Mathematics Learning Centre

Functions and Their Graphs

Jackie Nicholas
Janet Hunter
Jacqui Hargreaves

1997
c University of Sydney
Contents
1 Functions 1
1.1 What is a function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Denition of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 The Vertical Line Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Domain of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Range of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Specifying or restricting the domain of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 The absolute value function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 More about functions 11

2.1 Modifying functions by shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.1 Vertical shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.2 Horizontal shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Modifying functions by stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Modifying functions by reections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 Reection in the x-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 Reection in the y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Other eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Combining eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Graphing by addition of ordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Using graphs to solve equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9 Even and odd functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.10 Increasing and decreasing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Piecewise functions and solving inequalities 27

3.1 Piecewise functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 Restricting the domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
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4 Polynomials 36
4.1 Graphs of polynomials and their zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1.1 Behaviour of polynomials when |x| is large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1.2 Polynomial equations and their roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.3 Zeros of the quadratic polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.4 Zeros of cubic polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Polynomials of higher degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Factorising polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4.1 Dividing polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4.2 The Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4.3 The Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5 Solutions to exercises 50
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 1

1 Functions

In this Chapter we will cover various aspects of functions. We will look at the denition of
a function, the domain and range of a function, what we mean by specifying the domain
of a function and absolute value function.

1.1 What is a function?

1.1.1 Denition of a function

A function f from a set of elements X to a set of elements Y is a rule that

assigns to each element x in X exactly one element y in Y .

One way to demonstrate the meaning of this denition is by using arrow diagrams.

X Y X Y
f g
1 5 1 5
2 2 6

3 3 3 3

4 2 4 2

f : X Y is a function. Every element g : X Y is not a function. The ele-

in X has associated with it exactly one ment 1 in set X is assigned two elements,
element of Y . 5 and 6 in set Y .

A function can also be described as a set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that for any x-value in
the set, there is only one y-value. This means that there cannot be any repeated x-values
with dierent y-values.
The examples above can be described by the following sets of ordered pairs.

F = {(1,5),(3,3),(2,3),(4,2)} is a func- G = {(1,5),(4,2),(2,3),(3,3),(1,6)} is not

tion. a function.

The denition we have given is a general one. While in the examples we have used numbers
as elements of X and Y , there is no reason why this must be so. However, in these notes
we will only consider functions where X and Y are subsets of the real numbers.
In this setting, we often describe a function using the rule, y = f (x), and create a graph
of that function by plotting the ordered pairs (x, f (x)) on the Cartesian Plane. This
graphical representation allows us to use a test to decide whether or not we have the
graph of a function: The Vertical Line Test.
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1.1.2 The Vertical Line Test

The Vertical Line Test states that if it is not possible to draw a vertical line through a
graph so that it cuts the graph in more than one point, then the graph is a function.

y y

x
0

x
0

This is the graph of a function. All possi- This is not the graph of a function. The
ble vertical lines will cut this graph only vertical line we have drawn cuts the
once. graph twice.

1.1.3 Domain of a function

For a function f : X Y the domain of f is the set X.

This also corresponds to the set of x-values when we describe a function as a set of ordered
pairs (x, y).

If only the rule y = f (x) is given, then the domain

is taken to be the set of all real x for
which the function is dened. For example, y = x has domain; all real x 0. This is
sometimes referred to as the natural domain of the function.

1.1.4 Range of a function

For a function f : X Y the range of f is the set of y-values such that y = f (x) for
some x in X.

This corresponds to the set ofy-values when we describe a function as a set of ordered
pairs (x, y). The function y = x has range; all real y 0.

Example

a. State the domain and range of y = x + 4.

b. Sketch, showing signicant features, the graph of y = x + 4.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 3

Solution

a. The domain of y = x + 4 is all real x 4. We know that square root functions are
only dened for positive numbers so we require that x + 4 0, ie x 4.We also
know that the square root functions are always positive so the range of y = x + 4 is
all real y 0.

b.
y
3

1
x
4 3 2 1 0 1

The graph of y = x + 4.

Example

a. State the equation of the parabola sketched below, which has vertex (3, 3).
y
1
x
2 0 2 4 6 8
1

b. Find the domain and range of this function.

Solution
x2 6x
a. The equation of the parabola is y = 3
.

b. The domain of this parabola is all real x. The range is all real y 3.

Example

Sketch x2 + y 2 = 16 and explain why it is not the graph of a function.

Solution
x2 + y 2 = 16 is not a function as it fails the vertical line test. For example, when x = 0
y = 4.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 4

y
4

x
4 2 0 2 4

The graph of x2 + y 2 = 16.

Example

Sketch the graph of f (x) = 3x x2 and nd

a. the domain and range

b. f (q)

c. f (x2 )

d. f (2+h)f (2)
h
, h = 0.

Solution

x
1 0 1 2 3

The graph of f (x) = 3x x2 .

a. The domain is all real x. The range is all real y where y 2.25.

b. f (q) = 3q q 2
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 5

2
c. f (x2 ) = 3(x2 ) (x2 ) = 3x2 x4
d.
f (2 + h) f (2) (3(2 + h) (2 + h)2 ) (3(2) (2)2 )
=
h h
6 + 3h (h2 + 4h + 4) 2
=
h
h2 h
=
h

= h 1

Example

Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = (x 1)2 + 1 and show that f (p) = f (2 p).
Illustrate this result on your graph by choosing one value of p.

Solution
y
6

x
2 0 2 4

The graph of f (x) = (x 1)2 + 1.

f (2 p) = ((2 p) 1)2 + 1

= (1 p)2 + 1

= (p 1)2 + 1

= f (p)
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 6

y
6

x
2 0 2 4

The sketch illustrates the relationship f (p) = f (2 p) for p = 1. If p = 1 then

2 p = 2 (1) = 3, and f (1) = f (3).

1.2 Specifying or restricting the domain of a function

We sometimes give the rule y = f (x) along with the domain of denition. This domain
may not necessarily be the natural domain. For example, if we have the function

y = x2 for 0x2

then the domain is given as 0 x 2. The natural domain has been restricted to the
subinterval 0 x 2.
Consequently, the range of this function is all real y where 0 y 4. We can best
illustrate this by sketching the graph.

y
4

x
1 0 1 2

The graph of y = x2 for 0 x 2.

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1.3 The absolute value function

Before we dene the absolute value function we will review the denition of the absolute
value of a number.
The Absolute value of a number x is written |x| and is dened as

|x| = x if x 0 or |x| = x if x < 0.

That is, |4| = 4 since 4 is positive, but | 2| = 2 since 2 is negative.

We can also think of |x| geometrically as the distance of x from 0 on the number line.

|2|=2 |4|=4

2 0 4

More generally, |x a| can be thought of as the distance of x from a on the numberline.

| a x | = |x a |
a x

Note that |a x| = |x a|.

The absolute value function is written as y = |x|.

We dene this function as


+x if x 0
y=

x if x < 0

From this denition we can graph the function by taking each part separately. The graph
of y = |x| is given below.

y
2

y = x x<0 1 y=x x0

x
2 1 0 1 2

The graph of y = |x|.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 8

Example

Sketch the graph of y = |x 2|.

Solution

For y = |x 2| we have


+(x 2) when x 2 0 or x2
y=
(x 2) when x 2 < 0 or x<2

That is,


x2 for x 2
y=
x + 2 for x < 2

Hence we can draw the graph in two parts.

y
2

1
y = x + 2 x < 2 y=x2 x2

x
0 1 2 3 4

The graph of y = |x 2|.

We could have sketched this graph by rst of all sketching the graph of y = x 2 and
then reecting the negative part in the x-axis. We will use this fact to sketch graphs of
this type in Chapter 2.

1.4 Exercises

1. a. State the domain and range of f (x) = 9 x2 .

b. Sketch the graph of y = 9 x2 .
(x + h) (x)
2. Given (x) = x2 + 5, nd, in simplest form, h = 0.
h
3. Sketch the following functions stating the domain and range of each:

a. y = x 1
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 9

b. y = |2x|
1
c. y = x4

d. y = |2x| 1.

4. a. Find the perpendicular distance from (0, 0) to the line x + y + k = 0

b. If the line x + y + k = 0 cuts the circle x2 + y 2 = 4 in two distinct points, nd the
restrictions on k.

5. Sketch the following, showing their important features.

 x
1
a. y = 2

b. y 2 = x2 .

