Calculus-Lecture Notes

Calculus of One Variable

Author: Dr Bhupesh Dutt Sharma

Victory won’t come to us unless we go to it.

 Contents

1 Introduction to function 1
1.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Differential Calculus 12
2.1 Differential Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3 Integral Calculus 20
3.1 Integral Single Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Area Under Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Function of Several Variables 24

4.1 Function of Several Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5 Multivariate Integral Calculus 32

5.1 Double Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6 Vector Calculus 39
6.1 Vector Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
 Chapter 1 Introduction to function

1.1 Function

1.1.1 Introduction to Functions

What is Calculus ?
What is calculus? This is a common question at the start of a course like this. Lets consider a simplified
answer for now. Consider a protein energy drink box, as shown below.

Figure 1.1: Energy Drink Box

Algebra Problem
The sum of the height, width, and length of a box is 207mm. If the height is three times the width and the
length is 7mm more than the width, find the dimensions of the box.

Calculus Problem
A protein energy drink box is to hold 200cm3 of protein energy drink. If the height of the box must be
twice the width, what dimensions will minimize the surface area of the box?
Definition 1.1 (Set)
A collection of well defined objects is known as the set.
♣

Example 1.1 some mathematical example for are

Set of Natural number is N
Set of Whole number is W.
Set of Integer number is I.
Set of Rational Number Q.
Set of Irrational number Qc
Set of Real Number R.
Set of Complex number C
Definition 1.2 (Function)
A function ÆŠ from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element f (x) ∈ Y to each
element x ∈ D. ♣
 1.2 Graphs

Definition 1.3 (Function)

A real valued function of real variable x is a mapping whose domain S is a set of real numbers and
whose codomain is R, the set of real numbers. Written as f : S → R such that ∀x ∈ S ∃ a unique y ∈ R
such that f (x) = y. The set S is called domain of the function and also very important to define the
function. The set of all possible outcomes of the f (x) under the rule f is called range of the function.
♣

Figure 1.2

1.2 Graphs

Definition 1.4 (Graphs of Functions)

If f is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates
are the input-output pairs for f . In set notation, the graph is
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D}.
♣

Example 1.2 The graph of the function f (x) = x + 2 is the set of points with coordinates (x, y) for which
y = x + 2.
Example 1.3 Graph the function y = x2 over the interval [−2, 2].
Example 1.4

2
 1.2 Graphs

Finding function Value

The inputs (members of the domain) are the values of x substituted into the equation. The outputs (members
of the range) are the resulting values of y. If we call the function f , we can use x to represent an arbitrary input
and f (x) read "f of x" or "f at x" or "the value of f at x", to represent the corresponding output.

Example 1.5 A function is defined as y = x2 − 5 find the value of f (0), f (−5), f (4), f (−4).
Example 1.6 The squaring function f is given by
f (x) = x2 .
√
Find f (−3), f (1), f (k), f ( k), f (1 + t), and f (x + h).
Example 1.7 A function f subtracts the square of an input from the input. Find f (x + h), f (4), f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
.
Example 1.8 The amount of money, A(t), in a savings account that pays 3% interest, compounded quarterly for
t years, with an initial investment of P rupees, is given by
0.03 4t
 
A(t) = P 1 +
4
(i) If Rs. 500 is invested at 3%, compounded quarterly, how much will the investment be worth after 2 yr.
Theorem 1.1 (Vertical-Line Test)
The Vertical-Line Test A graph represents a function if it is impossible to draw a vertical line that
intersects the graph more than once.
♥

Definition 1.5 (Piecewise-Defined Functions)

Sometimes a function is described in pieces by using different formulas on different parts of its domain.
For Example Absolute Value Function |x|.
♣

Example 1.9 Graph the function defined as follows:



 4, x≤0
f (x) = 2
3−x , 0<x≤2

2x − 6, x>2


1.2.1 Domain and Range

Definition 1.6 (Interval Notation)

If a and b are real numbers, with a < b, we define the interval (a, b) as the set of all numbers between
but not including a and b, that is, the set of all x for which a < x < b. Thus,
(a, b) = {x| a < x < b}.

3
 1.2 Graphs

is Known as the open interval. Similarly, If a and b are real numbers, with a < b, we define the interval
[a, b] as the set of all numbers between including a and b, that is, the set of all x for which a ≤ x ≤ b.
Thus,
(a, b) = {x| a ≤ x ≤ b}.

is known as the closed interval. ♣

3 5 3
Example 1.10 Find the domain: (i) f (x) = |x|. (ii) f (x) = 2x−5 , (iii) f (x) = x−8 , (iv)f (x) = (x−5)(x−4) (v)
√
f (x) = 4 + 3x.
Example 1.11 Recently, Sprint offered a data plan that allows a customer 450 min per month for Rs. 80 and
charges Rs. 0.45 for each additional minute (or part thereof).
a) Find the amount of a customer’s bill if 500 min are used.
b) Find the range of possible monthly charges if a customer uses up to 500 min.
Example 1.12 The following graph approximates the incidence of lung and bronchus cancer L, per 100, 000
males, as a function of t, the number of years since 1940. The equation for this graph is
N (x) = −0.000065x3 + 0.0072x2 − 0.133x + 2.062

Figure 1.3

Use the graph to determine the domain of N.

Use the graph to determine the range of N.
If you were marketing a new type of breathing device, at what age group (expressed as a 10-yr interval)
would you target advertisements? Why?

1.2.2 Type of the function

Definition 1.7 (Increasing and Decreasing function)

Let f be function defined over some interval I and let x1 and x2 be any two points in I .
1. If f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) whenever x1 < x2 , then f is said to be increasing on I .
2. If f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) whenever x1 < x2 , then f is said to be decreasing on I .
♣

Definition 1.8 (Even and Odd Function)

A function f (x) is said to be even function of x if f (−x) = f (x), odd function of x if f (−x) = −f (x)
for every x from the domain of definition.
♣

4
 1.2 Graphs

Symmetry of Function
The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis. Since f (−x) = f (x), a point (x, y) lies
on the graph if and only if the point (−x, y) lies on the graph. A reflection across the y-axis leaves the graph
unchanged. The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. Since f (−x) = −f (x), a point (x, y)
lies on the graph if and only if the point (−x, −y) lies on the graph Equivalently, a graph is symmetric about
the origin if a rotation of 180 deg about the origin leaves the graph unchanged. Notice that the definitions imply
that both x and -x must be in the domain of ÆŠ.

Linear Function

Theorem 1.2
The graph of the function given by
y = mx or f (x) = mx
is the straight line through the origin (0, 0) and the point (1, m). The constant m is called the slope of
the line. ♥

Definition 1.9
The variable y varies directly with x if there is some positive constant m such that y = mx. We also say
that y is directly proportional to x.
♣

Definition 1.10 (SlopeâĂŞIntercept Equation)

A linear function is any function that can be written in the form
y = mx + b or f (x) = mx + b.
Its graph has the same slope, m, as the graph of y = mx and crosses the y-axis at (0, b). The point (0,
b) is called the y-intercept.
♣

Example 1.13 Find the slope and the y-intercept of the graph of 2x − 4y − 7 = 0.

Definition 1.11 (PointâĂŞSlope Equation)

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) is called the pointâĂŞslope equation of a line. The point is (x1 , y1 ), and the slope
is m. ♣

Theorem 1.3
The slope of a line containing points (x1 , y) and (x2 , y2 ) is
y2 − y1 change in y
m= =
x2 − x1 change in x
♥

Application
Example 1.14 Business: Total Cost. Linen Club, Ltd., a clothing firm, has fixed costs of Rs. 10,000 per year.
These costs, such as rent, maintenance, and so on, must be paid no matter how much the company produces.
To produce x units of a certain kind of suit, it costs Rs.20 per suit (unit) in addition to the fixed costs. That is,

5
 1.2 Graphs

the variable costs for producing x of these suits are 20x Rs.. These costs are due to the amount produced and
cover material, wages, fuel, and so on. The total cost C(x) of producing x suits in a year is given by
C(x) = (V ariable costs) + (F ixed costs) = 20x + 10, 000
. a) Graph the variable-cost, fixed-cost, and total-cost functions.
b) What is the total cost of producing 100 suits? 400 suits?
Example 1.15 Business: Profit-and-Loss Analysis. When a business sells an item, it receives the price paid by
the consumer (this is normally greater than the cost to the business of producing the item)
. a) The total revenue that a business receives is the product of the number of items sold and the price paid per
item. Thus, if Raggs, Ltd., sells x suits at Rs. 80 per suit, the total revenue R(x), in dollars, is given by
R(x) = U nit price.Quantity sold = 80x
. If
C(x) = 20x + 10, 000

graph R and C using the same set of axes.

b) The total profit that a business makes is the amount left after all costs have been subtracted from the total
revenue. Thus, if P(x) represents the total profit when x items are produced and sold, we have
P (x) = (T otal revenue) − (T otal costs) = R(x) − C(x)
.
Determine P(x), and draw its graph using the same set of axes used for the graph in part (a).
c) The company will break even at that value of x for which P (x) = 0 (that is, no profit and no loss). This is
the point at which R(x) = C(x). Find the break-even value of x.

