
LANTIRN (Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting 3, 23
Infrared for Night) system, 82, 83, 86, 87, prototyping program for, 2, 34
93n26, 152, 155, 176n54 selection of proposals for prototype
Lapidot, Amos, 334, 349, 360 development, 34, 161
Large Normal Shock Inlet (LNSI) vortex lift research, 44
F-16C/D use of, 84 See also YF-16 fighter; YF-17 fighter
features and functions of, 84, 84 Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV), 26
flight-test evaluation, 109, 13536, 307, liquid crystals, 201
373 Lithgow, Mike, 14546n46
LANTIRN station installation and, 87 Lockheed C-5A transport, 77
replacement of standard inlet on F-16XL-2 Lockheed CADAM system, 72, 169
aircraft, 75, 84, 109, 135, 202 Lockheed F-16ES (Enhanced Strategic) aircraft,
Larson, Gerald D., 334, 349, 360 164, 176n54
lateral thrust units, 27778n26 Lockheed F-104 aircraft, 147n64
Lavell, Jeffrey S., 203, 205 Lockheed F-117/F-117A stealth attack aircraft,
Leonard Brothers Trucking Company, 76 viii, 2, 149, 288
Lewis, Andrew, 30 Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company, 253,
Lewis, David S., 7, 58, 96, 17172 254, 254
456
Index
Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor, 2021n24, 97, lift/drag ratio, aspect ratio of wing, and,
97, 116, 171, 17475n28 1819n11
Lockheed Martin/General Dynamics YF-16 LWF objectives, 3, 4
fighter program. See YF-16 fighter OUE testing, 114
Lockheed Martin Tactical Systems Division, 270 subsonic highacceleration of gravity
Lockheed Skunk Works, 2 maneuvering flight and loss of airspeed,
Lockheed SR-71 aircraft, 184, 25862, 259, viii, 288
281, 292 supersonic cruise capabilities and, 23
Lockheed YF-12 aircraft, 147n64 swept wings and vortex flow technology
Lockheed YF-22A ATF prototype, 116 investigations, 12
Lockheed YO-3A aircraft, 184, 26061, 261, vortex lift and, 13, 43, 44, 46
262, 27677n20, 292 weapons carriage and external stores and,
Low Aerodynamic Drag Ejector (LODE-14) 8586
bomb rack, 85, 86, 93n32 See also turns and turn maneuvers
Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared Marquardt, Roger, 30
for Night (LANTIRN) system, 82, 83, 86, 87, Mars Curiosity rover, 232n22
93n26, 152, 155, 176n54 Martin Marietta, 26
lowsonic shock flight demonstrator, 28183 Martin Marietta X-24B lifting body, 147n64
Low-Speed Tunnel, 12-foot, 45 Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base (AFB), 73
M McCarthy, David, 18384
M2-F1 lifting body, 147n64 McDonnell-Douglas/Boeing F/A-18 fighter. See
M2-F3 lifting body, 147n64 F/A-18 and F/A-18A fighter
M61/M61A1 rotary cannon, 87, 113, 115, 133, McDonnell-Douglas Corporation (MDC)
187 all-weather strike aircraft development, 150
Majors, Lee, 177n68 F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 204, 205, 209
maneuverability HSCT design and characteristics, 17980
ATF program focus, viii, 2021n24 HSR program role of McDonnell-Douglas
cranked-arrow wings and, 10, 291 Aerospace, 180
cranked double delta wings and, 16 SLFC on supersonic civil transport, research
external stores configurations and, 129 on, 181
F-16XL anticipated capabilities, 58 SLFC wing glove design, fabrication, and
F-16XL capabilities, 63, 11617, 163, installation, 185, 186, 209, 216, 293
29091 McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II, 48n7,
firing positions on enemy aircraft, 6364 104n9, 109, 110, 114, 155, 258
free-flight testing, 36 McDonnell-Douglas F-15 Advanced Fighter
highAoA maneuvering capabilities, 37, 63 Capability Demonstrator (AFCD), 15152, 159
induced drag and delta-winged fighters, McDonnell-Douglas F-15E fighter. See F-15E
4647, 5253n41 Strike Eagle fighter
457
Elegance in Flight
McDonnell-Douglas F-15 fighter. See F-15 ejector racks and launchers, 8586, 87,
Eagle fighter 93n32, 111
McDonnell-Douglas KC-10 tankers, 124, 341, F-16XL-1 configuration for flight tests, 110
353 F-16XL multirole mission capabilities, 97
McInerney, Thomas, 334, 349, 360 F-16XL prototype specifications, 61
McKinley Climatic Laboratory, 76, 92n14 firing positions on enemy aircraft, 6364
McKinney, James A. Jim Spider fuselage modifications for weapons carriage
career and experience of, 104n9 stations, 78, 92n19
CTF role, 108 highAoA flight tests, 113
death of, 104n9, 172 interface and fire control provisions, 87
F-16XL-1 first flight, vi, 98103, 99 quick combat turnaround demonstration
F-16XL-1 flights, 112 and loading of, 115
F-16XL-1 flight-test log, 30921 spin tunnel testing with AMRAAMs, 38
F-16XL-2 first flight, 111 types and number of, 85, 86, 87, 13133,
F-16XL-2 flight-test log, 33435, 33744, 131
34648 weapons separation tests, 4243, 47,
ferry flights, 110 51n32, 109, 111, 111
VIP flights, 142, 359 wind tunnel testing of carriage
McLucas, John, 1 configurations, 4142, 42
McMullen, Thomas H., 96, 360 See also weapons carriage and external
McNamara, Robert, 149 stores
Messerschmitt Me 163B rocket fighter aircraft, mission-proven systems, 362, 364
232n22 mission-qualified systems, 362, 36364
Mikoyan MiG-15 Fagot, 49n19 missions
Mikoyan MiG-17 Fresco, 49n19 F-16 derivative investigations to expand
Mikoyan MiG-19 Farmer, 49n19 capabilities, 7
Mikoyan MiG-21 Fishbed, 49n19, 5253n41 F-16 multirole mission, vii, 287
Mikoyan MiG-23 Flogger, 49n19 F-111 fighter multipurpose mission, 17n1
Mikoyan MiG-29 Fulcrum, 63 Mk-82 bombs
mil, 383n2 carriage configurations, 110
Miley, Stan J., 208 carriage configurations and ejector racks,
Miller, David S., 15 85, 111
missiles, air-to-air and air-to-ground F-16XL-1 flights, 11516
accuracy of delivery, 111 F-16XL-1 flight tests, 111, 111, 305
all-aspect target engagement, 6364, F-16XL-2 flight tests, 305
67n27 F-16XL multirole mission capabilities, 97
avionics for delivery and engagement highAoA flight tests, 113
capabilities, 8283, 93n26 liftoff speeds and ordnance loads, 118
dummy AMRAAMs, 61, 92n19 photos of F-16XL-1 release of, 113
458
Index
quick combat turnaround demonstration National Museum of the United States Air Force,
and loading of, 115 283
scaled models for testing, 42 National Test Pilot School, 9, 19n13
weapons carriage and delivery and Navier, M., 231n17
separation tests, 13233 Navier-Stokes CFD flow solver, 211
weapons separation tests, 300301 Navier-Stokes CFD model, Reynolds-averaged,
weight and weapons configurations, 84 199200
Mk-84 bombs, 42, 86, 13233, 3012, 305 Navier-Stokes equations, 209, 231n17
Model 400 aircraft, 57 Nellis Air Force Base (AFB), 109, 114
Model 2707-300 SST, 181 Nixon, Richard M., 1
Mojave and Lightweight Fighter fly-off, x, 4 noise abatement. See acoustic research and
Monahan, George L., 59, 96, 334, 346, 358 noise abatement
Money, Alex, 42 Norlin, Ken A., 271
Montgomery, Terry, 145n32 North American Aviation, Rockwell Corporation
Morris, O.A., 14 HSR program role, 180
Murri, David G., 45 Tu-144 SLFC test bed, 22728
Tulinius role at, 19091n8
N wing glove design and fabrication, 200
NASTRAN (NASA Structural Analysis System), North American Aviation P-51 Mustang/P-51
71, 290 Mustang Galloping Ghost, 4950n24,
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 23233n32
(NACA) airfoils, 71, 200, 23233n32 North American X-15 aircraft, 147n64
National Aeronautics and Space Administration North American XB-70A Valkyrie, 25
(NASA) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
F-16XL program participation, 5859, 70 aircraft to defend Central Region, 149
Management Instruction, 27576n9 airfield lengths, 76
NASA Structural Analysis System Research and Technology Organization
(NASTRAN), 71, 290 (RTO), 25254
supersonic transport and fighter research Research and Technology Organization
of, vii, 28788 (RTO) Air Vehicle Technology (AVT)
Technology Readiness Levels and scale, Symposium, 251
252, 254, 27576n9, 362, 36364 Technology Readiness Levels and scale use
thrust-reversing nozzle research, 59, 66n15 by, 27576n9
transfer of F-16XL prototypes to, 16, 179, Northrop F-5 fighters, 109, 114, 281
18283 Northrop HL-10 lifting body, 147n64
vortex flap research, 59, 66n15 Northrop M2-F1 lifting body, 147n64
working relationship between GD and, vii, Northrop M2-F3 lifting body, 147n64
28788 Northrop YF-17 fighter, 2, 34, 4, 6, 143n8
National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR), Norum, Thomas D., 239
Netherlands, 253, 254, 254 nuclear weapons, 87
459
Elegance in Flight
O performance
Obara, Clifford J., 244 advantages and limitations, 6264, 297
Odgers, Peter W. delta-winged aircraft, 9
F-16XL-2 flights, 134, 337 digital flight control system (DFCS), pilots
VIP flight, 358 comments on handling qualities, 27274,
Oestricher, Phil, 5, 334 37582
Ogburn, Marilyn E., 27 DRF performance thresholds and goals,
Ohlson, W.E., 45 15859
Olow, Bengt, 9 F-16XL-1 flights, 110, 11517, 127, 306,
Operational Utility Evaluation (OUE) 307, 30915, 31923, 373
DRF flight testing, 155 F-16XL-2 flights, 113, 11517, 127,
F-16XL-1 flight tests, 127, 307, 31620, 306, 307, 33438, 34045, 34748,
373 35255, 357, 373
F-16XL-2 flight tests, 127, 307, 33945, F-16XL anticipated capabilities, 5758
349, 373 follow-on investigation, 128
number of flights, 109, 114 induced drag and aircraft performance, 63
scope of evaluation, 1089, 11315 J 35/Sk 35C Draken (Dragon), 9
test instrumentation parameters, 8889 mission radius, 58, 6263, 164
Operational Utility of Supersonic Cruise test instrumentation parameters, 8889
conference, 1112, 14 tight turns and F-16XL performance, 9
oscillating aerodynamic vanes, 263, 264, YF-16 fighter success of technology
278n27 demonstration and advancement in fighter
performance, 56
P Phillips, Richard W., Jr., 334, 346, 359
P-51 Mustang/P-51 Mustang Galloping Ghost, photos and photo flights
4950n24, 23233n32 F-16XL-1 flights, 99, 112, 113
PA-30 Twin Comanche, 147n64 F-16XL-2 flights, 347
Packard, David, 12 piezoelectric sensors, 195, 229n4
paint schemes, 106, 114, 117, 169, 169, pilot-induced oscillation (PIO)
177n62, 236 air-to-air tracking and, 37880
Paulk, R.A., 42 close trail formation flight and, 38182
Pave Tack, 149 takeoffs and landings and, 140
payload YF-16 taxi test, PIO, and FCS gains, 5
cranked-arrow wings and, 10 pilots
F-16 derivative investigations to extend, 7 Air Force flight-test evaluation, 142
F-16XL flight demonstration capabilities, CTF personnel, 1078
viii, 288 pilot training, checkout, and familiarization flights
SCAMP/F-16XL follow-on studies, 16 F-16XL-1 flights, 126, 308, 30910, 323,
See also weapons carriage and external 374
stores F-16XL-2 flights, 308, 334, 339, 350, 374
460
Index
number of flights, 308, 374 Plum Tree Island test facility, 4041, 40, 41
Piper PA-30 Twin Comanche, 147n64 pneumatic vortex control (PVC) research, 246,
pitch and pitch attitude 271, 274, 278n32, 292
ailerons and pitch control, 80 Polhamus, Edward C., 45, 4344
arrow wings and pitch up, 3233 Prandtl, Ludwig, 23132n20
control laws, 140 Pratt & Whitney, 180
elevons and pitch control, 28, 7980 Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 engines, 57,
F-16XL-1 first flight, 1012 66n21, 8384, 116, 118, 126, 166, 281
handling qualities, pilots comments on, Presidential Blue Ribbon Defense Panel, 1
27374, 37677 Preston, J.H., 275n7
highAoA and nose-down pitch attitude, Preston tubes, 247, 247, 248, 249, 275n7
130, 139 Program Objective Memorandum (POM), 56,
manual pitch override (MPO) capability, 81, 65n6
290 propulsion
nose-down pitch trim, 128 F-16XL-1 flights, 127, 31724
nose-up pitching moment, 31 F-16XL-2 flights, 113, 127, 307, 33435,
notch filter, 1023, 137 34344, 35156, 373
pitch axis instability, 31 HSR program research on, 180
pitch inflection. See g-overshoot (pitch test instrumentation parameters, 8889
inflection) Propulsion Management Team (PMT), 180
pitch-rocking maneuver, 81, 290 Propulsion Wind Tunnel (PWT), 4243
pitch trim, lift coefficient, an landing prototype programs
performance, 12122 candidates for prototyping, USAF initiative
SCAMP wind tunnel testing results report, to identify, 2
33, 49n21 competitive prototyping and Fly-Before-Buy
vortex flaps and, 45 approach to acquisition process, 13
vortex flow and wing design, 33 competitive prototyping program for F-16XL
wing aerodynamic pitching moment and and F-15E aircraft, 57
pitch up, 4849nn1314 DoD program guidelines, 23
wing LEFs and, 80 Technology Readiness Levels and scale,
xyz system, 232n28 252, 254, 27576n9, 362, 36364
pitch-and-roll oscillation phenomenology, 179 pulse code modulation (PCM) data, 88
pitch oscillation/pitch gallop Purifoy, Dana D.
causes and resolution of, 1023, 137, 138, career and experience of, 233n35
139, 140, 291 F-16XL-1 DFCS evaluation flights, 272, 272
characteristics of, 128, 13637 F-16XL-2 research flights, 22123, 221
F-16XL-1 first flight, 1023 F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 205
F-16XL-1 flights, 103, 306, 373 F-16XL-2 SLFC research flights, 185,
follow-on investigation, 128, 13639 36572
target tracking and, 124, 128, 291 F-16XL-2 SLFC simulator flights, 209
461
Elegance in Flight
test pilot role, 11 Reno Air Races, 4950n24