6. Explain the meanings of function, domain and range. Discuss whether or not y 2 = x3
is a function.

7. Sketch the following relations, showing all intercepts and features. State which ones
are functions giving their domain and range.

a. y = 4 x2
b. |x| |y| = 0
c. y = x3
d. y = x
|x|
,x = 0

e. |y| = x.

8. If A(x) = x2 + 2 + 1
x2
, x = 0, prove that A(p) = A( p1 ) for all p = 0.

9. Write down the values of x which are not in the domain of the following functions:

a. f (x) = x2 4x
x
b. g(x) = x2 1

 
x
10. If (x) = log x1
, nd in simplest form:

a. (3) + (4) + (5)

b. (3) + (4) + (5) + + (n)

11. a. If y = x2 + 2x and x = (z 2)2 , nd y when z = 3.

b. Given L(x) = 2x + 1 and M (x) = x2 x, nd
i L(M (x))
ii M (L(x))
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12. Using the sketches, nd the value(s) of the constants in the given equations:

y y
5
2

x
1 0 1

(2,1) 1 (2,1)
2
x
2 0 2
y = ax2 b a
y= bx2 +1

13. a. Dene |a|, the absolute value of a, where a is real.

b. Sketch the relation |x| + |y| = 1.

14. Given that S(n) = n

2n+1
, nd an expression for S(n 1).
Hence show that S(n) S(n 1) = 1
(2n1)(2n+1)
.
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2 More about functions

In this Chapter we will look at the eects of stretching, shifting and reecting the basic
functions, y = x2 , y = x3 , y = x1 , y = |x|, y = ax , x2 + y 2 = r2 . We will introduce the
concepts of even and odd functions, increasing and decreasing functions and will solve
equations using graphs.

2.1 Modifying functions by shifting

2.1.1 Vertical shift

We can draw the graph of y = f (x) + k from the graph of y = f (x) as the addition of
the constant k produces a vertical shift. That is, adding a constant to a function moves
the graph up k units if k > 0 or down k units if k < 0. For example, we can sketch the
function y = x2 3 from our knowledge of y = x2 by shifting the graph of y = x2 down
by 3 units. That is, if f (x) = x2 then f (x) 3 = x2 3.

y
3 y = x2

(1,1) y = x 2 3
x
2 1 0 1 2

(1,2)

We can also write y = f (x) 3 as y + 3 = f (x), so replacing y by y + 3 in y = f (x) also

shifts the graph down by 3 units.

2.1.2 Horizontal shift

We can draw the graph of y = f (x a) if we know the graph of y = f (x) as placing the
constant a inside the brackets produces a horizontal shift. If we replace x by x a inside
the function then the graph will shift to the left by a units if a < 0 and to the right by a
units if a > 0.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 12

1
For example we can sketch the graph of y = x2 from our knowledge of y = x1 by shifting
this graph to the right by 2 units. That is, if f (x) = x1 then f (x 2) = x2
1
.

(1,1) (1,3)

2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
(1,1) (1,1)

1
Note that the function y = x2
is not dened at x = 2. The point (1, 1) has been shifted
to (1, 3).

2.2 Modifying functions by stretching

We can sketch the graph of a function y = bf (x) (b > 0) if we know the graph of y = f (x)
as multiplying by the constant b will have the eect of stretching the graph in the y-
direction by a factor of b. That is, multiplying f (x) by b will change all of the y-values
proportionally.
For example, we can sketch y = 2x2 from our knowledge of y = x2 as follows:

y y
2 2 (1,2)

1 (1,1) 1

x x
1 0 1 1 0 1

The graph of y = x2 .
The graph of y = 2x2 . Note, all the y-
values have been multiplied by 2, but the
x-values are unchanged.

We can sketch the graph of y = 12 x2 from our knowledge of y = x2 as follows:

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 13

y y
2 2

1 (1,1) 1

(1,1/2)
x x
1 0 1 1 0 1

The graph of y = x2 .
The graph of y = 12 x2 . Note, all the
y-values have been multiplied by 12 , but
the x-values are unchanged.

2.3 Modifying functions by reections

2.3.1 Reection in the x-axis

We can sketch the function y = f (x) if we know the graph of y = f (x), as a minus sign
in front of f (x) has the eect of reecting the whole graph in the x-axis. (Think of the
x-axis as a mirror.) For example, we can sketch y = |x| from our knowledge of y = |x|.

y y
2 x
1 0 1

x
1 0 1

The graph of y = |x|.

The graph of y = |x|. It is the reec-
tion of y = |x| in the x-axis.

2.3.2 Reection in the y-axis

We can sketch the graph of y = f (x) if we know the graph of y = f (x) as the graph of
y = f (x) is the reection of y = f (x) in the y-axis.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 14

For example, we can sketch y = 3x from our knowledge of y = 3x .

y y
2 2

1 1

x x
1 0 1 1 0 1

The graph of y = 3x .
The graph of y = 3x . It is the reection
of y = 3x in the y-axis.

2.4 Other eects

We can sketch the graph of y = |f (x)| if we know the graph of y = f (x) as the eect of the
absolute value is to reect all of the negative values of f (x) in the x-axis. For example,
we can sketch the graph of y = |x2 3| from our knowledge of the graph of y = x2 3.

y y

2
4

x
1 0 1
2

x
3 1 0 1

The graph of y = x2 3.
The graph of y = |x2 3|. The negative
values of y = x2 3 have been reected
in the x-axis.

2.5 Combining eects

We can use all the above techniques to graph more complex functions. For example, we
can sketch the graph of y = 2 (x + 1)2 from the graph of y = x2 provided we can analyse
the combined eects of the modications. Replacing x by x + 1 (or x (1)) moves the
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 15

graph to the left by 1 unit. The eect of the sign in front of the brackets turns the
graph up side down. The eect of adding 2 moves the graph up 2 units. We can illustrate
these eects in the following diagrams.

y y
2 2

1 1

x x
1 0 1 2 1 0

The graph of y = x2 .
The graph of y = (x + 1)2 . The graph
of y = x2 has been shifted 1 unit to the
left.

y
y x 2
2 1 0

1
1

x
2 2 1 0

The graph of y = (x + 1)2 . The graph

of y = (x + 1)2 has been reected in the The graph of y = 2(x+1)2 . The graph
x-axis. of y = (x + 1)2 has been shifted up by
2 units.

Similarly, we can sketch the graph of (xh)2 +(yk)2 = r2 from the graph of x2 +y 2 = r2 .
Replacing x by x h shifts the graph sideways h units. Replacing y by y k shifts the
graph up or down k units. (We remarked before that y = f (x) + k could be written as
y k = f (x).)

For example, we can use the graph of the circle of radius 3, x2 + y 2 = 9, to sketch the
graph of (x 2)2 + (y + 4)2 = 9.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 16

y
4

x
4 2 0 2 4

The graph of x2 + y 2 = 9.
This is a circle centre (0, 0), radius 3.

y x
2 0 2 4
(2,1)

(1,4) 4 (2,4) (5,4)

(2,7)

The graph of (x 2)2 + (y + 4)2 = 9.

This is a circle centre (2, 4), radius 3.

Replacing x by x 2 has the eect of shifting the graph of x2 + y 2 = 9 two units to the
right. Replacing y by y + 4 shifts it down 4 units.

2.6 Graphing by addition of ordinates

We can sketch the graph of functions such as y = |x| + |x 2| by drawing the graphs of
both y = |x| and y = |x 2| on the same axes then adding the corresponding y-values.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 17

y = |x 2|
2
y = |x|

x
2 0 2 4 6

x
2 0 2 4 6

The graph of y = |x| + |x 2|.

At each point of x the y-values of y = |x| and y = |x 2| have been added. This allows
us to sketch the graph of y = |x| + |x 2|.

This technique for sketching graphs is very useful for sketching the graph of the sum of
two trigonometric functions.

2.7 Using graphs to solve equations

We can solve equations of the form f (x) = k by sketching y = f (x) and the horizontal line
y = k on the same axes. The solution to the equation f (x) = k is found by determining
the x-values of any points of intersection of the two graphs.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 18

For example, to solve |x 3| = 2 we sketch y = |x 3| and y = 2 on the same axes.

(1,2) (5,2)
2

x
2 0 2 4 6

The x-values of the points of intersection are 1 and 5. Therefore |x 3| = 2 when x = 1

or x = 5.