1.2.3 Non-linear Functions and Models

Definition 1.12
A quadratic function f is given by
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a 6= 0
. ♣

Theorem 1.4 (The Quadratic Formula)

The solutions of any quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0, are given by
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
. ♥

Definition 1.13
A polynomial function f is given by
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · a2 x2 + a1 x1 + a0 ,
where n is a non negative integer and an , an−1 , a1 , a0 are real numbers, called the coefficients.
♣

6
 1.2 Graphs

Definition 1.14 (Rational Function)

Functions given by the quotient, or ratio, of two polynomials are called rational functions such as
p(x) 2 2 −1
R(x) = g(x) . For example x x−3x+2
2 −1 , xx−3 etc.
♣

Definition 1.15 (Exponential Function)

An exponential function f is given by
f (x) = a0 .ax ,

where x is any real number and a > 0 and a 6= 1. The number a is the base.
♣

Definition 1.16 (Rational Function)

Functions given by the quotient, or ratio, of two polynomials are called rational functions such as
p(x) 2 2 −1
R(x) = g(x) . For example x x−3x+2
2 −1 , xx−3 etc.
♣

Definition 1.17 (Inverse Function)

y varies inversely with x if there is some positive number k for which y = xk . We also say that y is inversely
proportional to x.
♣

Example 1.16Task: Stocks and Gold Certain economists theorize that stock prices are inversely proportional
to the price of gold. That is, when gold prices go up, stock prices go down, and when gold prices go down,
stock prices go up.
Definition 1.18 (Absolute-Value Functions)
The absolute value of a number is its distance from 0 on the number line. We denote the absolute value
of a number x as |x|. The absolute-value function, given by f (x) = |x|, is very important in calculus,
and its graph has a distinctive V shape. Mathematically defined as:
(
−x x < 0
f (x) =
x x≥0
♣

Definition 1.19 (Exponential Function)

An exponential function f is given by
f (x) = a0 .ax ,

where x is any real number and a > 0 and a 6= 1. The number a is the base.
♣

x
Example 1.17 The following are the example of exponential function 2x , 34 , ex .
Example 1.18Supply and Demand Functions In economics, demand is modelled by a decreasing function;
that is, as the price x gets larger, the demand D(x) gets smaller. However, supply is modelled by an increasing
function: As the price x gets larger, so does the supply, S(x).
Example 1.19Demand function Suppose the relationship between the price x of a 5-lb bag of sugar and the
quantity q of bags that consumers will demand at that price is given in the table and graph below.
Example 1.20Supply function Furthermore, suppose the relationship between the price x of a 5-lb bag of
sugar and the quantity q of bags that sellers are willing to supply, or sell, at that price is given in the table and
graph below.

7
 1.2 Graphs

Example 1.21Economic Equilibrium Let’s now look at these curves together. As price increases, supply
increases and demand decreases; and as price decreases, demand increases but supply decreases. The point of
intersection xE , qE ) is called the equilibrium point.

Example 1.22 Find the equilibrium point for the demand and supply functions for the Ultra-Fine coffee maker.
Here q represents the number of coffee makers produced, in hundreds, and x is the price of a coffee maker,in
rupees.
x
Demand : q = 50 −
4
Supply : q = x − 25

8
 1.2 Graphs

Example 1.23 Find the equilibrium point for the given demand and supply functions.
Demand : q = (x − 7)2
Supply : q = x2 + x + 4 (assume x ≤ 7)

1.2.4 Trigonometric Function

Definition 1.20 (Angle)

Angles are measured in degrees or radians. The number of radians in the central angle A’CB’ within
a circle of radius r is defined as the number of "radius units" contained in the arc s subtended by that
central angle. If we denote this central angle by θ when measured in radians, this means that
s
u = , or
r
s = ru (u in radians).
♣

Figure 1.4

Basic Trigonometric Function

y r
sine(θ) sin θ = r cosecant(θ) csc θ = y
x r
Cosine(θ) cos θ = r Secant(θ) sec θ = x
y x
T angent(θ) tan θ = x Cotangent(θ) cot θ = y

Definition 1.21 (Periodic Function)

A function f (x) is periodic if there is a positive number p such that
f (x + p) = f (x)
for every value of x. The smallest such value of p is the period of f . For example sin θ, cos θ etc.
♣

9
 1.2 Graphs

Trigonometric Identities

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

AdditionF ormula cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
cos 2θ = sin2 θ − cos2 θ
Definition 1.22 (Logarithmic Functions)
These are the functions f (x) = loga x, where the base a > 1 is a positive constant. They are the inverse
functions of the exponential functions, Figure 1.23 shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions with
various bases. In each case the domain is (0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞).
♣

Figure 1.5

Properties of The Logarithmic function

Theorem 1.5
Algebraic Properties of the Natural Logarithm For any numbers b > 0 and x > 0, the natural logarithm
satisfies the following rules:
1. Product Rule: ln(bx) = ln b + ln x
2. Quotient Rule: ln b/x = lnb − lnx
3. Reciprocal Rule: ln 1/x = −ln x

10
 1.2 Graphs

4. Power Rule: ln xr = r ln x For r rational ♥

Definition 1.23 (Greatest Integer Function)

The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less than or equal to x is called the
greatest integer function or the integer floor function. It is denoted bxc for example
1.2 = 1 2.9 = 2, −1.2 = −2, 0.2 = 0
♣

Definition 1.24 (Smallest Integer Function)

The function whose value at any number x is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x is called the
least integer function or the integer ceiling function. It is denoted dxe. For example
1.2 = 2, −2.9 = −2,
. ♣

11
 Chapter 2 Differential Calculus

2.1 Differential Calculus

2.1.1 Introduction to single variable differential calculus

Definition 2.1 (Function)

A real valued function of real variable x is a mapping whose domain S is a set of real numbers and
whose codomain is R, the set of real numbers. Written as f : S → R such that ∀x ∈ S ∃ a unique y ∈ R
such that f (x) = y. The set S is called domain of the function and also very important to define the
function. The set of all possible outcomes of the f (x) under the rule f is called range of the function.
♣

2.1.2 Type of the function

Definition 2.2 (Increasing and Decreasing function)

Let f be function defined over some interval I and let x1 and x2 be any two points in I .
1. If f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) whenever x1 < x2 , then f is said to be increasing on I .
2. If f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) whenever x1 < x2 , then f is said to be decreasing on I .
♣

Definition 2.3 (Even and Odd Function)

A function f (x) is said to be
even function of x if f (−x) = f (x),
odd function of x if f (−x) = −f (x)
for every x from the domain of definition.
♣

2.1.3 Limit of the function

Definition 2.4
Suppose f (x) is defined over on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at x0 itself. If f (x) is
arbitrarily close to the number l for all x sufficiently close to x0 , we say that f approaches the limit L as
x approaches to x0 and write
limx→x0 f (x) = l, and read as " the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 is L."
♣

Definition 2.5
Let f (x)) be a real valued function defined over some domain D. A real number l is said to be the limit
of f (x) at a point x = x0 if ∀ given  ∃ a δ such when ever
|f (x) − l| < , |x − x0 | < δ (2.1)
and written as limx→x0 f (x) = l
♣

Example 2.1 Find Limit of

2 −1
f (x) = xx−1 .
 2.1 Differential Calculus

Figure 2.1

Example 2.2 Discuss

( the behaviour of the following functions, explain whether they have limit or not
0, x < 0
(a) U (x) =
1, x ≥ 0
(
1
x, x 6= 0
(b) g(x) =
0, x = 0
(
0, x≤0
(c) f (x) = 1
sin x , x > 0

Figure 2.2

Theorem 2.1 (Limit Laws)

If L, M, c and k are real numbers and

13
 2.2 Continuity

Theorem 2.2 (Sandwich Theorem)

Suppose that g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval containing c except possibly at x = c
itself. Suppose also that
lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L
x→c x→c

Then limx→c f (x) = L.

♥

Example 2.3 Given that

x2 x2
1− ≤ u(x) ≤ 1 + , f or all x 6= 0, (2.2)
4 4
find the limx→0 u(x), no matter how complicated u is.

2.2 Continuity

Definition 2.6 (Continuity)

Let c ∈ R be a real number. The function f is said to be continuous at c if
lim f (x) = f (c)
x→c
. It is said to be right continuous if
lim f (x) = f (c).
x→c+

It is said to be left continuous at c if

lim f (x) = f (c)
x→c−

. So a function f (x) is said to be continuous at point c if and only if

1. f (c) exists.
2. limx→c+ f (x) = f (c) = limx→c− f (x).
♣

Example 2.4 The function y = bxc is discontinuous at every integer.

Example 2.5 The function y = |x| is continuous.