X-29 flight research program role, 11 Republic RF-84F Thunderflash, 49n19
pyrotechnic thrusters (bonkers), 263, 264, research and development (R&D)
27778n26 Technology Readiness Levels and scale,
252, 254, 27576n9, 362, 36364
Q See also prototype programs
QF-106/F-106A Delta Dart, 120, 121, 145n29, Reukauf, Carol A., 185, 205
281 Reynolds, Osborne, 230n13
Quadra Pod spin recovery parachute, 3940, Reynolds number, 204, 211, 230n13
39, 129 RF-84F Thunderflash, 49n19
quick combat turnaround demonstration, 115 Rickard, Susan J., 244
Ricketts, Rodney H., 180
R ride quality, 114, 122
radar cross section (RCS) Ritchie, Steve, 152
detection range of radar and aircraft radar Rockwell/Rockwell International
signature, 64 F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 204, 205, 209
F-16XL-2 radar signature testing, 54, 63, 298 merger with Boeing, 200
F-16XL advantages, 63, 64 SLFC wing glove design, fabrication, and
low-radar-cross-section (RCS) technology, 2 installation, 185, 186, 209, 21516, 293
ram inlet, 78 See also North American Aviation, Rockwell
range Corporation
F-16 derivative investigations to extend, 7 Rogers, Herbert F. Herb, 96, 97
F-16 speed and range capabilities, vii, 287 roll and roll attitude
F-16XL flight demonstration capabilities, ailerons and roll control, 80, 139
viii, 288 elevons and roll control, 28, 80
lift/drag ratio, aspect ratio of wing, and, F-16XL-1 first flight, 1012
1819n11 handling qualities, pilots comments on,
Rao, Dhanvada M., 45 12223, 27374, 376, 37778
Rawls, John, Jr., 239 highAoA and stability and control, 13031
Reddy, C. Subba, 15 roll-onset rate, 122
Reed, Robert H., 334, 346, 358 roll oscillation, 12223, 128
Reed, Wilmer, 263, 277n22 roll ratcheting, 145n32
reliability and maintainability evaluation roll rate command, 80
F-16XL-1 flight tests, 307, 328, 373 roll rate feedback, 80
F-16XL-2 flight tests, 307, 351, 373 roll rates, 128, 13031
focus of and limitations on, 12526 SCAMP wind tunnel testing results report,
maintenance times, 125 33, 49n21
Mean Time Between Maintenance (MTBM), vortex flaps and, 45
125, 126 vortex flow and wing design, 33
outcome of, 115
462
Index
weapons carriage and external stores and, shock waves