Example

The graph of y = f (x) is sketched below.

y
2

1 0 1 2 3 4 x

4
(3,4)

For what values of k does the equation f (x) = k have

1. 1 solution
2. 2 solutions
3. 3 solutions?

Solution

If we draw a horizontal line y = k across the graph y = f (x), it will intersect once when
k > 0 or k < 4, twice when k = 0 or k = 4 and three times when 4 < k < 0.
Therefore the equation f (x) = k will have
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 19

1. 1 solution if k > 0 or k < 4

2. 2 solutions if k = 0 or k = 4

3. 3 solutions if 4 < k < 0.

2.8 Exercises
1. Sketch the following:
a. y = x2 b. y = 13 x2 c. y = x2 d. y = (x + 1)2

2. Sketch the following:

1 1 2 1
a. y= x
b. y= x2
c. y= x
d. y= x+1
+2

3. Sketch the following:

a. y = x3 b. y = |x3 2| c. y = 3 (x 1)3

4. Sketch the following:

a. y = |x| b. y = 2|x 2| c. y = 4 |x|

5. Sketch the following:

a. x2 + y 2 = 16 b. x2 + (y + 2)2 = 16 c. (x 1)2 + (y 3)2 = 16

6. Sketch the following:


a. y = 9 x2 b. y= 9 (x 1)2 c. y= 9 x2 3

x1 1
7. Show that = + 1.
x2 x2
x1
Hence sketch the graph of y = .
x2
x+1
8. Sketch y = x1
.

9. Graph the following relations in the given interval:

a. y = |x| + x + 1 for 2 x 2 [Hint: Sketch by adding ordinates]
b. y = |x| + |x 1| for 2 x 3
c. y = 2x + 2x for 2 x 2
d. |x y| = 1 for 1 x 3.

10. Sketch the function f (x) = |x2 1| 1.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 20

11. Given y = f (x) as sketched below, sketch

a. y = 2f (x)
b. y = f (x)
c. y = f (x)
d. y = f (x) + 4
e. y = f (x 3)
f. y = f (x + 1) 2
g. y = 3 2f (x 3)
h. y = |f (x)|

x
3 0 1.5

12. By sketching graphs solve the following equations:

a. |2x| = 4
b. 1
x2
= 1
c. x = x2
3

1
d. x2 = x

13. Solve |x 2| = 3.
a. algebraically
b. geometrically.

14. The parabolas y = (x 1)2 and y = (x 3)2 intersect at a point P . Find the
coordinates of P .

15. Sketch the circle x2 + y 2 2x 14y + 25 = 0. [Hint: Complete the squares.] Find
the values of k, so that the line y = k intersects the circle in two distinct points.
4
16. Solve 5x
= 1, using a graph.

17. Find all real numbers x for which |x 2| = |x + 2|.

18. Given that Q(p) = p2 p, nd possible values of n if Q(n) = 2.

19. Solve |x 4| = 2x.

a. algebraically
b. geometrically.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 21

2.9 Even and odd functions

Denition:

A function, y = f (x), is even if f (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f .

Geometrically, an even function is symmetrical about the y-axis (it has line symmetry).
The function f (x) = x2 is an even function as f (x) = (x)2 = x2 = f (x) for all values
of x. We illustrate this on the following graph.

y
4

x
2 x 1 0 1 x 2

The graph of y = x2 .

Denition:

A function, y = f (x), is odd if f (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f .

Geometrically, an odd function is symmetrical about the origin (it has rotational symme-
try).
The function f (x) = x is an odd function as f (x) = x = f (x) for all values of x.
This is illustrated on the following graph.

x x
2 1 0 1 x 2

The graph of y = x.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 22

Example

Decide whether the following functions are even, odd or neither.

1. f (x) = 3x2 4
1
2. g(x) = 2x

3. f (x) = x3 x2 .

Solution
1.
f (x) = 3(x)2 4 = 3x2 4 = f (x)

The function f (x) = 3x2 4 is even.

2.
1 1 1
g(x) = = = = g(x)
2(x) 2x 2x

Therefore, the function g is odd.

3.
f (x) = (x)3 (x)2 = x3 x2

This function is neither even (since x3 x2 = x3 x2 ) nor odd (since x3 x2 =

(x3 x2 )).

Example

Sketched below is part of the graph of y = f (x).

x
0

Complete the graph if y = f (x) is

1. odd

2. even.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 23

Solution

x
0

y = f (x) is an odd function.

x
0

y = f (x) is an even function.

2.10 Increasing and decreasing functions

Here we will introduce the concepts of increasing and decreasing functions. In Chapter 5
we will relate these concepts to the derivative of a function.

Denition:

A function is increasing on an interval I, if for all a and b in I such that a < b,

f (a) < f (b).

The function y = 2x is an example of a function that is increasing over its domain. The
function y = x2 is increasing for all real x > 0.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 24

y
y 2
4
f(b)

1
2
f(a)
x
x
1 0 a 1 b
0 1

The graph of y = 2x . This function is

increasing for all real x. The graph of y = x2 . This function is
increasing on the interval x > 0.

Notice that when a function is increasing it has a positive slope.

Denition:

A graph is decreasing on an interval I, if for all a and b in I such that a < b,

f (a) > f (b).

The function y = 2x is decreasing over its domain. The function y = x2 is decreasing on

the interval x < 0.

y y
2 2
f(a)

1 1

f(b)
x x
1 0 1 a 1 b 0 1

The graph of y = 2x . This function is

decreasing for all real x. The graph of y = x2 . This function is
decreasing on the interval x < 0.
Notice that if a function is decreasing then it has negative slope.

2.11 Exercises
1. Given the graph below of y = f (x):
a. State the domain and range.
b. Where is the graph
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 25

i increasing?
ii decreasing?
c. if k is a constant, nd the values of k such that f (x) = k has
i no solutions
ii 1 solution
iii 2 solutions
iv 3 solutions
v 4 solutions.
d. Is y = f (x) even, odd or neither?

x
4 2 0 2 4

2. Complete the following functions if they are dened to be (a) even (b) odd.

y y

x
0
x
0

y = f (x) y = g(x)

3. Determine whether the following functions are odd, even or neither.

a. y = x4 + 2 b. y = 4 x2 c. y = 2x d. y = x3 + 3x

x 1 1 x
e. y = f. y= g. y= h. y =
x2
x2 4 x2 + 4 x3 + 3

i. y = 2x + 2x j. y = |x 1| + |x + 1|

4. Given y = f (x) is even and y = g(x) is odd, prove

a. if h(x) = f (x) g(x) then h(x) is odd
b. if h(x) = (g(x))2 then h(x) is even
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 26

f (x)
c. if h(x) = , g(x) = 0, then h(x) is odd
g(x)
d. if h(x) = f (x) (g(x))2 then h(x) is even.

5. Consider the set of all odd functions which are dened at x = 0. Can you prove that
for every odd function in this set f (0) = 0? If not, give a counter-example.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 27

3 Piecewise functions and solving inequalities

In this Chapter we will discuss functions that are dened piecewise (sometimes called
piecemeal functions) and look at solving inequalities using both algebraic and graphical
techniques.

3.1 Piecewise functions

3.1.1 Restricting the domain

In Chapter 1 we saw how functions could be dened on a subinterval of their natural

domain. This is frequently called restricting the domain of the function. In this Chapter
we will extend this idea to dene functions piecewise.

Sketch the graph of y = 1 x2 for x 0.

2 y

x
1 0 1

The graph of y = 1 x2 for x 0.

Sketch the graph of y = 1 x for x < 0.

y
2

x
1 0 1

The graph of y = 1 x for x < 0.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 28

We can now put these pieces together to dene a function of the form


1 x2 for x 0
f (x) =
1x for x < 0

We say that this function is dened piecewise. First note that it is a function; each value
of x in the domain is assigned exactly one value of y. This is easy to see if we graph the
function and use the vertical line test. We graph this function by graphing each piece of
it in turn.

2 y

x
1 0 1

The graph shows that f dened in this way is a function. The two pieces of y = f (x)
meet so f is a continuous function.

The absolute value function

x for x 0
f (x) =
x for x < 0

is another example of a piecewise function.

Example

Sketch the function

x2 + 1 for x 0
f (x) =

2 for x < 0
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 29

Solution

y
2

x
2 1 0 1 2

This function is not continuous at x = 0 as the two branches of the graph do not meet.

Notice that we have put an open square (or circle) around the point (0, 2) and a solid
square (or circle) around the point (0, 1). This is to make it absolutely clear that f (0) = 1
and not 2. When dening a function piecewise, we must be extremely careful to assign
to each x exactly one value of y.