Theorem 2.3 (Properties of The Continuous Function)
If the function f and g are continuous at x = c then the following algebraic combination are continuous
at x = c

14
 2.2 Continuity

Theorem 2.4 (Intermediate Value Theorem)

If f (x) is continuous function on a closed interval [a, b], and if y0 is any value between f (a) and f (b),
then y0 = f (c) for some c ∈ [a, b].
♥

Example 2.6 Show that there is root of the equation x3 − x − 1 = 0 between 1 and 2.
Example 2.7 Use the intermediate value theorem to prove that the equation
√
2x + 5 = 4 − x2
has a solution.
Example 2.8 Discuss the continuity of the
(
sin x
x , x 6= 0
y=
1, x=0

Example 2.9 Discuss the continuity of the

x2 + x − 6
f (x) = , x 6= 2
x2 − 4

Definition 2.7 (Piecewise Continuity)

A function f (x) is said to be piecewise continuous in an interval I, if the interval can be sub divided into
a number of subintervals such that f (x) is continuous in each of the subintervals.
♣

Example 2.10 The function 

 1,
 o≤x<1
f (x) = 2, 1≤x<2

3, 2≤x<3


Definition 2.8 (Uniform Continuity)

A function f (x) is said to uniformly continuous on an interval I, if for a given real  > 0, ∃ a δ > 0
such that
|f (x1 ) − f (x2 )| < , whenever |x2 − x1 | < δ (2.3)

for arbitrary points x1 , x2 in I.

♣

Example 2.11 Show that the function f is defined by

(
1, when x is irrational
f (x) =
−1 when x is rational

15
 2.2 Continuity

is discontinuous at every point.

Definition 2.9 (Limit at ∞)
We say f (x) has limit L as x approaches infinity and write
lim f (x) = L (2.4)
x→∞
if for every given  > 0, ∃ a corresponding number M s.t for all x
x>M =⇒ |f (x) − L| < 
♣

Example 2.12 The limit of a function 1/x as x → ∞ is

1
lim =0
x→∞ x

2.2.1 Derivatives

Definition 2.10 (Slope of the curve)

The slope of the curve y = f (x) at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )) is the number
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
m = lim provided limit exist (2.5)
h→0 h
the tangent line to the curve at P is the line through P with this slope.
♣
1
Example 2.13 Find the slope of the curve y = x at any point x = a 6= 0. What is the slope at x = −1.

Definition 2.11 (Derivative)

The derivative of a function f (x) at a point x0 is the limit
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = f 0 (x0 ) (2.6)
h→0 h
provided this limit exists. If it does, we say that f(x) is differentiable at the point x0 (or that it has a
derivative at the point x0 ). The derivative of the function f (x) at a point x0 is denoted by f (x0 ) (“f
df
prime") or (x0 ) ("df with respect to dx at x0 ").
dx ♣

Example 2.14 Find Derivative of f (x) = x1 .

Example 2.15 Galileo rule of the speed of freely falling object from rest state that the average distance is directly
proportionl to square of time. given as
y = 16t2 , f eet

during the first t second, and we used a sequence of average rates over increasingly short intervals to estimate
the rock’s speed at the instant t = 1. What was the rocks exact speed at this time.
Example 2.16 In controlled laboratory experiment, yeast cells are grown in an automated cell culture system
that count the number P of cells present at hourly intervals. The number after t hours is shown in the given
figure:
a. Explain what is meant by derivative P 0 (5). What are its unit?
b. Which is larger, P 0 (2) or P 0 (3) give reason?
c. The quadratic curve capture the trend of the data points is given by P (t) = 6.10t2 − 9.28t + 16.43. Find
the instantaneous rate of growth when t = 5 hrs.

16
 2.2 Continuity

Example 2.17 Does the graph of (

x2 sin( x1 ), x 6= 0
y=
0, x=0
have a tangent at origin? Give reason for your answer.
Definition 2.12 (Derivative as Function)
The derivative of a function f (x) with respect to the variable x is the function whose value at x is
f (x + h) − f (x) f (z) − f (x)
lim = f 0 (x) or lim = f 0 (x) (2.7)
h→0 h z→x z−x
df
provided this limit exists. The derivative of the function f (x) is denoted by f (x) (“f prime") or ("df
dx
with respect to dx").
♣

Example 2.18 Find the derivative of the following function,

1 f (x) = x1 .
x
2 f (x) = x−1 .
Example 2.19 Discuss the differentiability of y = |x|.
Example 2.20 Show that the function
(
x2 cos( x1 ), x 6= 0
f (x) =
0, x=0
is differentiable at x = 0.
Example 2.21 Find the derivative of
f (x) = x|x|, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
.
Theorem 2.5
If a function is differentiable at a point then it is continuous, converse need not to be true.
♥

2.2.2 Application of Derivatives

2.2.3 Mean Value Theorems

Theorem 2.6 (Rolle’s Theorem)

Let real valued function f be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and differentiable in the open interval
(a, b). If f (a) = f (b), then there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0
♥

17
 2.2 Continuity

Theorem 2.7 (Lagrange Mean Value Theorem)

Let real valued function f be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and differentiable in the open interval
(a, b). Then there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = (2.8)
b−a ♥

Theorem 2.8 (Cauchy Mean Value Theorem)

Let real valued functions f & g be continuous f on a closed interval [a, b] and differentiable in the open
interval (a, b). Then there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that
f 0 (c) f (b) − f (a)
= (2.9)
g 0 (c) g(b) − g(a)
♥

Example 2.22 Using the Lagrange Mean value theorem, show that
| cos b − cos a| ≤ |b − a|

Example 2.23 Let f (x)= cos x, a ≤ x ≤ b. Using Lagrange mean value theorem
cos b − cos a
= f 0 (c) = − sin c
b−a

Definition 2.13 (Increasing and Decreasing Function)

Let y = f (x)be real valued function defined over some interval I contained in the domain of f (x), have
a derivative at every point x ∈ I. Then
1 f increases in I if f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I.
2 f decreases in I if f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ I.
♣

Example 2.24 Find the intervals in which the function f (x) = sin 3x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2 is increasing or decreasing.
Definition 2.14
Let a real valued function f (x) be continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Let x0 be a point in (a, b) and
I = (x0 + h, x0 − h) be an infinitesimal interval or nbd around x0 . Then the function f (x) is said to
have a
local maximum ( or a relative maximum) at the point x0 , if f (x0 ) ≥ f (x), for all x in I.
local minimum ( or a relative minimum) at the point x0 , if f (x0 ) ≤ f (x), for all x in I.
♣

The points of local minimum (or maximum) are called the critical points or the stationary points and the
values of function at these points are called extreme values.
Theorem 2.9 (First Derivative test)
Let f (x) be differentiable function at x0 ∈ (a, b). Then necessary condition for the function for function
f (x) to have a local maximum or a minimum at x0 is that f 0 (x0 ) = 0.
♥

Example 2.25 Examine the maximum and minimum values if the following functions f (x) = 3x2 − 3x + 3,
x ∈ R (ii) f (x) = sinx , 0 < x < π.

18
 2.2 Continuity

Figure 2.3

Theorem 2.10 (Second Derivative Test)

Let f (x) be differentiable at x0 in [a, b] and let f 0 (x) = 0. If f 00 (x) exist and continuous in nbd of x0 ,
then
f (x) has maximum value at x = x0 , when f 00 (x) < 0,
f (x) has minimum value at x = x0 , when f 00 (x) > 0
If f 00 (x) = 0 then we can not say anything. The test is fail.
♥

Example 2.26 You have asked to design a one litre can shaped like a right circular cylinder. What dimension
will use the least material.
Solution We know that
volume of can = πr2 h = 1000 (1000cm3 = 1 liter) (2.10)

surface area (A) = 2πrh + πr2 h (2.11)

from the equation (1.15) and (1.16) we get h = 1000

πr2
Thus  
2 1000
A = 2πr + 2πr (2.12)
πr2

dA 2000
= 4πr − 2 (2.13)
dr r
Theorem 2.11 (Taylor’s Theorem)
Let f(x) be defined and continuous and have derivatives up to (n + 1)th order in some interval I,
containing a point a. Then Taylor’s expansion of the function f (x) about the point x = a is given by
(x − a) 0 (x − a)2 00 (x − a)n n
f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a)............... f (a) + Rn (x) (2.14)
1! 2! n!
where
(x − a)n+1 n+1
Rn (x) = f (c)
(n + 1)!
for a < c < x is the remainder term or error term.
♥

19
 Chapter 3 Integral Calculus

3.1 Integral Single Variable

Definition 3.1 (Definite Integral)

Let f (x) be a function defined over some interval [a, b]. we say that a number M is the definite integral
of f over [a, b] and M is the limit of the Reimann sums nk=1 f (ck )∆xk if for any given  > 0 ∃ δ > 0
P

such that for every partition P = {x0 , x1 , , ......xn } of [a, b] with kP k < δ and any ck ∈ [xk−1 , xk ] we
have
n
X
| f (ck )∆xk − M |<  (3.1)
k=1
Rb
Denoted as a f (x)dx.
♣

3.2 Area Under Curve

Definition 3.2 (Area Between Two Curves)

If f and g are continuous with f (x) ≥ g(x) throughout [a, b], the area of the region between two curves
y = f (x) and g(x) from a to b is the integral of f − g from a to b.
♣

Example 3.1 Find the area of the region enclosed by parabola y = 2 − x2 and the line y = −x.