8586, 13031 cannon trough, 216, 216
wing design and, 29, 33 canopy and canopy windshield shock wave,
xyz system, 232n28 216, 29394
Ropelewski, Robert, 142, 334, 348, 359 canopy-closure shock wave, 206, 21617,
Rosen, Cecil C., III, 182, 183, 190n1 217, 224
rotary inertial exciter, 263, 264, 277n25 diverter/blocker fences, 204, 2067, 207,
Royal Institute of Technology/Swedish Defense 208, 208, 21619, 218, 224
Research Agency, 253, 276n15 engine inlet, 21619, 218, 223, 29394
rubber airplane design phase, 47, 47 F-16XL-1 shock waves, 187
rudder F-16XL-2 shock waves, 187, 21619, 216,
design and fabrication/manufacturing of, 75 217
design specifications and configuration, laminar flow and, 187, 29394
68, 82 Tollmien-Schlichting (T-S) wave,
features and functions of, 80, 80 23132n20
rudder-aileron interconnect and stability and Shrout, Barrett L., 1314
control, 33, 139, 140 sideslip, 33, 1012
yaw control and, 80, 81 sidestick controller, 5, 81, 81
Ruhlin, Charles L., 36 simulations and computer simulations
Russ, Robert D., 155, 162, 334, 351, 361 antispin system development, 39
correlation between simulator and in-flight
S data, 209
Saab J 29 Tunnen, 49n19 Differential Maneuvering Simulator (DMS),
Saab J 32 Lansen, 49n19 26, 39, 48n10, 70, 91n2, 130, 289
Saab J 35/Sk 35C Draken (Dragon), 9, 10, F-16XL-1 simulation-to-flight flying qualities
19n13, 9293n24, 130, 295 test effort, 236
Sadin, Stan, 252 F-16XL-1 vortex flap research, 23637
safety of flight reviews, 95, 111 F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 2089
Saltzman, John A., 219 pneumatic vortex control (PVC) research,
Saudi Arabia Air Force, 176n46 271, 278n32
Sawyer, Wallace C., 182, 183 SCAMP concept, 26
Schemensky, Roy T., 15 Singapore Air Force, 176n46
Schlichting, Hermann, 23132n20 sinusoidal control surface excitation, 263, 264
Schoonover, W. Elliott, Jr., 45, 46 Sk 35C/J 35 Draken (Dragon), 9, 10, 19n13,
Schweitzer sailplane, 27677n20 9293n24
Sea Harrier FRS 1 fighters, 67n27 Skantze, Lawrence A.
Sea Vixen FAW 1 aircraft, 49n19 DRF evaluation, 157
Seymour Johnson Air Force Base (AFB), F-16XL-1 rollout ceremony, 9697
176n46 F-16XL-2 flight-test log, 334, 337
shock cell noise, 242 F-16XL program support, 57
463
Elegance in Flight
F-16XL proposal submitted to, 55 F-16XL speed and range, 6263, 11516,
VIP flight, 358 15758, 291
Slaughter, Steve, 213 flight envelope expansion flights, 113
Smith, G.K., 108, 334, 346 high-speed envelope expansion F-16XL-2
Smith, John, 145n32 flight tests, 346
Smolka, James W. high-speed envelope expansion flight tests,
F-16XL-1 simulation-to-flight flying qualities 307, 373
test effort, 236 high-speed handling qualities, 12223
F-16XL-1 taxi test, 282, 282 liftoff speeds, 118
F-16XL for SLFC technology demonstration, loss of airspeed during subsonic high
support for, 182 acceleration of gravity maneuvering flight,
test pilot role, 11, 190n6 viii, 288
X-29 flight research program role, 11 maximum Mach number/airspeed, 123, 170
Sonic Boom Integrated Technology ride quality and, 114, 122
Development Team, 258 touchdown speeds, 121
sonic booms speed brakes
aerial refueling during research flights, 258 actuator failure, 110
F-16XL prototypes use for research and F-16XL-1 flight for loads testing, 306, 330,
research contributions, ix, 235, 289, 292, 373
297 F-16XL-1 single-seat prototype, 257, 259
instrumentation for data collection, 258, features and functions of, 8081, 80
25961 spin and spin recovery
lowsonic shock flight demonstrator, antispin chute, 113
28183 antispin system development, 39
probing experiment and maneuvers, 184, automatic spin prevention system, 39, 70,
25862, 259, 261, 27677n20, 292 290
signature measurement and prediction, 235 center-of-gravity and, 39
See also acoustic research and noise F-16XL flight demonstration capabilities,
abatement viii, 288
South Korea Air Force, 176n46 flat erect spin modes, 39
space coordinates, 232n28 flight testing and evaluation of, 39
Space Shuttle Auxiliary Power Units (APUs), inverted spin mode, 39
232n22 recovery techniques for spin modes, 39
speed resistance to spin development, 70, 130
F-16C/D speed and range, 116, 291 SCAMP/F-16XL follow-on studies, 16
F-16 speed and range capabilities, vii, 287 vortex flaps and, 46
F-16XL-1 flights, 113, 115 wing LEFs and, 80
F-16XL-2 flights, 113 spin recovery parachute, 37, 3940, 39, 129
F-16XL anticipated capabilities, 58, spin tunnel testing, 3740, 39
15253 spray bar, 135, 35354
464
Index
SR-71 aircraft, 184, 25862, 259, 281, 292 static testing, 95, 95
stability and control (S&C) stealth aircraft
air dams (wing fences) and, 32, 33, 49n19 ATF program focus, viii, 2021n24, 97
external stores configurations and, 129 F-117/F-117A stealth attack aircraft, viii, 2,
F-16XL-1 flights, 11011, 127, 306, 307, 149, 288
30915, 31718, 322, 324, 32829, faceted airframe shaping and stealth
373 technology, 2
F-16XL-2 flights, 127, 135, 306, 307, 334, Stokes, G.G., 231n17
33639, 341, 34446, 34849, 351, Stoliker, Patrick C., 271
35456, 373 strakes
FBW flight control and, 33 forebody strakes, 4, 78
follow-on investigation, 12829 SCIF-5 nose-mounted strakes, 14
highAoA and, 13031 Strategic Air Command (SAC), 124
resistance to loss of control, 70 Strategic Defense Initiative Office, 144n20
rudder-aileron interconnect and, 33, 139, structural coupling tests, 95
140 structural loads
SCAMP concept, 2930, 3133, elevon actuation horn failure and, 112
4849nn1314 F-16XL-1 flights, 127, 31112, 322
SCAMP/F-16XL follow-on studies, 16 F-16XL-2 flights, 113, 127, 13536, 306,
SCAMP wind tunnel testing results report, 33439, 341, 345, 349, 373
3233, 49n21 g-overshoot and, 123, 128
tail design and, 29, 32 LNSI and, 13536
test instrumentation parameters, 8889 test instrumentation parameters and
vortex flow, wing design, and, 33 sensors, 8890, 89
wing LEFs and, 33, 80, 290 wing break loads test instrumentation
wingtips and, 2930 parameters and sensors, 89, 90
stall and stall recovery wing-fuselage shear tie stress and
accidents related to deep stall, 14546n46 reinforced shear ties, 72
deep stall avoidance and recovery, 81, wing-fuselage shear tie stress test
9293n24, 290 instrumentation parameters and sensors,
deep stall concept, 14546n46 89, 90
deep stall resistance, 130 structural proof testing, 95, 95
forebody strakes and, 4 structures, HSR program research on, 180
J 35/Sk 35C Draken (Dragon), 9, 19n13, Stucky, Mark P., 185, 209, 222, 36768, 370,
9293n24, 130 371
pitch-rocking maneuver and, 81, 290 suction system for SLFC, 200201, 200, 204,
tail design and, 30 209, 210, 21114, 212, 213, 214, 293
Statement of Operational Need (SON), 15859, Sukhoi Su-7 Fitter, 49n19
160 Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker, 63, 281
465
Elegance in Flight
Supersonic Combat and Maneuvering Prototype wind tunnel testing results report, 3233,
(SCAMP), 23. See also Supersonic Cruise and 49n21
Maneuver Prototype (SCAMP) wing design, 2426, 24, 2729, 27, 29,
Supersonic Commercial Air Transport (SCAT) 3033
program working relationship between GD and NASA
cranked-arrow wing evaluation, 12 and joint SCAMP research, vii, 28788
SCAT-15F, 12, 12, 20n23 supersonic cruise capabilities and performance
swept wing design evaluation, 15 afterburner use and, viii, 116, 288
Supersonic Cruise Aerodynamics Research ATF program objective, viii, 97
(SCAR), 27, 28 concept and parameters, 116
Supersonic Cruise and Maneuver Prototype cooperative NASAGD design efforts,
(SCAMP) 1416
computer simulation analysis, 26 cranked double delta wings and, 16
concept, design, and configurations, 2431, F-16XL anticipated capabilities, 5758
24, 26, 27, 29, 30 F-16XL capabilities, 116, 144n16
cooperative NASAGD design efforts, interest in for advanced fighters, viiviii,
1416, 2427, 3035 1112, 23, 287
costs and funding, 3435 military mission success and, 12
design evolution, 3134, 32, 34 reports and conferences about technology
development of concept, 16 for, 1112, 14
F-16 derivative investigations and design of research programs, 1216, 12, 14
F-16XL fighter, 7, 1516 wing design and, 1416
follow-on studies, 16 Supersonic Cruise Integrated Fighter (SCIF)
initiative to design a supersonic combat program, 1214, 14, 15, 25
aircraft, vii, 287 SCIF-4 design, 1314, 14
matrix model, 24, 24, 2930, 30, 31 SCIF-5 design, 13, 14
Model 400 aircraft, 57 Supersonic Cruise Research (SCR) program, 12
model testing, 24 supersonic flight
rationale behind, 23 ATF program focus, viii, 2021n24
renaming of, 23 F-16XL flight demonstration capabilities,
SCAMP designation for F-16XL proposal, 57 viii, 288
stability and control, 2930, 3133, supersonic combat capabilities, Air Force
4849nn1314 interest in, vii, 287
validation plan, 2526, 26 supersonic commercial aircraft, 296
vortex flap research, 44 supersonic laminar flow control (SLFC)
wind tunnel testing, 1516, 22, 24, 2526, technology
28, 28, 2930, 30, 3133, 31, 32 ACEE program research on, 18081
wind tunnel testing, number of hours, active laminar flow research studies, 184
3435 active suction concepts, development and
evaluation of, ix, 289
466
Index
CFD analysis, ix, 187, 225 importance of to success of supersonic