3.2 Exercises

1. For the function

1 x2 for x 0
f (x) =
1x for x < 0

evaluate

a. 2f (1) + f (2)

b. f (a2 )

2. For the function given in 1, solve f (x) = 2.

3. Below is the graph of y = g(x). Write down the rules which dene g(x) given that
its pieces are hyperbolic, circular and linear.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 30

y
1

x
3 2 1 1 2 3

4. a. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) if

4 x2 for 2 x 0
f (x) =
x2 4 for x > 0

b. State the range of f .

c. Solve
i f (x) = 0
ii f (x) = 3.

d. Find k if f (x) = k has

i 0
ii 1
iii 2 solutions.

5. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) if

1 |x 1| for x 0
f (x) =
|x + 1| for x < 0

6. Sketch the graph of y = g(x) if

2
for x < 1
x+2
g(x) =
2 for 1 x < 1




2x for x 1
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 31

7. McMaths burgers are to modernise their logo as shown below.

y
3

x
6 3 0 3 6

Write down a piecewise function that represents this function using (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2
pieces (i.e. rules that dene the function).

8. a. The following piecewise function is of the form

ax2 + b for 0 < x 2
f (x) =
cx + d for x > 2

y
4
(4,4)

x
4 2 0 2 4

Determine the values of a, b, c and d.

b. Complete the graph so that f (x) is an odd function dened for all real x, x = 0.

c. Write down the equations that now dene f (x), x = 0.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 32

3.3 Inequalities

We can solve inequalities using both algebraic and graphical methods. Sometimes it is
easier to use an algebraic method and sometimes a graphical one. For the following
examples we will use both, as this allows us to make the connections between the algebra
and the graphs.

Algebraic method Graphical method

1. Solve 3 2x 1.
This is a (2 Unit) linear inequality. y
3
Remember to reverse the inequality
sign when multiplying or dividing
by a negative number.
(1,1)
3 2x 1
2x 2 x
x 1 0 1 2

When is the line y = 3 2x above or

on the horizontal line y = 1 ? From the
graph, we see that this is true for x 1.

2. Solve x2 4x + 3 < 0. Let y = x2 4x + 3.

y
This is a (2 Unit) quadratic inequal-
ity. Factorise and use a number line.
x2 4x + 3 < 0 3
(x 3)(x 1) < 0
The critical values are 1 and 3,
which divide the number line into 1
three intervals. We take points in x
each interval to determine the sign 0 1 3
of the inequality; eg use x = 0,
x = 2 and x = 4 as test values.
When does the parabola have negative
y-values? OR When is the parabola un-
positive negative positive
der the x-axis? From the graph, we see
1 0 1 2 3 4 that this happens when 1 < x < 3.

Thus, the solution is 1 < x < 3.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 33

1
3. Solve x4 1. Let y = 1
x4
.
This is a 3 Unit inequality. There y
is a variable in the denominator.
Remember that a denominator can 1 (5,1)
never be zero, so in this case x = 4.
First multiply by the square of the
denominator
x 4 (x 4)2 , x = 4
2 2 6 x
x 4 x2 8x + 16
0 x2 9x + 20
0 (x 4)(x 5) 1
Mark the critical values on the num-
ber line and test x = 0, x = 4.5 and
x = 6. 1
y = x4 is not dened for x = 4. It
is a hyperbola with vertical asymptote
positive neg positive at x = 4. To solve our inequality we
need to nd the values of x for which
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 the hyperbola lies on or under the line
y = 1. (5, 1) is the point of intersection.
So, from the graph we see that x4 1
1
Therefore, x < 4 or x 5. when x < 4 or x 5.

4. Solve x 3 < 10x

. Sketch y = x 3 and then y = 10 x
. Note
Consider x 3 = 10 x
, x = 0. that second of these functions is not de-
Multiply by x we get ned for x = 0.
y
x2 3x = 10
x2 3x 10 = 0 6
(x 5)(x + 2) = 0
Therefore, the critical values are 3 (5,2)
2, 0 and 5 which divide the num-
x
ber line into four intervals. We can
use x = 3, x = 1, x = 1 and 6 3 0 6
x = 6 as test values in the inequal- (0,3)
ity. The points x = 3 and x = 1
(2,5)
satisfy the inequality, so the solu- 6
tion is x < 2 or 0 < x < 5.
(Notice that we had to include 0 as
one of our critical values.) For what values of x does the line lie
under the hyperbola? From the graph,
we see that this happens when x < 2
or 0 < x < 5.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 34

Example

Sketch the graph of y = |2x 6|.

Hence, where possible,
a. Solve
i |2x 6| = 2x
ii |2x 6| > 2x
iii |2x 6| = x + 3
iv |2x 6| < x + 3
v |2x 6| = x 3

b. Determine the values of k for which |2x 6| = x + k has exactly two solutions.

Solution


2x 6 for x 3
f (x) = |2x 6| =
(2x 6) for x < 3

y = |2x 6| y = 2x
(9,12)
10.0

(1,4)
5.0

(1.5,3)
y=x+3 x
-4.00 -2.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00

y=x3
-5.0

-10.0

a. i Mark in the graph of y = 2x. It is parallel to one arm of the absolute value graph.
It has one point of intersection with y = |2x 6| = 2x + 6 (x < 3) at x = 1.5.
ii When is the absolute value graph above the line y = 2x? From the graph, when
x < 1.5.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 35

iii y = x + 3 intersects y = |2x 6| twice.

To solve |2x 6| = x + 3, take |2x 6| = 2x 6 = x + 3 when x 3. This gives
us the solution x = 9. Then take |2x 6| = 2x + 6 = x + 3 when x < 3 which
gives us the solution x = 1.
iv When is the absolute value graph below the line y = x + 3?
From the graph, 1 < x < 9.
v y = x 3 intersects the absolute value graph at x = 3 only.

b. k represents the y-intercept of the line y = x + k. When k = 3, there is one point of

intersection. (See (a) (v) above). For k > 3, lines of the form y = x + k will have
two points of intersection. Hence |2x 6| = x + k will have two solutions for k > 3.

3.4 Exercises
1. Solve
a. x2 4x
b. 4p
p+3
1
c. 7
9x2
> 1

2. a. Sketch the graph of y = 4x(x 3).

b. Hence solve 4x(x 3) 0.

3. a. Find the points of intersection of the graphs y = 5 x and y = x4 .

b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = 5 x and y = x4 .
c. Using part (ii), or otherwise, write down all the values of x for which
4
5x>
x

4. a. Sketch the graph of y = 2x .

b. Solve 2x < 12 .
c. Suppose 0 < a < b and consider the points A(a, 2a ) and B(b, 2b ) on the graph of
y = 2x . Find the coordinates of the midpoint M of the segment AB.
Explain why
2a + 2b a+b
>2 2
2
5. a. Sketch the graphs of y = x and y = |x 5| on the same diagram.
b. Solve |x 5| > x.
c. For what values of m does mx = |x 5| have exactly
i two solutions
ii no solutions

6. Solve 5x2 6x 3 |8x|.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 36

4 Polynomials
Many of the functions we have been using so far have been polynomials. In this Chapter
we will study them in more detail.

Denition

A real polynomial, P (x), of degree n is an expression of the form

P (x) = pn xn + pn1 xn1 + pn2 xn2 + + p2 x2 + p1 x + p0
where pn = 0, p0 , p1 , , pn are real and n is an integer 0.

All polynomials are dened for all real x and are continuous functions.
We are familiar with the quadratic polynomial, Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c where a = 0. This
polynomial has degree 2.

The function f (x) = x + x is not a polynomial as it has a power which is not an integer
0 and so does not satisfy the denition.

4.1 Graphs of polynomials and their zeros

4.1.1 Behaviour of polynomials when |x| is large

One piece of information that can be a great help when sketching a polynomial is the
way it behaves for values of x when |x| is large. That is, values of x which are large in
magnitude.
The term of the polynomial with the highest power of x is called the leading or dominant
term. For example, in the polynomial P (x) = x6 3x4 1, the term x6 is the dominant
term.
When |x| is large, the dominant term determines how the graph behaves as it is so much
larger in magnitude than all the other terms.