Figure 3.1

Definition 3.3 (Area of a Sector)

let the curve be defined in polar form as
r = f (θ), α ≤ θ ≤ β (3.2)
where f (θ) is a continuous in [α, β], then area is given as
1 β 2
Z
A= r dθ (3.3)
2 α
♣

Example 3.2 Find the area of the region lies inside the circle r = a cos θ and outside the cardioid r = a(1−cos θ)
 3.3 Volume

3.2.1 Arc Length of the Curve

Definition 3.4
Consider the portion of the curve y = f (x) between x = a and x = b. Then length of the the arc of the
curve between x = a and x = b is given by
s  2
Z b
dy
s= 1+ dx (3.4)
a dx
If x = φ(t) and y = ψ(t), t0 ≤ t ≤ t1 then arc length is
s
Z b  2  2
dx dy
s= + dt (3.5)
a dt dt
♣

3.2.2 Polar Form

If f (r = f (θ), α ≤ θ ≤ β then Arc length is given by,
s  2
Z β
2
dr
s= r + dθ. (3.6)
α dθ

Example 3.3 Find the length of the curve

x3 1
y= +
12 x
, 1 ≤ x ≤ 4.

3.3 Volume

3.3.1 Method of Slicing

The volume of solid of integrable cross-section area A(x) bounded by the plane from x = a to x = b is
the integral of A from a to b,
Z b
V = A(x)dx (3.7)
a

Similarly bounded by plane y = a to y = b is

Z b
V = A(y)dy (3.8)
a

Figure 3.2

Example 3.4 A curved wedge is cut from a circular cylinder of radius 3 by two planes. One plane is perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder. The second plane crosses the first plane at 45o angle at the center of the cylinder.

21
 3.3 Volume

Find the volume of the wedge.

Example 3.5

Figure 3.3

3.3.2 Volume of Solid of Revolution

Volume of a solid of revolution Z b
V = πy 2 dx (3.9)
a

√
Example 3.6 find the volume of a solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y = x and the line
y = 1, x = 4 about the line y = 1.
Example 3.7 The volume V is given by
Z 4
√
V = π[ x − 1]2 dx (3.10)
1

Figure 3.4

3.3.3 Area of Surface Revolution

If the function f (x) ≥ 0 is continuously differentiable on [a, b], the area of the surface generated by
revolving the graph y = f (x) about x − axis is
s  2
Z b Z b
dy p
S= 2πy 1 + dx = 2πf (x) 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx. (3.11)
a dx a

22
 3.3 Volume

Figure 3.5

√
Example 3.8 Find the surface area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = 2 x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 about
the x − axis.

Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7

23
 Chapter 4 Function of Several Variables

4.1 Function of Several Variables

Definition 4.1
Suppose D is set of n − tuples of real number (x1 , x2 , ......xn ). A real valued function f on D is a rule
that assigns a unique real number
W = f (x1 , x2 , .....xn ) (4.1)

to each element in D. If the input variable are two for example x, y then corresponding function f (x, y)
is known as function of two variables.
♣

Figure 4.1

Definition 4.2 (Interior Point, Boundary Point)

A point (x0 , y0 ) in a region R is an interior point of R if it is the center of disk of positive radius that lies
entirely in R.
A point (x0 , y0 ) in a region R is a boundary point of R if every disk centred at (x0 , y0 ) contains the point
outside the R as well as inside the R. ♣

Figure 4.2
 4.1 Function of Several Variables

4.1.1 Level Curves, Contour of Function

Definition 4.3 (Level Curves)

The set points in the plane where a function f (x, y) has a constant value f (x, y) = c is called a level
curve of f . The set of all points (x, y, f ()x, y) in space is called the graph of f . The graph of f is also
called the surface z = f (x, y).
If the function is of three variable x, y, z then f (x, y, z) = c is called the level surface of f .
♣

Example 4.1 Graph f (x, y) = 100−x2 −y 2 and plot the level curves f (x, y) = 0), f (x, y) = 51), f (x, y) = 75)
in the domain of f .

Figure 4.3

4.1.2 Limit and Continuity of Function of Two Variable

Definition 4.4 (Limit of Function of Two Variable)

We say that a function f (x, y) approaches the limit L as (x, y) approaches (x0 , y0 ) and write
lim f (x, y) = L (4.2)
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
if ∀ given  > 0 ∃ δ > 0 such that for all (x, y) in the domain of f ,
p
| f (x, y) − L |< , whenever 0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ. (4.3)
♣

Figure 4.4

Example 4.2 Find the limit of

x2 − xy
lim √ √
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) x− y

25
 4.1 Function of Several Variables

Definition 4.5 (Continuity)

A function f (x, y) is said to be continuous at point ()x0 , y0 if
f is defined at (x0 , y0 ),
lim(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) exists,
lim(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ).
♣

Example 4.3 Show that (

2xy
x2 +y 2
, (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) =
0, (x, y) = (0, 0)

is not continuous at (0, 0).

Example 4.4 Discuss the continuity at (0, 0) of the function
2x2 y
f (x, y) = .
x4 + y 2
 Note All the property of limit and Continuity for function of one variable are carry forward to function of two
variable.

4.1.3 Partial Derivatives and Differentiability

Definition 4.6
The partial derivative of f (x, y) with respect to x at the point x0 , y0 is
∂f f (x0 + h, y0 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
|(x0 ,y0 ) = lim ,
∂x h→0 h
∂f ∂z
provided limit exists, denoted by , fx , or zx .
∂x ∂x ♣

Definition 4.7
The partial derivative of f (x, y) with respect to y at the point x0 , y0 is
∂f f (x0 , y0 + h) − f (x0 , y0 )
| = lim ,
∂y (x0 ,y0 ) h→0 h
∂f ∂z
provided limit exists, denoted by , fy , or zy .
∂y ∂y
♣

Example 4.5 If the resistor of R1 , R2 , R3 ohms are connected in parallel to make an R − ohms resistor, find

the variation change in R with respect R2 .

Theorem 4.1 (Mixed Derivative Theorem)
∂f ∂f ∂ 2 f ∂2f
If f (x, y) and its partial derivative , , , are defined on a open interval (a, b) and all
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
are continuous then
∂2f ∂2f
= (4.4)
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
♥

26
 4.1 Function of Several Variables

Figure 4.5

Definition 4.8
A function z = ÆŠ(x, y) is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ) if fx (x0 , y0 ) and fy (x0, y0) exist and ∆z satisfies an
equation of the form
∆z = fx (x0 , y0 )∆x + fy (x0 , y0 )∆y + 1 ∆x + 2 ∆y (4.5)
in which 1 , 2 −→ 0 as ∆x, ∆y −→ 0. We call f differentiable if it is differentiable at every point in its
domain, and say that its graph is a smooth surface.
♣

Theorem 4.2 (Increment Theorem)

Suppose the partial derivatives of f (x, y) are defined on open interval a, b containing a point (x0 , y0 )
then the change
∆z = f (x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − f (x0 , y0 ) (4.6)

in the value of f that results from moving from (x0 , y0 ) to another point (x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) in R satisfies
the equation of the form
∆z = fx (x0 , y0 )∆x + fy (x0 , y0 )∆y + 1 ∆x + 2 ∆y (4.7)
where 1 , 2 −→ 0 as ∆x, ∆y −→ 0.
♥

4.1.4 Chain Rule

If w = f (x, y) is differentiable and x = x(t), and y = y(t) are differentiable function of t
dw ∂f dx ∂f dy
= + . (4.8)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt

27
 4.1 Function of Several Variables

4.1.5 Three variable Chain Rule

4.1.6 Two Independent and Three Intermediate Function

√ √
Example 4.6 Let T = g(x, y) is temperature at a point on the ellipse x = 2 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
then find the
(i) locate the maximum and minimum temperature on the ellipse. If T = xy − 2 find the maximum and minimum
value of T .
Definition 4.9 (Linearisation)
The linearization of a function f (x, y) at a point (x0 , y0 ) where f is differentiable is the function
L(x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ) + fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 ). (4.9)
The approximation
f (x, y) = L(x, y)

is the standard linear approximation of f at (x0 , y0 ).

♣

Example 4.7 Find the linearization of

1
f (x, y) = x2 − xy + y 2 + 3
2
at the point (3, 2).
Solution

Figure 4.6

28
 4.1 Function of Several Variables

Definition 4.10 (Differentials)

If we move from (x0 , y0 ) to a point (x0 + dx, y0 + dy) nearby the resulting change
df = fx (x0 , y0 )dx + fy (x0 , y0 )dy (4.10)
in linearization of f is called the total differential of f .
♣

Example 4.8 Suppose that a cylindrical can is designed to have a radius of 1in. and a hight of 5in., but that
the radius and hight are off by the amount dr = +.03 and dh = −.01. Estimate the resulting change in volume
of the can.