correlation between flight-test results and transport, 181
CFD data, 202, 203, 223 integration of technology, challenges
correlation between simulator and in-flight associated with, 18789, 292, 29495
data, 209 maximum region of laminar flow during
costs and funding, 228 research program, 22627, 226
cranked-arrow wing application research, number of flight hours, 187
ix, 28889 number of flights, 185, 187, 201, 221
data recording and interpretation, 22021 passive laminar flow research studies, 184
design flight conditions, 21011, 22324, pressure distribution, design, 211
225 pressure distribution and transition data,
end of research program, 18889, 190n4, 2012
295 pressure distribution during flight tests, 211
F-16XL-1 research, 199202, 202, 292 report on research, 205
F-16XL-2 flight-test results, 22326, 226 research flights, 36572
F-16XL-2 research, 190n4, 20226, risk-reduction initiative, support for
29294 government-sponsored program for, 182
F-16XL-2 research flights, 22126, 221, risks and issues related to incorporation of
29394 technology, ix, 18182, 28889, 292
F-16XL modifications for research, ix, 142, simulator flights, 2089
184, 185, 193, 289 suction effects on transition from laminar to
F-16XL prototypes use for research, ix, turbulent flow, 22526
179, 289 suction glove technology. See wing gloves
fairing around suction panelfuselage joint, and panels for SLFC
21011, 213, 215, 216 support for, 182
in-flight emergencies, 222, 223 tail surfaces fully laminar to the control
flight envelope for research flights, 19395, surface hinge lines, 181
198, 198, 199, 203, 21011, 222, takeoff gross weight and use of, 181,
22324 190n4, 191n13
follow-on investigation, 16, 22628 transfer of prototypes to NASA for, 16, 179,
fuel consumption savings with, 181, 190n4, 18285
191n13 Tu-144 SLFC test bed, 22728
goals of research program, 18788, turbocompressor for active suction system,
2034, 205, 223, 22627, 29294 21213, 212, 213, 223, 293
handling and controllability qualities and, 185 wing surfaces fully laminar to the control
HSCT development and use of SLFC surface hinge lines, 181, 190n4
technology, ix, 18182, 191n13, 2034, See also wing gloves and panels for SLFC
22324, 22628, 227, 28889 Supersonic Transport (SST) program, 12,
HSR program, transfer of research program 1314, 15
to, 18081
467
Elegance in Flight
surface imperfections (excrescences), 204, tails