How the graph behaves for |x| large depends on the power and coecient of the dominant
term.
There are four possibilities which we summarise in the following diagrams:

y y

x x

1. Dominant term with even power and 2. Dominant term with even power and
positive coecient, eg y = x2 . negative coecient, eg Q(x) = x2 .
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 37

y y

x x

3. Dominant term with odd power and 4. Dominant term with odd power and
positive coecient, eg y = x3 . negative coecient, eg Q(x) = x3 .
This gives us a good start to graphing polynomials. All we need do now is work out what
happens in the middle. In Chapter 5 we will use calculus methods to do this. Here we
will use our knowledge of the roots of polynomials to help complete the picture.

4.1.2 Polynomial equations and their roots

If, for a polynomial P (x), P (k) = 0 then we can say

1. x = k is a root of the equation P (x) = 0.
2. x = k is a zero of P (x).
3. k is an x-intercept of the graph of P (x).

4.1.3 Zeros of the quadratic polynomial

The quadratic polynomial equation Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two roots that may be:
1. real (rational or irrational) and distinct,
2. real (rational or irrational) and equal,
3. complex (not real).
We will illustrate all of these cases with examples, and will show the relationship between
the nature and number of zeros of Q(x) and the x-intercepts (if any) on the graph.

1. Let Q(x) = x2 4x + 3.
y
We nd the zeros of Q(x) by solving the
equation Q(x) = 0. 3
x2 4x + 3 = 0
-
(x 1)(x 3) = 0
Therefore x = 1 or 3. 1-
The roots are rational (hence real) and x
distinct. |
0
|
2 4
1 -
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 38

2. Let Q(x) = x2 4x 3.
y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get, x
x2 4x 3 = 0 0 2 4
4 16 + 12
x =
2
Therefore x = 2 7. 2
The roots are irrational (hence real) and
distinct.
4

3. Let Q(x) = x2 4x + 4.
y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get,
x2 4x + 4 = 0
(x 2)2 = 0
3
Therefore x = 2.
The roots are rational (hence real) and
equal. Q(x) = 0 has a repeated or dou-
ble root at x = 2. 1
x
0 2 4

Notice that the graph turns at the dou-

ble root x = 2.

4. Let Q(x) = x2 4x + 5.
y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get,
x2 4x + 5 = 0
4 16 20
x = 3
2
Therefore x = 2 4.
There are no real roots. In this case the
roots are complex. 1
x
0 2 4

Notice that the graph does not intersect

the x-axis. That is Q(x) > 0 for all real
x. Therefore Q is positive denite.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 39

We have given above four examples of quadratic polynomials to illustrate the relationship
between the zeros of the polynomials and their graphs.
In particular we saw that:
i if the quadratic polynomial has two real distinct zeros, then the graph of the polyno-
mial cuts the x-axis at two distinct points;

ii if the quadratic polynomial has a real double (or repeated) zero, then the graph sits
on the x-axis;

iii if the quadratic polynomial has no real zeros, then the graph does not intersect the
x-axis at all.

So far, we have only considered quadratic polynomials where the coecient of the x2
term is positive which gives us a graph which is concave up. If we consider polynomials
Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c where a < 0 then we will have a graph which is concave down.
For example, the graph of Q(x) = (x2 4x + 4) is the reection in the x-axis of the
graph of Q(x) = x2 4x + 4. (See Chapter 2.)

y y
x
0 2 4

3 1

1 3
x
0 2 4

The graph of Q(x) = x2 4x + 4. The graph of Q(x) = (x2 4x + 4).

4.1.4 Zeros of cubic polynomials

A real cubic polynomial has an equation of the form

P (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

where a = 0, a, b, c and d are real. It has 3 zeros which may be:

i 3 real distinct zeros;

ii 3 real zeros, all of which are equal (3 equal zeros);

iii 3 real zeros, 2 of which are equal;

iv 1 real zero and 2 complex zeros.

We will illustrate these cases with the following examples:
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 40

1. Let Q(x) = 3x3 3x.

y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get:. 1
3x3 3x = 0
3x(x 1)(x + 1) = 0
Therefore x = 1 or 0 or 1 x
The roots are real (in fact rational) and 1 0 1
distinct.

2. Let Q(x) = x3 .
y
Solving Q(x) = 0 we get that x3 = 0. 1
We can write this as (x 0)3 = 0.
So, this equation has three equal real
roots at x = 0. x
1 0 1

3. Let Q(x) = x3 x2 .
y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get, 1
x 3 x2 = 0
x2 (x 1) = 0
Therefore x = 0 or 1. x
The roots are real with a double root at 1 0 1
x = 0 and a single root at x = 1.

The graph turns at the double root.

4. Let Q(x) = x3 + x.
y
Solving the equation Q(x) = 0 we get, 1
x3 + x = 0
x(x2 + 1) = 0
Therefore x = 0. x
There is one real root at x = 0. 1 0 1
x2 + 1 = 0 does not have any real solu-
tions.
1

The graph intersects the x-axis once

only.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 41

Again, in the above examples we have looked only at cubic polynomials where the coe-
cient of the x3 term is positive. If we consider the polynomial P (x) = x3 then the graph
of this polynomial is the reection of the graph of P (x) = x3 in the x-axis.

y y
1 1

x x
1 0 1 1 0 1

1 1

The graph of Q(x) = x3 . The graph of Q(x) = x3 .

4.2 Polynomials of higher degree

We will write down a few rules that we can use when we have a polynomial of degree 3.
If P (x) is a real polynomial of degree n then:
1. P (x) = 0 has at most n real roots;

2. if P (x) = 0 has a repeated root with an even power then the graph of P (x) turns at
this repeated root;

3. if P (x) = 0 has a repeated root with an odd power then the graph of P (x) has a
horizontal point of inection at this repeated root.
For example, 1. tells us that if we have a quartic polynomial equation f (x) = 0. Then
we know that f (x) = 0 has 4 real roots.

We can illustrate 2. by the sketching f (x) = x(x 2)2 (x + 1). Notice how the graph sits
on the x-axis at x = 2.
y

x
1 0 1 2

The graph of f (x) = x(x + 1)(x 2)2 .

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 42

We illustrate 3. by sketching the graph of f (x) = x(x 2)3 . Notice the horizontal point
of inection at x = 2.

x
0 1 2 3

The graph of f (x) = x(x 2)3 .

4.3 Exercises
1. Sketch the graphs of the following polynomials if y = P (x) is:
a. x(x + 1)(x 3)
b. x(x + 1)(3 x)
c. (x + 1)2 (x 3)
d. (x + 1)(x2 4x + 5)

2. The graphs of the following quartic polynomials are sketched below. Match the graph
with the polynomial.
a. y = x4 b. y = x4 1 c. y = x4 + 1 d. y = 1 x4 e. y = (x 1)4 f. y = (x + 1)4

i ii iii
y y y
2
1

1 1 x
1 0 1

x x
1 0 1 0 1 2 1

iv v vi
y y y
1

1 x 1
1 0 1

x x
1 0 1 1 2 1 0
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 43

3. Sketch the graphs of the following quartic polynomials if y = C(x) is:

a. x(x 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
b. x(x 1)(x + 2)(3 x)
c. x2 (x 1)(x 3)
d. (x + 1)2 (x 3)2
e. (x + 1)3 (x 3)
f. (x + 1)3 (3 x)
g. x(x + 1)(x2 4x + 5)
h. x2 (x2 4x + 5).

4. By sketching the appropriate polynomial, solve:

a. x2 4x 12 < 0
b. (x + 2)(x 3)(5 x) > 0
c. (x + 2)2 (5 x) > 0
d. (x + 2)3 (5 x) 0.

5. For what values of k will P (x) 0 for all real x if P (x) = x2 4x 12 + k?

6. The diagrams show the graph of y = P (x) where P (x) = a(x b)(x c)d .
In each case determine possible values for a, b, c and d.

a. y
b. y
c. y
x 4
2 4 0 x
2 4

2
2

x
(2,8)
4 2 4

d. e. y
f.
y y

x x (0,8)

0 2 4 0 2 4

5
x
(2,8) 4 4
(3,9)

7. The graph of the polynomial y = f (x) is given below. It has a local maximum and
minimum as marked. Use the graph to answer the following questions.
a. State the roots of f (x) = 0.
b. What is the value of the repeated root.
c. For what values of k does the equation f (x) = k have exactly 3 solutions.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 44

d. Solve the inequality f (x) < 0.

e. What is the least possible degree of f (x)?
f. State the value of the constant of f (x).
g. For what values of k is f (x) + k 0 for all real x.
y (0.78,3.23)

x
2 1 1 2

10
(1.28,9.91)

The graph of the polynomial y = f (x)

4.4 Factorising polynomials

So far for the most part, we have looked at polynomials which were already factorised. In
this section we will look at methods which will help us factorise polynomials with degree
> 2.