4.1.7 Maxima And Minima

Definition 4.11 (Local Maxima And Minima)

Let f (x, y) be defined on a region R containing the point (a, b), then
1. f (a, b) is a local maximum value of f if f (a, b) ≥ f (x, y) for all domain points (x, y).
2. f (a, b) is a local minimum value of f if f (a, b) ≤ f (x, y) for all domain points (x, y).
♣

Theorem 4.3 (First Derivative Test)

If f (x, y) has local maximum or minimum value at an interior point (a, b) of its domain and if the first
partial derivative exists there, then fx (a, b) = 0 and fy (a, b) = 0. That point is known as critical point.
♥

Theorem 4.4 (Second Derivative Test)

Suppose that f (x, y) and its first and second partial derivative are continuous throughout a disk centered
at (a, b) and that fx (a, b) = 0 = fy (a, b) Then
f has a local maximum at (a, b) if fxx < 0 and fxx fyy − fxy 2 > 0 at (a, b).

f has a local minimum at (a, b) if fxx > 0 and fxx fyy − fxy 2 > 0 at (a, b).

2 < 0 at (a, b).

f has saddle point at (a, b) if fxx fyy − fxy
2 = 0 at (a, b) no conclusion. Further investigation required.
fxx fyy − fxy
♥

Example 4.9 Find the local extreme value of

(i) f (x, y) = xy − x2 − y 2 − 2x − 2y + 4
(ii) f (x, y) = 3y 2 − 2y 3 − 3x2 + 6xy.

4.1.8 Lagrange Multiplier

Let f (x, y, z) be a given function of three variable whose variable are related by a known constraint
g(x, y, z) = 0.So the problem will be like, extremum of F = f (x, y, z) subject to constraint g(x, y, z) = 0.
Then By Lagrange method of Multiplier we have the following steps:
step 1 Form the auxiliary function
F = f (x, y, z) + λg(x, y, z) (4.11)

step 2 Differentiate partially equation (3.1.11) with respect to x, y, z respectively.

step 3 Solve the four equation Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0 and given constraint g(x, y, z) for λ and stationary
value (x, y, z).

29
 Chapter 4 Exercise

Example 4.10 Find the point on hyperbolic cylinder x2 − z 2 = 1 that are closed to the origin.
2 2
Example 4.11 Find the greatest and smallest values of f = xy takes on x8 + y2 = 1.
Example 4.12 Find the maximum and minimum distance from the origin to the curve
3x2 + 4xy + 6y 2 = 140

Example 4.13 Suppose a closed rectangular box has length twice its breadth and has constant volume V .
Determine the dimension of the box requiring least surface area.
Example 4.14 Human blood types are classified by three gene forms A, B, and O. Blood types AA, BB, and OO
are homozygous, and blood types AB, AO, and BO are heterozygous. If p, q, and r represent the proportions of
the three gene forms to the population, respectively, then the Hardy-Weinberg Law asserts that the proportion
Q of heterozygous persons in any specific population is modelled by
Q(p, q, r) = 2(pq + pr + qr), subject to p + q + r = 1.
Find the maximum value of Q.
Theorem 4.5 (Taylor,s Theorem)
Let f (x, y) is differentiable function up to (n + 1) order. Then Taylor’s expansion about a point a, b is
given as
1
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a)fx (a, b) + (y − b)fy (a, b) + [(x − a)2 fxx (a.b)+
2!
1
2(x − a)(y − b)fxy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b).... + [(x − a)n fxn (a.b)+
n!
n n n
2(x − a)(y − b)fxy (a, b) + (y − b) fyy (a, b) + Rn ] (4.12)
Where
1
Rn = [(x − a)n+1 fxn+1 (a.b) + 2(x − a)(y − b)fxy
n+1
(a, b) + (y − b)n+1 fyy
n+1
(a, b)
n + 1!
is known as the remainder term. ♥

Example 4.15 Find quadratic approximation to f (x, y) = sin x sin y near the origin. How accurate is the
approximation if |x| ≤ 0.1 and |y| ≤ 0.1.
Definition 4.12 (Jacobian)
Let T be a transformation
" such #that T (u, v) =< x, y > then the Jacobian matrix of this function is
∂x ∂x
defined as: J(u, v) = ∂u ∂v known as Jacobian matrix. The value of Jacobian is defined as the
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v
determinate of the of the Jacobian matrix.
♣

Example 4.16 Find the Jacobian of

T (u, v) =< u cos v, u sin v >

K Chapter 4 Exercise k
1. The manufacturer company sell x − unit of a certain product per month at a price p = 20 − 3x rupee per
unit. The management of the company has determined that it costs y = 5x + 3p rupee to manufacturer
the x − units.

30
 Chapter 4 Exercise

(a.) How many items should the company produce to maximize the profit.
(b.) How much should each item sell for to achieve this profit.
2. Show that the rectangular solid with surface area 6 and maximum volume is unit cube.

31
 Chapter 5 Multivariate Integral Calculus

5.1 Double Integral

Definition 5.1 (Double Integral)

We will start out by assuming that the region in R2 is a rectangle which we will denote as follows,
R = [a, b] × [c, d]
This means that the ranges for x and y are a ≤ x ≤ b and c ≤ y ≤ d.
Here is the official definition of a double integral of a function of two variables over a rectangular region
R as well as the notation that well use for it.
ZZ Xn X m
f (x, y) dA = lim f (xi , yj ) ∆A (5.1)
n, m→∞
R i=1 j=1
or we can say ZZ
volume V = f (x, y) dA (5.2)
R
♣

Theorem 5.1
If f (x, y) is continuous throughout the rectangular region R : a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d, then
ZZ Z dZ b
f (x, y) dA = f (x, y)dy dx. (5.3)
c a
R
♥

Example 5.1 Find the volume of the region bounded above by elliptical paraboloid z = 10 + x2 + 3y 2 and

below by the rectangle R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 2.

5.1.1 Double Integral Over General Region

Case-I
Let region R : a ≤ x ≤ b, g( x) ≤ y ≤ g2 (x). The double integral will defined as:
ZZ Z b Z g2 (x)
f (x, y) dA = f (x, y)dy dx. (5.4)
a g1 (x)
R

Figure 5.1
 5.1 Double Integral

Case-II
: Let region R : g1 (y) ≤ x ≤ g2 (y), c ≤ y ≤ d. The double integral will defined as:
ZZ Z d Z g2 (y)
f (x, y) dA = f (x, y)dx dy. (5.5)
c g1 (y)
R

Figure 5.2

Example 5.2 Find the volume of the prism whose base is the triangle in the xy − plane bounded by the x − axis
and the lines y = x and x = 1 and whose top lies in the plane z = f (x, y) = 3 − x − y.
RR
Example 5.3 Evaluate the double integral xy dxdy where R is the region bounded by x − axis, the line
R
x2
y = 2x and the parabola y = 4a .
Example 5.4

5.1.2 change of Order of Integration

We use the technique of change of order of integration when either of limit is infinite or the integrand has
discontinuity in domain of integration. By change of order of integration re arrange the limit of region R and
integrate as usual process.
R1Re
Example 5.5 Evaluate the integral 0 ex log1 y dydx by change of order of integration.
R1R1
Example 5.6 Evaluate 0 y sinx x dxdy

5.1.3 Area By Double Integration

Definition 5.2
The area of a closed bounded plain region R is given is
ZZ
A= dA (5.6)
R ♣

Example 5.7 Find the area of the playing field described by

p p
R : −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, −1 − 4 − x2 ≤ y ≤ 1 + 4 − x2
.
Example 5.8 Find the area enclosed by the curve y 2 = 4x and x2 = 4y.
Example 5.9 Find the area enclosed by y = x2 and y = x + 2.

33
 5.1 Double Integral

5.1.4 Double Integral in Polar Form

Let f (r, θ) is the polar curve defined over the region R. Then double integral in polar form is given as:
ZZ Z θ=β Z r=g2 (θ)
f (r, θ) dA = f (r, θ)r drdθ. (5.7)
R θ=α r=g1 (θ)

RR
Example 5.10 Evaluate R r sin θ drθ over the region of cardioid r = a(1 − cos θ) above the initial line.

5.1.5 Area in Polar curve

The area of a closed and bounded region in the polar coordinate plane is
ZZ
A= r drdθ (5.8)
R

Example 5.11 Find the area enclosed by the lemniscate r2 = 4 cos 2θ.
Example 5.12 Find the area lies inside the cardioid r = 1 + cos θ and outside the circle r = 1.