209, 221, 23233n32 design specifications and configuration,
surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems, 11 68, 82
SUU-30 submunitions dispenser, 5051n31 differences between YF-16 and production
SUU-65 Tactical Munitions Dispenser, 38, 42, F-16 fighters, 6
5051n31, 128, 131, 132, 305 F-16XL design, 32, 32
Swalm, Thomas S., 334, 348, 359 horizontal tail design, 46
Swedish Defense Research Agency/Royal induced drag and delta-winged fighters,
Institute of Technology, 253, 276n15 4647, 5253n41
swept wings removal of vertical tail for fin modification,
highAoA, wing design, forebody strakes, 75
and flow separation, 4 SCAMP all-moving vertical tail, 27, 28,
SCAMP design, 1516 2930, 29
supersonic cruise capabilities and, 1416 SCIF designs, 13, 14
supersonic wing design, 1516 SLFC and tail surfaces fully laminar to the
synthetic-aperture radar (SAR), 15051, 159, control surface hinge lines, 181
173n6 spin tunnel testing of all-moving vertical
System Operational Concept, 160 tail, 40
Szalai, Kenneth J., 227 stability and control and, 29, 32
takeoffs and landings
T aerodynamic braking, 120, 139, 291
T-38 aircraft, 110, 147n64 aft fuselage clearance at touchdown, 119,
Tactical Air Command (TAC) 121
CTF personnel from, 107 AoA limiter when landing gear is extended,
DRF evaluation, 155, 157 81
DRF performance thresholds and goals, approach and landing performance,
15859 11922, 291
F-16 fighter use by, 9697 approach AoA, 119, 121, 163
LWF evaluation, 4 delta-winged aircraft characteristics and,
OUE testing, 109, 114 120, 120
quick combat turnaround demonstration, distances for, viii, 288
115 drag chutes and, 76
Tactical Air Command (TAC) fighter, 152 Edwards AFB altitude and temperature at
Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) program, and takeoff and landing performance of
17n1, 149 aircraft, 118, 145n30
Tactical Munitions Dispenser (TMD) F-15E takeoff gross weight, 157
SUU-65 Tactical Munitions Dispenser, 38, F-16A takeoff gross weight, 118
42, 5051n31, 128, 131, 132, 305 F-16E takeoff gross weight, 157
takeoff performance with, 11819 F-16A takeoff and landing distances, 58
F-16XL-1 first flight, 101, 102
468
Index
F-16XL-1 landing rollout, 257 target tracking, 124, 128, 291