4.4.1 Dividing polynomials

Suppose we have two polynomials P (x) and A(x), with the degree of P (x) the degree
of A(x), and P (x) is divided by A(x). Then
P (x) R(x)
= Q(x) + ,
A(x) A(x)
where Q(x) is a polynomial called the quotient and R(x) is a polynomial called the
remainder, with the degree of R(x) < degree of A(x).
We can rewrite this as
P (x) = A(x) Q(x) + R(x).

For example: If P (x) = 2x3 + 4x + 3 and A(x) = x 2, then P (x) can be divided by A(x)
as follows:
2x2 + 4x + 12
x 2 2x3 + 0x2 + 4x 3
2x3 4x2
4x2 + 4x 3
4x2 8x
12x 3
12x 24
21
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 45

The quotient is 2x2 + 4x + 12 and the remainder is 21. We have

2x3 + 4x + 3 21
= 2x2 + 4x + 12 + .
x2 x2

This can be written as

2x3 + 4x 3 = (x 2)(2x2 + 4x + 12) + 21.

Note that the degree of the polynomial 21 is 0.

4.4.2 The Remainder Theorem

If the polynomial f (x) is divided by (x a) then the remainder is f (a).

Proof:
Following the above, we can write

f (x) = A(x) Q(x) + R(x),

where A(x) = (x a). Since the degree of A(x) is 1, the degree of R(x) is zero. That is,
R(x) = r where r is a constant.
f (x) = (x a)Q(x) + r where r is a constant.
f (a) = 0 Q(a) + r
= r

So, if f (x) is divided by (x a) then the remainder is f (a).

Example

Find the remainder when P (x) = 3x4 x3 + 30x 1 is divided by a. x + 1, b. 2x 1.

Solution
a. Using the Remainder Theorem:
Remainder = P (1)
= 3 (1) 30 1
= 27

b.
1
Remainder = P ( )
2
1 4 1 1
= 3( ) ( )3 + 30( ) 1
2 2 2
3 1
= + 15 1
16 8
1
= 14
16
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 46

Example

When the polynomial f (x) is divided by x2 4, the remainder is 5x + 6. What is the

remainder when f (x) is divided by (x 2)?

Solution
Write f (x) = (x2 4) q(x) + (5x + 6). Then
Remainder = f (2)
= 0 q(2) + 16
= 16

A consequence of the Remainder Theorem is the Factor Theorem which we state below.

4.4.3 The Factor Theorem

If x = a is a zero of f (x), that is f (a) = 0, then (x a) is a factor of f (x) and f (x) may
be written as
f (x) = (x a)q(x)
for some polynomial q(x).
Also, if (x a) and (x b) are factors of f (x) then (x a)(x b) is a factor of f (x) and

f (x) = (x a)(x b) Q(x)

for some polynomial Q(x).

Another useful fact about zeros of polynomials is given below for a polynomial of degree
3.

If a (real) polynomial
P (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
where a = 0, a, b, c and d are real, has exactly 3 real zeros , and , then

P (x) = a(x )(x )(x ) (1)

Furthermore, by expanding the right hand side of (1) and equating coecients we get:
i
b
++ = ;
a
ii
c
+ + = ;
a
iii
d
= .
a
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 47

This result can be extended for polynomials of degree n. We will give the partial result
for n = 4.

If
P (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e
is a polynomial of degree 4 with real coecents, and P (x) has four real zeros , , and
, then
P (x) = a(x )(x )(x )(x )
and expanding and equating as above gives
e
= .
a

If a = 1 and the equation P (x) = 0 has a root which is an integer, then that integer must
be a factor of the constant term. This gives us a place to start when looking for factors
of a polynomial. That is, we look at all the factors of the constant term to see which ones
(if any) are roots of the equation P (x) = 0.

Example

Let f (x) = 4x3 8x2 x + 2

a. Factorise f (x).

b. Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

c. Solve f (x) 0.

Solution

a. Consider the factors of the constant term, 2. We check to see if 1 and 2 are solutions
of the equation f (x) = 0 by substitution. Since f (2) = 0, we know that (x 2) is a
factor of f (x). We use long division to determine the quotient.

4x2 1
x 2 4x3 8x2 x + 2
4x3 8x2
x+2
x+2

So,
f (x) = (x 2)(4x2 1)
= (x 2)(2x 1)(2x + 1)
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 48

b.
y

1
x
1 0 1 2
1

The graph of f (x) = 4x3 8x2 x + 2.

c. f (x) 0 when 12 x 1
2
or x 2.

Example

Show that (x 2) and (x 3) are factors of P (x) = x3 19x + 30, and hence solve
x3 19x + 30 = 0.

Solution

P (2) = 8 38 + 30 = 0 and P (3) = 27 57 + 30 = 0 so (x 2) and (x 3) are both

factors of P (x) and (x 2)(x 3) = x2 5x + 6 is also a factor of P (x). Long division
of P (x) by x2 5x + 6 gives a quotient of (x + 5).

So,
P (x) = x3 19x + 30 = (x 2)(x 3)(x + 5).

Solving P (x) = 0 we get (x 2)(x 3)(x + 5) = 0.

That is, x = 2 or x = 3 or x = 5.

Instead of using long division we could have used the facts that

i the polynomial cannot have more than three real zeros;

ii the product of the zeros must be equal to 30.

Let be the unknown root.

Then 2 3 = 30, so that = 5. Therefore the solution of P (x) = x3 19x + 30 = 0

is x = 2 or x = 3 or x = 5.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 49

4.5 Exercises
1. When the polynomial P (x) is divided by (x a)(x b) the quotient is Q(x) and the
remainder is R(x).
a. Explain why R(x) is of the form mx + c where m and c are constants.
b. When a polynomial is divided by (x 2) and (x 3), the remainders are 4 and 9
respectively. Find the remainder when the polynomial is divided by x2 5x + 6.
c. When P (x) is divided by (x a) the remainder is a2 . Also, P (b) = b2 . Find R(x)
when P (x) is divided by (x a)(x b).

2. a. Divide the polynomial f (x) = 2x4 + 13x3 + 18x2 + x 4 by g(x) = x2 + 5x + 2.

Hence write f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) where q(x) and r(x) are polynomials.
b. Show that f (x) and g(x) have no common zeros. (Hint: Assume that is a
common zero and show by contradiction that does not exist.)

3. For the following polynomials,

i factorise
ii solve P (x) = 0
iii sketch the graph of y = P (x).
a. P (x) = x3 x2 10x 8
b. P (x) = x3 x2 16x 20
c. P (x) = x3 + 4x2 8
d. P (x) = x3 x2 + x 6
e. P (x) = 2x3 3x2 11x + 6
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 50

5 Solutions to exercises

1.4 Solutions

1. a. The domain of f (x) = 9 x2 is all real x where 3 x 3. The range is all
real y such that 0 y 3.

b.
y
4

x
4 2 0 2 4

The graph of f (x) = 9 x2 .

2.

(x + h) (x) (x + h)2 + 5 (x2 + 5)

=
h h
x2 + 2xh + h2 + 5 x2 5
=
h
h2 + 2xh
=
h
= h + 2x

3. a. b.
y y
4 4

2 2

x x
0 1 3 5 2 0 2

The graph of y = x 1. The domain
is all real x 1 and the range is all real The graph of y = |2x|. Its domain is all
y 0. real x and range all real y 0.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 51

c.
y

0
2 4 6 8 x

The graph of y = 1
x4
. The domain is all real x = 4 and the range is all real y = 0.
d.
y
4

x
2 0 2
1

The graph of y = |2x| 1. The domain is all real x, and the range is all real
y 1.

4. a. The perpendicular distance d from (0, 0) to x + y + k = 0 is d = | k2 |.

b. For the
line x+y +k
= 0 to cut the circle in two distinct points d < 2. ie |k| < 2 2
or 2 2 < k < 2 2.

5. a. b.
y y
4 2

x
2
2 0 2

x
2 0 2 2

The graph of y = ( 12 )x .
The graph of y 2 = x2 .