5.1.6 Triple Integral

Definition 5.3
The triple integral or volume integral bounded by a region R in space is
ZZZ
V = dV. (5.9)
R ♣

Example 5.13 Find the volume of the region R enclosed by the surface z = x2 + 3y 2 and z = 8 − x2 − y 2

Example 5.14 Find the volume of a tetrahedron with vertices (0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 1, 1).
Example 5.15 A cube has sides of length 4. Let one corner be at the origin and the adjacent corners be on the
positive x, y, and z axes. Find the volume of cube.
Example 5.16 Set up the integral of f (x, y, z) over W , the solid âĂIJice cream coneâĂİ bounded by the cone z =

34
 5.1 Double Integral

p p
x2 + y 2 and the half-sphere z = 1 − x2 − y 2 , pictured below

5.1.7 Application of Double and Triple Integral

5.1.7.1 Application of Double Integral

Definition 5.4 (Mass)

Let ρ(x, y) be a density function (mass per unit area) of a distribution of mass in x − y plane. Then
ZZ
M= ρ(x, y) dxdy (5.10)
R
is known as total mass of the region R
♣

Definition 5.5 (Center of Gravity)

Let ρ(x, y) be a density function. Then coordinate of center of gravity (x̄, ȳ) given as:
ZZ ZZ
1 1
x̄ = x ρ(x, y) dxdy ȳ = y ρ(x, y) dxdy. (5.11)
M R M R ♣

Definition 5.6 (Moments of Inertia)

Let ρ(x, y) be a density function. Then moments of inertia about the line x = a and y = b is given by
ZZ ZZ
2
Ix = (y − a) ρ(x, y) dxdy Iy = (x − b)2 ρ(x, y) dxdy. (5.12)
R R
I0 = Ix + Iy is called the moments of inertia about origin.
♣

Definition 5.7 (Average value)

Average value of of a function F over a region R in space is defined by
ZZ
1
Average V alue A = f dxdy (5.13)
area of R R ♣

5.1.7.2 Application of Triple Integral

Definition 5.8 (Mass)

Let ρ(x, y, z) be a density function (mass per unit area) of a distribution of mass in space. Then mass in
space is ZZZ
M= ρ(x, y, z) dzdydx (5.14)
R ♣

35
 5.1 Double Integral

Definition 5.9 (Center of Gravity)

Let ρ(x, y) be a density function. Then coordinate of center of gravity (x̄, ȳ) given as:
ZZZ ZZZ
1 1
x̄ = x ρ(x, y, z) dxdydz ȳ = y ρ(x, y, z) dxdydz,
M R M R
ZZZ
1
z̄ = z ρ(x, y, z) dxdydz (5.15)
M R ♣

Definition 5.10 (Moments of Inertia)

Let ρ(x, y) be a density function. Then moments of inertia about the line x = a and y = b is given by
ZZZ ZZZ
Ix = (y 2 + z 2 ) ρ(x, y, z) dv, Iy = (x2 + z 2 ) ρ(x, y, z) dv
R R
ZZZ
Iz = (x2 + y 2 ) ρ(x, y, z) dv (5.16)
R

I0 = Ix + Iy + Iz is called the moments of inertia about origin.

♣

Definition 5.11 (Average value)

Average value of of a function F over a region R in space is defined by
ZZZ
1
Average V alue A = f dv (5.17)
volume of R R ♣

Example 5.17 Find the center of mass of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by the line y = x
and below by the parabola y = x2 . Find the moment of inertia about the axes.
Example 5.18 Find the center of gravity of a solid of constant density δ bounded by the disk R : x2 + y 2 ≤ 4
in plane z = 0 and abpve by the paraboloid z = 4 − x2 − y 2 .
Example 5.19 A thin plate covers the triangular region bounded by the x − axis and the line x = 1 and y = 2x
in the first quadrant. Find the moments of inertia if density ρ = 6x + 6y + 6.

Example 5.20 find moments of inertia about axes of above figure

5.1.8 Triple Integral in Cylindrical

5.1.9 Cylindrical Coordinate
Cylindrical coordinate represent a point in space by ordered triples r, θ, z in which r ≥ 0. r.θ are the
polar coordinate in xy − plane and z is the usual vertical coordinate. so Basically the coordinate will be
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and z = z. where r2 = x2 + y 2 , tan θ = xy .

36
 5.1 Double Integral

Figure 5.3

5.1.10 Triple Integral in Cylindrical Coordinate

The triple integral in cylindrical coordinate is given by
ZZZ
V = f dz rdr dθ (5.18)
D

Example 5.21 Find the centroid of the solid enclosed by the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 4, bounded above by the

paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 , and bounded below by the xy-plane.

Example 5.22

5.1.11 Triple Integral of Spherical Coordinate

The triple integral or volume integral in spherical coordinate is given as
ZZZ
f (ρ, θ, φ) ρ2 sin φ dρ dφ dθ. (5.19)
D
where x = ρ sin φ cos θ, y = ρ sin φ sin θ, z = ρ cos φ are known as spherical coordinate.

Figure 5.4

Example 5.23 Find the volume of the ice cream cone D cut from the solid sphere ρ ≤ 1 by the cone φ = π3 .

37
 5.1 Double Integral

5.1.12 Change of Variable

Definition 5.12 (Change of Variable)

Suppose that f (x, y) is continuous over the region R. Let G be the pre image of R under the transformation
x = g(u, v), y = h(u, v), assumed to be one to one on the the interior of G. If the function g and h have
continuous first partial derivatives within the interior of G, then
ZZ ZZ
f (x, y) dxdy = f (g(u, v), h(u, v)) J dudv. (5.20)
R G
 
 ∂(x,y) 
where J =  ∂(u,v)  is Jacobian.
♣

Example 5.24 Evaluate

4 Z x=(y/2)+1
2x − y
Z
dxdy (5.21)
0 x=y/2 2
2x−y
by applying the transformation u = 2 and v = y2 .
Example 5.25 Evaluate Z 1 Z 1−x √
x + y(y − 2x)2 dydx (5.22)
0 0

38
 Chapter 6 Vector Calculus

6.1 Vector Differentiation

Definition 6.1 (Vector valued Function)

Let P (x, y, z)is the point in space whose parametric form can be x = x(t),y = y(t) and z = z(t) for
any parameter t ∈ I. We define a vector
r = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k (6.1)
which is known as vector valued function assigning to a vector in some domain D.
♣

Figure 6.1

Definition 6.2 (Limit of Vector Function)

Let r = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k is a vector valued function defined over some domain D. We say a vector l
is the limit of r at t0 if ∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that
|r(t) − l| <  whenever, |t − t0 | < δ. (6.2)
written as limt→t0 r(t) = l.
♣

Definition 6.3 (Continuity)

A vector valued function r(t) is said to be continuous at t = t0 if
lim r(t) = r(t0 ) (6.3)
t→t0
♣

Definition 6.4 (Derivatives)

The vector function r = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k has a derivative or is differentiable at t if f , g, and h have
derivatives at t. The derivative is the vector function
dr r(t + ∇t) − r(t) df dg dh
r’(t) = = lim = i+ j+ k. (6.4)
dt ∇t→0 ∇t dt dt dt ♣

Definition 6.5 (Velocity and Speed)

If r is the position vector of a particle moving along a smooth curve in space then
dr
v(t) = (6.5)
dt

Speed = |v| (6.6)

 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Figure 6.2

dv
a= (6.7)
dt ♣

Example 6.1 Find the velocity speed and acceleration of a particle whoose motion is given by r = 2 cos ti +
2 sin tj + 5cos2 tk.

6.1.1 Integral of Vector Function

Definition 6.6 (Indefinite Integral)

The indefinite integral of r with respect to t is the set of all anti derivative of r denoted as
Z
r(t) dt = R(t) + c (6.8)
♣

Definition 6.7 (Unit Tangent Vector)

We know that
ds
v(t) = F0 (t) =

(6.9)
dt
therefore, the unit tangent vector will be defined as
F0 (t) 1
T(t) = 0 = F0 (t). (6.10)
kF (t)k ds/dt
♣

40
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Definition 6.8 (Curvature and Normal Curve)

The Curvature of κ(s) of a given smooth curve C is defined as the magnitude of the rate of change of the
unit tangent with respect to arc length along C:
0

OR kT (t)k
dT
κ(s) = (6.11)
ds kF0 (t)k
♣

Definition 6.9 (Normal to Curve)

Given a position vector F(t) for a curve C. The unit normal vector (orthogonal to the tangent)is defined
as
1 0
N(s) = T (s) (6.12)
κ(s)
♣

Figure 6.3

Example 6.2 Let C have the position vector of F(t) = [cos(t) + t sin(t)]i + [sin(t) − t cos(t)]j + t2 k for t ≥ 0.
Find the unit tangent vector, curvature, unit normal.

6.1.2 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

If the acceleration vector is written as
a = aT T + aN N (6.13)
then 2
d2 s

d ds
aT = = |v| and aN = κ = κ|v|2 (6.14)
dt2 dt dt
are the tangential and normal scalar components of acceleration.