F-16XL anticipated capabilities of takeoff technology
and landing distances, 58 adaptation of for military and civil purposes,
F-16XL performance, 11822, 163, 291, 296
297 readiness levels and scale, 252, 254,
F-16XL takeoff gross weight, 61, 79, 84, 27576n9, 362, 36364
113, 116, 118 YF-16 fighter success of technology
flare, 255 demonstration and advancement in fighter
glide-path angle, 25556 performance, 56
ground effect and landing performance, Technology Concept Aircraft (TCA), 188, 295
11920, 144n26, 25558 Technology for Supersonic Cruise Military
HSCT takeoff gross weight, 180, 191n13 Aircraft conference, 1112, 14
instrument approaches, 119 Technology Management Teams (TMTs), 180
landing distances, 12021, 145n30, 163, Technology Readiness Levels and scale, 252,
291 254, 27576n9, 362, 36364
landing handling qualities, 291 Thayer, Paul, 142, 147n65, 334, 347, 359
landing handling qualities F-16XL-1 flight The Six Million Dollar Man, 172, 177n68
tests, 306, 32324, 373 Thomas, Edwin A. Ed
lift coefficient during final approach and CTF role, 107
landing, 12122, 25758, 291 F-16XL-1 flight-test log, 309, 31015,
liftoff speeds, 118 317, 31922
PIO tendencies during, 140 F-16XL-2 flight-test log, 33453
sink rate during landing approach, 255 landing performance, 120
speeds for delta-wing aircraft, 46 speed brake actuator failure, 110
swept wings and vortex flow technology VIP flights, 35861
investigations, 12 thrust-reversing nozzle, 59, 66n15
takeoff distances, 118, 145n30, 163 thrust-to-weight ratio, viii, 61, 62, 114, 117,
takeoff performance, 11819, 291 163, 288, 291, 297
taxi tests, 100101, 280, 282, 282 thrust vectoring, 28, 97
thrust-to-weight ratio and takeoff distances, Tierney, Sheryl Scott, 334, 356
61 Tollmien, Walter, 23132n20
touchdown speeds, 121, 291 Tollmien-Schlichting (T-S) wave, 23132n20
vortex lift and, 43 Tower, John G., 96, 97
YF-16 taxi test and unscheduled first flight, 5 tracking tasks
Talty, Patrick K. air-to-air tracking task, 27274, 37880
career and experience of, 144n20 pitch gallop and target tracking, 124, 128
F-16XL-2 flight-test log, 334, 355 Transonic Dynamic Tunnel, 16-Foot, 36
F-16XL strengths and deficiencies, 16263 Transonic Pressure Tunnel, 8-Foot, 13, 208
turning performance comments, 117 Tulinius, Jan, 183, 19091n8
target aircraft, 308, 33233, 374 Tupolev Tu-144 aircraft, 14, 22728, 296
469
Elegance in Flight
turbocompressor for active suction system, vibration

21213, 212, 213, 223, 293 control surface buzz, 194, 229n2
turbulence diverter, 204, 219, 219, 225 F-16XL-1 flight tests, 307, 324, 328, 373
turbulent flow, law of the wall for, 275n7 ground vibration tests (GVTs), 36, 95, 193,
Turkish Aircraft Industries, 253 194, 19596, 198
turns and turn maneuvers LNSI and, 136
air combat outcomes and, 23 Vijgen, Paul M., 208
F-16 capabilities, 11617 Viken, Jeffrey K., 208
F-16XL capabilities, 11617 VIP flight practices and flights
handling qualities, pilots comments on, 1983 flights, 35860
27374, 37677 1984 flights, 36061
instantaneous turning advantage, 63, 163 1985 flights, 361
instantaneous turn rates, 9, 11617, 291 F-16XL-1 flights, 327
OUE testing, 114 F-16XL-2 flights, 142, 342
number of flights, 308, 374
U Virtual Address eXtension (VAX), 169, 177n61
UH-1 helicopter, 4041 Voracek, David, 194
Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel vortex flow
F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 208 CAWAPI research, 244, 25154, 254
FSW design testing, 11, 11, 432 CAWAP research, ix, 24451, 245, 246,
SCAMP concept testing, 1516, 22, 28, 28, 250, 251, 275n7, 289
30, 31, 31, 32 F-16XL prototypes use for research, 235
SCIF-4 design testing, 13 lift and, 43
weapons carriage and external stores pneumatic vortex control (PVC) research,
testing, 4142, 42 246, 271, 274, 278n32, 292
wing concepts testing, 15 research on, 44
United Arab Emirates Air Force, 176n54 SCR program and research related to, 12
University of Glasgow, 253 smoke-flow investigations, 33
University of Liverpool, 253, 254, 254 wing design and, 33
University of Tennessee-Chattanooga vortex lift
SimCenter, 254 CAWAP and vortex flap research, 24546
University of Wyoming, 254 controlled vortex lift, 45
drag and, 13, 2425, 43
V F-16XL-1 vortex flap flight-test effort,
variable-geometry inlet (VGI), 26, 28, 29, 29 23537
VAX (Virtual Address eXtension), 169, 177n61 flow visualization techniques for testing, 236
Venom FB 1 aircraft, 49n19 maneuverability and, 13, 43, 44, 46
Vernon, Lura, 263, 277n23 NASA research on, 45, 13
Vertical Spin Tunnel, 20-foot, 37, 3940 vortex flap wind tunnel testing, 44, 4546,
236
470
Index
wing design and, 2425, 26 fuselage modifications for weapons carriage

wing leading-edge vortex flaps, 4346, 59, stations, 78, 92n19
66n15, 12122, 23537, 291 handling and controllability qualities and,
vortex wing camber, 2425 129, 13133
Vought Aircraft, 147n65 interface and fire control provisions, 87
Vrije Universiteit Brussel/Numeca (Free maneuverability and, 8586
University of Brussels), 253 mission radius and, 58, 6263, 164
OUE testing, 1089
W release and jettison capabilities, 86
Wagner, Richard D., 181 roll and roll rates and, 8586, 13031
Walchli, Lawrence A., 271 SCAMP concept, 25
war games, computerized, viii, 288 semiconformal carriage, 62, 85
weapons carriage and external stores, 13133 spin tunnel testing, 3738
aerodynamic integration of external stores, Stores configuration Switch CAT III mode,
25 271, 279
asymmetric loads, 37 symmetric loads, 37
carriage drag, 85 takeoff performance and, 11819
configurations and station locations, 131 test instrumentation parameters, 8890
conformal carriage, 25, 4142, 48n7, weapon separation F-16XL-1 flight tests,
8586, 86 111, 111, 127, 307, 311, 31213, 373
drag and, 62 weapon separation F-16XL-2 flight tests,
drop model testing, 43 127, 307, 33738, 340, 35051, 373
ejector racks and launchers, 61, 8586, weapon separation log, 300302
87, 93n32, 111 weapons separation tests, 4243, 47,
external wing tanks, 3738, 42, 42, 84, 85, 51n32, 109, 13133, 133
8687, 97, 116, 128, 129, 132 weight and weapons configurations, 84
F-15E capabilities, 151, 166 wind tunnel testing, 4143, 42, 47, 51n32,
F-16XL-1 single-seat prototype, 70, 110, 289
11516 wing hard-point arrangement, 86, 86
F-16XL capabilities, 6263, 84, 153 wing hard points, loads on, 72, 85
F-16XL prototype specifications, 61 wing station mountings, 61
F-16XL speed and range capabilities, wingtips and wingtip-mounted munitions, 30
11516 weapons/ordnance
features and functions of system, 8587, 86 gun firing F-16XL-1 flight tests, 307, 324,
flight-test activity summary, 305 328, 329, 373
flight-test evaluation, 109, 13133, 131, gun firing F-16XL-2 flight tests, 307, 336,
133 34445, 373
flutter and performance follow-on gun-firing tests, 113, 133, 304
investigation, 128 liftoff speeds and ordnance loads, 118
471
Elegance in Flight
quick combat turnaround demonstration wind tunnel facilities