6. y 2 = x3 is not a function.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 52

7. a. b.
y y
2 2

x x
2 0 2 2 0 2

2 2

The graph of y = 4 x2 . This is a
function with the domain: all real x such The graph of |x| |y| = 0. This is not
that 2 x 2 and range: all real y the graph of a function.
such that 2 y 0.

c. d.
y y
2 2

x x
2 0 2 2 0 2

2 2

The graph of y = x3 . This is a function x

with the domain: all real x and range: The graph of y = |x| . This is the graph
all real y. of a function which is not dened at x =
0. Its domain is all real x = 0, and range
is y = 1.

e.
y

x
0 2

The graph of |y| = x. This is not the graph of a function.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 53

8.
1 1 1
A( ) = ( )2 + 2 + 1 2
p p (p)
1 1
= 2 +2+ 1
p p2
1
= 2 + 2 + p2
p
= A(p)
9. a. The values of x in the interval 0 < x < 4 are not in the domain of the function.
b. x = 1 and x = 1 are not in the domain of the function.
10. a. (3) + (4) + (5) = log(2.5)
b. (3) + (4) + (5) + + (n) = log( n2 )
11. a. y = 3 when z = 3.
b. i L(M (x)) = 2(x2 x) + 1
ii M (L(x)) = 4x2 + 2x
12. a. a = 2, b = 2 so the equations is y = 2x2 2.
b. a = 5, b = 1 so the equation is y = x25+1 .
13. b.
y

x
1 0 1

The graph of |x| + |y| = 1.

14. S(n 1) = n1
2n1
Hence
n n1
S(n) S(n 1) =
2n + 1 2n 1
n(2n 1) (2n + 1)(n 1)
=
(2n 1)(2n + 1)
2n n (2n2 n 1)
2
=
(2n 1)(2n + 1)
1
=
(2n 1)(2n + 1)
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 54

2.8 Solutions

1. a. b.
y y
2 2

1 1

x x
1 0 1 1 0 1

The graph of y = x2 . x2
The graph of y = 3
.

c. d.
y
y x 2
1 0 1

1 1

x
2 2 1 0

The graph of y = x2 .
The graph of y = (x + 1)2 .

2. a. b.
y y
2 2

2 0 2 x 0 2 4 x

2 2

The graph of y = x1 . 1
The graph of y = x2
.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 55

c. d.
y y
2 4

x
2
2 0 2

x
2 0
2 2

2
The graph of y = x
. 1
The graph of y = x+1
+ 2.
3. a. b.
y y
1 4

x
1 0 1 2

x
1
2 0 2

The graph of y = x3 . The graph of y = |x3 2|.

c.
y

x
0 2 4

The graph of y = 3 (x 1)3 .

4. a. b.
y y
4 4

2 2

x x
2 0 2 0 2 4

The graph of y = |x|. The graph of y = 2|x 2|.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 56

c.
y
4

x
4 2 0 2 4

The graph of y = 4 |x|.

5.

a. y
b. y
4 2

x
2
4 2 0 2 4

x
0 2 (0,2)
4 2 2 4

2 4

4 6

The graph of x2 + y 2 = 16.

The graph of x2 + (y + 2)2 = 16.

c.
y

(1,3)

x
4 2 0 2 4

The graph of (x 1)2 + (y 3)2 = 16.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 57

6. a. b.
y y
3
3

x (1,0) x
3 0 3 2 0 2 4

The graph of y = 9 x2 . The graph of y = 9 (x 1)2 .
c.
y
x
3 0 3

3

The graph of y = 9 x2 3.

7.
1 1 + (x 2) x1
+1= =
x2 x2 x2

x
2 0 2 4

x1
The graph of y = x2
.

8.
y

x
2 0 2 4

x+1
The graph of y = x1
.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 58

9. a. b.
y y
4 4

2 2

x x
2 0 2 2 0 2

The graph of y = |x| + x + 1 The graph of y = |x| + |x 1|

for 2 x 2. for 2 x 3.

c. d.
y y
4
4

2
2

x
x 2 0 2
2 0 2

The graph of y = 2x + 2x 2
for 2 x 2.
The graph of |x y| = 1 for
1 x 3.

10.

y
4

x
2 0 2
1

The graph of f (x) = |x2 1| 1.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 59

11. a. b.
y y

2
x
3 0 1.5
x
3 0 1.5
2

The graph of y = 2f (x). The graph of y = f (x).

c. d. y
y
2
4

x
1.5 0 3
2

2
x
3 0 2

The graph of y = f (x). The graph of y = f (x) + 4.

e. f.
y y

x
4 2 0
x
0 3 4.5
2

The graph of y = f (x 3). The graph of y = f (x + 1) 2.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 60

g. h.
y y
4
6

2
4

x
3 0 2
2

The graph of y = |f (x)|.

x
0 2 4

The graph of y = 3 2f (x 3).

12. a. y
b.
y
2
4

x
2 0 2 4
2

2
x
2 0 2

x = 2 and x = 2 are solutions of the x = 1 is a solution of 1

x2
= 1.
equation |2x| = 4.
c. d.
y y
2

1
1

0 1 x
x
0 1

x = 0 and x = 1 are solutions of the x = 1 is a solution of x2 = x1 .

equation x3 = x2 .

13.
a. For x 2, |x 2| = x 2 = 3. Therefore x = 5 is a solution of the inequality.
(Note that x = 5 is indeed 2.)
For x < 2, |x 2| = (x 2) = x + 2 = 3. Therefore x = 1 is a solution.
(Note that x = 1 is < 2.)
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 61

b.
y
4

x
2 0 2 4

The points of intersection are (1, 3) and (5, 3).

Therefore the solutions of |x 2| = 3 are x = 1 and x = 5.

14. The parabolas intersect at (2, 1).

15.
y

10

(1,7)

x
5 0 5

y = k intersects the circle at two distinct points when 2 < k < 12.

16.
y

(1,1)
x
0 5 10

4
The point of intersection is (1, 1). Therefore the solution of 5x
= 1 is x = 1.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 62

17.
y

x
4 2 0 2 4

The point of intersection is (0, 2). Therefore the solution of |x 2| = |x + 2| is x = 0.

18. n = 1 or n = 2.

19. a. For x 4, |x 4| = x 4 = 2x when x = 4, but this does not satisfy the

condition of x 4 so is not a solution.
For x < 4, |x 4| = x + 4 = 2x when x = 43 . x = 43 is < 4 so is a solution.
Therefore, x = 43 is a solution of |x 4| = 2x.
b.
y

(4/3,8/3)
2

x
0 2 4 6

The graph of y = |x 4| and y = 2x intersect at the point ( 43 , 83 ). So the solution

of |x 4| = 2x is x = 43 .

2.11 Solutions
1. a. The domain is all real x, and the range is all real y 2.
b. i 2 < x < 0 or x > 2
ii x < 2 or 0 < x < 2
c. i k < 2
ii There is no value of k for which f (x) = k has exactly one solution.
iii k = 2 or k > 0
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 63

iv k = 0
v 2 < k < 0
d. y = f (x) is even

2. a. y
b. y

x x
0 0

y = f (x) is even.

y = f (x) is odd.
a. b.
y y

x x
0 0

y = g(x) is even. y = g(x) is odd.

3. a. even b. even c. neither d. odd e. odd

f. even g. even h. neither i. even j. even

4. a.
h(x) = f (x) g(x)
= f (x) g(x)
= f (x) g(x)
= h(x)
Therefore h is odd.
b.
h(x) = (g(x))2
= ((g(x))2
= (g(x))2
= h(x)
Therefore h is even.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 64

c.
f (x)
h(x) =
g(x)
f (x)
=
g(x)
f (x)
=
g(x)
= h(x)
Therefore h is odd.
d.
h(x) = f (x) (g(x))2
= f (x) (g(x))2
= f (x) (g(x))2
= h(x)
Therefore h is even.

5. If f is dened at x = 0
f (0) = f (0) (since 0 = 0)
= f (0) (since f is odd)
2f (0) = 0 (adding f (0) to both sides)
Therefore f (0) = 0.

3.2 Solutions

1. a. 2f (1) + f (2) = 2(1 (1)) + (1 (2)2 ) = 4 + (3) = 1.

b. f (a2 ) = 1 (a2 )2 = 1 a4 since a2 0.