Figure 6.4

Example 6.3 If r(t) = (cos t + sin t)i + (sin t − t cos t)j find the normal and tangential component of acceler-
ation.

41
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Definition 6.10 (Velocity in polar Coordinate)

Let P (r, θ) is a moving particle along a polar curve then its position is defined as:
ur = (cos θ)i + (sin θ)j, uθ = (− sin θ)i + (cos θ)j (6.15)
Therefore the velocity and acceleration is given as
v = ṙ = ṙur + rθ̇uθ (6.16)

a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )ur + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)uθ . (6.17)

♣

Definition 6.11 (Velocity in Cylindrical Coordinate)

v = ṙ = ṙur + rθ̇uθ + żk (6.18)

a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )ur + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)uθ + z̈k (6.19)

♣

Definition 6.12 (Gradient)

Let φ(x, y, z) be scalar valued function or scalar field of three variables. The Gradient of φ is the vector
field given as:
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = i+ j+ k (6.20)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
We read the symbol ∇φ as "delφ" and ∇ = i+ j+ k is called as del or nabla operator.
∂x ∂y ∂z
♣

6.1.3 Properties of Gradient

∇(φ + ψ) = ∇φ + ∇ψ (6.21)

∇(cφ) = c∇φ (6.22)

Example 6.4 Find the gradient of φ = x2 y cos(yz).

Example 6.5 Find the gradient of φ = x2 y − xez at a point P (2, −1, π).
Definition 6.13 (Directional Derivatives)
We measure the rate of change Du φ(P0 ) in the direction of a given vector u at point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) by
d
Du φ(P0 ) = [φ(x0 + at, y0 + bt, z0 + ct)]t=0 (6.23)
dt
Du φ(P0 ) is known as directional derivative of φ at P0 in the direction u. After simplifying the equation
(3.23) we get the directional derivative as:
Du φ(P0 ) = (∇f )p0 .u. (6.24)
♣

42
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

6.1.4 Physical Interpretation of Directional Derivatives

Figure 6.5

Physically, Let z = f (x, y) is the temperature distribution throughout a plate in xy plane. Let P (x0 , y0 )
is any point at a time and the temperature is f (x0 , y0 ) then the instantaneous change in temperature in x and y
direction is measured by directional derivatives at that point.
Example 6.6 Find the directional derivative of φ = x2 y − xez at a point P (2, −1, π) in the direction u =
i − 2j + k.
Example 6.7 Find the derivative of f = xey + cos(xy) in the direction of u = 3i − 4j at point P (2, 0).
Theorem 6.1 (Normal to a Level Surface)
Let φ and its first partial derivatives be continuous. Then (∇φ)p is the normal to the level surface
φ(x, y, z) = k at any point on this surface such that (∇φ)p 6= 0.
♥

Figure 6.6

therefore the equation of tangent plane will be

∇φ(P0 ).[(x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k] = 0 (6.25)
or
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
(P0 )(x − x0 ) + (P0 )(y − y0 ) + (P0 )(z − z0 ) = 0 (6.26)
∂x ∂y ∂z
and the parametric equation of the normal line at P0 will be:
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
x = x0 + t (P0 ), y = y0 + t (P0 ), z = z0 + t (P0 ). (6.27)
∂x ∂y ∂z

43
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

6.1.5 Properties of Gradient

1. At the P0 ), φ(x, y, z) has its maximum rate of change in the direction of ∇φ(P0 ). This maximum rate of
change is given by k∇φ(P0 )k.
2. At the P0 ), φ(x, y, z) has its minimum rate of change in the direction of −∇φ(P0 ). This maximum rate
of change is given by − k∇φ(P0 )k.

6.1.6 Divergence and Curl

Definition 6.14 (Divergence (Flux Density))

Let F = f (x, y, z)i + g(x, y, z)j + h(x, y, z)k be vector valued function or a vector field. The divergence
or flux per unit volume of F is a scalar field is defined as
∂f ∂g ∂h
div F = ∇.F = + + (6.28)
∂x ∂y ∂z
♣

Definition 6.15 (Curl or Circulation Vector)

Let F = f (x, y, z)i + g(x, y, z)j + h(x, y, z)k be vector valued function or a vector field. The curl of F
is a vector field is defined as
     
∂h ∂g ∂f ∂h ∂g ∂f
curl F = ∇ × F = − i+ − j+ + k. (6.29)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
♣

Example 6.8 Let a Vector field is defined as F = 2xyi + xez j + 2zk Find the divergence and curl.
Example 6.9 Let a Vector field is defined as F = sinh xi + cosh(xyz)j − (x + y + z)k Find the divergence
and curl.

6.1.7 Some Vector Identity

Let F be a continuous vector field whose components have continuous partial derivatives and second
partial derivatives and let φ be continuous scalar field with continuous first partial derivatives. Then
1. ∇ × (∇φ) = 0.
2. ∇.(∇ × F) = 0.

6.1.8 Physical Interpretation of Divergence

Suppose F(x,y,z,t) is the velocity of a fluid at a point P (x, y, z) and time t. Let us consider the rectangular
box in the fluid. First look at front and back face II and I. The flux of the flow out of the box across II is the
normal component of the velocity multiplied by area of this face:
flux outward across face II = F(x + ∆x, y, z, t).i∆y∆z
= f (x + ∆x, y, z, t)∆y∆z. (6.30)
Similarly on face I the outward flux=
on face I the outward flux = −f (x, y, z, t)∆y∆z. (6.31)
So, the total or net flux across face I and II be
flux through face I & II = [f (x + ∆x, y, z, t) − −f (x, y, z, t)]∆y∆z. (6.32)

44
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Figure 6.7

A similar calculation can made for the flux across the faces in y and z direction. Therefore the total flux will be:
total flux =[f (x + ∆x, y, z, t) − f (x, y, z, t)]∆y∆z+
[g(x, y + ∆y, z, t) − g(x, y, z, t)]∆x∆z+
[h(x, y, z + ∆, t) − h(x, y, z, t)]∆x∆y. (6.33)
The total flux per unit volume out of the box is obtained by dividing the volume ∆x∆y∆z, as:
f (x + ∆x, y, z, t) − f (x, y, z, t)
flux/unit volume = +
∆x
g(x, y + ∆y, z, t) − g(x, y, z, t)
+
∆y
h(x, y, z + ∆, t) − h(x, y, z, t)
. (6.34)
∆z
∂f ∂g ∂h
flux/unit volume = + + = ∇.F. (6.35)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Which is is the divergence of F.

6.1.9 Physical Interpretation of Curl

The curl vector is the interpreted as a measure of rotation or swirl about a point.
Let an object rotates with uniform angular speed ω about a line L as in given figure. The angular velocity
vector Ω has magnitude ω and its directed along L through the origin. Let R = xi + yj + zk is the position
vector for any point on the rotating object. Let T(x, y, z) be the tangential linear velocity and R = kRk. Then

kTk = ωR sin θ = kΩ × Rk , (6.36)

where θ is the angle between R and Ω. Since T and Ω×R have same direction and magnitude, let Ω = ai+bj+ck.

45
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Therefore,
T = Ω × R = (bz − cy)i + (cx − az)j + (ay − bx)k. (6.37)
Then
 

 i j k 

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇×T=
 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

(bz − cy) (cx − az) (ay − bx)

= 2ai + 2bj + 2ck = 2Ω (6.38)

1
Ω= ∇×T (6.39)
2
So the angular momentum of the uniformly rotating body is a constant times the curl of the linear velocity.
Example 6.10 The temperature of metal sheet is T (x, y, z) = x3 − xy 2 − z.
(a) Find the temperature at P0 (1, 1, 0) in the direction of v = 2i − 3j + 6k.
(b) In what directions sheet has maximum rate of change at P0 , and what are the rates of change in these
directions?
2 2
Example 6.11 Find the directions in which f (x, y) = x2 + y2
(a) increases most rapidly at the point (1, 1), and
(b) decreases most rapidly at (1, 1).
(c) What are the directions of zero change in f at (1, 1)?
Example 6.12 The magnetic outside the wire is given by B(r) = x2−y +y 2
x
i + x2 +y 2 j. Find the total magnetic flux

throughout the surface of wire.

Example 6.13 A charge particle moving in the electric field with linear velocity ~v = yz 2 ~i + xy ~j + yz ~k. If the
particle rotating uniformly then find the angular momentum.

6.1.10 Vector Integration

Definition 6.16 (Smooth Curve)

If C is the Smooth curve and let R = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k be the position function for C, then R0 (t) is
continuous tangent vector to C i.e The curve has the continuous tangent vector if move along it.
♣

Definition 6.17 (Simple Curve)

A curve is simple if it does not intersect itself at different point.
♣

Definition 6.18 (Closed Curve)

A curve is said to be closed if its initial and terminal points are same.
♣

Definition 6.19 (Line Integral)

Suppose C is a smooth curve with coordinate function x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b. Let
R
f, g, h be continuous on C. Then the line integral C f dx + g dy + h dz is defined as:
Z Z b
dx
f dx + g dy + h dz = [f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) + g (x(t), y(t), z(t))
C a dt
dy dz
+ h (x(t), y(t), z(t)) ]dt (6.40)
dt dt ♣

46
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

x dx − yz dy + ez dz if C is the curve with coordinate function x = t3 , y = −t,

R
Example 6.14 Evaluate C
z = t2 for 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.