and loading of, 115 Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel (4T), 4243,
types and number of, 85, 86, 87, 13133, 51n32
131 Basic Aerodynamic Research Tunnel,
weight and drag penalties from, vii, 287 25051, 250
Weapons System Officer (WSO), 15051 Full-Scale Tunnel, 30- by 60-foot. See Full-
weapons systems Scale Tunnel, 30- by 60-foot
acquisition process, criticism of, 1 High-Speed 7- by 10-foot Wind Tunnel, 12,
competitive prototyping and Fly-Before-Buy 12, 15, 44
approach to acquisition process, 13 Low-Speed Tunnel, 12-foot, 45
SAR-based concept, 15051, 173n6 Propulsion Wind Tunnel (PWT), 4243
Webb, Lannie D., 239 Transonic Dynamic Tunnel, 16-Foot, 36
weight Transonic Pressure Tunnel, 8-Foot, 13, 208
F-15E takeoff gross weight, 157 Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. See Unitary Plan
F-16A takeoff gross weight, 118 Wind Tunnel
F-16E takeoff gross weight, 157 Vertical Spin Tunnel, 20-foot, 37, 3940
F-16A Fighting Falcon (Viper), 6061 wind tunnel testing
F-16XL-1 single-seat prototype, 6061, 111 active suction wing glove, 185
F-16XL-2 two-seat flight demonstrator, 61, CAWAP research, 24951, 250, 275n8
111 CAWAP research and correlation between
F-16XL takeoff gross weight, 61, 79, 84, in-flight and wind tunnel data and CFD
113, 116, 118 data, 24451, 245, 246, 250, 251
HSCT takeoff gross weight, 180, 191n13 F-16XL-2 SLFC research, 185, 205, 2078
ordnance weight penalties and speed and F-16XL testing, 59, 70
range of aircraft, vii, 287 flutter model tests, 35, 36
takeoff gross weight and use of SLFC, 181, FSW model, 11, 11, 432
190n4, 191n13 models for, 277n22
thrust-to-weight ratio, viii, 61, 62, 114, 117, number of configuration variables, 46, 289
163, 288, 291, 297 number of hours of testing, 46, 47, 289,
wings, 8, 5960, 74, 290 293
Weinberger, Caspar W., 159 SCAMP concept, 1516, 22, 24, 2526, 28,
Welch, Larry, 334, 351, 360 28, 2930, 30, 3133, 31, 32, 3435
Wetherall, Robert, 19n13, 172 SCAMP configurations, report on testing
Whipple, Raymond D., 37 results, 3233, 49n21
White, William L., 37 SCAT-15F model, 12, 12
Whitehead, Allen H., Jr., 180 SCIF-4 design, 13, 14
Whitmore, Stephen A., 262 SCIF-5 fighter design model, 14
Williams, John G., 164 SLFC research, 185, 205, 2078, 293
Williams, Louis J., 227 vortex flaps, 44, 4546, 236
Wilson, Mark R., 239
472
Index
weapons carriage and external stores, suction effects on transition from laminar to
4143, 42, 47, 51n32, 289 turbulent flow, 22526
wing design and drag, evaluation of, 70 suction panel design and fabrication,
wing fences (air dams), 32, 33, 49n19 21416, 215
wing gloves and panels for SLFC suction pressure variation and volume of
active suction concepts, development and boundary-layer airflow, 203
evaluation of, ix, 289 suction system, 200201, 200, 204, 209,
active suction glove, design, fabrication, and 210, 21114, 212, 213, 214, 293
installation of, 185, 18687, 200201, titanium wing glove cost, 185
200, 205 turbocompressor for active suction system,
active suction system, concept and 21213, 212, 213, 223, 293
characteristics of, 185 turbulence diverter, 204, 225
active suction wing for HSCT, challenges of weight of, 193
producing, 190n4 wind tunnel testing, 185, 205, 2078, 293
active-suction wing glove, design, wing stiffness and, 196
installation, and testing, 293 wing leading-edge flaps (LEF)
active-suction wing glove testing, 185 actuators for, 71
F-16XL-1 active suction and passive laminar aerodynamic loads on wing from, 72
flow glove, 185, 192, 193, 199202, 199, CAWAP and vortex flap research, 24546
200, 201, 202, 205, 210, 292 delta wing with leading-edge vortex camber,
F-16XL-1 modifications for SLFC research, 25
184, 193, 292 design specifications and configuration, 68,
F-16XL-2 active suction glove, 178, 185, 71, 82
18687, 186, 188, 193, 2045, 205, differential deflection capability, 80
206, 20916, 210, 214, 215, 226, F-16XL implementation, 32
29394 features and functions of, 80, 80
F-16XL-2 passive laminar flow glove, 186, hinge moment evaluation F-16XL-2 flight
204, 205, 206, 206, 207, 207, 29293 tests, 307, 337, 347, 373
fairing around suction panelfuselage joint, inboard-mounted vortex flaps, 40
21011, 213, 215, 216 locked LEF F-16XL-1 flight tests, 306, 325,
flutter and, 19398 32728, 373
GVTs before and after installation of, 193, locked LEF F-16XL-2 flight tests, 355
194, 19596, 198 locked LEF follow-on investigation, 12829
instrumentation on, 201, 201, 206, 206, pitch control and, 80
207, 209, 210, 21920, 223, 232n29 SCAMP concept, 24, 25, 27, 27, 28, 29,
pressure distribution, design, 211 29, 3132
pressure distribution and transition data, spin prevention and design of, 70
2012 spin recovery and, 80
pressure distribution during flight tests, 211 stability and control and, 33, 80, 290
tabbed vortex flap, 4546
473
Elegance in Flight
vortex flaps, 4346, 59, 66n15, 12122, Wolfe, Alex