2. You can see from the graph below that there is one solution to f (x) = 2, and that
this solution is at x = 1.

x
4 2 2 4

2
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 65

1

for x < 1
x+1

3. g(x) =
1 x2 for 1 x 1




1 for x > 1

4. a. The domain of f is all real x 2.

y
4

x
4 2 2 4

b. The range of f is all real y > 4.

c. i f (x) = 0 when x = 2 or x = 2.
ii f (x) = 3 when x = 1.
d. i f (x) = k has no solutions when k 4.
ii f (x) = k has 1 solution when 4 < k < 2 or k > 0.
iii f (x) = k has 2 solutions when 2 k 0.
5. Note that f (0) = 0.

x
4 2 2 4

6. The domain of g is all real x, x = 2.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 66

y
4

x
4 2 2 4

The range of g is all real y < 0 or y 2.

7. Note that there may be more than one correct solution.

a. Dening f as


x+6 for x 3






x for 3 < x < 0
f (x) =

x for 0 x 3





x + 6 for x > 3
gives a function describing the McMaths burgers logo using 4 pieces.
b. Dening f as






x+6 for x 3

f (x) = |x| for 3 < x < 3




x + 6 for x 3
gives a function describing the McMaths burgers logo using 3 pieces.
c. Dening f as


3 |x + 3| for x 0
f (x) =
3 |x 3| for x > 0
gives a function describing the McMaths burgers logo using 2 pieces.

8. a. Here a = 1, b = 4, c = 2 and d = 4. So,

x2 4 for 0 < x 2
f (x) =

2x 4 for x > 2
b. Dening f to be an odd function for all real x, x = 0, we get
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 67

y
4

x
4 2 0 2 4

c. We can dene f as follows

2x + 4 for x < 2






4 x2 for 2 x < 0
f (x) =

x2 4 for 0 < x 2





2x 4 for x > 2

3.4 Solutions
1. a. 0 x 4
b. 3 < p 1
c. x < 4 or 3 < x < 3 or x > 4

2. a. The graph of y = 4x(x 3) is given below

y

x
4 2 0 2 4

b. From the graph we see that 4x(x 3) 0 when 0 x 3.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 68

3. a. The graphs y = 5 x and y = 4

x
intersect at the points (1, 4) and (4, 1).
b. The graphs of y = 5 x and y = 4
x

4 2 0 2 4 x

c. The inequality is satised for x < 0 or 1 < x < 4.

4. a. The graph of y = 2x .

x
4 2 0 2 4

b. 2x < 1
2
when x < 1.
a b
c. The midpoint M of the segment AB has coordinates ( a+b
2
, 2 +2
2
).
Since the function y = 2x is concave up, the y-coordinate of M is greater than
f ( a+b
2
). So,
2a + 2b a+b
>2 2
2

y B

5 M

A
x
4 2 0 2 4
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 69

5.
a.
y

(2.5,2.5)
x
5 0 5 10

b. |x 5| > x for all x < 2.5.

c. i mx = |x 5| has exactly two solutions when 0 < m < 1.
ii mx = |x 5| has no solutions when 1 < m < 0.

6. 1 x 3

4.3 Solutions

1. a. y
b. y

5
x
2 0 2
x
2 0 2
5

The graph of P (x) = x(x + 1)(x 3). The graph of P (x) = x(x + 1)(3 x).
c. d. y
y
x
5
2 0 2

x
5
2 0 2

10 5

The graph of P (x) = (x + 1)2 (x 3). The graph of

P (x) = (x + 1)(x2 4x + 5).

2. a. iv. b. v. c. i. d. iii. e. ii. f. vi.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 70

3. a. b.
y y

5
5

x
2 0 2 x
2 0 2

The graph of The graph of

P (x) = x(x 1)(x + 2)(x + 3). P (x) = x(x 1)(x + 2)(3 x).
c. y
d.
y
20
5

x 10
2 0 2

x
5 2 0 2

The graph of P (x) = x2 (x 1)(x 3). The graph of P (x) = (x + 1)2 (x 3)2 .
e. f.
y y
20
20

x
2 0 2 x
2 0 2

20
20

The graph of P (x) = (x + 1)3 (x 3). The graph of P (x) = (x + 1)3 (3 x).
g. h.
y y
20 20

10 10

x x
2 0 2 2 0 2

The graph of The graph of P (x) = x2 (x2 4x + 5).

P (x) = x(x + 1)(x2 4x + 5).
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 71

4. a.
y
5
x
2 0 2 4 6
5

15

x2 4x 12 < 0 when 2 < x < 6.

b.
y
10
x
2 0 2 4 6

20

(x + 2)(x 3)(5 x) > 0 when x < 2 or 3 < x < 5.

c.
y

40

20

x
2 0 2 4 6

(x + 2)2 (5 x) > 0 when x < 5.

5. x2 4x 12 + k 0 for all real x when k = 16.
6. a. P (x) = x(x 4)
b. P (x) = x(x 4)
c. P (x) = x2 (x 4)
x3 (x4)
d. P (x) = 3
e. P (x) = x(x 4)2
(x+4)(x4)2
f. P (x) = 8

7. a. The roots of f (x) = 0 are x = 2, x = 0 and x = 2.

Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 72

b. x = 2 is the repeated root.

c. The equation f (x) = k has exactly 3 solutions when k = 0 or k = 3.23.
d. f (x) < 0 when 2 < x < 0.
e. The least possible degree of the polynomial f (x) is 4.
f. Since f (0) = 0, the constant in the polynomial is 0.
g. f (x) + k 0 for all real x when k 9.91.

4.5 Solutions

1. a. Since A(x) = (x a)(x b) is a polynomial of degree 2, the remainder R(x) must

be a polynomial of degree < 2. So, R(x) is a polynomial of degree 1. That is,
R(x) = mx + c where m and c are constants. Note that if m = 0 the remainder
is a constant.
b. Let P (x) = (x2 5x + 6)Q(x) + (mx + c) = (x 2)(x 3)Q(x) + (mx + c).
Then
P (2) = (0)(1)Q(2) + (2m + c)
= 2m + c
= 4
and
P (3) = (1)(0)Q(3) + (3m + c)
= 3m + c
= 9
Solving simultaneously we get that m = 5 and c = 6. So, the remainder is
R(x) = 5x 6.
c. Let P (x) = (x a)(x b)Q(x) + (mx + c).
Then
P (a) = (0)(a b)Q(a) + (ma + c)
= am + c
= a2
and
P (b) = (b a)(0)Q(b) + (mb + c)
= bm + c
= b2
Solving simultaneously we get that m = a + b and c = ab provided a = b.
So, R(x) = (a + b)x ab.

2. a.
2x4 + 13x3 + 18x2 + x 4 = (x2 + 5x + 2)(2x2 + 3x 1) 2

b. Let be a common zero of f (x) and g(x). That is, f () = 0 and g() = 0.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 73

Then since f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) we have

f () = g()q() + r()
= (0)q() + r() since g() = 0
= r()
= 0 since f () = 0
But, from part b. r(x) = 2 for all values of x, so we have a contradiction.
Therefore, f (x) and g(x) do not have a common zero.
This is an example of a proof by contradiction.

3. a. i P (x) = x3 x2 10x 8 = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x 4)

ii x = 1, x = 2 and x = 4 are solutions of P (x) = 0.
iii
y
10
x
2 0 2 4 6

20

The graph of P (x) = x3 x2 10x 8.

b. i P (x) = x3 x2 16x 20 = (x + 2)2 (x 5).

ii x = 2 and x = 5 are solutions of P (x) = 0. x = 2 is a double root.
iii
y
x
2 0 2 4 6

20

40

The graph of P (x) = x3 x2 16x 20.

c. i P (x) = x3 +4x2 8 = (x+2)(x2 +2x4) = (x+2)(x(1+ 5))(x(1 5))

ii x = 2, x = 1 + 5 and x = 1 5 are solutions of P (x) = 0.
Mathematics Learning Centre, University of Sydney 74

iii
y

x
2 0 2

10

8.
The graph ofP (x) = x3 + 4x2
The zeros are x = 2, x = 1 + 5 and x = 1 5.

d. i P (x) = x3 x2 + x 6 = (x 2)(x2 + x + 3). x2 + x + 3 = 0 has no real

solutions.
ii x = 2 is the only real solution of P (x) = 0.
iii
y

x
2 0 2

10

The graph of P (x) = x3 x2 + x 6.

There is only one real zero at x = 2.

e. i P (x) = 2x3 3x2 11 + 6 = (x + 2)(x 3)(2x 1).

ii x = 2, x = 12 and x = 3 are solutions of P (x) = 0.
iii
y

10

x
2 0 2

10

The graph of P (x) = 2x3 3x2 11 + 6.