6.1.11 Line integral with Respect to Arc Length

If φ(x, y, z) is scalar field and C is a smooth curve with coordinate function x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t)
for a ≤ t ≤ b we define
Z Z b p
φ(x, y, z) ds = φ (x(t), y(t), z(t)) x0 (t)2 + y 0 (t)2 + z 0 (t)2 / dt
C a
where,
p
ds = x0 (t)2 + y 0 (t)2 + z 0 (t)2

is the differential element of arc length along C.

6.1.12 Mass, Moments for Coil Spring, Wire and Thin Rod
Let δ(x, y, z) be the density function then
Z
Mass = δ(x, y, z) ds (6.41)
C
Center of Mass Coordinate
Z Z Z
1 1 1
x̄ = x δ(x, y, z) ds, ȳ = y δ(x, y, z) ds, z̄ = z δ(x, y, z) ds (6.42)
M C M C M C
Moments of Inertia
Z Z
Ix = (y + z )δ(x, y, z) ds, Iy = (x2 + y 2 )δ(x, y, z) ds
2 2
C Z C

Iz = (x2 + y 2 )δ(x, y, z) ds (6.43)

C

Example 6.15 A wire is bent into the shape of the quarter circle given by x = 2 cos(t), y = 2 sin t, z = 3. The
density of the wire δ(x, y, z) = xy 2 . Find the mass and Center of mass.
Definition 6.20 (Line Integral of Vector field)
Let F be a vector field defined along a curve C parametrized by r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b. Then the line integral of
F along C is Z Z   Z
dr
F.T ds = F ds = F.dr. (6.44)
C C ds C
♣
√
F.dr, Where F = zi + xyj − y 2 k along the curve C given by r = t2 i + tj + tk,0 ≤
R
Example 6.16 Evaluate C
t ≤ 1.

6.1.13 Application of the Line Integral as Work, Circulation and Flux

Definition 6.21 (Work)

Let C be smooth curve defined by r and F be force applied then total work done is given by
Z
W= F.dr. (6.45)
C ♣

47
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Definition 6.22 (Circulation or Flow)

Let C be smooth curve defined by r and F be a velocity field, Then flow along the curve C is given as
Z
F low = F.dr. (6.46)
C ♣

Definition 6.23 (Flux)

If C is the smooth simple closed curve and F = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j be a vector field in the plane and
n is the outward unit normal vector on C then the flux across C is
I I
Flux across C = F.n ds = M dy − N dx (6.47)
C ♣

6.1.14 Potential
A vector field is said to conservative if it is derivable from a potential function i.e.
F = ∇φ (6.48)

 Then φ is called potential or potential function.

Note A vector field F = f i + gj is said to be conservative on a domain D iff
∂g ∂f
= . (6.49)

∂x ∂y
Note A vector field F = f i + gj + hk is said to be solenoidal on a domain D if
div(F ) = ∇.F = 0 (6.50)

Example 6.17 If F = (2xy 2 + y)i + (2x2 y + ex y)j, then show that F is conservative or not and hence find the
potential function φ.
Example 6.18 Find the flux of F = (x − y)i + xj across the circle x2 + y 2 = 1 in xy-plane.
Theorem 6.2 (Green’s Theorem)
Let C be a piecewise smooth simple closed curve enclosing a region R in xy-plane. Let F = M (x, y)i +
N (x, y)j be vector field with M and N having continuous first partial derivatives on R, then
I I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
F.Tds = M dx + N dy = − dxdy. (6.51)
C C R ∂x ∂y
where C is positively oriented closed curve.
♥

xy dy − y 2 dx, where C is the square cut from first quadrant by the

H
Example 6.19 Evaluate the line integral C
lines x = 1, y = 1.

6.1.15 Surface area and Surface Integral

Surface Area in Parametric Form
The area of smooth surface r(u, v) = f (u, v)i + g(u, v)j + h(u, v)k, a ≤ u ≤ b, c ≤ v ≤ d
ZZ
A= |ru × rv |dA. (6.52)
R

48
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Figure 6.8

Surface Area in Implicit Form

The area of the surface F (x, y, z) = c over a closed and bounded plane R is
|∇F |
ZZ
A= dA (6.53)
R |∇F.P |
where P is any vector in i, j, k direction normal to R.
Example 6.20 Find the area of the surface cut from the bottom of the paraboloid x2 + y 2 − z = 0 by the plane
z=4

Figure 6.9

6.1.16 Surface Integral

Definition 6.24 (Surface Integral)

Let F be vector field in three dimensional space with continuous components defined over a smooth
surface S having a chosen field of normal unit vector n orienting S. Then the surface integral of F over
S is ZZ
F.nds (6.54)
S

The surface integral of F is also called the flux of the vector field across the surface S.
♣

Example 6.21 Find the flux of F = yzi + xj − z 2 k through the parabolic cylinder y = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 4

Figure 6.10

49
 6.1 Vector Differentiation

directed n indicated figure.

Example 6.22 Find the flux of a vector field A = (x − 2z)i + (x + 3y + z)j + (5x + y)k through the upper side
of the triangle ABC with vertices A(1, 0, 0), B(0, 1, 0), C(0, 0, 1).
Theorem 6.3 (Stoke’s Theorem)
Let F be a vector function, having continuous first partial derivatives in a domain in space containing
an open two sided surfaces S bounded by a simple closed curve C then
ZZ I
(∇ × F).ndS = F.dr (6.55)
S
where n is a unit normal of S and C is the closed curve in anticlockwise direction.
♥

Example 6.23 Find the Circulation of the field F = (x2 − y)i + 4zj + x2 k around the curve C in which the
p
plane z = 2 meets the cone z = x2 + y 2 counter-clockwise.

Figure 6.11

Example 6.24 Use the Stoke’s theorem to find the circulation of vector field F = xzi + xyj + 3xzk and C is
the boundary of the portion of the plane 2x + y + z = 2 in first octant in positive direction.

6.1.17 Beta and Gamma Function

Definition 6.25 (Gamma Function or Euler’s Integral)

Gamma function is denoted by Γn is defined by the improper integral which is dependent on parameter
n as Z ∞
Γ(n) = e−x xn−1 dx, (n > 0) (6.56)
0 ♣

6.1.18 Some Results

Γ(n + 1) = nΓ(n) (6.57)

Γ(n + 1) = n! (6.58)

√ √
   
1 1
Γ = π, Γ − = −2 π (6.59)
2 2

R∞ c
Example 6.25 Find 0 xcx dx
R1
Example 6.26 Evaluate 0 (log( y1 ))n+1 dy

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 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Definition 6.26 (Beta function)

Beta function β(m, n) is defined by
Z 1
β(m, n) = xn−1 (1 − x)m−1 dx, (n > 0, m > 0) (6.60)
0 ♣

6.1.19 Some Results

β(m, n) = β(m, n) (6.61)

Z π
2
β(m, n) = sin2n−1 (x) cos2m−1 (x)dx (6.62)
0

∞ ∞
xn−1 xm−1
Z Z
β(m, n) = dx = dx (6.63)
0 (1 + y)m+n 0 (1 + y)m+n

Γ(m)Γ(n)
β(m, n) = (6.64)
Γ(m + n)
Definition 6.27 (Drichlet’s Formula)
It states that if l, m, n ≥ 0 the
ZZZ
Γl Γm Γn
xl−1 y m−1 z n−1 dxdydz = (6.65)
V Γ(l + m + n)
where, V : x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0 and x + y + z ≤ 1.
♣
R π √
2
Example 6.27 Evaluate 0 tan θdθ

Definition 6.28 (Divergence Theorem)

Let F be a vector field with continuous partial derivative of its components. Let S be a piecewise smooth
positively oriented surface. The flux across S in the direction of the unit normal vector n of the surface
S is equal to the triple integral of the divergence ∇.F over the region D enclosed by the surface
ZZ ZZZ
F.ndσ = ∇.F dV. (6.66)
S D ♣

Example 6.28 Evaluate the flux of a velocity field F = xi + yj + zk across the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 .

Figure 6.12

Example 6.29 Calculate the flux of the vector field F = x2 i + 4xyzj + zex k out of the box D : 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, 0 ≤
y ≤ 2, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 using divergence theorem and verify it.
Example 6.30 Let f be the function f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 and let T be the triangle in the xy plane with vertices at

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 6.1 Vector Differentiation

Figure 6.13

the points (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1). Find the volume of f over region T .
Example 6.31 Evaluate C y 2 dx − 2x2 dy along the parabola y = x2 from (0, 0) to (2, 4).
R

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