23537, 291 CTF role, 108
yaw control and, 81 F-16XL-1 flight-test log, 30915
wings F-16XL-2 first flight, 111
angle of incidence, 71, 91n4 F-16XL-2 flights, 112
aspect ratio, 8, 1819n11, 71 F-16XL-2 flight-test log, 33439, 34648,
chord, 1819n11, 71, 91n3 35153
delta wing/forward-mounted canard surface Wright, Jim, 96
evaluation, 710 Wright-Patterson Air Force Base (AFB)
differences between YF-16 and production Materials Laboratory, 73
F-16 fighters, 6 National Museum of the United States Air
double delta wings, 9, 10 Force, 283
drag, induced drag, and aspect ratio of pneumatic vortex control (PVC) research,
wing, 1819n11, 63, 23536 271, 278n32
equal weight composite (EWC) wing Prototype Program Office, Aeronautical
evaluation, 710, 8 Systems Division, 2
F-16 derivative investigations to enhance supersonic cruise technology, conferences
capabilities, 711, 8, 11, 432 about, 1112, 14
forward-swept wings (FSW) evaluation, See also Aeronautical Systems Division
711, 8, 11, 432 (ASD), Wright-Patterson AFB
high aspect ratio wings, 1819n11
low aspect ratio wings, 1819n11, 23536 X
mean aerodynamic center (MAC), 29, X-15 aircraft, 147n64
48n13, 91n3, 130 X-24B lifting body, 147n64
planform, 1819n11 X-29/X-29A FSW technology demonstrator,
SCAMP concept, 2426, 24, 2729, 27, 11, 258
29, 3033 XB-70A Valkyrie, 25
SLFC and wing surfaces fully laminar to the XF-92A Dart, 49n19, 120, 120
control surface hinge lines, 181, 190n4 XYZ coordinate system, 9192n8
swept wings and vortex flow technology xyz system, 232n28
investigations, 12
wingspan, 8, 1819n11, 71 Y
XYZ coordinate system, 9192n8 Yates, Ronald W., 334, 346, 359
See also cranked-arrow wings yaw and yaw behavior
wingtips rudder and yaw control, 80
SCAMP concept, 25, 2930, 29, 32 SCAMP wind tunnel testing results report,
spin tunnel testing, 40 33, 49n21
stability and control and, 2930 wing LEFs and yaw control, 81
wing trailing-edge flaps, 25, 28, 31 wing LEFs and yaw divergence, 32
xyz system, 232n28
474
Index
YF-12 aircraft, 147n64

YF-16 fighter
CTF approach to evaluation of, viii
design of, 45, 15, 297
differences between production aircraft
and, 6
flight-test program, 4, 56
Lightweight Fighter fly-off, x, 4
management of program, 5556, 58, 168
modular construction approach, 15
number of flights, 5
prototype for Lightweight Fighter program,
2, 36, 23, 143n8
success of technology demonstration and
advancement in fighter performance, 56
taxi test and unscheduled first flight, 5
working relationship between GD and NASA
during program, vii, 28788
YF-17 fighter, 2, 34, 4, 6, 143n8
YF-22A ATF prototype, 116
YF-102/F-102A Delta Dagger, 49n19, 120,
120, 145n29, 281
Yip, Long P., 45
YO-3A aircraft, 184, 26061, 261, 262,
27677n20, 292
475
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Washington, DC
NASA SP-2014-618

Elegance in Flight PDF

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Albert C.

Copyright 2014 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

This publication is available as a free download at

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Chapter 1: Experimental Prototyping and Supersonic Combat........................... 1

Chapter 2: From SCAMP to F-16XL: A Collaborative Development................... 23

Chapter 3: Flight Demonstration Program Planning.......................................... 55

Chapter 4: Design and Construction Details.......................................................69

Chapter 5: First Flight and Initial Testing............................................................95

Chapter 6: The Integrated Flight-Test Organization, Objectives, and Program..107

Chapter 7: The Dual-Role Fighter Competition................................................149

Chapter 8: NASA Supersonic Laminar Flow Research....................................179

Chapter 9: Detailed Aspects of the F-16XL SLFC Research Effort...................193

Chapter 10: Other NASA F-16XL Flight Research Efforts................................235

Chapter 11: Final Research Options and Retirement......................................281

Chapter 12: Summary and Observations.........................................................287

Appendix A: F-16XL First Flight Certificate......................................................299

Appendix B: F-16XL Weapon Separation Log..................................................300

Appendix C: F-16XL Flight-Test Activity Through October 1, 1985..................303

Appendix D: F-16XL Flight-Test Objectives Accomplished..............................306

Appendix E: F-16XL Flight-Test Logs...............................................................309

Appendix G: NASA Technology Readiness Levels............................................362

Appendix H: F-16XL Flight Research: NASA SLFC Program and Overall.........365

Appendix I: Pilot Rating of F-16XL-1 DFCS Handling Qualities........................375

Appendix J: Acronyms, Abbreviations, Nomenclature, and Symbols..............384

To the memory of my mother,

During the 1990s, NASA was pursuing a complex High-Speed Research

On January 13, 1975 Air Force Secretary John McLucas

Inscription in the Legacy Hall of Building 200,

Prototyping and the Onset of the

which he announced that the DoD would be moving to a Fly-Before-Buy

From Lightweight Fighter to F-16

General Dynamics had begun to develop the aerodynamic configuration of

The inadvertent flight lasted 6 minutes. Oestricher had masterfully averted

YF-16 flight-test effort

F-16 Derivative Investigations

wingspan and a larger aspect ratio and

Equal Wt. 3.28 338 40 1.00 1.07

Relative to one another, the various wing planforms showed advantages

cruise and moderate angles of attack

General Dynamics had

Supersonic Cruise Studies: First Steps

follow-on conference in 1977 titled Operational Utility of Supersonic Cruise.

Supersonic Cruise Integrated Fighter Concept Investigation

NASA/GD Supercruise Cooperative Efforts

7. Joseph R. Chambers, Partners in Freedom: Contributions of the

Center, Beginners Guide to Aerodynamics (hereafter BGA), Wing

Lockheed F-22A Raptor; see Aronstein, Hirschberg, and Piccirillo,

From SCAMP to F-16XL:

By 19761977, General Dynamics Harry Hillaker, often referred to as the

tests were oriented toward investigating the effects of various wing-camber

SCAMP Configuration Evolution

an F-16 stretched fuselage mated with a cranked-arrow wing. Two 20-inch

control during low-speed, high-angle-of-attack maneuvering. Another impor-

drag while providing enhanced

NASA Wind Tunnel Testing

under consideration, were deleted, as were the movable wingtips. Leading-edge

By mid-1980, SCAMP had converged on the aerodynamic layout that would

Follow-On Flutter, Spin, Drop Model,

Inscription in the Legacy Hall of Building 200,